MINERALOGY

ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE ON SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS

Crystallography is the experimental science of the arrangement of atoms in solids. It derives from
the Greek words crystallon means cold drop or frozen drop and grapho means write with its meaning
extending to all solids with some degree of transparency.

A crystal is any solid material in which the component atoms are arranged in a definite pattern and
whose surface regularity reflects its internal symmetry. A crystal consists of matter that is formed of an
ordered three dimensional arrangement of atoms, molecules or ions. This can be imagined as the stacking
of bricks in a wall (resembling to a two dimensional ordered arrangement of bricks).

A crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms,

molecules or ions in a crystal. It is composed of a motif, which is a
set of atoms arranged in a particular way, and a lattice. Motifs are
located upon the points of lattice, which is an array of points
repeating periodically in three dimensions. The points can be
thought of as forming identical tiny boxes, called unit cells, that
fill the space of lattice.

Lattice is the geometrical basis of all the crystals. A lattice

can be considered as a regular and infinite arrangement of points or atoms where in each point or atom has
the same surrounding environment. This is equally applicable in one, two and three dimensional space

A unit-cell is the smallest building block of a crystal and it is the smallest unit of volume that
permits identical cells to be stacked together to fill all space. By repeating the pattern of the unit cell over
and over in all directions, the entire crystal lattice can be constructed.

I. Symmetry Operation

A Symmetry operation is an operation that can be performed either physically or imaginatively

that results in no change in the appearance of an object. The ability of crystals to repeat themselves in the
different positions under rotations, reflections, and parallel translations or combinations of these
operations. The symmetry of the external form, that is, the faceting, of a crystal is determined by the
symmetry of its atomic structure, which is also responsible for the symmetry of the physical properties of
the crystal.

a) Rotational Symmetry

The rotational symmetry occurs with respect to a line called rotation

axis. A proper rotation is performed by rotating the object 360°/n,
where n is the order of the axis. The resulting rotated object is always
indistinguishable from the original. An improper rotation is
performed by rotating the object 360°/n followed by a reflection
through a plane perpendicular to the rotation axis. The resulting
object can be distinguishable or indistinguishable from the original.

b) Mirror Symmetry
A mirror symmetry operation is an imaginary operation that can be performed to reproduce an object. The
operation is done by imagining that you cut the object in half,
then place a mirror next to one of the halves of the object along
the cut. If the reflection in the mirror reproduces the other half
of the object, then the object is said to have mirror symmetry.

c) Center of
Symmetry

Another operation that can be performed is inversion through a

point. In this operation lines are drawn from all points on the object
through a point in the center of the object, called a symmetry center.
The lines each have lengths that are equidistant from the original
points. When the ends of the lines are connected, the original object is
reproduced inverted from its original appearance. In the diagram
shown here, only a few such lines are drawn for the small triangular
face

d) Rotoinversion

Combinations of rotation with a center of symmetry

perform the symmetry operation of
rotoinversion. Objects that have rotoinversion
symmetry have an element of symmetry called a
rotoinversion axis.

The Crystal Systems

In turn these symmetry classes, because some of them show similarities among each other, are divided
among the different crystal systems. There are six crystal system.

1. The Cubic System

The three crystallographic axes are all equal in length and intersect at right
angles to each other.

A = B = C a=b=c=90°

Cube is one of the easiest to recognize and many minerals display it with little
modification: pyrite, fluorite, perovskite, or halite cubes.

2. The Tetragonal System

Three axes, all at right angles, two of which are equal in length (A and B) and one (C) which is different in
length (shorter or longer).

A = B ≠ C a=b=c=90°

A tetragonal prism is one of the 9 forms in this crystallographic system with 7

classes of symmetry.

3. The HEXAGONAL system

Four axes! Three of the axes fall in the same plane and intersect at the axial
cross at 120°. These 3 axes, labeled A1, A2, and A3, are the same length.
The fourth axis, c, may be longer or shorter than the A axes set. The c axis
also passes through the intersection of the A axes set at right angle to the
plane formed by the A set.

4. The Orthorhombic System

Three axes, all at right angles, all three have different length.

A ≠ B ≠ C a=b=c=90°

A pinacoid, also called the parallelohedron, is one of the forms in this

crystallographic system.

5. The Monoclinic System

Three axes, all unequal in length, two of which (a and c) intersect at an

oblique angle (not 90 degrees), the third axis (b) is perpendicular to the other two
axes.

a≠b≠c

6. The Triclinic System

The three axes are all unequal in length and intersect at three different angles
(any angle but 90 degrees).

Note: If any two axes crossed at 90 degrees, then we would be describing a

monoclinic crystal!

Bravais Lattices

By means of unit cells we managed to reduce all possible crystal structures to a relatively small
numbers of basic unit cell geometries. Lattice points are theoretical points arranged periodically in 3-D
space, rather than actual atoms. The limited number of possibilities, referred to as Bravais lattice. The
French scientist August Bravais, demonstrated in 1850 that only these 14 types of unit cells are compatible
with the orderly arrangements of atoms found in crystals.

The 14 Bravais Lattices

STUDY OF THE FOLLOWING ROCK FORMING MINIRALS

The material that was displaced into the mantle during formation of the iron core contained
abundant oxygen, silica, magnesium, iron, aluminum. During formation of the crust, other compounds, in
particular feldspars and quartz were common reaction products. Instead, they show very specific
geometric arrangements. These compounds that make up the crust and mantle are commonly known to us
as minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring chemical compounds or elements found in the earth's crust
and are the building blocks of rocks. Rocks may contain only a single mineral, but usually they contain a
mixture of many minerals.

a) Quartz - Silicon dioxide, or quartz, is the most common mineral in the earth's
crust.

b) Feldspar var. Microcline - This potassium aluminum silicate is

common in pegmatite and in some metamorphic rocks.

c) Mica var. Muscovite - A potassium aluminum silicate that is common in granite

pegmatite. Muscovite is also common in metamorphic rocks.

d) Mica var. Biotite - Some granites, schists, and gneisses contain this iron-bearing
potassium aluminum silicate.

e) Calcite - Calcium carbonate is the major constituent of

limestone’s and marbles.

f) Hornblende - This complex silicate is common in metamorphic and some

igneous rocks.

I. IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks were once lava or magma, that is, a molten collection of minerals. The rate at which a
lava or magma cools and solidifies influences rock texture, making it fine, medium or coarse grained.

a. Pumice - A light colored volcanic rock of rhyolite composition; the texture results from bubbles
formed by escaping gasses.
b. Obsidian - Very rapid cooling caused this volcanic rock to have its glassy appearance.
c. Basalt - This dark-colored, extrusive rock occurs as large flows, dikes, and sills.
d. Rhyolite - Quartz and microcline are the major components of rhyolite.
e. Andesite - The feldspar phenocrysts present in this light-colored, extrusive rock is the result of
relatively slowly cooling lava at shallow depths.
f. Granite - Feldspars and quartz made up the majority of this intrusive rock.
 II. METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed (metamorphosed), by heat, pressure, and/or
hydrothermal solutions. All three rock types can be metamorphosed.

a. Mica Schist - This rock is highly metamorphosed shale. All schists exhibit schistose structure; the
generally parallel alignment of micaceous minerals.
b. Slate - The low-grade metamorphism of shale results in slate.
c. Quartzite - The "parent rock" of quartzite is quartz sandstone.
d. Gneiss - All gneisses exhibit gneissic structure that is, alternating layers of granular minerals and
micaceous minerals.
e. Garnet Schist - Shale that undergoes complete recrystallization due to metamorphism often
contains high-pressure minerals such as garnet or andalusite.
f. Marble - This rock results when lime stones or certain dolomites are metamorphosed.

III. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed from layers of sediment (fragments of older, weathered rock)
exposed to pressure. Other sedimentary rocks are of organic or chemical origin.

a. Sandstone - Quartz grains cemented together by silica, calcite or other cementing minerals make
up this clastic, sedimentary rock.
b. Shale - Shale is the most abundant of all the sedimentary rocks. It is usually finely bedded and is
composed of silt and/or clay size particles.
c. Arkose - This clastic, sedimentary rock is made up primarily of quartz and microcline, with
lesser amounts of other minerals.
d. Conglomerate - Rounded pebbles cemented together with finer material make up this clastic,
sedimentary rock.
e. Breccia - is composed of re-consolidated angular fragments of gravel and/or sand size particles.
f. Limestone - This sedimentary rock is made up primarily of calcite. Some lime stones are
chemical in origin, while other is clastic.

PROPERTIES, PROCESSES OF FORMATION OF ALL MINERALS

A mineral is defined in part by a specific chemical composition. In theory, therefore, it is always easy
to identify a mineral. In reality, however, even if you are looking at rocks on Earth, determining the exact
chemical composition of a substance involves significant time preparing the sample and sophisticated
laboratory equipment (and often significant money).

I. Identifying Minerals by Physical Properties

The most common minerals in Earth's crust can often be identified in the field using basic physical
properties such as color, shape, and hardness. The context of a mineral is important, too – some minerals
can form under the same conditions, so you are likely to find them in the same rock, while others form
under very different conditions and will never occur in the same rock.

a) Color
The most obvious property of a mineral, its color, is unfortunately also the least
diagnostic.
b) Crystal form
 The external shape of a mineral crystal (or its crystal form) is determined largely by its internal
atomic structure, which means that this property can be highly diagnostic. Specifically, the form of
a crystal is defined by the angular relationships between crystal faces (recall Steno's Law of
Interfacial Angles as discussed in our Minerals I module).

c) Hardness

The hardness of a mineral can be tested in several ways. Most commonly, minerals are compared
to an object of known hardness using a scratch test – if a nail, for example, can scratch a crystal,
then the nail is harder than that mineral. In the early 1800s, Friedrich Mohs, an Austrian
mineralogist, developed a relative hardness scale based on the scratch test. He assigned integer
numbers to each mineral, where 1 is the softest and 10 is the hardest.

d) Luster

Luster of a mineral is the way that it reflects light. This may seem like a difficult distinction to make,
but picture the difference between the way light reflects off a glass window and the way it reflects
off of a shiny chrome car bumper.

e) Density

The density of minerals varies widely from about 1.01 g/cm3 to about 17.5 g/cm3. The density of
water is 1 g/cm3, pure iron has a density of 7.6 g/cm3, pure gold, 17.65 g/cm3. Minerals, therefore,
occupy the range of densities between water and pure gold. Measuring the density of a specific
mineral requires time-consuming techniques, and most geologists have developed a more intuitive
sense for what is "normal" density, what is unusually heavy for its size, and what is unusually light.

f) Cleavage and fracture

Most minerals contain inherent weaknesses within their atomic structures, a plane along which
the bond strength is lower than the surrounding bonds. When hit with a hammer or otherwise
broken, a mineral will tend to break along that plane of pre-existing weakness. This type of
breakage is called cleavage, and the quality of the cleavage varies with the strength of the bonds.
Some minerals don't have any planes of weakness in their atomic structure. These minerals don't
have any cleavage, and instead they fracture.

II. Mineral classification systems

Many scientists contributed to the discovery of mineral chemical

formulas, but James Dwight Dana, a mineralogist at Yale University from
1850 to 1892 developed a classification system for minerals based on
chemical composition that has survived to the present day. He grouped
minerals according to their anions, such as oxides (compounds with O2-),
silicates (compounds with (SiO4)4-), and sulfates (compounds with (SO4)2-
). A chemical classification system meant that minerals that were grouped
together theoretically also tended to appear with each other in rocks since
they tended to develop under similar geochemical conditions.

III. How Minerals Form

 A geode is a rounded, hollow rock that is often lined with mineral crystals. It is formed in the way that
all minerals generally are formed—through crystallization, the process by which atoms are arranged to
form a material with a crystal structure.

Two ways minerals are form.

1. crystallization of magma (cools inside the crust) or lava (cools & hardens on the surface)

2. crystallization of materials dissolved in water.

COAL AND PETROLEUM: Their origin and occurrence

I. Coal

Coal is a fossil fuel and is the altered remains of prehistoric vegetation that originally accumulated in
swamps and peat bogs. The energy we get from coal today comes from the energy that plants absorbed
from the sun millions of years ago.

II. How coal was formed?

a) Millions of year ago, the earth had dense forests in low-lying wet land areas. Due natural processes
such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil.
b) The temperature also rose as they sunk deeper.
c) As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation,
usually by mud or acid water.
d) Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation and its absence of air the plant matter
was slowly converted to coal.

III. Coal Occurrence:

Coal is found in beds or seams interstratified with shales, clays,

sandstones, or rarely limestone. It is usually under laid by an underclay a
layer of clay containing roots of plants. The coal is removed by strip
(surface) mining or underground mining methods see coal mining.

How petroleum was formed?

 Petroleum was formed by the decomposition of plants and animals buried deep under the sea,
millions of year ago.
  Due to high temperature and pressure, action of bacteria, and in the absence of air, the dead
remains of the plants and animals were gradually converted into petroleum.

 Petroleum is also term that includes both oil and natural gas.

Occurrence of petroleum

 Petroleum occurs deep under the surface of the earth

between two layers of impervious rocks.

 Petroleum being lighter than water.

 Petroleum deposits are usually found mixed with water, salt,

silt, and earth particles such us sand, clay etc..

 Petroleum does not occur in all places on earth.

The various fractions of petroleum and their uses:

 Petroleum Gas: petroleum gas is used as a fuel in homes and industry, sometimes in the form of
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).

 Petrol: it is used as a fuel in light vehicles such as motorcycles, cars and etc…

 Kerosene: is used as fuel in wick stoves and pressure stoves to cook foods, is also used for lighting
purposes.

 Diesel: is used as fuel in heavy vehicles such as buses, tractors, trucks, etc..

 Lubricating oil: used for lubrication in machines and engines.

 Paraffin wax: used for making candles, Vaseline, ointments, etc..

 Bitumen: is used for road surfacing. It is also used for water proofing the roofs of buildings.

PETROLOGY

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

Distinction between Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks

I. Igneous Rock
 Rocks are formed when magma (or molten rocks) cool down, and become solid. High temperatures
inside the crust of the Earth cause rocks to melt, and this substance is known
as magma. Magma is the molten material that erupts during a volcano.
This substance cools down slowly, and causes mineralization to take place.
Gradually, the size of the minerals increases until they are large enough to be
visible to the naked eye. Igneous rocks are mostly formed beneath the Earth’s
surface

II. Sedimentary rock

Rocks are formed over millions of years when sediments (tiny pieces
of rocks and animal skeletons) are pressed together at the bottom
of seas and rivers. Examples include sandstone, coal and chalk.
Some sedimentary rocks contain fossils (bones or shells of living
things that were buried long ago and have turned to stone).

III. Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic rocks are the result of the transformation of

other rocks. Rocks that are subjected to intense heat and pressure
change their original shape and form, and become
Metamorphic rocks. Rocks are formed when other
rocks are changed due to heat or pressure. Examples
include slate and marble. Metamorphic rocks are
very hard but can be damaged by acids like acid rain
(on buildings) or even lemon juice. Gneiss is a
commonly found Metamorphic rock, and it is formed
by high pressure, and the partial melting of the
minerals contained in the original rock.

I. IGNEOUS ROCKS: Occurrences & Properties

(Granite, Syenite, Diorite and Basalt)

Igneous rocks form when magma (molten rock) cools and crystallizes, either at volcanoes on the
surface of the Earth or while the melted rock is still inside the crust. It can have many different
compositions, depending on the magma they cool from. They can also look different based on their cooling
conditions.

a) How igneous rocks are formed?

2 Main Categories of Igneous Rocks

1. Extrusive Rocks/ Volcanic Rocks-are formed on the surface of the Earth from lava, which is
magma that has emerged from underground. The rate of cooling of the magma is rapid, and crystal
growth is inhibited. -are characteristically fine-grained.
2. Intrusive Rocks/ Plutonic Rocks - are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the
crust of the planet. The rate of cooling of the magma is slow, allowing large crystals to grow and
are characteristically coarse-grained.

b) Textures of Igneous Rocks

 1. Phaneritic - large, easily visible, interlocking crystals of several minerals. Developed by the
slow cooling and crystallization of magma trapped within the Earth's crust and is
characteristic of plutonic rocks.
2. Porphyritic - well-formed crystals visible to the naked eye, called phenocrysts, set in a very
fine grained or glassy matrix and characteristic of most volcanic rocks.
3. Aphanitic-very fine grained rock where individual crystals can be seen only with the aid of a
microscope and texture is exhibited by some volcanic rocks.

Examples of Igneous Rocks

1. Granite - comprises some of the oldest known rocks on earth

Group -plutonic.

Color - variable but typically

light-coloured.
Texture -phaneritic(medium to
coarse grained).
Uses -can be used as aggregate, fill etc. in the
construction
and roading industries (often not ideal for
concrete aggregate
because of high silica content

2. SYENITE
group - plutonic.
Color - variable but typically
light coloured.
Texture-phaneritic(medium
to coarse grained).
Uses - dimension stone for building facings, foyers
etc (often preferred to granite due to its better fire-
resistant qualities)

3. DIORITE
it is commonly speckled black and white, it is often
referred to as "salt and pepper" rock

Group - plutonic.
Colour - typically speckled
black and white.
Texture -phaneritic(medium
to coarse grained).

Uses - can be used as aggregate, fill etc. in the

construction and roading industries (often not ideal
for concrete aggregate because of high silica
content)

4. BASALT
Many moon rocks brought back by Apollo astronauts are of basaltic composition
 Group -volcanic.
Colour- dark grey to black.
Texture-aphanitic
(can be porphyritic).

Uses - aggregate, fill etc. in the construction and

roading industries (best if olivine content is
low); armour rock for seawalls; dimension
stone, e.g. stone walls, curb stones, paving stones
etc.

II. SEDIMENTAY ROCKS

a. What are sedimentary rocks?

Sedimentary rocks are formed on the earth’s surface under normal surface temperature and pressures.
They result from the accumulation of the products of weathering of other rocks and organic materials. The
processes of transforming loose fragmented rocks into a compact solid cohesive mass is called lithification.
This process is also known as consolidation, and the resultant rock is said to be consolidated. Sandstone is
a consolidated rock, while sand is an example of an unconsolidated rock.

METHODS OF SEDIMENT EROSION AND TRANSPORT

a) RIVERS

A river usually flows across rocks that may be soft and friable due to weathering process. Fragments
of the loose rocks usually break away and are carried by the river.

b) EROSION

This type of erosion often occurs around coasts where waves pick up rock fragments and smash them
against cliffs or other structures.

c) GLACIAL EROSION

Unlike the rivers, rock fragments carried within the ice do not become rounded. When the ice melts,
these abraded and transported materials are carried away by the melt water. Glacial deposits are poorly
sorted, because melting ice deposits material of all sizes together.

d) WIND EROSION

Wind erosion acts like rivers in that they pick up very small particles and roll the slightly larger ones
along the ground. Wind-blown sediments are usually well sorted because after the storm the wind speed
gradually reduces leading to the deposition of sediments in decreasing order of size.

b. What is Sediment Transport?

Sediment transport is the movement of organic and inorganic particles by water . In general, the
greater the flow, the more sediment that will be conveyed. Transported sediment may include mineral
matter, chemicals and pollutants, and organic material.

a) Bedload
The portion of sediment transport that rolls, slides or bounces along the bottom of a
waterway. It occurs when the force of the water flow is strong enough to overcome the weight
and cohesion of the sediment. While the particles are pushed along, they typically do not move
as fast as the water around them, as the flow rate is not great enough to fully suspend them.

b) Suspended Load
Any particles found in the water column, whether the water is flowing or not. The
suspended load, on the other hand, is the amount of sediment carried downstream within the
 water column by the water flow . Suspended loads require moving water, as the water flow
creates small upward currents (turbulence) that keep the particles above the bed.

c) Wash Load
The wash load is a subset of the suspended load. This load is comprised of the finest
suspended sediment (typically less than 0.00195 mm in diameter). The wash load is differentiated
from the suspended load because it will not settle to the bottom of a waterway during a low or no
flow period1.

c. Sediment Grainsize, Sorting and Rounding

• Grain size of sediment – this is the diameter in mm of the particles i.e. the grains that make up
the rock. This can vary from less than 1 mm to 100 mm or more.

• Sorting of the rock – in sedimentary rocks all the grains of the rock may not be of the same
size. The more or nearly they are of the same size, the better is the sorting.

• Rounding - as the rock fragments are being transported, they collide with other fragments and
become less angular i.e. more rounded.

d. Diagenesis and Lithification

I. Diagenesis

Diagenesis is considered a relatively low-pressure, low-temperature alteration process,

whereas metamorphisms considered to be a rock-alteration process occurring at relatively higher
pressures and temperatures. An example of diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a feldspar to form
a distinctly new mineral in its place, a clay mineral.

II. Lithification

Lithification may occur at the time a sediment is deposited or later. Cementation is one of the main
processes involved, particularly for sandstones and conglomerates. In addition, reactions take place
within a sediment between various minerals and between minerals and the fluids trapped in the pores.

• Compaction - as more sediment is being deposited, there is an increase of weight or pressure that
usually expels much of the connate water and forces the rock grains to come much closer together.
As the grains are forced against each other, their outer surfaces usually dissolve and re-crystallize
thus welding the grains together.
• Re-crystallization – this includes pressure solution as described, percolating water can also
dissolve material from one area and re-deposit it elsewhere or alternatively water can introduce
substance into the sediments which then crystallize
• Cementation – Deposition of substances from aqueous solutions usually occurs in the voids or
other spaces between the grains.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are divided into three classes which include:

1. Clastic rocks – consists of grains that of mechanical products of weathering.

2. Chemical sediments – formed dominantly by chemical processes and more so from direct
precipitation of compounds from solutions.

3. Organic sediments – formed from organic debris such as mollusks, shells, plant debris etc.

CLASTIC ROCKS
 Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed from the products of the mechanical breakup of other rocks.
The clastic rocks are most often named and classified on the basis of the average grain size of the particles
that form the rock.

COARSE >2 mm MEDIUM 2-0.05 mm FINE 0.05-0.005 mm

Conglomerate, Breccia, Quartzite, Sandstone, Shale, Mudstone, Siltstone
Calcirudite (Rudites) Greywacke, Arkose, Calcarenite (Lutites)
(Arenites)

Rudites

Conglomerate – is a relatively coarse-grained rock, with fragments above 2 mm in diameter, and

sometimes larger. Most of the grains are rounded.

Breccia - Similar size as conglomerates but most of the clasts fragments are angular.

Calcirudite -It is dominantly calcareous (CaCO3) with grains over 2 mm in diameter.

Arenites

Quartzite – it consists almost entirely of quartz grains.

Sandstone – usually consists of sand-sized sediment particles of quartz grains but also with other
minor components such as carbonate cement.

Greywacke – It is a poorly sorted sandstone usually dark in colour, containing rock fragments as
well as quartz.

Arkose – sandstone with at least 25% of the mineral composition being feldspar and the rest is
mainly quartz.

Calcarenite – This is a rock with sand sized grains but dominantly of carbonate composition.

Lutites

These are fine grained sedimentary rocks (0.05-0.005) and include the following:

Siltstone – silt sized particles which are slightly coarser than clay.

Mudstone – it has clay-sized particles which usually are too small to be seen by the naked eye and
which consist mainly of quartz and clay minerals.

Shale – is made up of finer-grained sediments whose grains cannot be seen with the naked eye. Its
grains are similar to mudstone but it is usually fissile rock i.e. it splits easily into thin sheets.

III. METHAMORPHIC ROCKS AND METHAMORPHISM

Metamorphic rocks formed by the transformation of preexisting igneous, sedimentary, or even

other metamorphic rocks by heat and/or pressure. Chemical, mineralogical and structural adjustments of
solid rocks to physical and chemical changes at depths below the region of sedimentation. The process by
which metamorphic rocks are produced is called metamorphism.

TYPES OF METHAMORPHIC ROCKS

1. Contact metamorphism – a rocks intruded by hot magma that "bakes" the surrounding rock.
2. Regional metamorphism – (dynamothermal metamorphism) large-scale deformation in rocks that are
subjected to higher pressure and temperatures from burial and/or during "mountain building" processes.

a. AGENTS OF METHAMORPHISM

1. Heat as an Agent of Metamorphism

Heat is the most important agent since it provides the energy to drive the chemical changes that result in
recrystallization of minerals in the rock. Two primary ways that heat is an metamorphic agent:

• During contact metamorphism, the intense heat of an intruded magma may "bake" the adjacent
rock.
• During regional metamorphism, rocks near the surface of the Earth may be thrust downward and
buried where they are subjected to increased temperatures and stresses.

2. Pressure and Stress as Metamorphic Agents

Two types of pressure/stress:

• Lithostatic (confining) pressure - same in all directions (burial).

• Directed pressure (differential stress) -tectonic forces during mountain building processes
result in increased pressure in one direction relative to the others (collision of two continents or
at a subduction zone.

b. Metamorphic Rocks are named and classified according to:

TEXTURE COMPOSITION
•Foliated •Metamorphic Grade
•Slightly foliated •Index Minerals
•Non-foliated •Overall Mineral

Quartzite – is a hard, non-foliated metamorphic rock which was originally pure quartz sandstone.
Sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure usually related to tectonic
compression with orogenic belts.

Marble – is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite
or dolomite. Marble is typically not-foliated, although there are exceptions. In geology, the term “marble”
refers to metamorphoses limestone, but it is used in stonemasonry more broadly encompasses
unmetamorphosed limestone.

Slate – a fine-grained, foliated, homogenous metamorphic rock derived from an original shale-type
sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash through low-grade regional metamorphism. It is the
finest grained foliated metamorphic rock.

Gneiss – is a common and widely distributed type of metamorphic rock. Gneiss is formed by high
temperature and high-pressure metamorphic processes acting on formations composed of igneous or
sedimentary rocks. Orthogneiss is gneiss derived from igneous rock while Paragneiss derived from
sedimentary rock.
Why Study Metamorphic Rocks?

• Studies of metamorphic rocks provide insights into the physical and chemical changes that take place
deep within Earth. The presence of index minerals in metamorphic rocks allows geologists to assess the
temperatures and pressures the parent rock encountered.

• Knowledge of metamorphic processes and rocks is valuable, because metamorphic minerals and rocks
have economic value. For example, slate and marble are building materials, garnets are used as gemstones
and abrasives, talc is used in cosmetics, paints, and lubricants, and asbestos is used for insulation and
fireproofing.

References

Structure Determination by X-ray Crystallography, M.F.C. Ladd & R.A. Palmer, 3rd Edition, Plenum
Press, NY. Retrived on February 06, 2020 from https://www.cif.iastate.edu/acide/xrd-
tutorial/crystallography#Q2

Online Resources

https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/chemistry/chapter/lattice-structures-in-crystalline-solids/

https://www3.nd.edu/~amoukasi/CBE30361/Lecture__crystallography_A.pdf

https://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/introsymmetry.htm

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