BS Iso 23865-2021
BS Iso 23865-2021
BS Iso 23865-2021
ISO 23865:2021
National foreword
This British Standard is the UK implementation of ISO 23865:2021.
The UK participation in its preparation was entrusted to Technical
Committee WEE/-/1, Briefing committee for welding.
A list of organizations represented on this committee can be obtained on
request to its committee manager.
This publication does not purport to include all the necessary provisions
of a contract. Users are responsible for its correct application.
© The British Standards Institution 2021
Published by BSI Standards Limited 2021
ISBN 978 0 539 04277 1
ICS 19.100
Compliance with a British Standard cannot confer immunity from
legal obligations.
This British Standard was published under the authority of the
Standards Policy and Strategy Committee on 31 January 2021.
First edition
2021-01
Reference number
ISO 23865:2021(E)
© ISO 2021
BS ISO 23865:2021
ISO 23865:2021(E)
Contents Page
Foreword......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... iv
1 Scope.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1
2 Normative references....................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
3 Terms and definitions...................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
4 Principle of the technique........................................................................................................................................................................... 2
4.1 General............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
4.2 Comparison between FMC/TFM and PAUT.................................................................................................................... 3
5 Requirements for surface condition and couplant............................................................................................................ 4
6 Information required prior to testing............................................................................................................................................. 5
6.1 General............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
6.2 Items to define prior to procedure development....................................................................................................... 5
7 Requirements for test personnel......................................................................................................................................................... 5
8 Requirements for test equipment....................................................................................................................................................... 5
8.1 General............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
8.2 Instrument................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
8.3 Probes.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
8.4 Scanning mechanisms....................................................................................................................................................................... 7
8.5 Sampling frequency............................................................................................................................................................................. 7
8.6 Data processing....................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
8.7 Evaluation of TFM indications.................................................................................................................................................... 8
9 Benefits of various imaging paths....................................................................................................................................................... 8
10 Preparation for testing.................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
10.1 General............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
10.2 System checking...................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
10.3 Sensitivity correction...................................................................................................................................................................... 10
10.4 Sensitivity setting............................................................................................................................................................................... 11
10.5 Grid verification................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
10.6 Preparation of scanning surfaces.......................................................................................................................................... 11
10.7 Couplant...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
11 Test procedure......................................................................................................................................................................................................11
12 Data storage.............................................................................................................................................................................................................12
13 Interpretation and analysis of TFM images............................................................................................................................12
13.1 General......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
13.2 Assessing the quality of TFM images................................................................................................................................. 13
13.3 Identification of relevant TFM indications................................................................................................................... 13
14 Test report................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 13
15 Typical influences and compensation mechanisms......................................................................................................14
Annex A (informative) Comparison of FMC/TFM technique with conventional phased array
ultrasonic testing (PAUT)..........................................................................................................................................................................15
Annex B (informative) FMC/TFM and alternative acquisition and imaging techniques..............................18
Annex C (informative) Checking of the FMC/TFM setup, ROI and grid...........................................................................22
Annex D (informative) Recommended settings and examples of FMC/TFM images........................................26
Bibliography.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards
bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out
through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical
committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International
organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work.
ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of
electrotechnical standardization.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are
described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1. In particular, the different approval criteria needed for the
different types of ISO documents should be noted. This document was drafted in accordance with the
editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 (see www.iso.org/directives).
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights. Details of
any patent rights identified during the development of the document will be in the Introduction and/or
on the ISO list of patent declarations received (see www.iso.org/patents).
Any trade name used in this document is information given for the convenience of users and does not
constitute an endorsement.
For an explanation of the voluntary nature of standards, the meaning of ISO specific terms and
expressions related to conformity assessment, as well as information about ISO's adherence to the
World Trade Organization (WTO) principles in the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), see www.iso.org/
iso/foreword.html.
This document was prepared by the IIW, International Institute of Welding, Commission V, NDT and
Quality Assurance of Welded Products.
Any feedback or questions on this document should be directed to the user’s national standards body. A
complete listing of these bodies can be found at www.iso.org/members.html.
1 Scope
This document gives general provisions for applying ultrasonic testing with arrays using FMC/TFM
techniques and related technologies. It is intended to promote the adoption of good practice either at
the manufacturing stage or for in-service testing of existing installations or for repairs.
Some examples of applications considered in this document deal with characterization and sizing in
damage assessment.
Materials considered are low-alloyed carbon steels and common aerospace grade aluminium and
titanium alloys, provided they are homogeneous and isotropic, but some recommendations are given
for other materials (e.g. austenitic ones).
This document does not include acceptance levels for discontinuities.
For the application of FMC/TFM to testing of welds, see ISO 23864.
2 Normative references
The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their content
constitutes requirements of this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For
undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO 5577, Non-destructive testing — Ultrasonic testing — Vocabulary
ISO 9712, Non-destructive testing — Qualification and certification of NDT personnel
ISO 16810, Non-destructive testing — Ultrasonic testing — General principles
ISO 18563-1, Non-destructive testing — Characterization and verification of ultrasonic phased array
equipment — Part 1: Instruments
ISO 18563-2, Non-destructive testing — Characterization and verification of ultrasonic phased array
equipment — Part 2: Probes
ISO 23243, Non-destructive testing — Ultrasonic testing with arrays - Vocabulary.
3.1
full matrix capture/total focusing technique
FMC/TFM
assembly of a data acquisition scheme and imaging scheme, whereby the acquisition scheme involves
a full matrix capture, and the imaging scheme involves a total focusing technique, and where the data
acquisition and imaging scheme may be performed with several similar technologies.
Note 1 to entry: TFM is often indicated as "total focusing method" but, in this document, the term "method" in
NDT is reserved for applying a physical principle (see ISO 9712).
3.2
FMC/TFM setup
probe arrangement defined by probe characteristics (e.g. frequency, probe element size, wave mode),
probe position, and the number of probes.
Note 1 to entry: Unless stated otherwise, in this document “TFM” and “FMC” refer to the techniques as defined in
ISO 23243, and to all related technologies see for example Annex B and ISO 23243.
4.1 General
Both FMC/TFM and phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) use an array probe where each element
of the array is independent of the others. Physical characteristics related to the propagation of waves
from the elements of the array govern the capabilities of both techniques in a similar way. In standard
PAUT, as in ISO 13588, the active aperture is used to generate sound beams for testing.
In comparison, the FMC/TFM approach typically uses the entire array in order to achieve the best
possible focused imaging performance because for effective focusing the test volume should be within
the near-field region of the array, which is maximized by using the entire array. In the PAUT technique,
the beams can also be "focused" in a similar way to FMC/TFM by using large apertures or the entire
array to create beams that concentrate the sound pressure to specific points, by ensuring that these
focal points are within the near-field region of the aperture.
Various imaging paths as described in Table 1 may be used.
NOTE 1 All figures are schematic, not to scale. Due to the principle of reciprocity, transmitter and receiver can be swapped,
meaning that the whole path can be followed in the opposite direction. The direction of the arrows for the paths shown in
this table is arbitrary. Drawings are intended to illustrate the assumptions made on the imaging path for calculation of the
image and do not intend to imply beam forming or focusing of ultrasonic waves.
NOTE 2 The use of indirect imaging paths, especially those aiming at producing an image representative of the reflectors
shape, require an accurate assessment of the actual component physical properties, such as ultrasonic wave velocity, wall
thickness or non-flat surfaces. This can be compensated for in post-processing or by using an adaptive imaging algorithm.
NOTE 3 L corresponds to longitudinal wave mode and T to transversal wave mode.
Table 1 (continued)
Imaging path Examples Description
T-TT, TT-T transmitter path direct, receiver path
indirect
LL-L, L-LL
or
LT-T, T-TL
transmitter path indirect, receiver
TT-L, L-TT
path direct
OR
TT-TT transmitter path indirect, receiver
path indirect
LL-LL
TL-LT
NOTE 1 All figures are schematic, not to scale. Due to the principle of reciprocity, transmitter and receiver can be swapped,
meaning that the whole path can be followed in the opposite direction. The direction of the arrows for the paths shown in
this table is arbitrary. Drawings are intended to illustrate the assumptions made on the imaging path for calculation of the
image and do not intend to imply beam forming or focusing of ultrasonic waves.
NOTE 2 The use of indirect imaging paths, especially those aiming at producing an image representative of the reflectors
shape, require an accurate assessment of the actual component physical properties, such as ultrasonic wave velocity, wall
thickness or non-flat surfaces. This can be compensated for in post-processing or by using an adaptive imaging algorithm.
NOTE 3 L corresponds to longitudinal wave mode and T to transversal wave mode.
a) Firing of first element and wave front travel- d) Wave front just before arrival at the ele-
ling into the test object ments of the array
b) Wave front just before arrival at a discontinui- e) Signals being collected on all the ele-
ty in the test object ments of the array
c) Reflected or diffracted echo(es) from the f) Process continued by firing element 2 and
discontinuity returning back in the direction of repeated until the last element N of the array
the array is fired
Key
1 wave front transmitted by element 1
2 discontinuity
3 wave front reflected or diffracted by the discontinuity
4 receiving elements
5 wave front transmitted by element 2
Figure 1 — Typical example of points in time describing the FMC data collection process
The FMC data can then be processed by algorithms that operate on the data matrix to create images
of the echoes from the component. Total focusing technique (TFM) is a term used to describe one such
algorithm that applies calculated delay laws to the FMC data in order to focus the sound on many points
within a defined region of interest (ROI) (see Annex B for details). This imaging phase (where TFM is
applied on the FMC data) is computationally intensive but modern systems are able to achieve near
real-time imaging performance.
A more detailed comparison is given in Annex A.
Different coupling media can be used but their type shall be compatible with the materials to be
examined. Examples are water (possibly containing an agent, e.g. wetting, anti-freeze, corrosion
inhibitor), contact paste, oil, grease, cellulose paste containing water, etc.
The characteristics of the coupling medium shall remain constant throughout the examination. It shall
be suitable for the temperature range in which it will be used.
6.1 General
ISO 18563-3 gives useful information.
8.1 General
The FMC acquisition process requires a system able to fire the elements one by one and collect the
individual element signals from the array probe. Other processes may be used including adaptive
processes (see Annex B).
The TFM process can require a fast processing capability and a large memory capacity to handle the
large amount of data from the FMC acquisition. Alternative processes may be applied using smaller
memory capacity (e.g. based on plane wave imaging, PWI).
8.2 Instrument
FMC/TFM instruments may display images of the same type as conventional PA instruments (B-Scan,
C-Scan, D-Scan) but may also provide other types of images.
The ultrasonic instrument used for the FMC/TFM testing shall be in accordance with the requirements
of ISO 18563-1, if applicable.
The ultrasonic instrument shall be able to acquire a full or partial matrix and either process it by itself or
transmit it to a computer for post-processing. It is recommended that the length of the acquired A-scan
is sufficient, considering the imaging path that will be processed or post-processed. It is recommended
that the bandwidth of the ultrasonic system is sufficient to receive signals of at least two times the
centre frequency of the probe, and that high- and low-pass filters are set to appropriate values, e.g.
high-pass set not higher than half the centre frequency and low-pass set to at least twice the centre
frequency. The specific values selected for these parameters, if applicable, shall be explicitly specified
within the written procedure.
The data visualized after a TFM process is generally a region of interest (ROI) which is a grid where
each grid point represents the computed amplitude (see 4.2 and Annex B). Grids are usually regular,
e.g. rectangular, but can be arbitrary (even 3D). Regular grids are usually preferred (e.g. to allow
optimization in order to enhance the number of images per second).
The grid spacing shall be selected small enough to be able to detect the relevant discontinuities. The
minimum spatial resolution of data points within the image (i.e. grid point spacing) shall be chosen such
that the amplitude of a reference reflector is stable within a specified tolerance on small deviations in
the probe position. Annex C contains guidance on validation of the amplitude stability.
8.3 Probes
Any linear or matrix array probe can be used for FMC acquisition, but this document is limited to the
use of linear phased array probe. Ultrasonic arrays used for the FMC/TFM testing shall be in accordance
with the requirements of ISO 18563-2.
The TFM process requires information on the element positions relative to the test object, including
details of the delay line or wedge, in order to compute the times of flight associated to the imaging
path(s).
Probes in direct contact to the test object can be used but also delay lines, angled wedges or immersion
can be used depending on the application. Required details of the delay line or wedge include the type,
dimensions, angle and sound velocity.
In order to achieve good quality images, the following properties of the array probe should be taken
into consideration:
a) adequately small pitch to avoid spatial aliasing;
b) highly damped elements to decrease the length of the ultrasonic wave train;
c) sufficiently small elements to avoid too much directivity;
d) appropriate aperture and elevation to allow for imaging at a distance away from the probe, as the
TFM algorithm has optimal results in the near-field of the probe;
e) wedge dimension optimized for effectiveness.
Typically, these requirements are fulfilled by a probe with relative bandwidth >60 % and an element
pitch that is smaller than half the wavelength as determined in the wedge (or in the part under testing
when no wedge is used).
The number of dead elements on the active aperture should be less than or equal to 1 out of 16 and any
dead elements are not allowed to be adjacent to each other. If this criterion is not met, the probe may be
used provided appropriate technical justification is given.
Table 2 — Scan increment values in the primary scanning direction in accordance with
thickness
Dimensions in millimetres
Thickness
Scan increment
t
t ≤ 6 0,5
6 < t ≤ 10 1
10 < t ≤ 150 2
t > 150 3
Scanning mechanisms in FMC/TFM can either be motorized or manually driven. They shall be guided by
means of a suitable guiding mechanism. The tolerances for the probe position depend on the application
and it shall be given in the written test procedure.
The scanning speed shall be suitable for the equipment used in order to avoid loss of data.
A detailed description of TFM is given in 4.2 and Annex B. Descriptions of related technologies are given
in ISO 23243 and Annex B, such as sampling phased array (SPA), plane wave imaging (PWI) and inverse
wave field extrapolation (IWEX).
Once the data has been processed into an image, additional image processing may be applied afterwards
for further optimization/visualization.
Table 3 (continued)
Imaging path Orientation of discontinuities for
reflection
10.1 General
The purpose of the testing shall be defined by specification. Based on this, the test volume to be
inspected shall be determined.
The surface temperature of the object under test shall be in the range 0 °C to 50 °C. For temperatures
outside this range, the suitability of the equipment and couplant shall be verified.
Imaging approaches such as TFM require knowledge of a number of parameters related to the
measurement system, array, setup geometry and material properties. This clause provides an overview
of parameters considered relevant for imaging.
g) calibration/reference/qualification blocks;
h) aspects to set in a report.
Additional aspects can need to be addressed depending on application cases.
The amplitude on each SDH is recorded for a horizontal line in the ROI, over its complete width, by
moving the probe over the SDHs as shown in Figure 2. A correction is then established by determining
the gain necessary to adjust the response of each SDH to the desired level, along the horizontal line in
the ROI corresponding to the position of each SDH. Gain levels for the points in the vertical direction
between the horizontal lines corresponding to the SDHs are derived by interpolation.
a) b) c)
Key
1 side drilled holes
2 ROI
3 probe
a Probe movement.
Any reference block with a sufficient number of SDHs divided equally over the height of the ROI in
accordance with Table 4 may be used.
10.7 Couplant
In order to generate good images, a couplant shall be used which provides a constant transmission of
ultrasound between the probe(s) and the test object. The couplant used for calibration shall be the same
as that used in subsequent testing.
When using a conformable shoe or (local) immersion technique, requirements on the couplant,
determination of sound velocity including temperature dependency and verification of coupling shall
be clearly documented in the written procedure.
11 Test procedure
For any ultrasonic examination, an examination procedure shall be established. In addition to the
requirements stated in this document, at least the following details shall be included, as applicable:
a) description of the products to be examined;
b) reference documents;
c) qualification and certification of examination personnel;
d) state of examination object;
e) test volume;
f) testing techniques;
g) preparation of scanning surfaces;
h) coupling medium;
i) description of examination equipment;
j) environmental conditions;
k) reference and/or calibration blocks, including description of the reflectors;
l) calibration and settings;
m) imaging path(s) to be used;
n) scan plan;
o) description and sequence of examination operations;
p) evaluation and recording levels;
q) characterization of imperfections;
r) acceptance criteria;
s) examination report.
Specific conditions of application and use of the FMC/TFM technique depend on the type of product
examined and any specific requirements shall be described in written examination procedures.
The objective of the testing shall be agreed.
For in-service testing, the effectiveness of the procedure on test blocks having natural discontinuities
should be verified.
Information regarding settings and examples of images for different flaw types are given in Annex D.
For weld testing, ISO 23864 applies.
A satisfactory procedure verification in accordance with the specification required shall take place
before the first inspection. This verification includes:
a) detection of all required reflectors;
b) classification and sizing capability;
c) proof of coverage in depth and width.
12 Data storage
Compared to PAUT, FMC/TFM typically collects a larger volume of A-scan data, corresponding to the
collection of all possible combinations of transmitters and receivers in (an) array probe(s). Images are
computed from the matrix of A-scans either on the acquisition hardware or on a computer connected to
the acquisition hardware. In either case, the amount of A-scan data can be too big to retain.
The constructed images as well as the applied imaging parameters and processing steps shall be stored
on a digital storage medium such as hard disk or IT server and shall be kept for later reference.
13.1 General
Interpretation and analysis of TFM images are typically performed as follows:
a) assess the quality of the TFM images;
14 Test report
FMC/TFM test reports shall comply with the requirements given in ISO 16810, as applicable.
In addition, FMC/TFM testing reports shall contain the following information:
a) description of the test specimen, any reference and/or test blocks;
b) description of FMC/TFM instrument used, including scanning mechanisms;
c) probe type, frequency, number and size of elements, material and angle(s) of any wedge (or in water
for immersion technique), orientation and position with respect to a reference line;
d) plotted images of at least those locations where relevant TFM indications have been detected;
e) results of checking resolution, coverage and grid verification (see Annex C).
Relevant settings of the FMC/TFM technique shall be documented. This should include:
a) sensitivity settings;
b) acquisition process;
c) imaging process;
d) details of the ROI;
e) imaging path(s) used;
f) scan plan;
g) characterization and sizing methodology.
Annex A
(informative)
Table A.2 shows possible disadvantage of FMC/TFM at present. As mentioned in the comments column,
many of these disadvantages may not be an issue in the future as rapid advancements are ongoing.
Figure A.1 illustrates the core operating concepts behind PAUT [Figure A.1 a)] and FMC/TFM
[Figure A.1 b)], highlighting the point at which data from the component is collected. This is the key
advantage that FMC based testing has: it allows the technique to be created after the act of data
collection. This offers significant economic advantages to industry, allowing for future reassessments
and monitoring of a holistic record of the component that was inspected.
a) PAUT b) FMC/TFM
Annex B
(informative)
B.1 General
The scope of this document allows for alternatives to both the data collection scheme and the imaging
scheme, together making up the technique. This annex gives a description of the basic FMC/TFM
technique and some alternatives.
Due to historical reasons, the naming of the acquisition schemes and imaging schemes is not always
logical or does not follow the conventions used in NDT, where a method denotes the physical measurement
principle (e.g. ultrasonic testing) and a technique is the implementation of the physical measurement
principle (e.g. pulse–echo technique, immersion technique). An example of such an inconsistency is the
naming of total focussing method, which should have been a technique in accordance with ISO naming
conventions. Another example is plane wave imaging, which is an acquisition scheme in the context of
this document, and not an imaging scheme.
Alternatives to the acquisition scheme treated in this annex include half-matrix capture (HMC), sparse
matrix capture (SMC), plane wave imaging (PWI) and virtual source aperture (VSA). Alternatives to
the imaging scheme include adaptive TFM (ATFM) and TFM over multiple imaging paths. Additionally,
the relationship to techniques that were historically developed independently from TFM, but are very
similar, such as inverse wavefield extrapolation (IWEX) and sampling phased array (SPA), is mentioned.
N N
I(P)= ∑ ∑ sij (TiP +TjP ). (B.1)
i =1 j=1
Note that beyond the general form of the algorithm, variations can exist that mainly concern:
a) the numerical scheme used to compute the times of flight;
b) the implementation scheduling (different versions and optimizations related to the
implementation in software/firmware of the test equipment);
c) the grid of computation points and the interpolation between these points;
d) the possibility to sum the amplitudes after signal processing;
e) the option to assign different weighting factors to the contributions of A-scans to one image
point (e.g. IWEX).
a) Acquisition b) Processing
Full matrix capture : N × N signals, sij(t) Sum of the amplitudes of the captured signals at
the computed times of flight, tij(P)
Key
1 N elements
2 image grid
The result of this processing may be displayed as one image incorporating images of several paths or as
separate images corresponding to selected imaging paths.
Annex C
(informative)
C.1 Overview
C.1.1 General
This annex gives guidance on checking the FMC/TFM setup, ROI and grid. Due to FMC/TFM being an
imaging method consisting of a data acquisition and an imaging step, which both involve sampling,
special care needs to be taken for the grid point spacing. Coverage and resolution are implicitly tested
with the procedure described below as well. Sensitivity can also be checked, as the procedure is
performed in the same arrangement as the amplitude correction procedure described in 10.3.
In the practical implementation of the basic TFM algorithm, each point in the image is reconstructed
by shifting A-scans in time base in the full matrix of data and adding the values of the A-scans for the
grid point position. Since the A-scan consists of ultrasonic unrectified and unfiltered signals, received
signals have a cyclic nature with the frequency of the ultrasound. If the grid point density of the image
is insufficient, it is possible that successive A-scans have an opposite phase and cancel each other out.
The amplitude of a small reflector thus increases and decreases on small changes to the probe position
if the grid is chosen too coarse.
For basic FMC/TFM, a stable amplitude is achieved when the grid point spacing is smaller than one
fifth of the wavelength (λ/5). Since the amplitude stability is impacted by many factors (e.g. probe
characteristics) and since other implementations exist for which this rule does not hold, a procedure is
described here that allows for checking of amplitude stability over the ROI.
where
λ is the wavelength.
Table C.1 provides an example for ferritic carbon steel.
The verification process can be applied on real-time displayed TFM images or by post-processing stored
FMC data. The following steps should be followed in order.
— Step 1: Record the maximum amplitude of each of the SDHs in the ROI, in percentage of full-screen
height (FSH), in a table.
— Step 2: Increment the offset by the increment amount.
— Step 3: Compute TFM settings for this offset.
— Step 4: Display the TFM image for this offset. Return to Step 1 until 20 increments have been
performed.
This process shall be performed for each of the three probe positions mentioned in C.2.2.
C.2.5 Reporting
The report should contain the three tables produced in the verification process, the amplitude stability
value and the following information:
a) ROI parameters (e.g. a screen shot of the TFM settings window);
b) calculation of the increment amount;
c) three tables with SDH amplitudes and amplitude stability values;
d) settings and equipment used in the testing:
— probe(s);
— wedge(s);
— instrument;
— test block(s);
— software release;
— gain (measurement, interpretation);
— gain correction settings if applicable.
Annex D
(informative)
D.1 Overview
This annex provides information on how FMC/TFM can be used for detection, characterization and
sizing of a number of damage types commonly found in industry. The information in this annex should
aid in development of specific procedures using FMC/TFM and the settings presented in this annex are
indicative only – specific applications require settings to be selected and verified appropriately.
Note also that other ultrasonic techniques (and other testing methods) can also be used to inspect for
these damage types.
HTHA can be defined as a cracking process due to hydrogen permeation through the steel and reaction
with carbides, leading to micro-cracks. Damage propagates from the surface exposed to hydrogen.
Imperfections can be located in the parent metal or in the weld. The main limitation for detection is that
the cracks need to have sufficiently large individual sizes to interact with ultrasonic beams, regardless
of their orientations.
Carbon and low alloy steels can be affected by different forms of cracking mechanisms when they are
exposed to acidic aqueous media containing hydrogen sulphide.
In wet H2S environments, an electrochemical reaction can occur on the surface of pressure vessel walls,
leading to the absorption of hydrogen atoms by the steel.
The diffusion of hydrogen atoms through the metal can have several effects:
a) formation of molecular hydrogen H2 in local areas;
b) decrease in the toughness of the metal;
c) weakening of the metallic bonds.
The combination of these effects can result in different types of failure mechanisms[11]:
a) hydrogen induced cracking (HIC). Stepwise cracking (SWC) and blistering are two specific
forms of HIC;
b) sulphide stress cracking (SSC);
c) stress-oriented hydrogen-induced cracking (SOHIC).
The specific settings described in D.1 used for HTHA may also be applied for detection of HIC in
combination with PAUT beam forming focused scans in order to confirm stepwise cracking.
The specific settings described in D.4 used for stress corrosion cracking (SCC) may also be applied for
detection of SOHIC.
D.2.3 Probes
In order to get the best signal-to-noise ratio resulting from interaction between the sound beam and
HTHA damage, the probe frequency should be between 7 MHz and 15 MHz for compression waves or
between 3,5 MHz and 7,5 MHz for shear waves. The array probes can be either linear or matrix.
The active aperture is to be set as large as possible. The main limitation can be the component contact
surface (curvature, clearance). A minimum of 32 active elements is required.
Typical FMC/TFM images obtained on HTHA damages are provided in the following figures:
— Figure D.2 a) shows a single FMC/TFM image on a damaged steel block having a thickness of 60 mm.
The probe frequency is 7,5 MHz. The LL imaging path was used;
— Figure D.2 b) shows a volumetric merged view of multiple images.
Merged views generally allow obtaining better results.
Figure D.3 illustrates the benefits of FMC/TFM to improve the capacity of the operator to discriminate
HTHA patterns from other kinds of damage.
Identification of TFM indications may be based on recognition of specific patterns applied to post
processed images, such as cumulative side views, merged views, specific colour palettes or filters.
These specific patterns should have been previously defined on representative qualification blocks with
known HTHA damages. Simulation tools may be used for generating these patterns. Typical patterns
are related and associated to density and spatial distribution of TFM indications, spatial distribution
of TFM indication’s amplitude versus depth, change of structural noise, identification of "pockets",
"clouds", etc. Example of typical patterns and associated micrographs are given in Reference [12].
Figure D.4 shows an example of such identification based on changes of FMC/TFM image pattern or
texture. Operators trained to recognize specific patterns are also able to discriminate between early
and moderate damages on such images.
Detection of HTHA at early stages remains difficult especially on dirty steels having a lot of inclusions
and can require the use of complementary techniques.
Because there are no ultrasonic acceptance levels dedicated for HTHA, metallurgical expertise is
generally required to provide the interpretation of the TFM indications detected by FMC/TFM testing.
Figure D.5 a) is obtained with similar settings as those used for HTHA testing. It shows the detection
of HIC and SWC in a carbon steel plate sample (actual thickness is 13 mm) by top scanning with direct
imaging path (LL).
Figure D.5 b) shows the macro-section of the test object at FMC/TFM image location. Horizontal cracks
(HIC) as well as stepwise cracks (SWC) are highlighted.
a) FMC/TFM image
are described in ISO 16809 and EN 17290. PAUT is also increasingly being used to perform corrosion
mapping where the E-scan is used. The probe is mechanically moved perpendicularly to the electronic
scanning direction and a C-scan is produced allowing a high testing rate.
Before applying FMC/TFM for corrosion assessment, it is essential to have knowledge of the type(s)
of material loss to be expected, and to design a test procedure adapted to the specific type of wear,
corrosion or erosion likely to occur, taking into account the location of the corrosion and it shape.
It is recommended to verify the test procedure on test blocks having representative reflectors (location,
shape, size, etc.) of the damage likely to occur and a thickness range covering the expected range of the
test object. Material and temperature should be equivalent to the test object.
D.3.3 Probes
Probe selection depends on the test object geometry, material thickness, surface condition and coating
condition.
When the test object is curved, consideration should be given to the selection of probe size.
Frequency and aperture should be selected in accordance with the test object geometry, thickness and
type of corrosion to detect.
D.4.2.2 Calibration
The ROI should be set over the part of the component where SCC is likely to occur. Nominally, this is a
surface exposed to corrosive fluids and the cracking that develops is open to the surface.
Ideally, exemplar damage in a representative component should be used as a reference. This leads
to the best possible outcomes during testing. The use of reference specimens with either artificial
targets (such as EDM notches) or actual damage is particularly mandated when SCC takes place in an
anisotropic, heterogeneous material, such as weld overlay cladding.
D.4.2.4 Sensitivity
The detection of SCC is nominally through the corner-trap effect, which is represented by the LL-L or
TT-T imaging paths presented in Table D.3. For the purposes of detection in isotropic or homogeneous
materials, sensitivity can be set to 6 dB greater than the corner from a reference notch or crack.
Acceptance levels need to be determined by project criteria. If sizing by detection of diffracted signals
from the cracks is sought, then sensitivity should be set to at least 14 dB greater than the corner from
a reference notch or crack. Optimization of the sensitivity level for diffraction-based sizing is likely
required using reference specimens or using limited destructive validation during the testing campaign.
D.4.3 Probes
SCC can be small and can need to be detected while it is less than 1 mm in through-wall size, depending
on a structural integrity analysis. Arrays with a frequency of 10 MHz with a minimum of 32 elements
are recommended. In general, the frequency shall be increased as far as possible but this depends
on many factors, such as the thickness of the component, attenuation of different regions within the
component (e.g. cladding and austenitic welding) and capabilities of the ultrasonic instrumentation.
Key
1 array
2 wedge
3 cladding surface
4 test surface
5 disbonding
6 SCC indication in the TFM image
Figure D.10 — Detection of SCC cracks using the FMC/TFM technique (top scanning)
Figure D.11 shows metallographic cross-sections of the cracks as found in the plates on which the data
of Figure D.10 was collected.
Figure D.12 shows a dye penetrant image where small SCC (<0.2 mm through-wall size) were found in a
stainless-steel parent plate (plate thickness was 13 mm).
Figure D.13 shows FMC/TFM images of this cracking using the TT-T as applied in accordance with
Table D.3:
a) shows the data from the cracks where it is not possible to measure any through-wall dimensions
confidently;
b) shows the setup of the probe, wedge, component and the region of interest corresponding to a).
a) Through wall dimension not measurable b) Probe setup, wedge, component and ROI
Figure D13 — FMC/TFM image of the crack field using the TT-T imaging path
Key
h height
w width
D.5.3 Probes
For casting parts application, the recommended frequency of the probes is from 1 MHz to 5 MHz. For
thicknesses less than 50 mm, the probe frequency can be up to 5 MHz and for parts of thickness more
than 50 mm, the probe frequency can need to be less than 3 MHz. The number of elements in the probes
should be 32 or 64. Probes with more elements give better resolution. For forged parts application, the
recommended frequency of the probes is from 2 MHz to 5 MHz, and the elements in the probe should be
32 or more.
Bibliography
[1] ISO 4992-1, Steel castings — Ultrasonic testing — Part 1: Steel castings for general purposes
[2] ISO 4992-2, Steel castings — Ultrasonic testing — Part 2: Steel castings for highly stressed
components
[3] ISO 13588, Non-destructive testing of welds — Ultrasonic testing — Use of automated phased array
technology
[4] ISO 16809, Non-destructive testing — Ultrasonic thickness measurement
[5] ISO 18563-3, Non-destructive testing — Characterization and verification of ultrasonic phased
array equipment — Part 3: Combined systems
[6] ISO 19675, Non-destructive testing — Ultrasonic testing — Specification for a calibration block for
phased array testing (PAUT)
[7] ISO 23864, Non-destructive testing of welds — Ultrasonic testing — Use of automated total focusing
technique (TFM) and related technologies
[8] EN 10228-3, Non-destructive testing of steel forgings —Part 3: Ultrasonic testing of ferritic or
martensitic steel forging
[9] EN 17290, Non-destructive testing — Ultrasonic testing — Examination for loss of thickness due to
erosion and/or corrosion using the TOFD technique
[10] API RP 941, Steels for Hydrogen Service at Elevated Temperatures and Pressures
[11] https://www. nace.org/resources/general-resources/corrosion-basics
[12] High Temperature Hydrogen Attack – New NDE advanced capabilities – Development and
feedback – Charles Le Nevé et al. - Pressure Vessels & Piping Conference - July 14-19, 2019,
San Antonio, TX, USA
Buying standards PLUS is an updating service exclusive to BSI Subscribing Members. You will
automatically receive the latest hard copy of your standards when they’re
You can buy and download PDF versions of BSI publications, including British and revised or replaced.
adopted European and international standards, through our website at bsigroup.
com/shop, where hard copies can also be purchased. To find out more about becoming a BSI Subscribing Member and the benefits
of membership, please visit bsigroup.com/shop.
If you need international and foreign standards from other Standards Development
Organizations, hard copies can be ordered from our Customer Services team. With a Multi-User Network Licence (MUNL) you are able to host standards
publications on your intranet. Licences can cover as few or as many users as you
Copyright in BSI publications wish. With updates supplied as soon as they’re available, you can be sure your
documentation is current. For further information, email [email protected].
All the content in BSI publications, including British Standards, is the property
of and copyrighted by BSI or some person or entity that owns copyright in the Revisions
information used (such as the international standardization bodies) and has
formally licensed such information to BSI for commercial publication and use. Our British Standards and other publications are updated by amendment or revision.
Save for the provisions below, you may not transfer, share or disseminate any We continually improve the quality of our products and services to benefit your
portion of the standard to any other person. You may not adapt, distribute, business. If you find an inaccuracy or ambiguity within a British Standard or other
commercially exploit or publicly display the standard or any portion thereof in any BSI publication please inform the Knowledge Centre.
manner whatsoever without BSI’s prior written consent.
Useful Contacts
Storing and using standards Customer Services
Standards purchased in soft copy format: Tel: +44 345 086 9001
• A British Standard purchased in soft copy format is licensed to a sole named Email: [email protected]
user for personal or internal company use only.
Subscriptions
• The standard may be stored on more than one device provided that it is Tel: +44 345 086 9001
accessible by the sole named user only and that only one copy is accessed at Email: [email protected]
any one time.
• A single paper copy may be printed for personal or internal company use only. Knowledge Centre
Tel: +44 20 8996 7004
Standards purchased in hard copy format: Email: [email protected]
• A British Standard purchased in hard copy format is for personal or internal
company use only. Copyright & Licensing
Tel: +44 20 8996 7070
• It may not be further reproduced – in any format – to create an additional copy.
This includes scanning of the document. Email: [email protected]
If you need more than one copy of the document, or if you wish to share the BSI Group Headquarters
document on an internal network, you can save money by choosing a subscription
product (see ‘Subscriptions’). 389 Chiswick High Road London W4 4AL UK