energies

Article
Air Distribution and Air Handling Unit
Configuration Effects on Energy Performance in
an Air-Heated Ice Rink Arena
Mehdi Taebnia 1, *, Sander Toomla 2 , Lauri Leppä 3 and Jarek Kurnitski 1,4
1 Aalto University, Department of Civil Engineering, P.O. Box 12100, 00076 Aalto, Finland;
[email protected] or [email protected]
2 Granlund Consulting Oy, Malminkaari 21, PL 59, 00701 Helsinki, Finland; [email protected]
3 Leanheat Oy, Hiomotie 10, FI-00380 Helsinki, Finland; [email protected]
4 Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 5,
19086 Tallinn, Estonia
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 14 January 2019; Accepted: 15 February 2019; Published: 21 February 2019


Abstract: Indoor ice rink arenas are among the foremost consumers of energy within building sector
due to their exclusive indoor conditions. A single ice rink arena may consume energy of up to
3500 MWh annually, indicating the potential for energy saving. The cooling effect of the ice pad,
which is the main source for heat loss, causes a vertical indoor air temperature gradient. The objective
of the present study is twofold: (i) to study vertical temperature stratification of indoor air, and how
it impacts on heat load toward the ice pad; (ii) to investigate the energy performance of air handling
units (AHU), as well as the effects of various AHU layouts on ice rinks’ energy consumption. To this
end, six AHU configurations with different air-distribution solutions are presented, based on existing
arenas in Finland. The results of the study verify that cooling energy demand can significantly be
reduced by 38 percent if indoor temperature gradient approaches 1 ◦ C/m. This is implemented
through air distribution solutions. Moreover, the cooling energy demand for dehumidification is
decreased to 59.5 percent through precisely planning the AHU layout, particularly at the cooling coil
and heat recovery sections. The study reveals that a more customized air distribution results in less
stratified indoor air temperature.

Keywords: ice rinks; air distribution solutions; indoor air temperature gradient; air handling
unit configuration; building energy efficiency; building performance simulation; energy and
HVAC-systems in buildings

1. Introduction
The reduction of energy use in buildings is a strategic research challenge, due to the significant
contribution of the building sector in CO2 emissions. The reduction of energy use and the improvement
in energy efficiency is strongly linked to the operations and performance of passive and active systems
in buildings [1]. The potential for the reduction of energy demand has to be evaluated through
the prioritizing solutions based on their energy efficiency [2]. Specifically, indoor ice arenas among
the building sector are an enormous consumer of energy, due to their unique indoor conditions.
The yearly energy consumption of a standard single ice rink arena is typically estimated to be between
1000–1500 MWh [3,4]. However, the range of individually measured energy consumptions is even
larger, within 500–3500 MWh/year, which provides a great potential for energy savings [5]. The ice
pad refrigeration and hall space heating are two major contributors to the energy use of the ice rinks.
By default, to maintain a steady-state condition, the heat removed from the hall primarily by the

Energies 2019, 12, 693; doi:10.3390/en12040693 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 693 2 of 21

refrigeration machinery needs to be roughly matched with the heat supplied into and generated inside
the hall. In the case of an air-heated arena, the vast majority of the heat balance is maintained through
a heated supply of air.
Generally, ventilation efficiency in similar sports halls such as swimming pools could potentially
be improved by various alternative air distribution concepts [6]. However, the unique indoor
conditions of an ice rink arena proposes challenges to energy-efficient heating and ventilation. Due to
the cooling effect of the ice pad, a vertical temperature gradient inside the hall space is unavoidably
formed. This, accompanied with the fact that the recreational activities practiced on the ice pad require
a free height of approximately five meters, makes space heating of the rink difficult. In fact, in order to
maintain a set temperature at an occupational height above the ice pad, the temperature of the supply
air entering the hall at a height below the ceiling has to exceed the occupational set point temperature
by a large amount.
Several past studies have focused on reducing the heat load towards the ice pad, and thereby
reducing the refrigeration unit’s electricity consumption [7–9]. Simultaneously, numerous efforts
have gone into modeling the air distribution inside the hall space in experimental, zonal model,
or Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) form [10–14]. As a result, we have a fairly comprehensive
understanding of the temperature and moisture profiles inside the hall, as well as the factors affecting
the heat load.
The vertical distribution of temperature in various ice rinks has been measured in current and
previous studies [12,14–17] and their outcome as temperature gradient curves is used in this paper,
while similar ice rinks as case study arenas have been measured.
However, the actual role of the air handling unit (AHU), along with its components and control
strategies, has only been briefly investigated in two prior publications. Seghouani [8] modeled
the AHU of a simulated ice arena hall space as a two-speed system, either low or high, which is
increased to high-speed mode only during ice pad resurfacing, to evacuate the combustion gases of the
resurfacing vehicle, with no air recirculation or no extract air heat recovery [8]. Piché [18] continued
Seghouani’s research by adding two possible modifications to the AHU modeled earlier: an alternative
pre-heated fresh air source, or an air-to-air heat exchanger, both of which utilized the refrigeration
unit’s condenser heat. While the later study obtained significant results regarding the AHU’s energy
demand compared to the prior one, neither implementations represented a typical, modern, real-life
indoor ice rink AHU solution. This means that previous studies about AHUs are outdated, and they
do not represent a modern AHU layout. Thus, the energy performance of modern AHUs, equipped
with full variable-air-volume (VAV) control, a heat exchanger (HX) for extract air heat recovery, and the
possibility for extract air recirculation, in the context of demanding indoor ice rink conditions, should
be further investigated.
The objective is to determine (quantify) the impacts of indoor temperature stratification, as well
as AHU layouts, on energy consumption, while two commonly used AHU configurations at different
temperature gradients are applied. To study the two focus features, the AHU design, and the air
stratification intensity, we present six simulation setups, which are based on existing ice rink arenas
in Finland.
The AHU for the hall space of an air-heated ice arena usually has three main objectives. Firstly,
as with any ventilation system, it should provide adequate fresh air into the space, to maintain
satisfactory indoor air conditions. Secondly, in this case, it is solely responsible for supplying the space
with enough heat. Thirdly, in case, no external dehumidification equipment is present, and the AHU
is equipped with a condensing dehumidifier, and it is thus responsible for maintaining the moisture
content under a specific set point inside the hall. The indoor air recirculation is implemented by the
maximum possible rate at any moment, for energy conservation. Each AHU has its own theoretical
energy demand, depending on its main objective. To maximize the AHU’s energy efficiency, it should
be demand-controlled, based on CO2 , temperature, and humidity set point levels, depending on their
measured values. If either of the measured values in a particular moment exceeds the acceptable
 exchanger (HX) for extract air heat recovery, with an assumed efficiency of 85%, and two heating
coils (HC). HC1 utilizes condenser heat from the refrigeration plant, while HC2 is connected to the
district heating system. HC2 acts as a backup heat device in case the refrigeration unit is not operating
or is not producing enough condenser heat. In the simulation, HC1 is not modeled. Both the supply
and exhaust fans are fully VAV-compatible up to 4 m3/s, and their speeds are individually controlled.
Energies 2019, 12, 693
The exhaust 3 of 21
fan is placed outside the recirculation loop, making it possible to recirculate air utilizing
the supply fan only. The whole unit is demand-controlled based on temperature, humidity or CO2-
level measurements from the ice rink.
range, then that parameter’s control signal prevails to other signals. In the case of simultaneous
AHU2.1, is in many aspects very similar to AHU1.1, except for one key difference. The rotary
exceeding of set points, the automation system reacts simultaneously so that each parameter can
heat exchanger with an assumed efficiency of 85% is placed outside the recirculation loop, as
react independently,
presented in Figureby1b,sending
leavingits
it control signal
completely to the associated
unavailable section ofmode.
for recirculation AHUThe to that parameter.
supply and
Twoextract fans are demand-controlled in the same fashion as AHU1.1 and rated up to 4 m /s. Supplyof
air-handling layouts have been used as the simulation model in this study. A3 section airthe
air-handling units (AHU1.1) and (AHU2.1) are shown in Figure 1, and their specifications
is cooled and dehumidified with a condensing dehumidifier. It is then heated with two heating coils.are described
in The
the following
HC1 utilizes paragraphs.
condenser heat and the HC2 district heat, similar to AHU 1.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 1. 1.AHU
Figure AHUlayouts
layoutsand andtemperature
temperature gradient curves.
curves.(a)
(a)Schematic
Schematicview
viewofof AHU1.1;
AHU1.1; (b)(b) Schematic
Schematic
view
view of of
AHU AHU 2.1;(c)(c)Estimated
2.1; presumedmodels
variousfor
temperature gradient
temperature curves.
gradients.

The air handling unit 1.1 (AHU1.1), depicted in Figure 1a, is fully automated, equipped with
extract air recirculation, a cooling coil (CC) acting as a condensing dehumidifier, a rotary heat exchanger
(HX) for extract air heat recovery, with an assumed efficiency of 85%, and two heating coils (HC). HC1
utilizes condenser heat from the refrigeration plant, while HC2 is connected to the district heating
system. HC2 acts as a backup heat device in case the refrigeration unit is not operating or is not
producing enough condenser heat. In the simulation, HC1 is not modeled. Both the supply and
exhaust fans are fully VAV-compatible up to 4 m3 /s, and their speeds are individually controlled.
The exhaust fan is placed outside the recirculation loop, making it possible to recirculate air utilizing
the supply fan only. The whole unit is demand-controlled based on temperature, humidity or CO2 -level
measurements from the ice rink.
AHU2.1, is in many aspects very similar to AHU1.1, except for one key difference. The rotary heat
exchanger with an assumed efficiency of 85% is placed outside the recirculation loop, as presented
Energies 2019, 12, 693 4 of 21

in Figure 1b, leaving it completely unavailable for recirculation mode. The supply and extract fans
are demand-controlled in the same fashion as AHU1.1 and rated up to 4 m3 /s. Supply air is cooled
and dehumidified with a condensing dehumidifier. It is then heated with two heating coils. The HC1
utilizes condenser heat and the HC2 district heat, similar to AHU 1.
In this study, we concentrate first on the AHU design and its control approach, by presenting
two AHU layouts that only differ from the position of their heat exchangers. Second, we study
the temperature stratification of indoor air and its effects on energy consumption in a simplified
way. We also study how various air distribution designs relate to a temperature gradient. The air
stratification intensity of the cases is based on real measured data in three ice rink arenas, similar to a
previous study [14]. Overall, six cases are presented for the simulations, two AHU layouts, and three
temperature gradients. The results of on-site measurements can only verify three of these cases, since
each ice rink is equipped with only one of the AHUs.
There are three ice rink arenas, each with a demand-controlled AHU equipped with a condensing
dehumidifier. However, their final implementations regarding components and control strategies
differ from each other. In this publication, six simulation models are presented for the ice rinks, similar
to the real-case study rinks, and their measured data have been used to verify the simulation results.
The heating and cooling energy demands for each AHU, along with the indoor air conditions, as well
as their temperature stratifications, are also presented.

2. Methods

2.1. Buildings and Air Handling Units

The three indoor air distribution models selected for use in this study are presented in Figure 2.
The reasons for selecting these particular models is firstly, because they are existing ice arenas in
Finland, and second, because both the required measurements for this study (temperature gradient
and energy consumption measurements) were implemented there. This means that each of the indoor
air distribution models corresponds to one of the measured temperature gradients. Therefore, these
selected air distribution models are were the case study models.
The rather simple air distribution system corresponding to the measured temperature gradient
of 2.1 is depicted as the hall space cross-section in Figure 2a. The supply air terminals of this system
are located below the ceiling level, and their air jets blow horizontally to the opposite directions.
The extract air terminal is located close to one end along the space.
The air distribution system corresponding to the temperature gradient of 1.6 consists of multiple
supply air terminals located above the spectator balcony, angled towards the ice pad. A cross section
of the hall space is depicted in Figure 2b. Supply air jets are located along the length of the hall, while
extract air is drawn from terminals located near the end alongside the hall. In the vertical direction,
both the supply and extract terminals are close to the ceiling level.
The air distribution system corresponding to a temperature gradient of 1.5 is unlike the other
presented systems. Non-heated supply air enters the hall space from terminals connected to small
holes drilled to the sideboards of the rink. The idea is to ventilate the occupational zone above the rink
without compromising the quality of the ice pad with heated air. Heated supply air is distributed at an
angle towards the stands, while the extract air terminal is located towards the end of the hall below
the ceiling. The system is presented in Figure 2c.
To verify the simulation results we used the experimental data from real ice arenas. It is important
to present the unique features of each arena. This generates errors that might favor some outcomes.
If the results do not make sense without modification, we can then modify the simulations based on
the unique features of the ice arenas, which have been experimentally measured. We would need to
show that the differences in the simulations are also seen in the experimental measurements.
 The air distribution system corresponding to a temperature gradient of 1.5 is unlike the other
presented systems. Non-heated supply air enters the hall space from terminals connected to small
holes drilled to the sideboards of the rink. The idea is to ventilate the occupational zone above the
rink without compromising the quality of the ice pad with heated air. Heated supply air is distributed
at an2019,
Energies angle
12, towards
693 the stands, while the extract air terminal is located towards the end of the hall
5 of 21
below the ceiling. The system is presented in Figure 2c.

Energies 2018, 11, x 5 of 21

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure2.2.Air
Figure Airdistributions
distributions corresponding to the
corresponding to themeasured
measuredtemperature
temperaturegradients:
gradients:(a)(a)
A; A;
(b)(b) B; (c)
B; (c) C. C.

InToorder to compare
verify the AHUs’
the simulation resultsperformance
we used theagainst outdoordata
experimental andfrom
indoorrealconditions,
ice arenas.aItseries
is
of important
measurements to present
werethe unique features
performed. of each arena.
A Temperature andThis generates
relative errors(T/RH)-logger,
humidity that might favorshielded
some
outcomes.
with If the results
direct insolation, do not
was used make sensethe
to track without modification,
temperature we can then
and relative modifyofthe
humidity simulations
the outdoor air
based on the unique features of the ice arenas, which have been experimentally
in close proximity of the studied building. Inside the hall space, T/RH/CO2 -loggers measured measured. We wouldthe
need to show that the differences in the simulations are also seen in the experimental
temperature, relative humidity, and CO2 level of the indoor air, both from the skater’s occupational measurements.
In order
zone above to compare
the ice rink, andthe
fromAHUs’ performance
the stands. Due toagainst outdoor
practical reasons,and indoor
the loggerconditions,
measuringa the
series of
skating
measurements were performed. A Temperature and relative humidity (T/RH)-logger,
zone was placed just outside the rink at a height of 2 to 2.5 m above the rink, depending on the case. shielded with
direct
Theinsolation,
case study was
forused
thistopublication
track the temperature and relative
included four similar humidity
single iceofrink
the outdoor
indoor air in close
arenas, built
proximity of the studied building. Inside the hall space, T/RH/CO2-loggers measured the
between 2003 and 2015, located in the southern parts of Finland. Their ice pad sizes ranged from
temperature, relative humidity, and CO2 level of the indoor air, both from the skater’s occupational
1456 m2 to 1566 m2 (56 . . . 58 × 26 . . . 27 m2 ), with the arena hall volumes falling between 13,000 m3
zone above3 the ice rink, and from the stands. Due to practical reasons, the logger measuring the
and 16,000 m . The smallest arena had an elevated spectator balcony with the capacity for 60 standing
skating zone was placed just outside the rink at a height of 2 to 2.5 m above the rink, depending on
spectators, while the others had stands rated for 500 to 750 seated spectators. Other spaces in the
the case.
studied ice rink facilities were not considered in this publication. The descriptions for each measured
The case study for this publication included four similar single ice rink indoor arenas, built
AHUbetweentheir
and 2003 air
anddistribution
2015, locatedsystems are as follows.
in the southern parts of Finland. Their ice pad sizes ranged from 1456
m2 to 1566 m2 (56…58 × 26…27 m2), with the arena hall volumes falling between 13,000 m3 and 16,000
m3. The smallest arena had an elevated spectator balcony with the capacity for 60 standing spectators,
while the others had stands rated for 500 to 750 seated spectators. Other spaces in the studied ice rink
facilities were not considered in this publication. The descriptions for each measured AHU and their
air distribution systems are as follows.
The air distribution system corresponding to AHU 1.1 is a combination of the air distribution
Energies 2019, 12, 693 6 of 21

The air distribution system corresponding to AHU 1.1 is a combination of the air distribution
system as shown
Energies 2018, 11, x in Figure 2b, and the AHU1.1 which is depicted in the following Figure 3.6 of 21
Energies 2018, 11, x 6 of 21

Figure 3. Schematic
Schematicview
viewofofAHU1.1
AHU1.1and
anditsits
corresponding air air
corresponding distribution.
distribution.
Figure 3. Schematic view of AHU1.1 and its corresponding air distribution.
AHU1.2, presented
AHU1.2, presented in in Figure
Figure 4,4,isissimilar
similartotoAHU1.1,AHU1.1,which which is is
presented
presented earlier withwith
earlier some some
modifications.
modifications.
AHU1.2, The The demand
demand
presented control strategy,
control4,strategy,
in Figure based
is similar based on the temperature,
on the temperature,
to AHU1.1, humidity
which is presented or
humidity CO level,
or with
earlier
2 is
CO2 some the
level, is
same
the as as
thethe
modifications.
same order
Theofdemand
order components control
of components instrategy,
the supply
in the based
supply sideon ofthe
side the unitunit
(recirculation
oftemperature,
the humidityto or
(recirculation cooling
toCO coil,coil,
2 level,
cooling heat
is the
heat
exchanger,
same as the
exchanger, and
and to the
order
to the heating
ofheating
components coils). The
coils).in thecore
The differences
supply
core side ofare:
differences the
are:unit (recirculation to cooling coil, heat
•exchanger,
Supply and air istosplit
the heating
into a heatedcoils).and
Thenon-heated
core differences flow.are:The HC for the heated supply air utilizes
• Supply air is split into a heated and non-heated flow. The HC for the heated supply air utilizes
• condenser
Supply airheat from thea refrigeration
is split plant, whileflow. the only form forofthe
heating
heatedfor the non-heated
condenser heat frominto heated and non-heated
the refrigeration plant, while The HC
the only form of heating supply
for air utilizes
the non-heated air
air is extractheat
condenser air heat
fromrecovery.
the refrigeration plant, while the only form of heating for the non-heated
is extract air heat recovery.
• The
air extract
is extract airair
heatheatrecovery
recovery.unit is a cross-flow air-to-air plate heat exchanger instead of a rotary
• The extract air heat recovery unit is a cross-flow air-to-air plate heat exchanger instead of a rotary
• heat exchanger, as in AHU1.1
The extract air heat recovery unit is a cross-flow air-to-air plate heat exchanger instead of a rotary
• heatThe exchanger,
heatsupply and as
exchanger,
in AHU1.1
exhaust
as in AHU1.1 fans are rated up to 5 m3/s correspond to 2.5 L/sm2.
••• TheThe supply and
Theexhaust/extract exhaust
supply and exhaust fan isfans are
are rated
located
fans insideup
rated up theto m33/s/scorrespond
55 m
torecirculation correspond
loop; in toto
2.52.5
full L/sm 2.
recirculation
L/sm 2. mode, both
• • Thefans
Theexhaust/extract
need to be operated.
exhaust/extract fan
fan is located insidethe
located inside therecirculation
recirculationloop; loop;ininfull
full recirculation
recirculation mode,
mode, both
both
fans
fansneed
need totobebeoperated.
operated.
In the hall space, the heated supply air is directed towards the stands and outside the rink, while
the non-heated
InIn thehall
the portion
hallspace,
space,the theserves
heated
heated as supply
ventilation
supply air isfor
air is the icetowards
directed
directed pad area.
towards the The
the extract
stands
stands and air
and terminal
outside
outside thetheis located
rink, while
rink, while
below
the the ceiling
non-heated level
portion approximately
serves as in the
ventilation center
for the of the
ice space.
pad A
area.
the non-heated portion serves as ventilation for the ice pad area. The extract air terminal is locatedcross-section
The extract airof the space,
terminal is along
located
with thethe
below
below theair distribution
ceiling
ceiling level arrangement, can
levelapproximately
approximately in be examined
in the
the center
center of in Figure
ofthethespace.
space. 4.A cross-section of the space, along
A cross-section of the space, along
with the air distribution arrangement, can be
with the air distribution arrangement, can be examined in Figure 4. examined in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Schematic view of AHU1.2 and its corresponding air distribution system.
Figure 4. Schematic view of AHU1.2 and its corresponding air distribution system.
Figure 4. Schematic view of AHU1.2 and its corresponding air distribution system.
AHU2.2 differs from the other presented units in that it is not fully VAV-compatible. It is
AHU2.2 differs from the other presented units in that it is not fully VAV-compatible. It is operated
operated as a differs
AHU2.2 two-speedfrom unit, namely
the other half- and
presented unitsfull-speed,
in that it isbutnotboth
fullyspeed options can Itbeis
VAV-compatible.
asprogrammed
a two-speed unit, percentage
namely half- of and full-speed, but both speed options can isberated
programmed m3to any
operated as toa any two-speed unit, the fan’s
namely maximum
half- and capacity.
full-speed, Thebut
supply
bothfan speed up to 4can
options /s,
be
3 /s, and the exhaust fan
percentage
and of
the exhaustthe fan’s maximum capacity. The supply fan is rated up to 4 m
programmed to fan
anyup to 2 m /s.ofLike
percentage 3 AHU1.2,
the fan’s the unit
maximum is equipped
capacity. with regenerative
The supply fan is rated up exhaust
to 4 mair
3/s,
up
heat
and m3exhaust
to recovery
2the /s. Like
outsideAHU1.2,
fan theto
up 2the unit
recirculation
m3/s. isloop,
Like equipped with
and like
AHU1.2, the regenerative
AHU1.2,
unit exhaust
the supply
is equipped isair heat
airregenerative
with split recovery
into heated
exhaustoutside
andair
the recirculation
non-heated loop,
airflows. Theand like AHU1.2,
non-heated flow the
is supply
untreated air is
after split
the into heated
condensing and non-heated
dehumidifier,
heat recovery outside the recirculation loop, and like AHU1.2, the supply air is split into heated and makingairflows.
its
The non-heated
temperature
non-heated flow
lower
airflows. isThe
than untreated
innon-heated
AHU2.1. after
The
flowthe iscondensing
heating dehumidifier,
coil utilizes
untreated after condenser
the making
condensing itsthe
temperature
heatdehumidifier,
from makinglower
refrigeration its
plant. A schematic
temperature lowerviewthanofinAHU2.2
AHU2.1. is The
available in Figure
heating 5.
coil utilizes condenser heat from the refrigeration
plant. A schematic view of AHU2.2 is available in Figure 5.
Energies 2019, 12, 693 7 of 21

than in AHU2.1. The heating coil utilizes condenser heat from the refrigeration plant. A schematic
view of 2018,
Energies AHU2.2
11, x is available in Figure 5. 7 of 21
Energies 2018, 11, x 7 of 21

Figure
Figure 5.5.Schematic
Figure5. Schematic
Schematicview
viewof
view ofAHU2.1
of AHU2.1and
AHU2.1 andits
and itscorresponding
its air
corresponding
corresponding distribution
air
air system.
distribution
distribution system.
system.

The
The air
Theair distribution
distributionsystem
airdistribution systemcorresponding
system correspondingtoto
corresponding toAHU2.2
AHU2.2
AHU2.2 isisis
unlike the
unlike
unlike the other
the other
other presented
presented
presented systems.
systems.
systems.
Non-heated
Non-heated supply
Non-heatedsupplysupplyair airenters
air entersthe
enters thehall
the space
hall
hall space
space from terminals
from
from connected
terminals
terminals totosmall
connected
connected holes
holesdrilled
to small
small holes totothe
drilleddrilledthe to
sideboards
the sideboardsof the
of rink.
the The
rink. idea
The is
idea to
is ventilate
to the
ventilate theoccupational
occupational zone
sideboards of the rink. The idea is to ventilate the occupational zone above the rink without above
zone the
above rink
the without
rink without
compromising
compromising
compromisingthe the quality
qualityof
thequality ofofthe
theice
the icepad
ice padwith
pad withheated
with heatedair.
heated air.Heated
air. Heated
Heated supply
supply
supply air isisdistributed
air
air isdistributed
distributed atatan
anangle
at an angle
angle
towards
towards
towards the
the stands,
thestands, while
stands,while the
whilethe extract
theextract air
extract air terminal
air terminal is
terminal is located
is located towards
locatedtowards the
towardsthe end
theend of the
endofofthe hall
the below
hall
hall below
below the
thethe
ceiling.
ceiling.
ceiling. The system
Thesystem
The systemisisispresented
presented
presentedin inFigure
in Figure6.6.
Figure 6.

Figure
Figure 6. Schematic view
view of AHU2.2andand itscorresponding
corresponding air distribution system.
Figure6.6.Schematic
Schematic viewofofAHU2.2
AHU2.2 andits
its correspondingair
airdistribution
distributionsystem.
system.

ItItisisimportant to explain that

that thefour
four modelsdescribed
described above are used for h24measurements,
h measurements,
It isimportant
importanttotoexplain
explain thatthe
the fourmodels
models describedabove
aboveare
areused
usedfor
for2424 h measurements,
but
butthere are temperature gradients measured in only three of them. Therefore, those three, which are
butthere
thereare aretemperature
temperaturegradients
gradientsmeasured
measuredininonly
onlythree
threeofofthem.
them.Therefore,
Therefore,those
those three, which
similar,
are as
similar, shown
as in
shown Figure
in 2a–c,
Figure were
2a–c, used
were to
used validate
to the
validate simulation
the simulationresults.
results.
are similar, as shown in Figure 2a–c, were used to validate the simulation results.
2.2. Measurements
2.2.
2.2.Measurements
Measurements
For
Foreach
For each
eachAHUAHU
AHUand and
andits itscorresponding
its corresponding
corresponding hallhall
hall space,
space,
space, a series
aaseries
series of measurements
ofofmeasurements
measurements were were out.
werecarried
carried carried
Theout.
out.The
The measurement
measurement periods
periods lasted lasted between
between six six
and and
eight eight
days, days,
and theand
measurement periods lasted between six and eight days, and the measurement interval was five the measurement
measurement interval interval
was fivewas
minutes.
five The measurement plan of each AHU could not be perfectly implemented,
minutes. The measurement plan of each AHU could not be perfectly implemented, due to differences to
minutes. The measurement plan of each AHU could not be perfectly due to differences
implemented, due
in
inthe
theair
differencesairhandling
in the airunits’
handling handling
units’ space
space coverage,
units’ spacecapacity,
coverage, coverage,
capacity, and
and accessibility
capacity, totothe
themeasurement
and accessibility
accessibility locations.
to the measurement
measurement locations.
The missing
locations. The measurements
missing were
measurements compensated
were with
compensatedmeasurements
with
The missing measurements were compensated with measurements performed from the building performed
measurements from the
performed building
from the
automation
building system,
automation
automation when
system, system, possible.
when possible. All of
when possible. the measurements
All of the All were
of the measurements
measurements carried
were carried out
were within
out carried May
within May and
andJune
out within May
June
2016.
and June 2016.
2016.
The
The
The indoor
indoor air
indoorair temperature
temperatureand
airtemperature andrelative
and relativehumidity
relative humiditywere weremeasured
were measured
measured and
and
andlogged
logged
logged with
withT/RH-loggers
withT/RH-loggers
T/RH-loggers
(THERMADATA
(THERMADATA MALLI)
MALLI) before
before and
and after
after each
each AHU
AHU component,
component, i.e.,
i.e.,before
before and
and after
after the heating
thetheheating
(THERMADATA MALLI) before and after each AHU component, i.e., before and after heating
coils,
coils,the cooling
thecooling coils,
coolingcoils, and
coils,and andthethe heat
theheat exchangers.
heatexchangers.
exchangers. The The indoor air CO 2 levels were measured with
coils, the The indoor
indoorair airCO CO2 2levels
levelswere
weremeasured
measured with
with
T/RH/CO
T/RH/CO22-loggers
-loggersatat the
thesupply
supply and extraction air positions. Meanwhile, fresh air
airwas
wasassumed to
T/RH/CO 2-loggers at the supply and and extraction
extract airairor positions.
extracted Meanwhile,
air positions.fresh Meanwhile, assumed
fresh airto was
have
have aaconstant
constant COCO 2 level of 400 ppm. For airflow rates, the pressure difference over the fan was
2 level of 400 ppm. For airflow rates, the pressure difference over the fan was
assumed to have a constant CO2 level of 400 ppm. For airflow rates, the pressure difference over
measured and logged,
logged,and anditlogged,
itcould
couldthen be
beconverted into ananairflow
airflowrate by using aaunit-specific k-k-
themeasured
fan was and measured and then
and it converted
could theninto
be converted rate
intoby anusing
airflow unit-specific
rate by using a
factor. An overview of the conducted measurements for each AHU
factor. An overview of the conducted measurements for each AHU is presented in Table 1. is presented in Table 1.
Energies 2019, 12, 693 8 of 21

unit-specific k-factor. An overview of the conducted measurements for each AHU is presented in
Table 1.

Table 1. Overview of the conducted measurements. M = measured, M* = measured short-term,

AS = measured by the automation system, E = estimated, C = calculated, - = not valid for said AHU.

Measured Temperature and RH

Airflows CO2 Level
Parameters Change over:
Measured at
Supply
the Section Fresh Extract Exhaust CC HC1 HC2 HX Fresh Supply Extract
Machines Total Heated Non-Heated
AHU 1.1 C M - - E M M M M M E M M
AHU 2.1 C M E E M C M M - M E M M
AHU 1.2 C E - - E C M M M M E M M
AHU 2.2 C M C M* E C M M/AS - M E M M

As Table 1 states, a series of estimations had to be made, especially regarding the airflow rates.
When the extract airflow could not be measured, due to the fan’s location or the lack of available
pressure differential measuring points, the extract airflow rate was estimated to match the supply
airflow rate. For AHU 1.2, the airflow measurements could not be performed at all without interfering
with the unit’s operation. However, examining the temperature and RH changes in the supply air
made it clear the unit was operated in an on–off fashion. For example, the temperature of the supply
air after the cooling coil would periodically lower to a constant value for a while, and then rise to
another value that was constant along the whole unit. Based on this behavior, it could be estimated
that the air inside the unit was partially moving and partially standing still. For when the air was
moving, it was estimated that the unit worked at full capacity, and when the air was evidently standing
still, the airflow rate was set to 0 m3 /s. The resulting average airflow rate was in line with measured
average rates from the other AHUs.
For AHU 2.1, as the ratio between the heated and non-heated supply airflows could not be
experimentally determined, and the flow rates were estimated at 80% and 20% of the total supply
airflow, respectively. The estimated ratio resulted in a total supply air average temperature that was
in line with the produced thermal conditions inside the hall space. For AHU2.2, the flow rate of
the non-heated supply air was determined in short-term measurements, and the calculated ratio
between the heated and non-heated supply flows was estimated to stay constant throughout the
measurement period.

3. Simulation Setup and Building Model

To highlight the core differences between the studied AHUs, and to exclude any external variables
affecting their performance, a version of each AHU was modeled, and its performance was simulated
by using IDA ICE v. 4.7.1 with the Ice Rinks and Pools 0.912 add-on, for a period of one year, with
typical meteorological conditions for Helsinki, Finland. The simulated demand-control-strategy, based
on temperature, relative humidity, and CO2 -measurements from the hall space, was unmodified across
the modeled AHUs. Three of the built simulation models were validated by using experimental data.
For comparison’s sake, Seghouani presented, modeled and simulated a modified VAV-version of the
AHU to study its performance [8].

3.1. Building Specifications

We used a rather simplified approach that was common to all simulation models. We used a
one-zone airspace with a size of 65 × 35 × 7 m, and one door with a size of 3.5 × 5.0 m, which was
opened seven times a day for 10 min each time. The external walls of the building were made of
Aluminum 0.003 m, light insulation 0.2 m and aluminum 0.003 m. The Roof was made of Aluminum
0.003 m, light insulation 0.3 m, and renders 0.01 m. The external floor was made of floor coating 0.05 m
Energies 2019, 12, 693 9 of 21

and 0.2 m concrete. The main door was made of 0.003 m aluminum. There were no thermal bridges
formed in the building. Infiltration through the building was constant, with 0.03 ACH.
The cooling pipes were submerged 2 cm into the concrete slab underneath the ice pad. The rest of
the 0.2 m concrete slab and an insulation layer of 0.1 m formed the base layer underneath the ice pad.
Heating pipes are located in the soil beneath the insulation layer. The cooling and heating powers were
200 W/m2 and 40 W/m2 , respectively. The ice layer thickness was 3.5 cm, and the ice temperature
set-point was −5 ◦ C.

3.2. Control Strategy

The zone was ventilated and heated by the AHU, which was controlled based on the measured
indoor and extract air conditions. The AHU maximizes the recirculation air usage for energy conservation.
The supply and the exhaust fans were controlled by responding to the measured temperature, relative
humidity and CO2 values of the zone, with boundaries of 4–6 ◦ C (corresponding to output signals
of either 1 or 0 respectively), 60–70% RH and 1000–1100 ppm CO2 (both corresponding to outputs
of 0 and 1, respectively). The supply air temperature was adjusted according to the zone average
temperature with simplified set points of 30 ◦ C when the indoor air temperature was below 3 ◦ C,
and 3 ◦ C when the air temperature was above 7 ◦ C (Figure 4). The heat recovery unit was always
on. The cooling coil cooled and dehumidified by reducing the air temperature to +1 ◦ C when the
moisture content of the air exceeded 3.65 g/kg dry air. The fresh air intake was controlled by the CO2
concentration of the extract air, according to a setpoint range of 1000–1100 ppm, corresponding to
outputs of 0.037 and 1, respectively. The minimum fresh air intake was set to 3.7%, as reported by
Toomla [14]. The extract air CO2 concentration with set points of 1000–1100 ppm, corresponded to
signals of 0 to 1, respectively. The CO2 concentration of extract air controlled the exhaust fan as well.
Both fans were rated up to 4 m3 /s (2.0 L/s/m2 ) capacity, according to ASHRAE 90.1, with the Specific
Fan Power (SFP) set to 1.23 (kW/m3 /s), and the efficiency to 0.6.

3.3. Assumptions and Parameters for the Simulation Models

The supply fan was operated based on the zone signal. Smooth functions (from 0 to 1) for
high-temperature HI 6 and low-temperature LO 4, RH HI 0.7 LO 0.6, CO2 HI 1100 LO 1000, and MAX
signals of these three controlled the supply fan speed. The exhaust fan was controlled by the CO2
content in the extract air. A smooth function of 0 to 1 was set with HI 1100 and LO 1050, i.e., therefore,
the exhaust fan only ran when the CO2 level was high.
The recirculation of indoor air or outdoor air intake was controlled by the extract air CO2 content,
with a smooth function 0.037 (3.7%) to 1 (100%), with LO 1000 and HI 1100.
Heat exchangers always function with an effectiveness of 0.85 and an unknown capacity.
The minimum allowed leaving temperature was +1 ◦ C. Drying with the cooling coil was controlled
so that the temperature set point was the minimum from either the incoming temperature or the
incoming humidity control, so that the cooling coil temperature set points were 4 ◦ C below 3.15 g/kg,
and 1 ◦ C above 3.65 g/kg. The cooling coil effectiveness causes a liquid-side temperature rise of 5 ◦ C.
The cooling was simulated as district cooling, to show the cooling demands of the dehumidification.
The heating coil effectiveness was 1, and the liquid-side temperature drop was 20 ◦ C. The heating
coil set-point temperature for the supply air was controlled by the zone average air temperature,
according to the curve presented in the Figure 7.
The indoor air temperature gradient was set, based on the three variants’ measured values,
1 C/m, 1.5 ◦ C/m, and 2 ◦ C/m.
◦

Lighting was carried out with 20 × 400 W (4.0 W/m2 ) units with a luminous efficacy of 12 lm/W,
and a convective fraction of 0.5. The lighting was used only when players were present. Inside the
zone, there was an ice pad (60 × 30 m) with Freezium as the coolant and heating medium.
 Energies 2018, 11, x 10 of 21

Energies 2019, 12, 693 10 of 21

Energies 2018, 11, x 10 of 21

Figure 7. Heating coil set-point temperature curve to control the supply air.

The air stratification gradient was set, based on the three variants’ measured values, 1 °C/m, 1.5
°C/m, and 2 °C/m.
Lighting was carried out with 20 × 400 W (4.0 W/m2) units with a luminous efficacy of 12 lm/W,
and a convectiveFigure
Figure 7.7.Heating
fraction of 0.5.coil
Heating Theset-point
coil lightingtemperature
set-point was used only
temperature curvewhen
curve tocontrol
to control
playersthesupply
the supply air.
were air.
present. Inside the
zone, there was an ice pad (60 × 30 m) with Freezium as the coolant and heating medium.
Figures
The air8 stratification
and 9 are a few examples was set,of how on the system and control set-points were°C/m,
set in1.5the
Figures 8 and 9 are agradient
few examples ofbased
how thethe three and
system variants’ measured
control values,
set-points were1 set in the
simulation software.
°C/m, and 2software. All of the properties of the system were simply set in
°C/m. All of the properties of the system were simply set in the IDA-ICE simulation the IDA-ICE simulation
simulation
software, as shown
Lighting was in
software, as shown
the Figure
carried
in the out with
Figure
8,8,where
20 × 400the
where W operation
the (4.0 W/m2)set
operation
set points
units withofof
points
therefrigeration
a the refrigeration
luminous plant,
efficacyplant,
of 12 thethe
lm/W,
ice
ice
pad,
andsubfloor
pad, asubfloor heating,
convective and
fraction
heating, andoffurther
0.5. Thedetails
further lightingwere
details was set.
were The
usedThe
set. indoor
onlyindoor
when air aircontrol
players control
were set-points
present.
set-points (air(air
Inside flow,
the
flow,
temperature,
temperature, relative
zone, there wasrelative humidity)
an icehumidity)
pad (60 × 30 were
were also
m) also
withsetset in
Freezium the IDA-ICE
as the coolant
in the IDA-ICE (4.7.1,
(4.7.1, and
EQUA,EQUA,
heating Stockholm,
medium.
Stockholm, Sweden),
Sweden), as
as shown
shown inFigure
Figures
in Figure 9.9.9 are a few examples of how the system and control set-points were set in the
8 and
simulation software. All of the properties of the system were simply set in the IDA-ICE simulation
software, as shown in the Figure 8, where the operation set points of the refrigeration plant, the ice
pad, subfloor heating, and further details were set. The indoor air control set-points (air flow,
temperature, relative humidity) were also set in the IDA-ICE (4.7.1, EQUA, Stockholm, Sweden), as
shown in Figure 9.

Figure8.8.Refrigeration
Figure Refrigeration plant and
and the
theice
icepad
padset
setpoints.
points.

Figure 8. Refrigeration plant and the ice pad set points.

Energies 2018, 11, x 11 of 21

Energies 2019, 12, 693 11 of 21

Energies 2018, 11, x 11 of 21
Energies 2018, 11, x 11 of 21

Figure 9. Indoor air ventilation quantity and quality set points.

The internal gains ofFigurethe zone were the

9. Indoor players, spectators,
air ventilation andquality
quantity and lighting.set The internal load of the
points.
players was set based on 20Figure 9. Indoor
players air ventilation
withair quantity
anventilation
activity level and quality
of 5 and set
Metabolic points.
Equivalent
Figure 9. Indoor quantity quality set points. of Task (MET),
The internal
and scheduled gains of the
as presented zone were
in Figure 10. On theweekdays,
players, spectators,
the playersand were lighting.
presentThe
from internal
7:00 to load
9:00 of the
a.m.,The
players internal
andThe
also setgains
wasinternal
from based oftoon
gains
3:00 the zone
of20
10:00the were
players
zone
p.m. the
with
were
On players,
the
weekends, spectators,
anplayers,
activity and
level present
of
theyspectators,
were lighting.
5 and
Metabolic The
lighting.
from 9:00 internal
Equivalent
The
a.m. load
internal
to 9:00 of the
ofp.m.
Task
load of(MET),
the
players was was
players set based
set on 20
based onplayers
20 with anfollowing
activity level of 5 of
Metabolic Equivalent of was
Task (MET),
and Players were
scheduled aspresent
presented in players
according Figure with
to the
10. On anweekdays,
activity level
schedule. 5 Metabolic
The
the playersplayers’
were Equivalent
heat load
present from of7:00
Task
20, (MET),
with
to 9:00 a.m.,
and scheduled
and levelas3:00
scheduled ofpresented
5asMET in Figure to10.
theOn weekdays, the players wereof present from 7:00 to 20
9:00
anand
activity
also from topresented
10:00 according
p.m. in On
Figure 10. On weekdays,
schedule
weekends, wereathe
below,
they players
maximum
present from were
100present
9:00 a.m. tofrom
spectators, 7:00
9:00and
p.m. to× 9:00
a.m., and
a.m.,
400 W also from 3:00 to 10:00 p.m. On weekends, they were present from 9:00
and also from 3:00 to 10:00 p.m. On weekends, they were present from 9:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m.
lamps. a.m. to 9:00 p.m.
Players werewere
Players present
presentaccording to the
according to following
the followingschedule. The The
schedule. players’ heatheat
players’ loadload
was was
20, with
20, with
an activity level of 5 MET according to the schedule below, a maximum
an activity level of 5 MET according to the schedule below, a maximum of 100 spectators, andof 100 spectators, and 20 ×20 ×
400 W
400lamps.
W lamps.

Figure
Figure 10. Scheduled
10. Scheduled internal
internal loadsloads of players.
of players.

Players
The were
spectator present according
attendance was modeled to as
the25following
persons from schedule. Thep.m.
6:00 to 9:00 players’ heat load
on weekdays, andwas 20,
with an activity level of
as 50 persons from 9:00 a.m. to 9:005 MET
Figure according
10. Scheduled
p.m.10. to the
internal
onScheduled
weekends, schedule
loads of
with loads
a peak below,
players. a maximum of 100 spectators,
Figure internal of of 100 persons between 4:00 and
players.
20 × 400 W lamps.
andp.m.
7:00
The
The
The spectator
The
heat load attendance
spectator
spectator attendance
attendance
caused by thewaswas modeled
was modeled as as
modeled
spectators was 25set
persons
as2525 from
persons
persons
based on afrom6:006:00
from to 9:00
6:00
maximum totoof p.m.
9:00
9:00 on weekdays,
100p.m.
p.m. on withand
onweekdays,
weekdays,
spectators, anand
and as
as 50
50 persons
persons
as 50rate
activity from
from
persons
of 1.5from9:00
9:00 a.m.
a.m.
MET.9:00 toto
Thea.m. 9:00
9:00 p.m.
p.m. onon
to 9:00which
X factor, weekends,
weekends,
p.m. on with
with
weekends,
is the a a peak
peak of of 100
100 persons
persons
withofa spectators’
percentage between
between
peak of 100occupancy 4:00
4:00
persons between and and
7:00
4:00 and
in different p.m.
7:00 p.m.
The
7:00
days/times heat
p.m. load caused by
was implemented the simulation
in the spectators according
was set basedto theon a maximum
schedule of 100
presented spectators,
in the following with an
FigureThe
activity heat
11:The load
rateheat
of 1.5caused
load MET. by
The
caused the
byXspectators
factor,
the was was
which
spectators set based
is the on aon
setpercentage
based maximum of 100
of spectators’
a maximum of spectators,
occupancy
100 with
spectators, an an
inwith
different
activity rate rate
activity of 1.5of MET. The The
1.5 MET. X factor, which
X factor, is the
which is percentage
the percentage of spectators’
ofschedule occupancy
spectators’ occupancyin different
in different
days/times was implemented in the simulation according to the presented in the following
days/times was
days/times implemented
was implemented in thein simulation
the according
simulation to
according theto schedule
the presented
schedule in
presented the
in following
the following
Figure 11:
Figure 11: 11:
Figure

Figure 11. Scheduled internal loads of spectators.

Figure 11. Scheduled internal loadsloads

of spectators.
Figure 11.Scheduled
Figure11. Scheduled internal ofspectators.
internal loads of spectators.
Energies 2019, 12, 693 12 of 21

The heat load of lighting with 20 × 400 W lamps with a convective fraction of 0.5, was similar as
player’s schedule.
Finally, the temperature gradient values for the simulation models were set as 2.0 ◦ C/m and
◦
1.5 C/m, to represent the average ice arenas, similar to the measured air stratification in real cases.
In addition, the stratification value of 1 ◦ C/m was set to describe an arena with a lower indoor
air temperature gradient as an ultimate condition, which would be a significant improvement in
comparison to the currently measured arenas.

3.4. Theoretical Heat Exchange and Airflow Principles

3.4.1. Ice surface Modeling

In order to calculate the heat that is exchanged between the ice surface and the indoor air, we
needed to concentrate on the transient model above the ice. To do so, it is initially required to determine
the heat transfer coefficients of the air layer on the ice. Theoretical challenges on how accurate the
model calculates the U_FILM, the HConv , and the condensation heat transfer through the ice surface to
the hall space, are described as:

6142.83
Pin = 105 exp (17.391 − ) (1)
273.15 + Tin

6142.83
Pice = 105 exp (17.391 − ) (2)
273.15 + Ts
The relative humidity at the height of h = 0.1 m above the ice surface are calculated as follows:
 
h
RHh = × (90 − RH1,5 ) (3)
1, 5
 
RHh
dp = × ( ph − pice ) (4)
100
dp pa
 
dp atm = (5)
101325
The heat transfer coefficient for condensation is also calculated as:
∆P
hd = 1750 × hconv × ( RH_h/100) (6)
∆T

qcond = hd × ( Tin − Tice ) (7)

3.4.2. Airflow Balance Equations

The calculated and measured airflow rates, along with the measured temperature and the RH
changes over the components, were used to calculate the component theoretical energy output over
the measurement periods. The heating powers of the heating coil and the heat exchanger were
calculated as:
Pheat = q air ρ air c air ∆Tair (8)

and the cooling coil’s cooling powers as:

Pcool = q air ρ air ∆h air (9)

where the enthalpy of air can be expressed as:

h air = c air Tair + x air (cw Tair + hwe ) (10)

Energies 2019, 12, 693 13 of 21

The fresh air intake of the AHU was calculated based on CO2 -level differences between the extract,
supply,
Energiesand
2018,fresh
11, x air. Any decrease in CO2 level from the extract to supply air meant that a portion
13 of 21 of
the supply air was fresh air, since it is reasonable to assume no other CO2 sources within the unit exist.
portion
Fresh of the can
air intake supply air was fresh
be calculated as: air, since it is reasonable to assume no other CO2 sources within
the unit exist. Fresh air intake can be calculated as: !
Cext − Csup
q f resh = qsup 𝐶 −−C𝐶 (11)
𝑞 =𝑞 Cext f resh (11)
𝐶 −𝐶
The resulting flow rate for fresh air intake serves more as an approximation rather than an
The resulting flow rate for fresh air intake serves more as an approximation rather than an exact
exact value, but its accuracy is sufficient to determine when the unit is operating in full or partial
value, but its accuracy is sufficient to determine when the unit is operating in full or partial
recirculation mode.
recirculation mode.
4. Experimental Results
4. Experimental Results
4.1. Temperature Gradient Measurements
4.1. Temperature Gradient Measurements
The vertical temperature profiles in various ice rinks in Finland were measured in previous
The vertical temperature profiles in various ice rinks in Finland were measured in previous
studies
studies[10–14],
[10–14],andanditsitsoutcomes
outcomesas astemperature gradient curves
temperature gradient curvesare
areused
usedininthe
thecurrent
current paper,
paper, as as
energy
energyconsumption
consumptionofofthe thesame
sameice
icerinks
rinks has
has been
been measured
measured toto describe
describecase
casearenas.
arenas.The Thesetset
airair
stratification intensity for the simulation is based on experimental measurements conducted
stratification intensity for the simulation is based on experimental measurements conducted in three in three
iceice
rink arenas
rink arenas ininFinland.
Finland.TheTheprocedure
procedure ofof the
the measurements
measurements isissubsequently
subsequentlydescribed,
described, andandthethe
measurement
measurement results
resultsare
arepresented
presentedininFigure
Figure 12.
12. The actual,
actual,non-linear
non-lineartemperature
temperature stratification
stratification waswas
linearized
linearized into
intoa agradient
gradientfactor
factordescribing
describing the temperature
temperatureincrease
increaseasasdegrees
degrees Celsius
Celsius perper meter.
meter.
The cause
The causeforfor
this simplification
this simplificationwas
wasthe
thelimitation
limitation of
of the simulation software.
simulation software.

Figure 12.Air
Figure12. Airstratification
stratification measurement results of
measurement results ofthree
threeice
icearenas
arenasininFinland.
Finland.

In In
order
ordertoto
understand
understandthe thedifferences
differences between the observed
between the observedenergy
energyperformances
performances of of each
each AHU,
AHU,
a perspective
a perspective with
withregard
regardtototheir
theirrespective
respective outside and produced
outside air and producedindoor
indoorair
airconditions
conditions needed
needed
to to
bebeestablished.
established.The
The24-h
24-h periods
periods ofofthe
theAHUs
AHUswerewere evaluated
evaluated based
based on the
on the maximum
maximum similarity
similarity of
of the
the outside
outsideairairtemperature
temperatureand andthethe hall
hall space
space occupational
occupational load.load. It is noteworthy
It is noteworthy that neither
that neither the
theproduced
producedindoor
indoorairairconditions
conditions nornorthetheoutside
outsideairairhumidity,
humidity,which
which both affected
both affectedthethe
AHU’s
AHU’s
performance, were the same across the studied arenas. This limitation in the
performance, were the same across the studied arenas. This limitation in the experimental setupexperimental setup will
will
be taken into account when the results are
be taken into account when the results are discussed. discussed.

4.2. The 24-h Outdoor and Indoor Air Measurements

The outside air temperature and relative humidity measurements were implemented for a
selected 24-h period in close proximity to each case study arena, inside the arena hall space in the
 represent the temperature (left vertical axis) and the higher graphs represent the relative humidity
(right vertical axis). The average temperatures were between 14.4 °C and 16.2 °C, while the average
relative humidity has a larger range, 43.5% to 83.2%. The average indoor air temperatures were 3.5
°C to 8.8 °C, and the corresponding average relative humidity was 64.5% to 82%. Both are presented
in Figure 13b. It is noteworthy that AHU1.2 produced the warmest and most humid conditions, even
Energies 2019, 12, 693 14 of 21
though temperature and relative humidity are inversely correlated with each other.
Hall space CO2 levels are presented in Figure 13c. The CO2 measurements are required to
4.2.understand how indoor
The 24-h Outdoor air COAir
and Indoor 2 level changes against occupancy variations within a 24 h working
Measurements
period. It is particularly important to have a realistic perception about fresh air requirements, in order
The outside air temperature and relative humidity measurements were implemented for a selected
to keep indoor air CO2 levels in an acceptable range, which is necessary for the control settings of the
24-h period in close proximity to each case study arena, inside the arena hall space in the skating
simulation models.
zone. TheAHUsmeasurement
1.1, 2.1, andresults are presented
2.2 followed in Figure 13a.
an approximately Theair
similar lower graphs always
distribution system,represent
where thethe
temperature (left vertical axis) and the higher graphs represent the relative humidity
indoor air CO2 level more or less steadily increased towards the end of the day, while for AHU1.2, (right vertical
axis). The average temperatures were between 14.4 ◦ C and 16.2 ◦ C, while the average relative humidity
the peak was reached at midday. The calculated fresh air fraction of the supply air ranged from
haseffectively
a larger range,
0% for43.5%
AHUs to 1.2
83.2%.
andThe2.2, average indoor
to 10% for air temperatures
AHU2.1 and 19% forwere 3.5 ◦ C
AHU1.1. to 8.8
The
◦ C, and the
fraction was
corresponding
observed to stay average relative
relatively humidity
constant was
for each 64.5%
AHU, to 82%. of
regardless Both
theare presented
indoor air CO2in Figure
level, 13b. to
leading It is
noteworthy that AHU1.2 produced the warmest and most humid conditions,
the conclusion that each AHU operated in what was set as its maximum allowed extract aireven though temperature
and relative humidity
recirculation rate. are inversely correlated with each other.

100 AHU 1.1 AHU 2.1 AHU 1.2 100

Temperature [°C]

Relative Humidity
80 80

60 60

[%]
40 40

20 20

0 0
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00
(a)
25 100

Relative Humidity [%]

20 80
Temperature [°C]

15 60

10 40

5 20

0 0
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00
(b)

(c)
Figure 13. Indoor and outdoor air temperature, relative humidity and CO2 measurements (a) Outside
air temperature and relative humidity measurements; (b) Indoor air temperature and relative humidity
measurements; (c) Indoor air CO2 levels.

Hall space CO2 levels are presented in Figure 13c. The CO2 measurements are required to
understand how indoor air CO2 level changes against occupancy variations within a 24 h working
period. It is particularly important to have a realistic perception about fresh air requirements, in order
Energies 2019, 12, 693 15 of 21

to keep indoor air CO2 levels in an acceptable range, which is necessary for the control settings of the
simulation models.
AHUs 1.1, 2.1, and 2.2 followed an approximately similar air distribution system, where the indoor
air CO2 level more or less steadily increased towards the end of the day, while for AHU1.2, the peak
was reached at midday. The calculated fresh air fraction of the supply air ranged from effectively 0%
Energies 2018, 11, x 15 of 21
for AHUs 1.2 and 2.2, to 10% for AHU2.1 and 19% for AHU1.1. The fraction was observed to stay
relatively Figure
constant for each
13. Indoor and AHU,
outdoorregardless of the
air temperature, indoor
relative air CO
humidity 2 level,
and leading to the
CO2 measurements conclusion that
(a) Outside
each AHUairoperated
temperature in what was set
and relative as its maximum
humidity measurements;allowed extract
(b) Indoor air air recirculation
temperature rate.
and relative
humidity measurements; (c) Indoor air CO2 levels.
4.3. Energy Measurements at AHU Sections
4.3. Energy Measurements at AHU Sections
The total external heating and cooling powers for each AHU are presented in Figure 14.
The power
The external total external heating
is defined andpower
as the coolingsupplied
powers for eachsupply
to the AHU areair presented
by the CCs in and
Figure 14. The
HCs. The heat
external power is defined as the power supplied to the supply air by the CCs and HCs. The heat
exchanger was not considered, as it utilized internal heating power removed from the extract air.
exchanger was not considered, as it utilized internal heating power removed from the extract air.
Heating power-wise, AHU 1.1 and 2.1 operated on a similar scale, with averages of 33 kW and 36 kW,
Heating power-wise, AHU 1.1 and 2.1 operated on a similar scale, with averages of 33 kW and 36
respectively. AHU2.2
kW, respectively. had a had
AHU2.2 higher average
a higher of of
average 45.3
45.3kW,
kW,while the heating
while the heatingpower
power of AHU1.2
of AHU1.2 was was
substantially larger, averaging at 81.3 kW. For the cooling power, the on–off type control
substantially larger, averaging at 81.3 kW. For the cooling power, the on–off type control of the CC of the CC
of AHU2.2, as shown
of AHU2.2, as shown in 14b, led
in 14b, ledtotothe
thesmallest
smallest average coolingpower
average cooling power of 7.6
of 7.6 kW.kW.
TheThe averages
averages for for
AHU1.1, 2.1, and
AHU1.1, 1.2 were
2.1, and 13.6
1.2 were kW,
13.6 kW,25.6
25.6kW,
kW,and
and42.5
42.5 kW,
kW, respectively.
respectively.

AHU 1.1 AHU 2.1

140
(a)
120
Heating Power [kW]

100

80

60

40

20

0
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00

Figure
Figure 14. Total
14. Total external
external (a)(a) heatingand
heating and(b)
(b)cooling
cooling power
powerused
usedbyby
the AHUs
the for for
AHUs supply air treatment.
supply air treatment.

Figure
Figure 15 presents
15 presents thethe total
total heatingand
heating and cooling
cooling energy
energyconsumption
consumption by by
the the
supply air ofair
supply theof the
AHUs during the selected 24 h period, including heating energy supplied by the heat exchanger.
AHUs during the selected 24 h period, including heating energy supplied by the heat exchanger.
Where the heat exchanger could be utilized despite the extract air recirculation, i.e., AHU 1.1 and 2.1,
Where the heat exchanger could be utilized despite the extract air recirculation, i.e., AHU 1.1 and 2.1,
the heating energy supplied by the heat exchanger represented approximately 40% of the total
the heating
heatingenergy
energy supplied by theamounts
demand. Total heat exchanger
of heatingrepresented
and coolingapproximately
energy consumed 40% byof the
the total air
supply heating
energy demand. Total amounts of heating and cooling energy consumed by the supply
treatment ranged between 1088 kWh and 1951 kWh for heating, and between 182 kWh and 1021 kWh air treatment
ranged
forbetween 1088
cooling, as kWh
shown inand 1951
Figure 15.kWh for heating, and between 182 kWh and 1021 kWh for cooling,
as shown in Figure 15.
 Energies 2018, 11, x 16 of 21
Energies 2019, 12, 693 16 of 21

HX HC CC
2000

AHU Energy [kWh]

1500

1000

500

Heating

Cooling

Heating

Cooling

Heating

Cooling

Heating

Cooling
AHU 1.1 AHU 2.1 AHU 1.2 AHU 2.2

Figure 15. Total heating and cooling energy consumption of each AHU for the selected 24 h period.
Figure 15. Total heating and cooling energy consumption of each AHU for the selected 24 h period.
5. Validating Simulation Models
5. Validating Simulation Models
The total heating and cooling energy demands in three different ice rink arenas with various
AHUs areThepresented in Table
total heating 2. As shown,
and cooling energythe energy in
demands demand results are
three different iceprovided from
rink arenas twovarious
with different
AHUs
bases, oneare presented
from in Table 2.
the experimental As shown, the
measurements, energy
and demand
the other results
from the are provided
running fromand
simulations, twothey
aredifferent
compared. bases, one from the experimental measurements, and the other from the running
simulations, and they are compared.
Table 2. The measurements and the simulation results of the three ice rink arenas.
Table 2. The measurements and the simulation results of the three ice rink arenas.
Air Handling Units AHU 2.2 AHU 1.1 AHU 2.1
Air Handling
Temp. gradients ◦ C/m
1.5AHU ◦ C/m
1.6AHU 2 ◦ C/m
2.2 1.1 AHU 2.1
Units
Measurements 2016–05-20T14:55– 2016-05-03T10:50– 2016-06-15T14:50–
date&time
Temp. gradients 2016-05-27T10:00
1.5 °C/m 2016-05-12T9:00
1.6 °C/m 2016-06-21T10:20
2 °C/m
-
Measurements Heating Cooling
2016–05-20T14:55–2016- Heating Cooling
2016-05-03T10:50– Heating Cooling
2016-06-15T14:50–2016-
date&time C:05-27T10:00
Mäntsälä 2016-05-12T9:00
B: Klaukkala 06-21T10:20
A: Tapiola
Measurement result
- Heating
9808 MWh 3755 Cooling
MWh Heating
8592.8 MWh Cooling
2907.6 MWh Heating
10,695.5 MWh Cooling
4939.78 MWh
Simulation result 9485 MWh C: Mäntsälä
3843 MWh 8731 MWh B: Klaukkala
2864 MWh 10,214 MWh A: Tapiola5179 MWh
Measurement
Deviation 9808
3.3% 2.3% 8592.8
1.6% 2907.6
1.5% 10,695.5
4.5% 4939.78
4.8%
result 3755 MWh
MWh MWh MWh MWh MWh
9485 8731 2864 10,214 5179
The measurements
Simulation result performed during 3843 MWh May and June and the simulations correspondingly ran for
MWh MWh MWh MWh MWh
similar periods of time. The simulations were carried out while the AHU layouts, building specification
Deviation 3.3% 2.3% 1.6% 1.5% 4.5% 4.8%
as well as control strategies similar as the measurements, were used. The simulation results, compared
to the measurement results showed that the simulation models nearly always corresponded with the
The measurements performed during May and June and the simulations correspondingly ran
real
formeasurements
similar periods with less than
of time. The5% fault, as presented
simulations were carried in Table 2. Therefore,
out while the AHU thelayouts,
simulation models
building
were verified toasrepresent
specification the energy
well as control demand
strategies behaviors
similar as theofmeasurements,
the ice rink arenas
werewithused.anThe
acceptable
simulationrange
of results,
accuracy. The reason for such models is because it is not easy to measure
compared to the measurement results showed that the simulation models nearly always the yearly energy demands
of corresponded
ice rinks, particularly with
with the real the variety of
measurements AHU
with lesslayouts
than 5%or various
fault, temperature
as presented in Tablegradients, which
2. Therefore,
were
the required
simulation for this study.
models Therefore,
were verified it is necessary
to represent to validate
the energy demandthe simulation
behaviors of themodels
ice rinkaccording
arenas
to with
the measurements,
an acceptable rangeand of then run theThe
accuracy. simulation
reason formodels
such modelsfor theis entire yearly
because period,
it is not easy totomeasure
obtain the
results for various
the yearly energycombinations.
demands of ice rinks, particularly with the variety of AHU layouts or various
temperature gradients, which were required for this study. Therefore, it is necessary to validate the
6. simulation
Simulationmodels Resultsaccording to the measurements, and then run the simulation models for the entire
yearly period, to obtain
The heat exchanger and the results for various
the cooling combinations.
coil energy demands were independently studied, in order
to highlight the significance of the AHU configurations. Table 3 and Figure 16 present heating and
6. Simulation Results
cooling energy demands by using two different AHU layouts, to clarify the impact of the AHU layouts
on energy consumption. The simulation results of the AHUs indicate that approximately a reduction of
60% for cooling energy demands and a reduction of 21% for heating energy demands can be achieved
by precisely planning the AHU layout.
 can be achieved by precisely planning the AHU layout.

Table 3. The yearly energy consumption results of the simulation for AHU1.1 and AHU2.1.

AHU2.1 (Old Layout) AHU1.1 (Energy-Efficient Layout) Reduced

kWh
Energies 2019, 12, 693 kWh/(m2a) kWh/(m2a) Energy % 17 of 21
Zone
5.6 5.6 −1.2%
heating
Table 3. The yearly energy consumption results of the simulation for AHU1.1 and AHU2.1.
Zone
212.6 214.0 0
cooling AHU2.1 (Old Layout) AHU1.1 (Energy-Efficient
kWh Reduced Energy %
AHU kWh/(m2 a) Layout) kWh/(m2 a)
207.6 164.0 −21%
heating
Zone heating 5.6 5.6 −1.2%
AHU
Zone cooling 212.6 214.0 0
69.3 28.1 −59.5%
AHU heating
cooling 207.6 164.0 −21%
AHU cooling
DHW 69.3 28.1 −59.5%
DHW heating 33.6 33.6 33.6
33.6 00
heating
Total 523.1 445.2 -
Total 523.1 445.2 -

Figure16.
Figure 16. Comparison
Comparison of
of cooling
coolingand
andheating
heatingenergy
energydemands
demandsbetween AHU2.1
between andand
AHU2.1 AHU1.1.
AHU1.1.

Thesimulation
The simulation results
results of
of the
the cooling
coolingandandheating
heatingenergy
energy demands
demands areare
presented
presentedin Table 4 and
in Table 4 and
Figure 17, while various temperature gradients have been applied, in order
Figure 17, while various temperature gradients have been applied, in order to study the impactsto study the impacts of of
temperature gradients on energy consumption.
temperature gradients on energy consumption.
There were three temperature gradient values, 2, 1.6, and 1.5 °C/m, measured on the three ice
rinks,
Table in which tworesults
4. Simulation of them were
of the selected
yearly toconsumption
energy be used in the simulation
of ice rinks withasdifferent
high (2)temperature
and medium (1.5)
gradients.
temperature gradient values. The models were also simulated with an additional temperature
gradientTemperature
value equal to one, as Temperature
an ultimate idealTemperature
condition. Temperature
Stratification 2 Stratification 1.5 Reduction Stratification 1 Reduction
SomeStratifications
of the measured cases included two(◦supply air temperatures, warm
(◦ C/m) C/m) (◦ C/m)and cool supply.
However, this was instead simulated by using an average supply air temperature. The temperature
Annual Energy
kWh/(m2 a) kWh/(m2 a) % kWh/(m2 a) %
consumption
Zone heating 10.2 7.4 27 7.9 −22
AHU heating 227.1 208.1 8 185.7 18
Zone cooling 274.6 179.8 35 170.0 38
AHU cooling 34.3 29.3 15 26.1 24
Electricity consumption of
93.0 61.7 34 57.9 38
refrigeration plant
Condenser heat 367.7 241.5 34 227.9 38
In the case of using 50% of
183.8 120.7 34 113.9 38
the condenser heat
 93.0 61.7 34 57.9 38
refrigeration
plant
Condenser heat 367.7 241.5 34 227.9 38
In the case of
using
Energies 50%
2019, 12, of
693the 183.8 120.7 34 113.9 38 18 of 21
condenser heat

Figure17.
Figure 17.Energy
Energyconsumption
consumption of
of different
different temperature
temperaturegradients,
gradients,AHU1.1.
AHU1.1.

As presented
There were three intemperature
the Table 4, gradient
the energy demands
values, forand
2, 1.6, AHU ◦ C/m, measured
1.5 cooling and AHU on heating wereice
the three
decreased by 24% and 18%, respectively. The zone cooling of the ice-pad, as well as
rinks, in which two of them were selected to be used in the simulation as high (2) and medium (1.5) the electricity
consumption
temperature requirements
gradient values. of
Thethemodels
refrigeration process
were also were both
simulated withreduced by 38%.temperature
an additional Finally, the overall
gradient
results demonstrated clearly and concisely
value equal to one, as an ultimate ideal condition. how energy can be significantly saved through re-
planning the AHU layout and by reducing the indoor vertical temperature gradient.
Some of the measured cases included two supply air temperatures, warm and cool supply.
However, this was instead simulated by using an average supply air temperature. The temperature
7. Discussion
gradient parameter in the building component takes in to account the effects of different air distribution
solutionsThethat
most crucial
create challenge
various was how gradients
temperature to implement thesimulation.
in the air distribution system in order to form a
less
Asstratified
presentedindoor air temperature.
in the Table 4, the The idealdemands
energy condition for
is toAHU
approach a temperature
cooling and AHUgradient
heatingofwere
1
decreased by 24% and 18%, respectively. The zone cooling of the ice-pad, as well as the electricity
consumption requirements of the refrigeration process were both reduced by 38%. Finally, the overall
results demonstrated clearly and concisely how energy can be significantly saved through re-planning
the AHU layout and by reducing the indoor vertical temperature gradient.

7. Discussion
The most crucial challenge was how to implement the air distribution system in order to form a
less stratified indoor air temperature. The ideal condition is to approach a temperature gradient of
1 ◦ C/m. To do so, creating two thermally separated virtual zones should be considered. This means
that two different temperatures are maintained in two warmer and cooler zones. The warmer zone is
for the spectators, and the cooler zone is for the players. Therefore, it is reasonable to supply a more
customized and localized air conditions to each zone, and then extract them from the same zone.
Figure 18 illustrates the air distribution strategies proposed by this study. As shown, the warmer
air is supplied into the spectators’ zone, and the cooler air into the players’ zone. The air is extracted
from the same zones similarly. The supply air terminals have to be as close to the occupants of the
zones as possible. Two virtually separated zones are then created and subsequently, two different
average temperatures are formed in each zone. The air distribution solutions reduce the risk of mixing
the air within the zones. The virtual zones are indicated via dashed line boxes in the proposed air
distribution models shown in Figure 18. As discussed earlier, such air distribution models more likely
tend to approach the ideal temperature gradient of 1 ◦ C/m on average. This study also verified that
the lower temperature gradient results in lower cooling and heating energy demands, leading to more
efficient planning of the AHU and air distribution systems. This is done by planning two separate
 zones as possible. Two virtually separated zones are then created and subsequently, two different
average temperatures are formed in each zone. The air distribution solutions reduce the risk of
mixing the air within the zones. The virtual zones are indicated via dashed line boxes in the proposed
air distribution models shown in Figure 18. As discussed earlier, such air distribution models more
likely2019,
Energies tend12,
to693
approach the ideal temperature gradient of 1 °C/m on average. This study also verified 19 of 21
that the lower temperature gradient results in lower cooling and heating energy demands, leading to
more efficient planning of the AHU and air distribution systems. This is done by planning two
supply and
separate exhaust
supply andducts, to avoid
exhaust ducts, the mixing
to avoid theofmixing
warmerof and cooler
warmer andair in theairmain
cooler ducts.
in the mainTherefore,
ducts.
the cooler air may not need to go through the heating coil. Moreover, it justifies the
Therefore, the cooler air may not need to go through heat recovery, as well as the heating coil. planning of two
completely
Moreover,separate
it justifiesAHUs, one forof
the planning thetwo
player’s zone,separate
completely and the AHUs,
other for thefor
one spectator’s
the player’szone. A and
zone, further
advantage of this solution is that the spectators’ AHU does not need to run continuously.
the other for the spectator’s zone. A further advantage of this solution is that the spectators’ AHU It may
run conditional to the spectators’ presence, with the speed control being proportional
does not need to run continuously. It may run conditional to the spectators’ presence, with the speed to the number
ofcontrol
spectators.
being proportional to the number of spectators.

(a)

Energies 2018, 11, x 20 of 21

(b)

(c)
18.Proposed
Figure18.
Figure Proposedair distribution
ventilation strategies
strategies to reduce
to reduce the the indoor
indoor temperature
temperature gradient.
gradient. (a) Horizontal
(a) Horizontal
supplyair;
supply air;(b)
(b)inclined
inclined supply
supply air;
air; (c)
(c) vertical
verticalsupply
supplyair.
air.

8.8.Conclusions
Conclusions
This
Thisstudy
studypoints
points out
out the feasibility
feasibilityof
ofreducing
reducingthe
theheating
heating energy
energy required
required forfor space
space heating
heating
bybyapproximately 21%,
approximately 21%, and reducing the cooling energy demand for dehumidification by about 60%.60%.
reducing the cooling energy demand for dehumidification by about
These
Theseresults
resultsare
areachieved
achieved by carefully
carefullydesigning
designingthe
theAHU
AHUlayouts.
layouts. Furthermore,
Furthermore, thethe more
more significant
significant
result of the study are the impacts of indoor air temperature gradients on energy demand. Both the
simulation and measurement results verify that the smaller the temperature gradient, the lower
heating and cooling energy demands. The results indicate that the cooling power required for
refrigeration process can be reduced by up to 38% by reducing the indoor temperature stratification
from 2 °C/m to nearly 1 °C/m.
Energies 2019, 12, 693 20 of 21

result of the study are the impacts of indoor air temperature gradients on energy demand. Both the
simulation and measurement results verify that the smaller the temperature gradient, the lower heating
and cooling energy demands. The results indicate that the cooling power required for refrigeration
process can be reduced by up to 38% by reducing the indoor temperature stratification from 2 ◦ C/m to
nearly 1 ◦ C/m.
Considering the aforementioned conclusion necessitates careful design for both AHU
configurations and air distributions. There are no precise air distribution models for creating any
specific indoor air temperature gradient. However, as in the earlier examples proposed in Figure 18,
more customized air distribution models tend to be more likely to reduce indoor air temperature
gradient and this consequently leads to a more energy efficient system of air distribution. To do so,
the heights and the directions of the airflows have to be more carefully planned, so that the heated or
non-heated air is delivered right to the occupied zone where it is needed.
Finally, for the sake of energy conservation, it is proposed that common AHUs should not be
planned for the entire arena. Instead, it is more intelligent to plan various AHUs for the spectator’s
zone and the rink zone, so that each AHU circulates air within its own thermal zone. The supply and
exhaust air terminals have to be vertically placed in such a position as to prevent mixing of the warmer
and the cooler air within the zones. If mixing of cooler and warmer air is avoided, then supplying
additional heating will subsequently be avoided. The additional advantages of such a system are
the control of the utilization of the spectator’s AHU or its running speed based on the occupancy
percentage in the spectator’s zone.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, data curation, software, visualization and

writing-original draft preparation S.T., L.L. and M.T.; Validation, formal analysis and writing-review & editing
M.T.; Supervision, project administration and funding acquisition, J.K.
Funding: This study was financed and supported by the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture, through the
(OKM) project, and by the Estonian Centre of Excellence in Zero Energy and Resource Efficient Smart Buildings
and Districts, ZEBE, grant 2014-2020.4.01.15-0016 funded by the European Regional Development Fund.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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