5.

ELEMENTARY PROBABILITY

Introduction
• Probability theory is the foundation upon which the logic of inference
is built.
• It helps us to cope up with uncertainty.
• In general, probability is the chance of an outcome of an experiment.
It is the measure of how likely an outcome is to occur.
Definitions of some probability terms
1. Experiment: Any process of observation or measurement or any process which
generates well defined outcome.
2. Probability Experiment: It is an experiment that can be repeated any number
of times under similar conditions and it is possible to enumerate the total
number of outcomes with out predicting an individual out come. It is also called
random experiment.
Example: If a fair die is rolled once it is possible to list all the possible outcomes
i.e.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 but it is not possible to predict which outcome will
occur.
3. Outcome :The result of a single trial of a random experiment
4. Sample Space: Set of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment
5. Event: It is a subset of sample space. It is a statement about one or more
outcomes of a random experiment .They are denoted by capital letters.
Example: Considering the above experiment let A be the event of odd numbers,
B be the event of even numbers, and C be the event of number 8.
⇒ A = {1,3,5}
B = {2,4,6}
C = { } or empty space or impossible event
Remark:
If S (sample space) has n members then there are exactly 2n subsets or
events.
6. Equally Likely Events: Events which have the same chance of occurring.
7. Complement of an Event: the complement of an event A means non-
'
occurrence of A and is denoted by A , or A , or A contains those points of the
c

sample space which don’t belong to A.

8. Elementary Event: an event having only a single element or sample point.
9. Mutually Exclusive Events: Two events which cannot happen at the same
time.

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10. Independent Events: Two events are independent if the occurrence of one does
not affect the probability of the other occurring.
11. Dependent Events: Two events are dependent if the first event affects the
outcome or occurrence of the second event in a way the probability is changed.

Example: .What is the sample space for the following experiment

a) Toss a die one time.

b) Toss a coin two times.
c) A light bulb is manufactured. It is tested for its life length by time.
Solution
a) S={1,2,3,4,5,6}
b) S={(HH),(HT),(TH),(TT)}
c) S={t /t≥0}
¾ Sample space can be

ƒ Countable ( finite or infinite)

ƒ Uncountable.
Counting Rules
In order to calculate probabilities, we have to know
• The number of elements of an event
• The number of elements of the sample space.
That is in order to judge what is probable, we have to know what is possible.
• In order to determine the number of outcomes, one can use several rules of
counting.
- The addition rule
- The multiplication rule
- Permutation rule
- Combination rule

• To list the outcomes of the sequence of events, a useful device called tree
diagram is used.

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Example: A student goes to the nearest snack to have a breakfast. He can take
tea, coffee, or milk with bread, cake and sandwitch. How many possibilities does
he have?

Solutions:

Tea
Bread
Cake
Sandwich

Coeffee
Bread
Cake
Sandwitch

Milk

Bread
Cake
Sandwitch

Î There are nine possibilities.

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The Multiplication Rule:

If a choice consists of k steps of which the first can be made in n1 ways, the
second can be made in n2 ways…, the kth can be made in nk ways, then the whole
choice can be made in ( n1 * n2 * ........ * nk ) ways.
Example: The digits 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 are to be used in 4 digit identification card.
How many different cards are possible if
a) Repetitions are permitted.
b) Repetitions are not permitted.
Solutions
a)
1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit 4th digit
5 5 5 5
There are four steps
1. Selecting the 1st digit, this can be made in 5 ways.
2. Selecting the 2nd digit, this can be made in 5 ways.
3. Selecting the 3rd digit, this can be made in 5 ways.
4. Selecting the 4th digit, this can be made in 5 ways.

⇒ 5 * 5 * 5 * 5 = 625 different cards are possible.

b)

1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit 4th digit

5 4 3 2

There are four steps

5. Selecting the 1st digit, this can be made in 5 ways.
6. Selecting the 2nd digit, this can be made in 4 ways.
7. Selecting the 3rd digit, this can be made in 3 ways.
8. Selecting the 4th digit, this can be made in 2 ways.

⇒ 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 = 120 different cards are possible.

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Permutation

An arrangement of n objects in a specified order is called permutation of

the objects.
Permutation Rules:
1. The number of permutations of n distinct objects taken all together is
n!
Where n!= n * (n − 1) * (n − 2) * ..... * 3 * 2 *1
2. The arrangement of n objects in a specified order using r objects at a
time is called the permutation of n objects taken r objects at a time. It
is written as n Pr and the formula is
n!
n Pr =
(n − r )!

3. The number of permutations of n objects in which k1 are alike k2 are

alike ---- etc is

n!
n Pr =
k1!*k 2 * ... * k n
Example:
1. Suppose we have a letters A,B, C, D
a) How many permutations are there taking all the four?
b) How many permutations are there two letters at a time?
2. How many different permutations can be made from the letters in the
word “CORRECTION”?
Solutions:
1.
a)
Here n = 4, there are four disnict object
⇒ There are 4!= 24 permutations.

b)
Here n = 4, r = 2
4! 24
⇒ There are 4 P2 = = = 12 permutations.
(4 − 2)! 2

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 2.

Here n = 10
Of which 2 are C , 2 are O, 2 are R ,1E ,1T ,1I ,1N
⇒ K1 = 2, k 2 = 2, k3 = 2, k 4 = k5 = k6 = k7 = 1
U sin g the 3rd rule of permutation , there are
10!
= 453600 permutations.
2!*2!*2!*1!*1!*1!*1!
Exercises:
1. Six different statistics books, seven different physics books, and 3
different Economics books are arranged on a shelf. How many
different arrangements are possible if;
i. The books in each particular subject must all stand together
ii. Only the statistics books must stand together
2. If the permutation of the word WHITE is selected at random, how
many of the permutations
i. Begins with a consonant?
ii. Ends with a vowel?
iii. Has a consonant and vowels alternating?
Combination

A selection of objects with out regard to order is called combination.

Example: Given the letters A, B, C, and D list the permutation and combination
for selecting two letters.

Solutions:
Permutation Combination

AB BA CA DA AB BC
AC BC CB DB AC BD
AD BD CD DC AD DC

Note that in permutation AB is different from BA. But in combination AB is the

same as BA.

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Combination Rule

The number of combinations of r objects selected from n objects is denoted by

⎛n⎞
C
n r or ⎜
⎜ r ⎟⎟ and is given by the formula:
⎝ ⎠

⎛n⎞ n!
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎝ r ⎠ (n − r )!*r!
Examples:
1. In how many ways a committee of 5 people be chosen out of 9 people?
Solutions:

n=9 , r =5
⎛n⎞ n! 9!
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = = = 126 ways
⎝ ⎠
r ( n − r )!*r! 4!* 5!
2. Among 15 clocks there are two defectives .In how many ways can an
inspector chose three of the clocks for inspection so that:
a) There is no restriction.
b) None of the defective clock is included.
c) Only one of the defective clocks is included.
d) Two of the defective clock is included.

Solutions:

n = 15 of which 2 are defective and 13 are non − defective.

r =3

a) If there is no restriction select three clocks from 15 clocks and this

can be done in :
n = 15 , r = 3
⎛n⎞ n! 15!
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = = = 455 ways
⎝ ⎠
r ( n − r )!*r! 12!*3!

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 b) None of the defective clocks is included.
This is equivalent to zero defective and three non defective, which
can be done in:

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛13 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ * ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 286 ways.
⎝0⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
c) Only one of the defective clocks is included.
This is equivalent to one defective and two non defective, which can
be done in:

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛13 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ * ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 156 ways.
⎝1⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
d) Two of the defective clock is included.
This is equivalent to two defective and one non defective, which can
be done in:

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛13 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ * ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 13 ways.
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

Exercises:
1. Out of 5 Mathematician and 7 Statistician a committee consisting
of 2 Mathematician and 3 Statistician is to be formed. In how
many ways this can be done if
a) There is no restriction
b) One particular Statistician should be included
c) Two particular Mathematicians can not be included on the
committee.
2. If 3 books are picked at random from a shelf containing 5 novels, 3
books of poems, and a dictionary, in how many ways this can be
don if
a) There is no restriction.
b) The dictionary is selected?
c) 2 novels and 1 book of poems are selected?

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Approaches to measuring Probability
There are four different conceptual approaches to the study of probability
theory. These are:
• The classical approach.
• The frequentist approach.
• The axiomatic approach.
• The subjective approach.

The classical approach

This approach is used when:

- All outcomes are equally likely.
- Total number of outcome is finite, say N.
Definition: If a random experiment with N equally likely outcomes is
conducted and out of these NA outcomes are favourable to the event A, then
the probability that event A occur denoted P(A) is defined as:
N A No. of outcomes favourable to A n( A)
P( A) = = =
N Total number of outcomes n( S )

Examples:
1. A fair die is tossed once. What is the probability of getting
a) Number 4?
b) An odd number?
c) An even number?
d) Number 8?
Solutions:
First identify the sample space, say S
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
⇒ N = n( S ) = 6
a) Let A be the event of number 4
A = {4}
⇒ N A = n( A) = 1
n( A)
P( A) = =1 6
n( S )

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 b) Let A be the event of odd numbers
A = {1,3,5}
⇒ N A = n( A) = 3
n( A)
P( A) = = 3 6 = 0.5
n( S )

c) Let A be the event of even numbers

A = {2,4,6}
⇒ N A = n( A) = 3
n( A)
P( A) = = 3 6 = 0.5
n( S )
d) Let A be the event of number 8
A= Ø

⇒ N A = n( A) = 0
n( A)
P( A) = =0 6=0
n( S )
2. A box of 80 candles consists of 30 defective and 50 non defective
candles. If 10 of this candles are selected at random, what is the
probability
a) All will be defective.
b) 6 will be non defective
c) All will be non defective

Solutions:
⎛ 80 ⎞
Total selection = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = N = n( S )
⎝ 10 ⎠
a) Let A be the event that all will be defective.

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 ⎛ 30 ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
Total way in which A occur = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ * ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = N A = n( A)
⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
⎛ 30 ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
⎜ ⎟*⎜ ⎟
n( A) ⎜⎝ 10 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0 ⎟⎠
⇒ P( A) = = = 0.00001825
n( S ) ⎛ ⎞
80
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 10 ⎠

b) Let A be the event that 6 will be non defective.

⎛ 30 ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
Total way in which A occur = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ * ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = N A = n( A)
⎝4⎠ ⎝6⎠
⎛ 30 ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
⎜ ⎟*⎜ ⎟
n( A) ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 6 ⎟⎠
⇒ P( A) = = = 0.265
n( S ) ⎛ 80 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 10 ⎠
c) Let A be the event that all will be non defective.

⎛ 30 ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
Total way in which A occur = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ * ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = N A = n( A)
⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠
⎛ 30 ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
⎜ ⎟*⎜ ⎟
n( A) ⎜⎝ 0 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 10 ⎟⎠
⇒ P( A) = = = 0.00624
n( S ) ⎛ ⎞
80
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 10 ⎠
Exercises:
1. What is the probability that a waitress will refuse to serve alcoholic
beverages to only three minors if she randomly checks the I.D’s of
five students from among ten students of which four are not of legal
age?
2. If 3 books are picked at random from a shelf containing 5 novels, 3
books of poems, and a dictionary, what is the probability that
a) The dictionary is selected?
b) 2 novels and 1 book of poems are selected?

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 Short coming of the classical approach:
This approach is not applicable when:
- The total number of outcomes is infinite.
- Outcomes are not equally likely.
The Frequentist Approach
This is based on the relative frequencies of outcomes belonging to an event.
Definition: The probability of an event A is the proportion of outcomes
favourable to A in the long run when the experiment is repeated under same
condition.
NA
P ( A) = lim
N →∞ N
Example: If records show that 60 out of 100,000 bulbs produced are defective.
What is the probability of a newly produced bulb to be defective?
Solution:
Let A be the event that the newly produced bulb is defective.
NA 60
P ( A) = lim = = 0.0006
N →∞ N 100,000

Axiomatic Approach:
Let E be a random experiment and S be a sample space associated with E. With
each event A a real number called the probability of A satisfies the following
properties called axioms of probability or postulates of probability.
1. P( A) ≥ 0
2. P( S ) = 1, S is the sure event.
3. If A and B are mutually exclusive events, the probability that one or the
other occur equals the sum of the two probabilities. i. e.
P( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P( B)
4. P( A ) = 1 − P( A)
'

5. 0 ≤ P( A) ≤ 1
6. P(ø) =0, ø is the impossible event.
Remark: Venn-diagrams can be used to solve probability problems.

AUB AnB A

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In general p( A ∪ B) = p( A) + p( B) − p( A ∩ B)

Conditional probability and Independency

Conditional Events: If the occurrence of one event has an effect on the next
occurrence of the other event then the two events are conditional or
dependant events.

Example: Suppose we have two red and three white balls in a bag
1. Draw a ball with replacement
2
Let A= the event that the first draw is redÎ p ( A) =
5
2
B= the event that the second draw is red Î p ( B ) =
5
A and B are independent.
2. Draw a ball with out replacement
2
Let A= the event that the first draw is redÎ p ( A) =
5
B= the event that the second draw is red Î p( B) = ?
This is conditional.
Let B= the event that the second draw is red given that the first draw is
red Î p ( B ) = 1 4

Conditional probability of an event

The conditional probability of an event A given that B has already occurred,

denoted p ( A B ) is
p( A ∩ B)
p( A B) = , p( B) ≠ 0
p( B)
Remark: (1) p( A B) = 1 − p ( A B)
'

(2) p( B A) = 1 − p ( B A)
'

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Examples
1. For a student enrolling at freshman at certain university the
probability is 0.25 that he/she will get scholarship and 0.75 that he/she
will graduate. If the probability is 0.2 that he/she will get scholarship
and will also graduate. What is the probability that a student who get a
scholarship graduate?

Solution: Let A= the event that a student will get a scholarship

B= the event that a student will graduate
given p ( A) = 0.25, p ( B ) = 0.75, p( A ∩ B ) = 0.20
Re quired p (B A)
p ( A ∩ B ) 0.20
p ( B A) = = = 0.80
p ( A) 0.25
2. If the probability that a research project will be well planned is 0.60
and the probability that it will be well planned and well executed is
0.54, what is the probability that it will be well executed given that it
is well planned?
Solution; Let A= the event that a research project will be well
Planned
B= the event that a research project will be well
Executed
given p ( A) = 0.60, p( A ∩ B ) = 0.54
Re quired p(B A)
p( A ∩ B ) 0.54
p ( B A) = = = 0.90
p ( A) 0.60

3. A lot consists of 20 defective and 80 non-defective items from which

two items are chosen without replacement. Events A & B are defined
as A = {the first item chosen is defective}, B = {the second item
chosen is defective}
a. What is the probability that both items are defective?
b. What is the probability that the second item is defective?
Solution……… Exercise

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Note; for any two events A and B the following relation holds.
( ) ( )
p(B ) = p(B A). p( A) + p B A' . p A'

Probability of Independent Events

Two events A and B are independent if and only if p ( A ∩ B ) = p ( A). p (B )

Here p ( A B ) = p ( A), P (B A) = p ( B )
Example; A box contains four black and six white balls. What is the
probability of getting two black balls in drawing one after the other under
the following conditions?
a. The first ball drawn is not replaced
b. The first ball drawn is replaced
Solution; Let A= first drawn ball is black
B= second drawn is black
Required p( A ∩ B )
a. p( A ∩ B ) = p(B A). p( A) = (4 10 )(3 9 ) = 2 15
b. p ( A ∩ B ) = p( A). p (B ) = (4 10 )(4 10 ) = 4 25

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 6. RANDOM VARIABLES AND PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

Definition: A random variable is a numerical description of the outcomes of the

experiment or a numerical valued function defined on sample space, usually
denoted by capital letters.
Example: If X is a random variable, then it is a function from the elements of the
sample space to the set of real numbers. i.e.

X is a function X: S → R

ÎA random variable takes a possible outcome and assigns a number to it.

Example: Flip a coin three times, let X be the number of heads in three
tosses.

⇒ S = {(HHH ), (HHT ), (HTH ), (HTT ), (THH ), (THT ), (TTH ), (TTT )}

⇒ X (HHH ) = 3,
X (HHT ) = X (HTH ) = X (THH ) = 2,
X (HTT ) = X (THT ) = X (TTH ) = 1
X (TTT ) = 0
X = {0, 1, 2, 3}

ÎX assumes a specific number of values with some probabilities.

Random variables are of two types:

1. Discrete random variable: are variables which can assume only a

specific number of values. They have values that can be counted

Examples:

• Toss a coin n times and count the number of heads.

• Number of children in a family.
• Number of car accidents per week.
• Number of defective items in a given company.
• Number of bacteria per two cubic centimeter of water.

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 2. Continuous random variable: are variables that can assume all values
between any two give values.

Examples:

• Height of students at certain college.

• Mark of a student.
• Life time of light bulbs.
• Length of time required to complete a given training.

Definition: a probability distribution consists of a value a random variable can

assume and the corresponding probabilities of the values.

Example: Consider the experiment of tossing a coin three times. Let X be the
number of heads. Construct the probability distribution of X.

Solution:

ƒ First identify the possible value that X can assume.

ƒ Calculate the probability of each possible distinct value of X and
express X in the form of frequency distribution.

X =x 0 1 2 3
P( X = x ) 18 38 38 18

Probability distribution is denoted by P for discrete and by f for continuous

random variable.

Properties of Probability Distribution:

1.

P( x) ≥ 0, if X is discrete.
f ( x) ≥ 0, if X is continuous.

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 2.

∑ P( X = x ) = 1 , if X is discrete.
x

∫ f ( x)dx = 1 , if is continuous.
x

Note:

1. If X is a continuous random variable then

b
P(a < X < b) = ∫ f ( x)dx
a

2. Probability of a fixed value of a continuous random variable is zero.

⇒ P ( a < X < b) = P ( a ≤ X < b) = P ( a < X ≤ b) = P ( a ≤ X ≤ b)

3. If X is discrete random variable the

b −1
P ( a < X < b) = ∑ P ( x )
x = a +1
b −1
P ( a ≤ X < b) = ∑ p ( x )
x=a
b
P ( a < X ≤ b) = ∑ P ( x )
x = a +1
b
P ( a ≤ X ≤ b) = ∑ P ( x )
x=a

4. Probability means area for continuous random variable.

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Introduction to expectation

Definition:

1. Let a discrete random variable X assume the values X1, X2, ….,Xn with
the probabilities P(X1), P(X2), ….,P(Xn) respectively. Then the expected
value of X ,denoted as E(X) is defined as:

E ( X ) = X 1P ( X 1 ) + X 2 P ( X 2 ) + .... + X n P( X n )
n
= ∑ X i P( X i )
i =1

2. Let X be a continuous random variable assuming the values in the

b
interval (a, b) such that ∫ f ( x)dx = 1 ,then
a

b
E ( X ) = ∫ x f ( x)dx
a

Examples:

1. What is the expected value of a random variable X obtained by

tossing a coin three times where is the number of heads

Solution:

First construct the probability distribution of X

X =x 0 1 2 3
P( X = x ) 18 38 38 18

⇒ E ( X ) = X 1 P ( X 1 ) + X 2 P ( X 2 ) + .... + X n P( X n )
= 0 *1 8 + 1 * 3 8 + ..... + 2 *1 8
= 1 .5

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 2. Suppose a charity organization is mailing printed return-address
stickers to over one million homes in the Ethiopia. Each recipient is
asked to donate either $1, $2, $5, $10, $15, or $20. Based on past
experience, the amount a person donates is believed to follow the
following probability distribution:

X =x $1 $2 $5 $10 $15 $20

P( X = x ) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.15 0.05

What is expected that an average donor to contribute?

Solution:

X =x $1 $2 $5 $10 $15 $20 Total

P( X = x ) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.15 0.05 1
xP( X = x) 0.1 0.4 1.5 2 2.25 1 7.25

6
⇒ E ( X ) = ∑ xi P( X = xi ) = $7.25
i =1

Mean and Variance of a random variable

Let X be given random variable.

1. The expected value of X is its mean

⇒ Mean of X = E (X )

2. The variance of X is given by:

Variance of X = var( X ) = E ( X 2 ) − [ E ( X )]2

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Where:
n
2
E ( X 2 ) = ∑ xi P ( X = xi ) , if X is discrete
i =1

= ∫ x 2 f ( x)dx , if X is continuous.
x

Examples:

1. Find the mean and the variance of a random variable X in example 2

above.

Solutions:

X =x $1 $2 $5 $10 $15 $20 Total

P( X = x ) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.15 0.05 1
xP( X = x) 0.1 0.4 1.5 2 2.25 1 7.25
x 2 P( X = x) 0.1 0.8 7.5 20 33.75 20 82.15

⇒ E ( X ) = 7.25
Var ( X ) = E ( X 2 ) − [ E ( X )]2 = 82.15 − 7.252 = 29.59

2. Two dice are rolled. Let X be a random variable denoting the sum of the
numbers on the two dice.
i) Give the probability distribution of X
ii) Compute the expected value of X and its variance

Solution (exercise)

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There are some general rules for mathematical expectation.

Let X and Y are random variables and k be a constant.

RULE 1

E (k ) = k

RULE 2

Var(k) = 0

RULE 3

E (kX ) = kE ( X )

RULE 4

Var (kX ) = k 2Var ( X )

RULE 5

E ( X + Y ) = E ( X ) + E (Y )

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 Common Discrete Probability Distributions

1. Binomial Distribution

A binomial experiment is a probability experiment that satisfies the following

four requirements called assumptions of a binomial distribution.
1. The experiment consists of n identical trials.
2. Each trial has only one of the two possible mutually exclusive
outcomes, success or a failure.
3. The probability of each outcome does not change from trial to trial, and
4. The trials are independent, thus we must sample with replacement.

Examples of binomial experiments

• Tossing a coin 20 times to see how many tails occur.

• Asking 200 people if they watch BBC news.
• Registering a newly produced product as defective or non defective.
• Asking 100 people if they favour the ruling party.
• Rolling a die to see if a 5 appears.

Definition: The outcomes of the binomial experiment and the corresponding

probabilities of these outcomes are called Binomial Distribution.
Let P = the probability of success
q = 1 − p = the probability of failure on any given trial
Then the probability of getting x successes in n trials becomes:
⎛n⎞
P ( X = x) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ p x q n − x , x = 0,1,2,...., n
⎝ x⎠
And this is some times written as:
X ~ Bin(n, p)
When using the binomial formula to solve problems, we have to identify three
things:
• The number of trials ( n )
• The probability of a success on any one trial ( p ) and
• The number of successes desired ( X ).

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Examples:
1. What is the probability of getting three heads by tossing a fair con four
times?

Solution:
Let X be the number of heads in tossing a fair coin four times
X ~ Bin(n = 4, p = 0.50)
⎛ n⎞
⇒ P ( X = x) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ p x q n − x , x = 0,1,2,3,4
⎝ x⎠
⎛ 4⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟0.5 x 0.54 − x
⎝ x⎠
⎛ 4⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟0.54
⎝ x⎠
⎛ 4⎞
⇒ P ( X = 3) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟0.54 = 0.25
⎝ 3⎠

2. Suppose that an examination consists of six true and false questions,

and assume that a student has no knowledge of the subject matter. The
probability that the student will guess the correct answer to the first
question is 30%. Likewise, the probability of guessing each of the
remaining questions correctly is also 30%.
a) What is the probability of getting more than three correct
answers?
b) What is the probability of getting at least two correct answers?
c) What is the probability of getting at most three correct answers?
d) What is the probability of getting less than five correct answers?

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Solution
Let X = the number of correct answers that the student gets.
X ~ Bin(n = 6, p = 0.30)
a) P( X > 3) = ?
⎛n⎞
⇒ P ( X = x) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ p x q n − x , x = 0,1,2,..6
⎝ x⎠
⎛6⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟0.3 x 0.7 6 − x
⎝ x⎠

⇒ P ( X > 3) = P ( X = 4) + P ( X = 5) + P( X = 6)
= 0.060 + 0.010 + 0.001
= 0.071
Thus, we may conclude that if 30% of the exam questions are answered
by guessing, the probability is 0.071 (or 7.1%) that more than four of the
questions are answered correctly by the student.
b) P( X ≥ 2) = ?

P( X ≥ 2) = P( X = 2) + P( X = 3) + P( X = 4) + P( X = 5) + P( X = 6)
= 0.324 + 0.185 + 0.060 + 0.010 + 0.001
= 0.58

c) P( X ≤ 3) = ?
P( X ≤ 3) = P( X = 0) + P( X = 1) + P( X = 2) + P( X = 3)
= 0.118 + 0.303 + 0.324 + 0.185
= 0.93
d) P( X < 5) = ?
P( X < 5) = 1 − P( X ≥ 5)
= 1 − {P( X = 5) + P( X = 6)}
= 1 − (0.010 + 0.001)
= 0.989

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 Exercises:
1. Suppose that 4% of all TVs made by A&B Company in 2000
are defective. If eight of these TVs are randomly selected
from across the country and tested, what is the probability
that exactly three of them are defective? Assume that each
TV is made independently of the others.
2. An allergist claims that 45% of the patients she tests are
allergic to some type of weed. What is the probability that
a) Exactly 3 of her next 4 patients are allergic to
weeds?
b) None of her next 4 patients are allergic to weeds?
3. Explain why the following experiments are not Binomial

• Rolling a die until a 6 appears.

• Asking 20 people how old they are.
• Drawing 5 cards from a deck for a poker hand.

Remark: If X is a binomial random variable with parameters n and p then

E ( X ) = np , Var ( X ) = npq

2. Poisson Distribution
- A random variable X is said to have a Poisson distribution if its
probability distribution is given by:
λx e − λ
P( X = x) = , x = 0,1,2,......
x!
Where λ = the average number.

- The Poisson distribution depends only on the average number of

occurrences per unit time of space.
- The Poisson distribution is used as a distribution of rare events,
such as:
• Number of misprints.
• Natural disasters like earth quake.
• Accidents.
• Hereditary.
• Arrivals
- The process that gives rise to such events are called Poisson
process.

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 Examples:

1. If 1.6 accidents can be expected an intersection on any given day,

what is the probability that there will be 3 accidents on any given
day?

Solution; Let X =the number of accidents, λ = 1 .6

1.6 x e −1.6
X = poisson(1.6 ) ⇒ p ( X = x ) =
x!
1.63 e −1.6
p ( X = 3) = = 0.1380
3!
2. On the average, five smokers pass a certain street corners every ten
minutes, what is the probability that during a given 10minutes the
number of smokers passing will be
a. 6 or fewer
b. 7 or more
c. Exactly 8……. (Exercise)

If X is a Poisson random variable with parameters λ then

E (X ) = λ , Var (X ) = λ

Note:

The Poisson probability distribution provides a close approximation to the

binomial probability distribution when n is large and p is quite small or quite large
with λ = np .

(np ) x e − ( np )
P( X = x) = , x = 0,1,2,......
x!
Where λ = np = the average number.

Usually we use this approximation if np ≤ 5 . In other words, if n > 20 and

np ≤ 5 [or n(1 − p) ≤ 5 ], then we may use Poisson distribution as an
approximation to binomial distribution.

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Example:

1. Find the binomial probability P(X=3) by using the Poisson distribution

if p = 0.01 and n = 200

Solution:

U sin g Poisson , λ = np = 0.01* 200 = 2

23 e − 2
⇒ P ( X = 3) = = 0.1804
3!
U sin g Binomial , n = 200, p = 0.01
⎛ 200 ⎞
⇒ P( X = 3) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(0.01)3 (0.99) 99 = 0.1814
⎝ 3 ⎠
Common Continuous Probability Distributions

1. Normal Distribution
A random variable X is said to have a normal distribution if its probability
density function is given by
1⎛ x−μ ⎞ 2
1 − ⎜ ⎟
2⎝ σ ⎠
f ( x) = e , − ∞ < x < ∞, − ∞ < μ < ∞, σ > 0
σ 2π
Where μ = E ( X ), σ 2 = Variance( X )
μ and σ 2 are the Parameters of the Normal Distribution.

Properties of Normal Distribution:

1. It is bell shaped and is symmetrical about its mean and it is mesokurtic. The
maximum ordinate is at x = μ and is given by
1
f ( x) =
σ 2π
2. It is asymptotic to the axis, i.e., it extends indefinitely in either direction from
the mean.
3. It is a continuous distribution.

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 4. It is a family of curves, i.e., every unique pair of mean and standard deviation
defines a different normal distribution. Thus, the normal distribution is
completely described by two parameters: mean and standard deviation.
5. Total area under the curve sums to 1, i.e., the area of the distribution on each
∞
side of the mean is 0.5. ⇒ ∫ f ( x)dx = 1
−∞
6. It is unimodal, i.e., values mound up only in the center of the curve.
7. Mean = Median = mod e = μ
8. The probability that a random variable will have a value between any two
points is equal to the area under the curve between those points.
Note: To facilitate the use of normal distribution, the following distribution known
as the standard normal distribution was derived by using the transformation
X −μ
Z=
σ
1
1 −2z 2

⇒ f ( z) = e
2π

Properties of the Standard Normal Distribution:

Same as a normal distribution, but also...

• Mean is zero
• Variance is one
• Standard Deviation is one

- Areas under the standard normal distribution curve have been tabulated in
various ways. The most common ones are the areas between
Z = 0 and a positive value of Z .
- Given a normal distributed random variable X with

Mean μ and s tan dard deviation σ

a−μ X −μ b−μ
P ( a < X < b) = P ( < < )
σ σ σ
a−μ b−μ
⇒ P ( a < X < b) = P ( <Z< )
σ σ

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Note:

P ( a < X < b) = P ( a ≤ X < b)

= P ( a < X ≤ b)
= P ( a ≤ X ≤ b)

Examples:

1. Find the area under the standard normal distribution which lies
a) Between Z = 0 and Z = 0.96

Solution:

Area = P(0 < Z < 0.96) = 0.3315

b) Between Z = −1.45 and Z = 0

Solution:

Area = P(−1.45 < Z < 0)

= P(0 < Z < 1.45)
= 0.4265

c) To the right of Z = −0.35

Solution:

Area = P( Z > −0.35)

= P(−0.35 < Z < 0) + P( Z > 0)
= P(0 < Z < 0.35) + P ( Z > 0)
= 0.1368 + 0.50 = 0.6368

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 d) To the left of Z = −0.35

Solution:

Area = P( Z < −0.35)

= 1 − P( Z > −0.35)
= 1 − 0.6368 = 0.3632

e) Between Z = −0.67 and Z = 0.75

Solution:

Area = P(−0.67 < Z < 0.75)

= P(−0.67 < Z < 0) + P(0 < Z < 0.75)
= P(0 < Z < 0.67) + P(0 < Z < 0.75)
= 0.2486 + 0.2734 = 0.5220

f) Between Z = 0.25 and Z = 1.25

Solution:

Area = P(0.25 < Z < 1.25)

= P(0 < Z < 1.25) − P(0 < Z < 0.25)
= 0.3934 − 0.0987 = 0.2957

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2. Find the value of Z if
a) The normal curve area between 0 and z(positive) is 0.4726

Solution

P(0 < Z < z ) = 0.4726 and from table

P(0 < Z < 1.92) = 0.4726
⇔ z = 1.92.....uniqueness of Areea.

b) The area to the left of z is 0.9868

Solution

P( Z < z ) = 0.9868
= P( Z < 0) + P (0 < Z < z )
= 0.50 + P(0 < Z < z )
⇒ P (0 < Z < z ) = 0.9868 − 0.50 = 0.4868
and from table
P(0 < Z < 2.2) = 0.4868
⇔ z = 2.2

3. A random variable X has a normal distribution with mean 80 and

standard deviation 4.8. What is the probability that it will take a value

a) Less than 87.2

b) Greater than 76.4
c) Between 81.2 and 86.0

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Solution

X is normal with mean, μ = 80, standard deviation, σ = 4.8

a)

X −μ 87.2 − μ
P( X < 87.2) = P( < )
σ σ
87.2 − 80
= P( Z < )
4.8
= P( Z < 1.5)
= P ( Z < 0) + P(0 < Z < 1.5)
= 0.50 + 0.4332 = 0.9332

b)

X −μ 76.4 − μ
P( X > 76.4) = P( > )
σ σ
76.4 − 80
= P( Z > )
4.8
= P( Z > −0.75)
= P( Z > 0) + P(0 < Z < 0.75)
= 0.50 + 0.2734 = 0.7734

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 c)

81.2 − μ X −μ 86.0 − μ
P(81.2 < X < 86.0) = P ( < < )
σ σ σ
81.2 − 80 86.0 − 80
= P( <Z< )
4.8 4.8
= P(0.25 < Z < 1.25)
= P(0 < Z < 1.25) − P(0 < Z < 1.25)
= 0.3934 − 0.0987 = 0.2957

4. A normal distribution has mean 62.4.Find its standard deviation if 20.0%

of the area under the normal curve lies to the right of 72.9

Solution

X −μ 72.9 − μ
P ( X > 72.9) = 0.2005 ⇒ P ( > ) = 0.2005
σ σ
72.9 − 62.4
⇒ P( Z > ) = 0.2005
σ
10.5
⇒ P( Z > ) = 0.2005
σ
10.5
⇒ P (0 < Z < ) = 0.50 − 0.2005 = 0.2995
σ
And from table P (0 < Z < 0.84) = 0.2995
10.5
⇔ = 0.84
σ
⇒ σ = 12.5

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5. A random variable has a normal distribution with σ = 5 .Find its mean if
the probability that the random variable will assume a value less than
52.5 is 0.6915.

Solution

52.5 − μ
P( Z < z ) = P( Z < ) = 0.6915
5
⇒ P (0 < Z < z ) = 0.6915 − 0.50 = 0.1915.
But from the table
⇒ P (0 < Z < 0.5) = 0.1915
52.5 − μ
⇔z= = 0.5
5
⇒ μ = 50

6. Of a large group of men, 5% are less than 60 inches in height and 40%
are between 60 & 65 inches. Assuming a normal distribution, find the
mean and standard deviation of heights.
Solution (Exercise)

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