Strength of Materials: D. K. Singh

D. K.
Singh
Strength of Materials
4th Edition
D. K. Singh
Fourth Edition
123
D. K. Singh
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Netaji Subhas University of Technology
New Delhi, Delhi, India
ISBN 978-3-030-59666-8 ISBN 978-3-030-59667-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5
Jointly published with Ane Books Pvt. Ltd.
In addition to this printed edition, there is a local printed edition of this work available via Ane Books in South Asia
(India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan) and Africa (all countries in the African subcontinent).
ISBN of the Co-Publisher’s edition: 9789385462061
1st–4th editions: © The Author(s) 2007, 2009, 2013, 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publishers, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic
adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not
imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and
regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed
to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional
affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
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Preface to the Fourth Edition
The fourth edition of the book is presented before you. The new edition includes four new chapters
and has increased by about 300 pages. Now the book covers the subject in totality and takes care
of both the basics and the advanced topics of the strength of materials. Besides including four new
chapters, three existing chapters have been rewritten to make them more relevant and meaningful.
This has further increased the scope of the book.
I thankfully acknowledge the support and encouragement from two of my best ever friends,
Jai Shankar and Shakil Ahmad. My parents and in-laws especially Babuji and Mummi are gratefully
remembered for their blessings. My lovely wife Alka and daughters Shivangi and Shalvi deserve
special mention for giving their affectionate support that keeps me always elevated and in high spirit.
Finally, I appreciate the response from the readers of the book, which has helped tremendously to
further improve the book. I hope readers will continue to give their valuable suggestions and remarks
in future also. I promise to honour their suggestions.
New Delhi D. K. Singh
vii
Preface to the Third Edition
In this revised and augmented third edition, many new solved problems have been added especially in the
chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 10 and 13. Simultaneously, a large number of model objective questions have also been
added to test the understanding of the students from the viewpoints of competitive examinations. The biggest
advantage of this book is its simplicity in expressing the subject matter in the most simplified manner. The
material covered is so designed that any beginner can follow it easily, and get a complete picture of the
subject after having gone through the material covered in the text.
I deeply appreciate the many comments and suggestions that I received from the users of the previous
editions of this book. I may be contacted on my email for any further suggestion, comment or criticism.
NSIT, New Delhi D. K. Singh
ix
Preface to the Second Edition
The thoroughly revised edition of the book ‘Strength of Materials’ is in your hand. This new edition has
one more chapter on Mechanical Testing of Materials, which further increases the scope of the book, while
retaining the flavour of the first edition. A sincere attempt has been made to make the book error-free, but
still can’t be claimed in totality.
I hope, readers will enjoy this new edition with the same spirit. Any suggestion for the improvement of the
book will be gratefully acknowledged.
D. K. Singh
xi
Preface to the First Edition
It gives me immense pleasure to present this book before you. There are many books on this subject
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of solved examples for easy understanding of the subject. A number of multiple choice questions has
been added at the end of each chapter, making the book useful for competitive examinations.
I am thankful to all the people who helped in the compilation of this book including my publisher
Mr. Sunil Saxena and Mr. Jai Raj Kapoor. Thanks are also due to my parents and in-laws for their
continuous encouragement.
Finally, I want to thank my wife, Alka, for her continuing encouragement, support, and affection
and my daughters, Shalu and Sheelu, for making the atmosphere lively and workable.
D.K. Singh
New Delhi
March 2007.
xiii
13
Fourth Edition
By D. K. Singh
What is new in the Fourth Edition?

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Contents
Preface to the Fourth Edition vii

Preface to the Third Edition ix
Preface to the Second Edition xi
Preface to the First Edition xiii
1. Simple Stresses and Strains 1–52

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Exercises
xvii
xviii Strength of Materials
2. Principal Stresses 53–88

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3. Centroid and Moment of Inertia 89–142

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4. Shear Forces and Bending Moments in Beams 143–206

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Exercises
xx Strength of Materials
5. Centroid and Moment of Inertia 207–250

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7. Torsion of Circular Members 319–364

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9. Strain Energy 409–432

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10. Theory of Elastic Failure 433–458
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12. Pressure Vessels 495–564

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13. Plane Trusses 565–620

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Contents xxv
15. Unsymmetrical Bending and Shear Centre 693–742

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16. Fixed Beams 743–798

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17. Rotating Rings, Discs and Cylinders 799–856

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18. Mechanical Testing of Materials 857-–866

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Appendix A ±
Appendix B ±
References ±
Subject Index ±
About the Author
Dr. D. K. Singh is a Professor and Head of Mechanical Engineering at the Netaji Subhas
University of Technology, New Delhi, India. He has an extremely rich experience of both
teaching and research for nearly three decades. He has contributed over 45 papers to various
journals of national and international repute. He has also participated and presented papers at
several national and international conferences. He has also authored 12 books. He is a life
member of the Indian Society for Technical Education (ISTE), New Delhi.
xxvii
1
Simple Stresses and Strains
Thomas Young, born on 13 July 1773, was an English physician, physicist

and polymath. By the age of fourteen, he is said to be well acquainted
with many languages like Latin, Greek, French, Italian, Hebrew, Arabic
and Persian, and hence was nicknamed the English Leonardo. He made
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(E), an elastic constant and a measure of the rigidity of materials, is named
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He was also an Egyptologist who helped decipher the Rosetta stone.
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(1773-1829) instruments.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you will be able to answer some of the following questions:
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© The Author(s) 2021 1

D. K. Singh, Strength of Materials,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_1
2 Strength of Materials
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The reaction of materials to the action of external forces is indicated by the mechanical properties
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VWUXFWXUHVHQVLWLYH7KLVLVLQGLVWLQFWFRQWUDVWWRPRVWRIWKHSK\VLFDOSURSHUWLHVZKLFKDUHVWUXFWXUH
LQVHQVLWLYHV0HFKDQLFDOSURSHUWLHVRIPDWHULDOVSOD\DYLWDOUROHLQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIVWUXFWXUHV
PDFKLQHVDQGRWKHUSURGXFWV7KHVHSURSHUWLHVDUHHYDOXDWHGE\FRQGXFWLQJGHVWUXFWLYHWHVWLQJ
0HFKDQLFDOSURSHUWLHVDOVRVRPHWLPHVNQRZQDVHQJLQHHULQJSURSHUWLHVLQFOXGHWHQVLOHVWUHQJWK
GXFWLOLW\ FRPSUHVVLYH VWUHQJWK IDWLJXH FUHHS DQG RWKHUV 7KH GHIRUPDWLRQV SURGXFHG DQG WKH
stresses induced in the material as a result of application of external loads are the important aspects
of mechanical properties.
1.2 STRESS-STRAIN CURVES IN TENSION

7HQVLOHVWUHQJWKLVGH¿QHGDVWKHDELOLW\RIDPDWHULDOWRVXSSRUWRUFDUU\DQDSSOLHGD[LDOORDG7KH
property enables a material to resist being pulled apart. Tensile strength of the material is tested by
conducting tension test.
,Q WKH WHQVLRQ WHVW D FHUWDLQ OHQJWK NQRZQ DV JDXJH OHQJWK XVXDOO\ PP RI WKH PDWHULDO LV
subjected to an axial load as shown in Fig. 1.1 (a7KHGLDPHWHURIWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHPDWHULDO
WREHWHVWHGLVJHQHUDOO\WDNHQWREHPP7KHEHKDYLRXURIWKHPDWHULDOLVVKRZQLQWKHIRUPRID
VWUHVVVWUDLQFXUYHLQ)LJ
Fig. 1.1 A tension test.
As the load on the test specimen increases, the resisting force also increases. Once the load
LV UHPRYHG WKH PDWHULDO UHJDLQV LWV RULJLQDO VKDSH DQG VL]H +RRNH¶V ODZ LV VWULFWO\ YDOLG XQGHU
this condition, where stress is linearly proportional to strain. This point is known as limit of
proportionality, p. During this period, the material regains its orignal conditions once the load is
UHPRYHG3RLQWµe¶UHSUHVHQWVHODVWLFOLPLW8SWRµe¶PDWHULDOUHFRYHUVLWVRULJLQDOVKDSHDQGVL]HEXW
WKHUHFRYHU\SURFHVVLVQHJOLJLEO\VORZDVFRPSDUHGWROLPLWRISURSRUWLRQDOLW\)RUVRPHPDWHULDOV
these two points p and e are almost identical, but in most of the cases, the elastic limit is slightly
higher.
(ORQJDWLRQ EH\RQG WKH HODVWLF OLPLW EHFRPHV XQUHFRYHUDEOH DQG WKH PDWHULDO WHQGV WR VWD\
SHUPDQHQWO\GHIRUPHG7KLVVLWXDWLRQLVNQRZQDVSODVWLFGHIRUPDWLRQ:KHQWKHORDGLVUHPRYHG
Simple Stresses and Strains 3
the specimen retains a permanent change in shape. It means the external load has exceeded the
resisting force. An engineer is usually interested in either the elastic or plastic response. Plasticity
DQGHODVWLFLW\DUHWKHSURSHUWLHVRIFULWLFDOLPSRUWDQFHZKHQHYDOXDWLQJDPDWHULDOIRUPDQXIDFWXULQJ
:KHQWKHHODVWLFOLPLWLVH[FHHGHGVWUHVVDQGVWUDLQGRQRWLQFUHDVHLQDSURSRUWLRQDOZD\5DWKHU
increase in strain is more prominent as compared to increase in stress. For some materials, a stress
YDOXHPD\EHUHDFKHGZKHUHDGGLWLRQDOVWUDLQRFFXUVZLWKRXWIXUWKHULQFUHDVHLQVWUHVV7KLVSRLQW
is known as yield point and the corresponding stress is called the yield stress. For mild steel (low
FDUERQVWHHOWKHUHDUHWZRGLVWLQFW\LHOGSRLQWV7KHVWUHVVDWZKLFKVXFKSODVWLFGHIRUPDWLRQ¿UVW
begins is called the upper yield point. Subsequent plastic deformation may occur at a lower stress,
FDOOHGWKHORZHU\LHOGSRLQW7KHXSSHU\LHOGSRLQWLVYHU\VHQVLWLYHWRUDWHRIORDGLQJDQGDFFLGHQWDO
bending stress or irregularities in the specimen, so the lower yield point is used for design purposes.
But it is the lower yield point which is usually common. As the load and hence the stress is further
LQFUHDVHGLWUHDFKHVLWVPD[LPXPYDOXHDQGWKHQEHJLQVWRGHFUHDVH7KHPD[LPXPVWUHVVLVFDOOHG
the ultimate stress or tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength, U of the material.
If the specimen is loaded beyond its ultimate strength, neck formation starts. During this period,
WKHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHQRORQJHUUHPDLQVXQLIRUPLQWKHJDJHOHQJWKUDWKHULWUHGXFHVGUDVWLFDOO\LQ
WKHQHFNHGUHJLRQ7KHVWUHVVGURSVIXUWKHUDQGWKHVSHFLPHQ¿QDOO\IUDFWXUHVLQWKHQHFNHGUHJLRQ
at the point f as shown in the Fig. 1.2. The material is subjected to neck formation just before failure
as is shown in Fig. 1.1(b,WLVDW\SLFDOµFXSDQGFRQH¶W\SHIDLOXUHRIPDWHULDOZKHUHIDLOXUHRFFXUV
on planes at 45° to the specimen axis. The stress at this point is known as fracture or breaking stress.
Fig. 1.2 An engineering stress-strain curve for ductile materials.
For most of the materials (for example cast ironWKH\LHOGSRLQWLVQRWZHOOGH¿QHG,QVXFKFDVH

WKHHODVWLFWRSODVWLFWUDQVLWLRQLVQRWGLVWLQFWDQGWKH\LHOGSRLQWLVGHWHUPLQHGWKURXJKWKHXVHRI
RIIVHW,QWKHRIIVHWPHWKRGWKHVWUDLQXVXDOO\NQRZQDVRIIVHWVWUDLQLVVSHFL¿HGDWEXWWKHYDOXHV
RIRUHYHQPD\DOVREHXVHGZKHQVPDOODPRXQWVRISODVWLFGHIRUPDWLRQFRXOGOHDGWR
FRPSRQHQWIDLOXUH7KHSRLQWRILQWHUVHFWLRQRIDOLQHGUDZQSDUDOOHOWRWKHHODVWLFOLQHZLWKWKHVWUHVV
VWUDLQFXUYHJLYHVWKHSRVLWLRQRI\LHOGSRLQWLQVXFKFDVHV,IWKHDSSOLHGVWUHVVHVDUHNHSWEHORZWKH
RIIVHW\LHOGVWUHQJWKWKHXVHUFDQEHJXDUDQWHHGWKDWDQ\REVHUYHGSODVWLFGHIRUPDWLRQZLOOEH
OHVVWKDQRIWKHRULJLQDOGLPHQVLRQ)LJ1.3).
Fig. 1.3 A stress-strain curve for brittle materials.
The modulus of elasticity, also called elastic modulus, denoted by E may be determined as the
VORSHRIWKHOLQHDUSRUWLRQRIWKHVWUHVVVWUDLQFXUYH,WLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVWR
longitudinal strain.
1.3 TRUE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE

0DWHULDOV GR QRW REH\ +RRNH¶V ODZ LQ SODVWLF UHJLRQ )LJ KDV EHHQ GUDZQ FRQVLGHULQJ WKH
RULJLQDOFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHWHVWVSHFLPHQ%XWLWLVQRWWKHDFWXDOFDVH7KHLQVWDQWDQHRXVDUHD
supporting the load is gradually decreasing as the specimen elongates. Thus, the engineering stress
does not represent the actual stress or true stress. Similarly, the true strain differs from engineering
VWUDLQ7KHVHDUHGH¿QHGDVIROORws:
Load applied P
True stress = = ... (1.1)
Instantaneous area of cross-section Af
where Af LVQRWQHFHVVDULO\WKHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDDWWKHSRLQWRIIDLOXUH
⎛ lf ⎞
True strain = ln ⎜ ⎟ ... (1.2)
⎝ lo ⎠
where lf = Instantaneous length
lo = Original length
7UXHVWUDLQLVDOVRNQRZQDVQDWXUDORUORJDULWKPLFVWUDLQ)RUVPDOOYDOXHVRIVWUDLQWKHWZRVWUDLQV
DUHDSSUR[LPDWHO\HTXDO%XWWKH\GLYHUJHUDSLGO\DVVWUDLQLQFUHDVHV
7KHWUXHVWUHVVVWUDLQFXUYHLVUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHHTXDWLRQ
V = K . °n ... (1.3)
where V = Stress
° = Strain
K = A constant, known as strength
FRHI¿FLHQW
n 6WUDLQKDUGHQLQJH[SRQHQW
IRUWUXHVWUHVVVWUDLQFXUYH
IRU HQJLQHHULQJ VWUHVVVWUDLQ
FXUYHZKHUHK is replaced by E,
the modulus of elasticity.
7KHKLJKHUYDOXHRIn indicates that material

FDQEHVWUHWFKHGXQLIRUPO\ZLWKUHODWLYHHDVH
before it begins to neck. This is an important Fig. 1.4 A comparison between engineering and
consideration in forming operations, where true stress-strain curves.
work material is stretched beyond elastic
UHJLRQ$QHQJLQHHULQJFXUYHDQGDWUXHFXUYHDUHFRPSDUHGLQ)LJ
7KHVSHFLPHQ¶VQHFNHGUHJLRQLVVXEMHFWHGWRWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOWHQVLOHVWUHVVHV7KLVVWDWHJLYHV
KLJKHUVWUHVVYDOXHVWKDQWKHDFWXDOWUXHVWUHVVKHQFHWKHFXUYHPXVWEHFRUUHFWHGGRZQZDUGDVVKRZQ
in Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5 Correction in the stress-strain curve for neck formation.

1.4 POISSON’S RATIO

:KHQDEDULVVXEMHFWHGWRDWHQVLRQWHVWWKHUHLVDQLQFUHDVHLQLWVOHQJWKLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIORDG
DSSOLHG EXW DW WKH VDPH WLPH WKHUH LV D FRQWUDFWLRQ RI WKH ODWHUDO GLPHQVLRQV LQ WKH WUDQVYHUVH
direction (direction perpendicular to the direction of load applied). These changes in dimensions are
UHODWHGWRHDFKRWKHUE\3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRQ,GH¿QHGDV
Lateral strain
Q =– ... (1.4)
Longitudinal strain
1HJDWLYHVLJQLQGLFDWHVWKDWLIORQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQLQFUHDVHVODWHUDOVWUDLQGHFUHDVHV)RUPRVWPHWDOV
vLVDERXWDQGIRUFRUNLWLVFORVHWR]HURZKLFKPDNHVFRUNVRXVHIXOIRUVWRSSHUVRQERWWOHV,Q
VRPHH[WUHPHFDVHVYDOXHVOLNHFHPHQWFRQFUHWHDQGUXEEHUKDYHEHHQREVHUYHG,WVYDOXH
is same in tension as well as in compression.
1.5 DUCTILITY
The ductility of a material enables it to be easily long stretched without failure and drawn into thin
ZLUHV$KLJKHUYDOXHRIGXFWLOLW\LQGLFDWHVWKDWDPDWHULDOFDQVXVWDLQODUJHWHQVLOHVWUDLQXSWRWKH
SRLQWRIUXSWXUH$SURSHUW\YHU\FORVHO\UHODWHGWRGXFWLOLW\LVPDOOHDELOLW\ZKLFKGH¿QHVDPDWHULDO¶V
ability to be hammered out in thin sheets. A typical example of a malleable material is lead, which is
used in plumbing work for weatherproof seal.
The ductility is usually measured in terms of percentage elongation, which is expressed as
l f − lo
Percentage elongation = ×100 ... (1.5)
lo
where lf = Final length
lo = Original length
The ductility is also measured in terms of reduction in area (RA), which is expressed as
Ao − Af
RA = ×100 ... (1.6)
Ao
where Ao and Af UHSUHVHQWWKHRULJLQDODQGWKH¿QDOFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDUHVSHFWLYHO\
9DOXHVIRUWZRPHDVXUHVDUHKLJKLQDGXFWLOHPDWHULDODQGDUHQLOLQDQRQGXFWLOHPDWHULDO&KDON
KDV]HURGXFWLOLW\EHFDXVHLWGRHVQRWVWUHWFKDWDOORAFDQUDQJHIURPEULWWOHWRH[WUHPHO\
SODVWLF$QDUELWUDU\VWUDLQRILQFKLQFKLVIUHTXHQWO\WDNHQDVWKHGLYLGLQJOLQHEHWZHHQEULWWOH
DQGGXFWLOHPDWHULDOV)RUUHODWLYHO\GXFWLOHPDWHULDOVWKHEUHDNLQJVWUHQJWKLVOHVVWKDQWKHXOWLPDWH
tensile strength, and necking precedes fracture. For a brittle material, fracture usually occurs before
QHFNLQJDQGSRVVLEO\EHIRUHWKHRQVHWRISODVWLFÀRZ
1.6 ELONGATION PRODUCED IN A TEST SPECIMEN
Load P
Stress (V) = =
Area A
Change in length (elongation) dl

Strain (°) = =
Original length lo
σ ⎛P⎞ ⎛ dl ⎞ Pl o
0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\ E = = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟=
∈ ⎝ A⎠ ⎝ lo ⎠ Adl
Plo
dl =
AE
1.7 SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR STRAIN

The shear stress is produced as a result of the shear force applied tangential to the surface of a body.
Shear force F
0DWKHPDWLFDOO\ 6KHDUVWUHVVW = = s ... (1.7)
Shear area As
The shear strain is produced by the shear stress, and is measured by the change in the angle, but
FDXVHVQRFKDQJHLQWKHYROXPHRIDERG\,Q)LJa), a block ABCD is subjected to a shear force
Fs on its upper face CD, while the lower face ABUHPDLQV¿[HG'XHWRDSSOLFDWLRQRIFs, the body
deforms and takes new shape as ABCD making an angle IZLWKWKHYHUWLFDO$WWKHVDPHWLPHWKH
shear stresses are produced on the faces CD and ABDQGFRPSOHPHQWDU\VKHDUVWUHVVHVRIHTXDOYDOXH
but of opposite effect are set up on the faces AD and BCLQRUGHUWRSUHYHQWWKHURWDWLRQRIWKHERG\
For xySODQHERWKVKHDUVWUHVVHVDUHGHQRWHGE\WKHV\PEROWxy as shown in Fig. 1.6 (b). The shear
VWUDLQLQWKLVFDVHLVJLYHQE\
Wxy
D C
Wxy A B
(a) A body subjected to a shear force Fs (b&RPSOHPHQWDU\VKHDUVWUHVVRQIDFHVAD and BC
Fig. 1.6
DD a dl
tan I ~ I = =
AD l
The modulus of rigidity or the shear modulus (GLVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLRRIWKHVKHDUVWUHVVWRWKHVKHDU

strain.
τ
G = ... (1.9)
φ
1.8 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN

7KHYROXPHWULFVWUDLQUHVXOWVGXHWRFKDQJHLQWKHYROXPHRIDERG\,WLVDUDWLRRIWKHFKDQJHLQ
YROXPHWRWKHRULJLQDOYROXPHDQGLVDOVRFDOOHGGLODWDWLRQ
dV
0DWKHPDWLFDOO\9ROXPHWULFVWUDLQ °V =
V
where V 2ULJLQDOYROXPH
dV &KDQJHLQYROXPH
7KH YROXPHWULF VWUDLQ IRU D ERG\ VXEMHFWHG WR WKUHH PXWXDOO\ SHUSHQGLFXODU QRUPDO VWUHVVHV LV
JLYHQDV
°V = °x + °y + °z ... (1.11)
where °x, °y and °z are the strains produced in x, y and zGLUHFWLRQVUHVSHFWLYHO\DQGDUHJLYHQDV

σx σy σ ⎫
∈x = −ν −ν z ⎪
E E E⎪
σy σz σx ⎪
∈y = −ν −ν ⎬
E E E⎪
σ σ σy ⎪
and ∈z = z − ν x − ν ⎪ ... (1.12)
E E E ⎭
where Vx, Vy and Vz are the normal stresses in x, y and zGLUHFWLRQVUHVSHFWLYHO\
where V 3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLR
E 0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\
The equation (1.11), on substituting equation (1.12), changes to
σx +σy +σz
°V = (1 – 2Q) ... (1.13)
E
For Vx = Vy = Vz = V, the equation (1.13) reduces to
3V
°V = (1 – 2Q) ... (1.14)
E
For a circular rod of diameter d and length l,WKHYROXPHWULFVWUDLQLVJLYHQDV
°V = 2°d + °l ... (1.15)
where °d = Strain produced in the diameter
°l = Strain produced in the length
For a sphere of diameter dWKHH[SUHVVLRQIRUYROXPHWULFVWUDLQLV

°V = 3°d ... (1.16)
1.9 BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

&RQVLGHU D FXEH RI VLGH l is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses of equal intensity
(Vx = Vy = Vz = V) as shown in Fig. 1.7.
Fig. 1.7
The bulk modulus of elasticity (K) LVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLRRIWKHYROXPHWULFVWUHVVV) or the uniform

pressure intensity (pWRWKHYROXPHWULFVWUDLQ°V).
σ p
0DWKHPDWLFDOO\ K = = ... (1.17)
∈V ∈V
1.10 ELASTIC CONSTANTS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS

7KHUHDUHWKUHHHODVWLFFRQVWDQWVQDPHO\HODVWLFPRGXOXVDOVRFDOOHG<RXQJ¶VPRGXOXVRUPRGXOXV
of elasticity, denoted by E), shear modulus (also called modulus of rigidity, denoted by G) and bulk
modulus (also called bulk modulus of elasticity, denoted by K). These constants are related to each
RWKHUWKURXJK3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRv).
1.10.1 Relationship between E and G

&RQVLGHUDFXEHABCD of side l being subjected to a shear force FsDVVKRZQLQ)LJa). The
shear force produces shear stresses on sides CD and AB and complementary shear stresses on sides
(a) A cube subjected to a shear force Fs (b&XEHABCD deformed to ABCcDc due to Fs

Fig. 1.8
AD and BC. The cube gets deformed due to the applied shear force and takes the new shape ABC cDc
PDNLQJDQDQJOHZLWKWKHYHUWLFDOFDOOHGWKHVKHDUVWUDLQDVVKRZQLQ)LJb). The diagonal AC
elongates to AC c whereas the diagonal BD is shortened.
Drop perpendicular form point C on AC c.
Assume that the strain produced are small so that < CCcE = 45°.
Now AC = AB 2 + BC 2
= BC 2 + BC 2 (as AB = BC)
= 2 BC
AC ′− AC
Longitudinal strain in AC =
AC
EC ′ CC ′cos 45°
= =
AC AC
1
CC ′ ×
2
= (on substituting AC)
2 BC
1 CC ′
= ×
2 BC
φ
=
2
CC ′
where = tan I = IIRUVPDOOYDOXHRII)
BC
%\GH¿QLWLRQ
Shear stress τ
Shear modulus G =
Shear strain φ
τ
or I =
G
Substituting ILQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
φ τ
Longitudinal strain in AC = = ... (1.19)
2 2G
Therefore, the longitudinal strain in diagonal ACLVRQHKDOIRIWKHVKHDUVWUDLQZKLFKLVWHQVLOH
in nature. Similarly the longitudinal strain in diagonal BD LV RQHKDOI RI WKH VKHDU VWUDLQ EXW LV
FRPSUHVVLYHLQQDWXUH
On replacing the shear stress system by a system of direct stress at 45° as shown in Fig. 1.9, we
KDYHWHQVLOHGLUHFWVWUHVVV1 along the diagonal ACDQGFRPSUHVVLYHGLUHFWVWUHVVV2 along the diagonal
BDDQGWKHVHWZRVWUHVVHVDUHHTXDOLQYDOXHWRWKHDSSOLHGVKHDUVWUHVVHV
Fig. 1.9 Direct stresses due to shear.

8VLQJWKHGLUHFWVWUHVVV\VWHPIRUWKHGLDJRQDOVZHKDYH
σ σ
Strain in AC = 1 − ν 2
E E
τ ( − τ)
= −ν
E E
τ ντ
= +
E E
τ
= (1 + Q
E
&RPSDULQJHTXDWLRQVDQGZHJHW
τ τ
= (1 + Q)
2G E
Hence, E = 2G (1 + Q) ... (1.21)
This is the required relationship between E and G.
1.10.2 Relationship between E and K

&RQVLGHUDFXEHRIVLGHl subjected to three equal stresses V along the three mutually perpendicular
directions, that is, Vx = Vy = Vz = V DFWLQJRQDOOWKHVLGHVDVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 1.10 A cube subjected to equal stresses V on all the sides.

(TXDOOLQHDUVWUDLQVDUHSURGXFHGDORQJDQ\GLUHFWLRQEHFDXVHRIXQLIRUPVWUHVVDFWLQJRQHYHU\
equal side, that is, x = y = ].
Total linear strain produced along any direction
σ σ σ
= −v −v
E E E
σ
= (1 – 2Q) ... (1.22)
E
Also Volumetric strain = 3 × Linear strain
3σ
= (1 − 2v ) (using equation (1.22)) ... (1.23)
E
%\GH¿QLWLRQ
Volumetric stress
Bulk modulus K =
Volumetric strain
ZKLFKJLYHV
Volumetric stress σ
Volumetric strain = = ... (1.24)
Bulk modulus K
&RPSDULQJHTXDWLRQVDQGZHKDYH

σ 3σ
= (1 − 2v )
K E
Hence, E = 3K (1 – 2Q) ... (1.25)
This is the required relationship between E and K.
1.10.3 Relationship between G and K

The relationship between E and G is
E = 2G (1 + Q)
E
=1+Q
2G
E
or Q = –1 ... (1.26)
2G
The relationship between E and KLVJLYHQDV
E = 3K (1 – 2Q)
E
= 1 – 2Q
3K
1 E
or Q = − ... (1.27)
2 6K
&RPSDULQJHTXDWLRQVDQGZHKDYH

E 1 E E E 1
=–1 = − + = 1+
2G 2 6K 2G 6 K 2
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 3 ⎛ 3K + G ⎞ 3
+
⎝ 2G 6 K ⎟⎠ = 2
or E⎜ E⎜ =
⎝ 6 KG ⎟⎠

2
9 KG
Hence, E =
( 3K + G )
This is the required relationship between G and K.

7KHYDOXHVRIWKHHODVWLFFRQVWDQWVRIVRPHPDWHULDOVDUHJLYHQLQ7DEOH7DEOHDQG7DEOH
Table 1.1 Young’s Modulus (E), Elastic Limit (e), Maximum Elastic Strain (%) and Tensile
Strength of some materials
Young’s modulus Elastic limit Maximum elastic Tensile strength

Materials
(GPa) (MPa) strain (%) (MPa)
Steel
:URXJKWLURQ
&RSSHU
Aluminium
Table 1.2 Shear Modulus (G) of some materials
Materials G (GPa)
Steel
Iron
&RSSHU
Glass
Aluminium 25
:RRG
Table 1.3 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K) of some materials
Materials K (GPa)
Steel
&RSSHU
Iron
Aluminium
Glass 36
0HUFXU\ 25
:DWHU 2.2
1.11 FACTOR OF SAFETY

During the design of many structures or components meant for engineering applications, a factor
usually called factor of safety, is introduced in their design parameters which ensures their safety
with respect to uncertainties of loading conditions, design procedures or production methods. It is
denoted by nDQGLVGH¿QHGDV
Maximum stress σ
Factor of safety (n) = = max ... (1.29)
Allowable or working stress σw
$V WKH \LHOG VWUHVV GH¿QHV WKH IDLOXUH FULWHULD IRU PRVW RI WKH HQJLQHHULQJ PDWHULDOV XQGHUJRLQJ
WHQVLRQKHQFHLWLVFRQVLGHUHGWKHPD[LPXPVWUHVVDQGWKHIDFWRURIVDIHW\LVDOVRGH¿QHGDV
Yield stress σy
Factor of safety (n) = =
Allowable or working stress σw
7KH IDFWRU RI VDIHW\ GHSHQGV XSRQ WKH ULVNV LQYROYHG ZKLOH XVLQJ WKH FRPSRQHQW &RPSRQHQWV
VXEMHFWHGWRG\QDPLFÀXFWXDWLQJRULPSDFWORDGLQJVLWXDWLRQVZLOOUHTXLUHKLJKHUIDFWRURIVDIHW\$
factor of safety of 2 implies that the component is capable of withstanding two times the maximum
VWUHVV XQGHU WKH QRUPDO ORDGLQJ FRQGLWLRQ ,WV W\SLFDO YDOXH OLHV EHWZHHQ IRU VWDWLF ORDGLQJ
FRQGLWLRQDQGIRUVKRFNORDGLQJ
Example 1.1
'XULQJDWHQVLRQWHVWDPLOGVWHHOVSHFLPHQRIGLDPHWHUPPDQGJDXJHOHQJWKPPHORQJDWHV
WRPP7KHURGFDQVXVWDLQDPD[LPXPORDGRIN1EXW\LHOGVDWN1DQGEUHDNVDWN1
Find its yield strength, ultimate strength, strength at the point of failure, actual strength at the point of
IDLOXUHZKHQWKHGLDPHWHULVUHGXFHGWRPP$OVR¿QGWKHSHUFHQWDJHHORQJDWLRQDQGWKHSHUFHQWDJH
reduction in area.
Solution: *LYHQ
Initial diameter, d1 = 12 mm
Final diameter, d2 PP
Initial length, l1 PP
Final length, l2 = 75 mm
8OWLPDWHORDG N1
Yielding load = 25 kN
%UHDNLQJORDG N1
π 2
,QLWLDOFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHD A1 = d1
4
π
= × 122 PP2
4
π 2 π
)LQDOFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHD A2 = d 2 = × 82 PP2
4 4
The yield strength is obtained as
Load at the yield point
Vyp =
Initial cross-sectional area
25 u 103
= 1PP2 Ans.
113.09
The ultimate strength is found as
Maximum load
Vu =
50 u 103
= 1PP2 Ans.
113.09
7KHVWUHQJWKDWWKHIDLOXUHSRLQWLVJLYHQDV
Load at the failure point
Vf =
30 u 103
= 1PP2 Ans.
113.09
The actual strength at the failure point is obtained as
Load at the failure point
Vfa =
Final cross-sectional area
30 u 103
= 1PP2 Ans.
50.26
7KHSHUFHQWDJHHORQJDWLRQLVJLYHQDV
l2 − l1
HORQJDWLRQ × 100
l1
75 − 60
= × 100 Ans.
60
The percentage reduction in area is found as
A1 − A2
RA = × 100
A1
113.09 − 50.26
= × 100 Ans.
113.09
Example 1.2
$PVROLGVWHHOEDURIGLDPHWHUPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDSXOORIN1)LQGWKHLQFUHDVHLQOHQJWK
RIWKHEDU$OVR¿QGWKHVWUHVVDQGWKHVWUDLQSURGXFHGLQWKHEDU7DNHE N1PP2.
Solution: Refer Fig. 1.11.
Fig. 1.11
*LYHQ'LDPHWHURIWKHEDU d PP

Length of the bar, l P î PP
Pull force, P N1 5 N
7KHLQFUHDVHLQOHQJWKLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIORDGDSSOLHGLVJLYHQDV
Pl
dl =
AE
105 × 2000
=
π / 4 × 1002 × 200 × 103
PP Ans.
The strain produced in the bar is obtained as
dl 0.127 mm
° = =
l 2000 mm
= 6.36 –5 Ans.
7KHVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHEDULVJLYHQDV
V = °E = 6.36 –5
1PP2 Ans.
Example 1.3
$EDURIGLIIHUHQWFURVVVHFWLRQVLVVXEMHFWHGWRDWHQVLOHIRUFHRIN1)LJ)LQGWKHVWUHVVHV
in different sections and the total elongation produced in the bar. Take E N1PP2.
Fig. 1.12
For part AB For part BC For part CD

Length l1 PP l2 PP l3 PP
Diameter d1 PP d2 PP d3 PP
7KHORDGDFWLQJRQHDFKFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHEDULVWKHVDPHWKDWLVN1
50 × 103
Stress in AB =
π / 4 × 402
1PP2 Ans.
50 × 103
Stress in BC =
π / 4 × 202
1PP2 Ans.
50 × 103
Stress in CD =
π / 4 × 102
1PP2 Ans.
Hence, the maximum stress is induced in CD and the minimum stress in AB.
7KHWRWDOHORQJDWLRQRIWKHEDULVJLYHQDV
Pl1 Pl Pl P⎡l l l ⎤
dl = 2 3 = ⎢ 1 + 2 + 3 ⎥
A1 E A2 E A3 E E ⎣ A1 A2 A3 ⎦
50 × 103 ⎡ 80 60 40 ⎤
= ⎢ + +
200 × 103 ⎣ π / 4 × 40
2
π / 4 × 20 π / 4 × 102 ⎥⎦
2
PP Ans.
Example 1.4
$ SULVPDWLF EDU RI PP GLDPHWHU LV VXEMHFWHG WR GLIIHUHQW D[LDO IRUFHV DV VKRZQ LQ )LJ
&DOFXODWHWKHQHWFKDQJHLQOHQJWKRIWKHEDU7DNHE N1PP2.
Fig. 1.13

For part AB For part BC For part CD
Length l1 = 3 m l2 = 2 m l3 = 1 m
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDVRIWKHWKUHHSDUWVDUHHTXDO
π
A1 = A2 = A3 = A = × 10 PP2
2
4
7KHIUHHERG\GLDJUDPRIHYHU\SDUWRIWKHEDULVVKRZQLQ)LJ(DFKSDUWLVVXEMHFWHGWRD
FRPSUHVVLYHIRUFH
The change in length of ABGXHWRN1LVJLYHQDV
Pl 50 × 103 × 3 × 103
dl1 = – 11
=− = – 9.55 mm
AE 78.54 × 200 × 103
The change in length of BC due WRN1LVJLYHQDV
P2 l2 60 × 103 × 2 × 103
dl2 = − =− = – 7.64 mm
AE 78.54 × 200 × 103
Fig. 1.14
The change in length of CDGXHWRN1LVREWDLQHGDV

P3l3 80 u 103 u 1 u 103
dl3 = – = = –PP
AE 78.54 u 200 u 103
+HQFHWKHWRWDOFKDQJHLQOHQJWKRIWKHEDULVJLYHQDV
dl = – (dl1 + dl2 + dl3)
= –PP –PP
PP'HFUHDVH Ans.
Example 1.5
A rod consists of three bars of unequal diameters (Fig. 1.15). Their diameters and lengths
DUH VKRZQ LQ WKH ¿JXUH )LQG WKH VWUHVV LQ HDFK EDU$OVR ¿QG WKH HORQJDWLRQ RI WKH URG 7DNH
E N1PP2.
Fig. 1.15

For bar AB For bar BC For bar CD
Length l1 = 1.5 m l2 = 2.5 m l3 P
Diameter d1 PP d2 PP d3 PP
The FBD of each bar is shown in Fig. 1.16.
Fig. 1.16
7KHIRUFHVLQEDUVDQGDUHFRPSUHVVLYHDQGLQEDULVWHQVLOH

7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDVRIWKUHHEDUVDUHIRXQGDV
π 2 π
A1 = d1 = × 202 = 314.16 mm2
4 4
π 2 π
A2 = d 2 = × 402 = 1256.63 mm2
4 4
π 2 π
and A3 = d3 = × 302 PP2
4 4
The stresses induced in three bars are obtained as
P1 10 × 103
V1 = = 1PP2 & Ans.
A1 314.16
P2 30 × 103
V2 = = 1PP2 & Ans.
A2 1256.63
P3 60 × 103
and V3 = = 1PP2 (T) Ans.
A3 706.86
+HQFHWKHPD[LPXPVWUHVVLVGHYHORSHGLQCD and the minimum stress in BC.
The changes in length of three bars are obtained as
P1 l1 10 × 103 × 1.5 × 103

dl1 = – = − = –PP
A1 E 314.16 × 200 × 103
P2 l2 30 × 103 × 2.5 × 103

dl2 = – = − = –PP
A2 E 1256.63 × 200 × 103
P3 l3 60 u 103 u 2 u 103
and dl3 = = PP
A3 E 706.86 u 200 u 103
+HQFHWKHFKDQJHLQOHQJWKRIWKHURGLVJLYHQDV
dl = dl1 + dl2 + dl3
±±PP
PP,QFUHDVH Ans.

Example 1.6
$PVWHHOEDURIGLDPHWHUPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOSXOORIN1&DOFXODWHWKHFKDQJHLQ
OHQJWK GLDPHWHU DQG YROXPH RI WKH EDU LI WKH 3RLVVRQ¶V UDWLR LV $OVR ¿QG WKH ZRUNGRQH LQ
stretching the bar. Take E N1PP2.
Solution: *LYHQ
Initial diameter of the steel bar, d = 15 mm
Initial length of the steel bar, l = 2 m = 2 PP
Pull force, P N1 4 N
3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLR Q
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHVWHHOEDULV
π 2 π
A = d = × 152 = 176.71 mm2
4 4
The normal stress produced in the bar is
P 5 × 104
V = = 1PP2
A 176.71
The strain produced is
σ 282.92
° = = = 1.414 –3
E 200 × 103
Change in length Δl
Also ° = =
Initial length l
or ' l = °. l
= 1.414 –3 PP Ans.
3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRLV
Lateral strain
Q =
Longitudinal strain
(Change in diameter/Initial diameter) ( Δ d / d )

= =
(Change in length/Initial leength) ( Δl / l )
Δd Δl
= Q
d l
1.414 –3 = 3.535 –4

or 'd = d 3.535 –4
=15 3.535 –4 PP Ans.
7KHYROXPHRIWKHEDULV
π 2
V = d ×l
4
π
= × 152 × 2000 = 353429.17 mm3
4
dV
Now = ° (1 – 2Q)
V
or dV = V ° (1 – 2Q)
= 353429.17 1.414 –3 (1 – 2
PP3 Ans.
The workdone in stretching the bar is obtained as
1
W = × P × Δl
2
1
= u 5 u 104 u 2.83 1PP -RXOHV Ans.
2
Example 1.7
Find the expression for the elongation of a tapered bar of length lZKRVHGLDPHWHUYDULHVXQLIRUPO\
from d at one end to D at other end, when subjected to an axial pull P with E as modulus of elasticity.
Fig. 1.17
&RQVLGHUDQHOHPHQWRIWKLFNQHVVdx at a distance x from A, where diameter is d.

The diameter at CLVJLYHQDV
⎛D−d ⎞
dc = d + ⎜ ⎟x
⎝ l ⎠
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHEDUDWC is
2
π 2 π ⎡ ⎛D−d ⎞ ⎤
Ac = d ′ = ⎢ d +⎜ ⎟ x⎥
4 4⎣ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎦
The elongation produced in the element is
P . dx
dlc =
A′ E
The elongation produced in the bar is found as
l l
4P . dx 4Pl
dl = ∫ dl ′ = ∫ πE ⎡ D−d. ⎤
2 =
πEDd
0 0
⎢⎣ d + x ⎥⎦
l
Example 1.8
Find the expression for the elongation of a conical bar of length l and base diameter d under its own
ZHLJKWDVVKRZQLQ)LJ7DNHWKHGHQVLW\RILWVPDWHULDODVU and the modulus of elasticity E.
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
Fig. 1.18
&RQVLGHUDVHFWLRQRIWKLFNQHVVdx at a distance x from the apex of the cone.

The diameter of the bar at the section is
d
dc = . x
l
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDDWWKHVHFWLRQLV
π ′2 π d 2 x2
Ac = d = × 2
4 4 l
The weight of the cone below the section is

1
Pc = Area Length Density g
3
1 ⎛π 2 ⎞
= ⎜ d′ ⎟ × x × ρ × g
3⎝4 ⎠
π d2 ρ g 3
= x
12 l 2
The elongation produced in the length dxLVJLYHQDV
P ′ . dx xU g
dlc = = dx
A′.E 3E
Hence, the total elongation of the bar is obtained as
xρg
l l
ρgl 2
dl = ∫ dl ′ = ∫
0 0
3E
dx =
6E
Example 1.9
,Q)LJ¿QGWKHIRUFHPVRWKDWWKHQHWGHFUHDVHLQWKHOHQJWKRIWZREDUVLVPP7DNH
Es N1PP2
Eb N1PP2.
Fig. 1.19
Solution: *LYHQ/HQJWKRIWKHVWHHOEDU l1 PP
Diameter of the steel bar, d1 PP
Length of the brass bar, l2 PP
Diameter of the brass bar, d2 PP

π 2 π
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHVWHHOEDU A1 = d1 = × 402 = 1256.63 mm2
4 4
π π
= × d 2 = × 20 = 314.16 mm2
2 2
&URVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHEUDVVEDUA2
4 4
Force P is acting on both bars. Both bars will contract on the application of P and the net decrease
in length of two bars is the sum of two contractions.
&RQWUDFWLRQLQVWHHOEDU&RQWUDFWLRQLQEUDVVEDU
Pl1 Pl2
=
A1 E1 A2 E2
P × 250 P × 300
= + î–5P
1256.63 × 200 × 10 3
314.16 × 100 × 103
or P = 33194.24 N Ans.
Example 1.10
$VROLGVWHHOEDURIGLDPHWHUPPDQGOHQJWKPPLVSODFHGLQVLGHDQDOXPLQLXPF\OLQGHU
RILQVLGHGLDPHWHUPPDQGRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUPP7KHVWHHOEDULVVKRUWHUWKDQDOXPLQLXP
F\OLQGHUE\PP$FRPSUHVVLYHORDGRIN1LVDSSOLHGRQWKHDVVHPEO\WKURXJKWZR
FRYHUSODWHVRQLWVERWKVLGHV)LJ)LQGWKHVWUHVVHVLQGXFHGLQWKHF\OLQGHUDQGEDU7DNH
E S N1PP 2 and E Al N1PP 2.
Fig. 1.20
Solution: *LYHQ
Diameter of the steel bar, d PP
Length of the steel bar, lS PP
Inside diameter of the aluminium cylinder, di PP
Outside diameter of the aluminium cylinder, do PP
Length of the aluminium cylinder, lAl PP
PP
Let stress in the steel bar = VS
Stress in aluminium cylinder = VAl
Assume that the aluminium cylinder contracts by an amount dlRQWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKHJLYHQORDG
The contraction in the steel bar = (dl±PP
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHVWHHOEDULV
π 2
AS = d
4
π
= × 60 PP2
2
4
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHDOXPLQLXPF\OLQGHULVIRXQGDV
π 2
AAl =(d o − di2 )
4
π
= (110 − 70 ) PP2
2 2
4
7KHVWUDLQSURGXFHGLQWKHDOXPLQLXPF\OLQGHULVJLYHQDV
dl
°Al =
350.25
7KHVWUDLQSURGXFHGLQWKHVWHHOEDULVJLYHQDV
dl 0.25
°S =
350
7KHORDGRQWKHFRYHUSODWHLVVKDUHGE\ERWKWKHVWHHOEDUDQGWKHDOXPLQLXPF\OLQGHU
3 = VS AS + VAl AAl
= ES S AS + EAl Al AAl
dl − 0.25 ⎞
3 ⎛⎜ 3 dl
⎟ 350.25
⎝ 350 ⎠
6ROYLQJIRUdl, we get
dl PP
Hence, the stress in the steel bar is obtained as

VS = ES °S
0.511 0.25
3 1PP2 Ans.
350
and stress in the aluminium cylinder is obtained as
VAl = EAl °Al

0.511
3 1PP2 Ans.
350.25
Example 1.11
An assembly of a steel bar enclosed in an aluminium tube is compressed between two rigid parallel
SODWHVE\DIRUFHRIN1)LJ7KHGLDPHWHURIWKHVWHHOEDULVPPOHQJWKRIERWKVWHHO
EDUDQGDOXPLQLXPWXEHLVP7KHLQVLGHDQGWKHRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUVRIWKHDOXPLQLXPWXEHDUHPP
DQGPPUHVSHFWLYHO\)LQGWKHVWUHVVHVLQWKHEDUDQGWKHWXEH7DNH
ES N1PP2
and EAl N1PP2.
Fig. 1.21

*LYHQ/RDGRQWKHDVVHPEO\ P 3 N
Diameter of the steel bar, d PP
Inside diameter of the aluminium tube, di PP
Outside diameter of the aluminium tube, do PP
Let Vs = Stress produced in the steel bar
VAl = Stress produced in the aluminium tube
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHVWHHOEDULVIRXQGDV
π
As = d2
4
π
= î2 PP2
4
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHDOXPLQLXPWXEHLVIRXQGDV
π π
AAl = (do2 – di2) = 2±2 PP2
4 4
Strain produced in the steel bar = Strain produced in the aluminium tube
Vs V
= Al
Es E Al
Es
or Vs = . V Al
E Al
200 × 103
= × σ Al VAl
70 × 103
The applied load is shared by both members.
Vs As + VAl AAl 3
VAl VAl 3 (on substituting Vs)
2QVROYLQJZHJHWVAl 1PP2 Ans.
and Vs 1PP2 Ans.
Example 1.12
7ZRYHUWLFDOURGVRIVWHHODQGFRSSHUHDFKRIOHQJWKPDQGGLDPHWHUPPVHSDUDWHGE\DGLVWDQFH
RIPDUHULJLGO\¿[HGWRWKHFHLOLQJ)LJ7KHORZHUHQGVRIWKHWZRURGVDUHFRQQHFWHGE\D
KRUL]RQWDOFURVVSLHFH:KHUHVKRXOGDORDGRIN1EHDSSOLHGRQWKHFURVVSLHFHVRWKDWLWUHPDLQV
KRUL]RQWDODIWHUEHLQJORDGHG"7DNH
Es N1PP2
and Ec N1PP2.
Fig. 1.22
Let the load 15 kN is applied at a distance x from the center of the copper rod and Ps and Pc are
WKHORDGVVKDUHGE\WKHVWHHODQGFRSSHUURGUHVSHFWLYHO\
Now 15 3 = Ps + Pc
= Vs As + Vc Ac ... (1)
π
But As = Ac = 2
4
PP2
2QVXEVWLWXWLQJWKHDUHDLQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
15 3 = (Vs + Vc

or (Vs + Vc 1PP2 ... (2)
6LQFHWKHFURVVSLHFHUHPDLQVKRUL]RQWDOKHQFHHTXDOVWUDLQVDUHSURGXFHGLQERWKURGV
Vs Vc
=
Es Ec
Es
or Vs = Vc
Ec
200 × 103
= × σc = 2Vc
100 × 103
8VLQJWKLVUHODWLRQLQHTXDWLRQZHJHW
2Vc + Vc
or Vc = 1PP2
and Vs = 2Vc
= 2 63.66
1PP2
The load shared by the steel rod is
Ps = Vs As
N1
and Pc ±N1
= 5 kN
7DNLQJPRPHQWVRIWKHORDGVDERXWWKHFHQWUHRIWKHFRSSHUURGZHKDYH
Ps 1.5 = 15 x
10 u 1.5
or x = = 1m
15
+HQFHWKHORDGRQWKHFURVVSLHFHVKRXOGEHDSSOLHGDWDGLVWDQFHRIPIURPWKHFHQWUHRIWKH
copper rod. Ans.
Example 1.13
7ZRVWHHOURGVDQGRQHEUDVVURGHDFKRIPPGLDPHWHUDUHDUUDQJHGYHUWLFDOO\WRWDNHDORDGRI
25 kN as shown in Fig. 1.23. Take Es N1PP2 and Eb N1PP2.
Fig. 1.23
*LYHQ
Diameter of each rod, d PP
Length of the steel rod, ls = 3 m
Length of the brass rod, lb = 2.5 m
Area of the steel rod, A = Area of the brass rod
π π
= × d 2 = × 2 PP2
4 4
Let Vs = Stress in the steel rod
Vb = Stress in the brass rod
°s = Strain produced in the steel rod
°b = Strain produced in the brass rod
:KHQWKHORDGDFWVDOOWKHWKUHHURGVUHGXFHLQWKHLUOHQJWKVE\DQHTXDODPRXQW
Decrease in length of the steel rod = Decrease in length of the brass rod
V s ls Vb lb
=
Es Eb
σ s × 3 × 1000 σ × 2.5 × 1000
= b
200 × 10 3
100 × 103
or Vs = 1.67Vb
7KHJLYHQORDGLVVKDUHGE\WKHWKUHHURGV
2Vs . A + Vb . A = 25 3
( 2 1.67Vb + Vb) 3 (on substituting Vs)
2QVROYLQJZHJHW
Vb 1PP2 Ans.
and Vs 1PP2 Ans.
Example 1.14
The steel bolt shown in Fig. 1.24 has a thread pitch of 1.6 mm. If the nut is initially tightened up by
hand so as to cause no stress in the copper spacing tube, calculate the stress induced in the tube and
LQWKHEROWLIDVSDQQHULVWKHQXVHGWRWXUQWKHQXWWKURXJK7DNHEc *3DDQGEs *3D
Fig. 1.24
Solution: *LYHQ
Diameter of the steel bolt, ds PP
Inside diameter of the copper tube, di = 12 mm
Outside diameter of the copper tube, d PP
Length of the tube = Length of the bolt,
l PP
0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\IRUVWHHO Es *3D
î9 Pa
0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\IRUFRSSHUEc = *3D
î9 Pa
Pitch of the thread, p = 1.6 mm
π 2
Area of the bolt is As = ds
4
π
= × 102 PP2
4
π 2
Area of the tube is Ac = (d 0 − di2 )
4
π 2
= (18 − 122 ) = 141.37 mm2
4
7KHWHQVLOHIRUFHDFWLQJRQWKHEROWLVHTXDOWRWKHFRPSUHVVLYHIRUFHLQWKHWXEH$WWKHVDPHWLPH
the sum ('l) of increase in the length of the bolt ('ls) and decrease in the length of the tube ('lc) is
equal to the axial displacement of the nut.
90°
'l = 'ls + 'lc = p ×
360°
1
= 1.6 u PP
4
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
or Pl ⎢ + ⎥ ZKHUHPLVIRUFHWHQVLOHRUFRPSUHVVLYH
⎣ As Es Ac Ec ⎦
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
or P × 100 ⎢ −6
+ −6 9 ⎥
⎣ 78.54 × 10 × 209 × 10 141.37 × 10 × 100 × 10 ⎦
9
6ROYLQJIRUP, we get
P 1
Hence, stress in the bolt is

P 30395.14
Vs = = 1PP2 Ans.
As 78.54
P 30395.14
and stress in the tube is Vc =
Ac 141.37
= 215 1PP2 Ans.
Example 1.15
)LQG WKH PD[LPXP SHUPLVVLEOH YDOXH RI ORDG P IRU WKH ULYHWHG MRLQW VKRZQ LQ )LJ LI WKH
DOORZDEOH\LHOGVKHDUVWUHQJWKRIWKHULYHWPDWHULDOLV03D5LYHWVDUHPPLQGLDPHWHU
Fig. 1.25
Solution: *LYHQ
<LHOGVWUHQJWKRIULYHWPDWHULDO
Vyp 03D î6 Pa
'LDPHWHURIWKHULYHW d PP
1XPEHURIULYHWV n =4
If FEHWKHIRUFHLQDULYHWDQGOHWWKHULYHWEHLQVLQJOHVKHDUWKHQ
Pî n u F u 75 2
π
= 4 × ⎛⎜ d 2 × σ yp ⎞⎟ × 75 2
⎝4 ⎠
π −3 2
= 4 × (20 × 10 ) × 100 × 10 × 75 2
6
4
Hence, P 1 Ans.
Example 1.16
$ FLUFXODU URG RI GLDPHWHU PP DQG OHQJWK P LV VXEMHFWHG WR D WHQVLOH IRUFH RI N17KH
LQFUHDVH LQ OHQJWK RI WKH URG LV PP DQG WKH GHFUHDVH LQ GLDPHWHU LV PP &DOFXODWH
3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRDQGWKHWKUHHHODVWLFFRQVWDQWV
Solution: *LYHQ
Diameter of the rod, D = 25 mm
Length of the rod, l = 1.2 m
Tension force, F N1
Increase in length of the rod, dl PP
Decrease in diameter of the rod dD PP
Let vEH3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLR
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDA of the rod is found as
π 2 π
D = × ( 25)
2
A =
4 4
PP2
Calculation of modulus of elasticity E

The longitudinal stress VLVJLYHQDV
F 30 × 103
V = =
A 490.87
1PP2
The longitudinal strain LVJLYHQDV
dl 0.25 mm
= = î–4
l 1.2 × 1000 mm
σ 61.11
1RZ 0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\E = =
∈ 2.08 × 10 −4
1PP2 Ans.
Calculation of Poisson’s ratio v
dD 0.002 mm
Lateral Strain = = î–5
D 25 mm
Lateral strain
+HQFH 3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRv =
Longitudinal strain
8 × 10 −5
= Ans.
2.08 × 10 −4
Calculation of modulus of rigidity G

The relationship between E and GLVJLYHQDV
E = 2 G (1 + v)
E
or G =
2 (1 + ν)
293798.08
=
2 (1 + 0.384)
1PP2 Ans.
Calculation of bulk modulus of elasticity K

The relationship between E and KLVJLYHQDV
E = 3 K (1 – 2 v)
E
or K =
3 (1 − 2v)
293798.08
=
3{1 − ( 2 × 0.384)}
1PP2 Ans.
1.12 THERMAL STRESS AND STRAIN

0DWHULDOVH[SDQGRQKHDWLQJDQGFRQWUDFWRQFRROLQJ7KLVKHDWLQJDQGFRROLQJFKDQJHVWKHGLPHQVLRQV
RIDQREMHFWWKHUHE\SURGXFLQJVWUDLQLQWKHJLYHQPDWHULDO6XFKVWUDLQLVFDOOHGWKHUPDOVWUDLQ
:KHQWKHGHIRUPDWLRQGXHWRWHPSHUDWXUHFKDQJHLVUHVWULFWHGVWUHVVHVDUHLQGXFHGLQWKHPDWHULDO
Such stress is called thermal stress.
1.12.1 Thermal Stress and Strain in a Simple Bar

&RQVLGHUDEDURIOHQJWKlo¿[HGDWLWVERWKHQGV)LJ
Fig. 1.26
Let Tf = Final temperature

Ti = Initial temperature
'T &KDQJHLQWHPSHUDWXUH Tf – Ti

D &RHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQ
E 0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\RIWKHEDUPDWHULDO
dl &KDQJHLQOHQJWK
Suppose that the bar is heated, hence its temperature rises. If the bar were free to expand on
KHDWLQJWKHQLWVOHQJWKDWWKHLQFUHDVHGWHPSHUDWXUHLVJLYHQDV
lt = lo (1 + D 'T) ... (1.31)
where lt = Length at t&
lo = Length at room temperature
lt − lo
= D'T
lo
or °t = D'T ... (1.32)
where °t = Thermal strain
lt − lo
=
lo
dl
=
lo
Stress σ
Now E = = t
Strain ∈t
where Vt = Thermal stress induced in the bar
or Vt = °t E
= ED 'T (on substituting °t) ... (1.33)
1.12.2 Thermal Stress and Strain in a Compound Bar

A compound or composite bar is made of twRRUPRUHVLPLODURUGLIIHUHQWPDWHULDOV¿[HGDWWKHLUHQGV
E\ZHOGLQJRUULYHWLQJ,IWKHWZRPDWHULDOVDUHVDPHWKHQWKHFRPSRXQGEDUKDVHTXDOH[SDQVLRQ
or contraction for both, otherwise different expansion or contraction will result. The material with
KLJKHUFRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQH[SDQGVPRUHWKDQWKHRWKHU
&RQVLGHUDFRPSRXQGEDUFRQVLVWLQJRIWZRURGVDQGDVVKRZQLQ)LJLVKHDWHG
Let lo = Initial length of the compound bar (equal for both rods)
D1 &RHI¿FLHQWRIWhermal expansion of the rod (1)
D2 &RHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQRIWKHURG
E1 0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\RIWKHURG
E2 0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\RIWKHURG
Fig. 1.27
A1 &URVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHURG
A2 &URVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHURG
'T = Rise in temperature
dl = Elongation of the compound bar
Assuming D2 > D1, it means that rod (2) will expand more as compared to rod (1). If the two rods
were free to expand, then
Increase in length of the rod (1), dl1 = loD1 'T ... (1.34)
Increase in length of the rod (2), dl2 = loD2 'T ... (1.35)
Since the two rods are connected at their ends, hence on heating, the compound bar will expand
to an intermediate position RW as shown in Fig. 1.27. To get this intermediate position, the rod (1)
is being pulled by the rod (2) by a force P1 and the rod (2) is being pushed by the rod (1) by a force
P2. Because of no external force acting on the compound bar, the two forces are equal in magnitude.
7KHVWUHVVLQWKHURGLVJLYHQDV
⎡ (dl − dl1 )⎤
Vt = ⎢⎢ ⎥ E
⎥ 1 ... (1.36)
1 l
⎣ o ⎦
The corresponding force is
⎡ dl − dl1 ⎤
P1 = ⎢ ⎥ E .A ... (1.37)
⎢ lo ⎥ 1 1
⎣ ⎦
7KHVWUHVVLQWKHURGLVJLYHQDV
⎡ dl − dl ⎤
Vt = ⎢ 2 ⎥ E 2
2
The corresponding force is ⎣ lo ⎦
⎡ dl − dl ⎤
P2 = ⎢ 2 ⎥ E2.A2 ... (1.39)
⎣ lo ⎦
But P1 = P2
or ⎡ dl − dl1 ⎤ E A = ⎡ dl2 − dl ⎤ E A
⎢ ⎥ 1 1 ⎢ ⎥ 2 2
⎣ lo ⎦ ⎣ lo ⎦
8VLQJHTXDWLRQVDQGZHKDYH
(dl – loD1 'T) E1 A1 = (loD2 'T – dl) E2 A2
dl (A1 E1 + A2 E2) = lo 'T (D2 A2 E2 + D1 A1 E1)
lo ΔT (α1 A1 E1 + α2 A2 E2 )
Hence, dl =
A1 E1 + A2 E2
This is the expression for the elongation produced in the compound bar.
7KHWKHUPDOVWUDLQLVJLYHQDV
dl ΔT (α1 A1 E1 + α2 A2 E2 )
°t = = ... (1.41)
lo A1 E1 + A2 E2
Example 1.17
A 3 m bar is initially at a temperature of 24& ,W LV KHDWHG WR UDLVH LWV WHPSHUDWXUH WR &
Estimate the expansion of the bar. If the expansion is not allowed, find the stress in the bar. Take
E N1PP 2 and D î –5&
Solution: *LYHQ
Initial length of the bar, lo = 3 m = 3 3 mm
Initial temperature, Ti &
Final temperature, Tf &
The rise in temperature 'TLVJLYHQDV
'T = Tf – Ti
±& &
The expansion of the bar is found by using equation (1.31).
dl = lo D 'T
î3 î–5 56
PP Ans.
7KHWKHUPDOVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHEDULVJLYHQE\HTXDWLRQ
Vt = ED 'T
î3 1.2 –5 56
1PP2 Ans.
Example 1.18
$FRPSRVLWHEDULV¿[HGEHWZHHQWZRVXSSRUWV)LJ,IWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHEDULVUDLVHGIURP
&WR&¿QGWKHVWUHVVHVLQGXFHGLQHDFKURGE\DVVXPLQJa) if the supports do not yield and
(bLIWKHVXSSRUWV\LHOGE\PP
Take E1 N1PP2, D1 = 1.2 –5&
E2 N1PP2, D2 –5&
E3 N1PP2, D3 î–5&
Fig. 1.28
Solution: The composite bar AB consists of three rods (1), (2) and (3).
*LYHQ/HQJWKRIWKHURG l1 PP
Length of the rod (2), l2 PP
Length of the rod (3), l3 PP
Diameter of the rod (1), d1 PP
Rise in temperature, 'T = Tf – Ti ± &
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDVRIWKHWKUHHURGVDUHIRXQGDV
π 2 π
A1 = d = 2 = 1963.5 mm2
4 1 4
π π
A2 = d22 = 2 PP2
4 4
π π
A3 = d23 = 2 = 17671.46 mm2
4 4
,IWKHFRPSRVLWHEDUZHUHIUHHWRH[SDQGWKHQWKHLQGLYLGXDOH[SDQVLRQRIHDFKURGLVJLYHQDV
dl1 = l1 D1 'T
îî–5î PP
dl2 = l2 D2 'T
îî–5î PP
dl3 = l3 D3 'T
îî–5î PP
+HQFHWKHWRWDOH[SDQVLRQRIWKHFRPSRVLWHEDUZRXOGKDYHEHHQ
dl = dl1 + dl2 + dl3 PP
(a :KHQWKHVXSSRUWVGRQRW\LHOGWKHH[SDQVLRQRIWKHFRPSRVLWHEDULVSUHYHQWHGDQGKHQFH
FRPSUHVVLYHVWUHVVHVDUHLQGXFHGLQLW
Let P &RPSUHVVLYHIRUFHLQFRPSRVLWHEDU
&RPSUHVVLYHIRUFHLQHDFKURG
6WUHVVHVVWUDLQVDQGHORQJDWLRQVLQWKHURGVDQGDUHJLYHQDV
rod (1) rod (2) rod (3)
P P P
Stress V1 = V2 = V3 =
A1 A2 A3
P P P
= 1PP2 = 1PP2 = 1PP2
1963.5 7853.98 17671.46
P P P
Strain °1 = °2 = °3 =
A1 E1 A2 E2 A3 E3
P P P
= = =
3.927 q108 2.356 q108 1.767 q109
Elongation dl'1 = °1 l1 dl'2 = °2 l2 dl'3 = °3 l3
200 P 300 P 500 P
= = =
3.927 q108 2.356 q108 1.767 q109
The total elongation of the composite bar is found as
dl'1 + dl'2 + dl'3 = dl
200 P 300 P 500 P
+ + XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
3.927 ×108
2.356 ×108
1.767 ×109
–6P
6ROYLQJIRUP, we get P 1
Now the stresses induced in each rod are calculated as
P 382454.58
V1 = = 1PP2 Ans.
A1 1963.5
P 382454.58
V2 = = 1PP2 Ans.
A2 7853.98
P 382454.58
and V3 = = 1PP2 Ans.
A3 17671.46
(b:KHQWKHVXSSRUWVDWWKHHQGV\LHOGE\PPWKHQHWHORQJDWLRQSURGXFHGLVJLYHQDV
dl = (dl1 + dl2 + dl3±
± PP
+HQFH –6 P
6ROYLQJIRUP, we get P = 261424.65 N
Stresses in the rods are:
261424.65
V1 = 1PP2 Ans.
1963.5
261424.65
V2 = 1PP2 Ans.
7853.98
261424.65
and V3 = 1PP2 Ans.
17671.46
Hence, in both cases, the maximum stress is induced in rod (1) and the minimum stress in rod (3).
Example 1.19
$ ZHLJKW RI N1 LV VXSSRUWHG E\ WKUHH SLOODUV RI FURVVVHFWLRQ PP 2 each (Fig. 1.29). The
SLOODUVDUHVRDGMXVWHGWKDWDWDWHPSHUDWXUHRI&HDFKSLOODUFDUULHVHTXDOORDG)LQGWKHVWUHVVLQ
HDFKSLOODUDW&7DNH
E1 N1PP2, D1 î–5&
E2 N1PP2, D2 î–5&
E3 N1PP2, D3 î–5&
Fig. 1.29
Solution: *LYHQ
Load to be supported, P N1 î3 N
&URVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIHDFKURG A1 = A2 = A3 $ PP2
Initial temperature, Ti &
Final temperature, Tf &
Rise in temperature, 'T ±& &
2QKHDWLQJWKHSLOODUVZLOOWU\WRH[SDQGEXWWKHZHLJKWNHSWRQWKHPZLOOSUHYHQWWKHLUH[SDQVLRQ
thereby inducing stresses in them.
Initially i.e.DW&VWUHVVHVLQHDFKSLOODUDUHVDPHJLYHQE\
900 q103
V1 = V2 =V 3 = V = 1PP2 &RPSUHVVLYH
3q 600
Because of equal length and equal weight shared by each pillar, equal strains are produced in them,
say °%XWEHFDXVHRIKHDWLQJVWUDLQLQHDFKSLOODUFKDQJHVDQGWDNHVDQHZYDOXH
Net strain in rod (1) = ° – D1 'T
Due to heating, each pillar carries some different load but the total load remains the same. Hence
(° – D1 'T) A1 E1 + (° – D2 'T) A2 E2 + (° – D3 'T) A3 E3 î3
[(° – D1 'T) E1 + (° – D1 'T) E2+ (° – D3 'T) E3 ] A î3
%HFDXVHWKHSLOODUVDUHRIHTXDOFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDV
or [(°±î–5îîî3 + (°±î–5îîî3
+ (°±î–5îî3@î
3
î
6ROYLQJIRU°, we get
° î–3
Hence, stress in pillar (1) is
V1 = (° – D1 'T) E1
î–3±î–5îîî3 1PP2 Ans.
Stress in pillar (2) is
V2 = (° – D2 'T) E2
î–3±î–5îîî3 1PP2 Ans.
Stress in pillar (3) is
V3 = (° – D 3 'T) E3
î–3±î–5îî31PP2
1PP2 Ans.
$OOWKHVWUHVVHVDUHFRPSUHVVLYHLQQDWXUH
Example 1.20
$VWHHOEROWRIGLDPHWHUPPSDVVHVWKURXJKDEUDVVWXEHRILQWHUQDOGLDPHWHUPPDQGH[WHUQDO
GLDPHWHUPPDVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 1.30
The bolt is tightened by a nut so that the length of tube is reduced by 1.5 mm. If the temperature
RIWKHDVVHPEO\LVUDLVHGE\&HVWLPDWHWKHVWUHVVHVLQWKHEROWDQGWKHWXEHEHIRUHDQGDIWHUKHDW
ing. Take
Es N1PP2, Ds = 1.2 –5&
Eb N1PP2, Db = 1.9 –5&
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ*LYHQ
Diameter of the steel bolt, d PP
Internal diameter of the brass tube, di = 15 mm
External diameter of the brass tube, d = 25 mm
Length of the brass tube, l = 2 m = 2 PP
Rise in temperature, 'T &
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIVWHHOEROWLV
π 2 π
As =d = 2 PP2
4 4
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIEUDVVWXEHLVIRXQGDV
π π
Ab = (d2 – di2) = (252 – 152) = 314.16 mm2
4 4
During tightening of nut on the bolt, the stresses produced in bolt and tube are tensile and
FRPSUHVVLYHUHVSHFWLYHO\7KHWHQVLOHIRUFHLQWKHEROWLVHTXDOWRWKHFRPSUHVVLYHIRUFHLQWKHWXEH
because no external force is acting on the assembly.
Vs As = Vb Ab
Vsî Vb 314.16
or Vs = 4Vb
Stresses before heating

Reduction in tube length, 'l = 1.5 mm
V bl
But 'l =
Eb
σ b × 2000
1.5 =
100 × 103
or Vb 1PP2 Ans.
2
and Vs = 4Vb 1PP Ans.
Stresses after heating

:KHQWKHDVVHPEO\LVKHDWHGRQDFFRXQWRIKLJKHUYDOXHRIDb , brass tube will expand more. But due
WRSUHYHQWLRQRIH[SDQVLRQWKHWKHUPDOVWUHVVHVDUHLQGXFHGLQWKHDVVHPEO\7KHWRWDOVWUDLQLQWKH
assembly before heating is equal to the net strain produced in the assembly after heating.
°b + °s = (Db – Ds) 'T

sb s s
+ = (Db – Ds) 'T
Eb Es
σb 4σ b
3 + ±î–5î
100 × 10 200 × 103
6ROYLQJIRUVb, we get
Vb 1PP2&RPSUHVVLYH Ans.
2
and Vs î 1PP (Tensile) Ans.
Example 1.21
$PFLUFXODUURGRIGLDPHWHUPPDWRQHHQGDQGPPDWRWKHUHQGLV¿[HGEHWZHHQWZR
supports as shown in Fig. 1.31. Determine the stress induced, if the temperature of the rod is raised
E\&7DNH E N1PP2 and D î–5&
Fig. 1.31
Solution: Refer Fig. 1.31. AB is the circular rod of length l.

*LYHQ
Diameter at A, D1 PP
Diameter at B, D2 PP
,IHQGVRIWKHURGZHUHQRW¿[HGWKHQRQKHDWLQJWKHURGOHQJWKZRXOGKDYHLQFUHDVHGE\dlJLYHQE\
dl = lD 'T ... (1)
,IDFRPSUHVVLYHIRUFHPLVDSSOLHGWKHFRQWUDFWLRQDFKLHYHGLVJLYHQE\
4 Pl
dl = ... (2)
πED1 D2
(TXDWLQJWZRHTXDWLRQVDQGZHKDYH
4 Pl
lD 'T =
πED1 D2
α ΔT π E D1 D2
or P =
4
1.2 × 10−5 × 70 × π × 200 × 103 × 200 × 100
= î6 N
4
7KHPD[LPXPVWUHVVLVLQGXFHGDWWKHVPDOOHUHQGJLYHQE\
P P 5.27 × 106
Vmax = = =
Cross-sectional area at B ( π / 4) D22 π / 4 × 1002
1PP2 &RPSUHVVLYH Ans.
Example 1.22
Determine the temperature rise necessary to induce buckling in a 1 m long circular rod of diameter
PPDVVKRZQLQ)LJ$VVXPHWKHURGWREHSLQQHGDWLWVHQGVDQGWKHFRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDO
H[SDQVLRQDVî–6&7KHURGLVKHDWHGXQLIRUPO\7DNHE *3D
Fig. 1.32
Solution: *LYHQ
Length of the rod, l = 1 m
Diameter of the rod, d PP î–3 m
&RHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQ
D î–6&
7KHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHURGLVJLYHQDV
π 2 π
A = d = îî–3)2 î–3 m2
4 4
7KHWKHUPDOVWUDLQLVJLYHQDV
°t = D'T ('T is rise in temperature)
î–6 'T
7KHWKHUPDOVWUHVVLVJLYHQDV
Vt = °t · E
î–6 'T · E
A force P equal to Vt ·A, where ALVWKHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHURGLVDFWLQJRQWKHURGLI

LWVHQGVDUHSUHYHQWHGIURPH[SDQVLRQ$FFRUGLQJWR(XOHU¶VIRUPXODZKHQERWKHQGVRIWKHURGDUH
KLQJHGWKHFULWLFDOORDGLVJLYHQDV
π 2 EI
P =
l2
π
π 2E × × (40 × 10−3 ) 4
64
RU î–6 'T · Eîî–3 =
12
6ROYLQJIRU'T, we get 'T & Ans.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. :KDWLVDSULVPDWLFEDU":KDWEHQH¿WGRHVLWRIIHU"
2. :K\LVOLPLWRISURSRUWLRQDOLW\VRFDOOHG"
3. +RZGRHVHODVWLFOLPLWGLIIHUIURPOLPLWRISURSRUWLRQDOLW\"
4. :KDWGRHVWKH]HURYDOXHRI3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRLQGLFDWH"
5. :KDWLVRIIVHWVWUDLQ":KDWLVLWVVLJQL¿FDQFH"
6. :K\LVWKHVKHDUPRGXOXVDOZD\VVPDOOHUWKDQWKHHODVWLFPRGXOXV"
7. :K\LVWKHDFWXDOVWUHVVDOZD\VJUHDWHUWKDQWKHHQJLQHHULQJVWUHVV"
8. :K\LVIDFWRURIVDIHW\XVHGLQHQJLQHHULQJGHVLJQ"
9. :KDWGRHVWKH\LHOGLQJRIDPDWHULDOPHDQ"
10. :KDWLVZRUNLQJVWUHVV"+RZGRHVLWGLIIHUIURPXOWLPDWHVWUHVV"
11. +RZLVVKHDUVWUDLQGLIIHUHQWIURPGLUHFWVWUDLQ":KDWLVWKHHIIHFWRIVKHDUVWUDLQRQWKHYROXPH
RIDERG\"
12. :K\LVPLOGVWHHOWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWPDWHULDOIRUHQJLQHHULQJDSSOLFDWLRQV"
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. 3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRI
(a) longitudinal strain to lateral strain (b) lateral strain to longitudinal strain
(c) axial stress to shear stress (d) axial stress to bending stress.
2. 7KHPD[LPXPSRVVLEOHWKHRUHWLFDOYDOXHRI3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRLV
(a b c d
3. For a 12 mm diameter steel rod test specimen, the suitable gauge length is
(a) 24 mm (b) 36 mm (c) 72 mm (dPP
4. The stress produced on a surface normal to the load applied is called
(a) shear stress (b) bending stress (c) normal stress (d) none of these.
5. The deformation of a uniform section bar subjected to an axial pull PLVJLYHQDV
Pl 2Pl Pl Pl .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
AE AE 2 AE 3 AE
6. The tensile load results in
(a) contraction (b) elongation (c) bending (d) twisting.
7. The factor of safety is a ratio of
(a) shear stress to working stress (b) bending stress to shear stress
(c) ultimate stress to working stress (d) working stress to ultimate stress.
8. The relationship between E and G is
(a) E = 2G (1 – v) (b) E = 2G (1 + v)
(c) E = 2G (1 – 2v) (d) E = 2 G (1 + 2v).
9. The relationship between E and K is
(a) E = 3 K (1 – 2v) (b) E = 3 K (1 + 2v)
(c) E = 2 K (1 – 2v) (d) E = 2 K (1 + 2v).
10. The relationship among E, G and K is
3KG 9 KG 5KG 9 EK .
(a) E = (b) E = (c) E = (d) G =
2K G 3K G 2K G 3E K
11. The shear stress
(a) acts normal to the surface (b) acts tangential to the surface
(c) is equal to the tensile stress (d LVHTXDOWRWKHFRPSUHVVLYHVWUHVV
12. 7KHPRGXOXVRIULJLGLW\LVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLRRI
(a VKHDUVWUDLQWRYROXPHWULFVWUDLQ b) shear stress to shear strain
(c) normal stress to shear strain (d) normal stress to linear strain.
13. ,IEUDVVKDVKLJKHUFRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQWKDQVWHHOLWPHDQVWKDW
(a ERWKEUDVVDQGVWHHOKDYHHTXDOH[SDQVLRQ
(b) steel expands more than brass
(c) brass expands more than steel
(d H[SDQVLRQLVQRWUHODWHGWRFRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQ
14. 7KHWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQRIDPDWHULDOYDULHV
(a GLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRFRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQ
(b LQYHUVHO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRFRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQ
(c GLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHVTXDUHRIFRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQ
(d) none of these.
15. The thermal stress depends on
(a) temperature rise or fall and the modulus of elasticity of the material
(b FRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQFRQWUDFWLRQDQGWHPSHUDWXUHULVHIDOO
(c WHPSHUDWXUHULVHIDOOFRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQFRQWUDFWLRQDQGPRGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\
of material
(d) none of these.
16. During the tightening of a nut on a bolt, the stress induced in the bolt is
(a FRPSUHVVLYH b) shear (c) tensile (d) bending.
17. 7KHOHQJWKRIDEDUDW&LVPP,WVOHQJWKDW&LIWKHFRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQ
of its material is 1.2 –5&LVJLYHQE\
(a PP b PP c PP d PP
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b)
9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (c)
17. (b).
EXERCISES
1. $PVROLGUHFWDQJXODUEDURIFURVVVHFWLRQPPPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDFRPSUHVVLYHIRUFH
RIN1:KDWLVWKHFKDQJHLQOHQJWKRIWKHEDU"$OVR¿QGWKHVWUDLQDQGVWUHVVSURGXFHGLQ
the bar. Take E = 2 51PP2.
(Ans. PP'HFUHDVH1PP2).
2. A square section rod of length l and side D at one end tapers to square section of side d at the
other end. Find the elongation produced when subjected to an axial pull P.
⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜ Ans. Pl ⎟⎟ .
⎜⎝ EDd ⎟⎠
3. $PFLUFXODUURGWDSHUVXQLIRUPO\IURPPPGLDPHWHUDWRQHHQGWRPPGLDPHWHU
DW RWKHU HQG )LQG WKH HORQJDWLRQ SURGXFHG LI LW LV VXEMHFWHG WR DQ D[LDO SXOO RI N1
Take E = 2 51PP 2.
(Ans. 2.39 mm).
4. $URGULJLGO\¿[HGDWLWVOHIWHQGFRQVLVWVRIWKUHHEDUVRIXQHTXDOGLDPHWHUV)LJ)LQG

the stress in each bar of the rod. Take E = 2 51PP2.
Fig. 1.33
(Ans. VAB 1PP2
VBC 1PP2
VCD 1PP2).
5. A 3 m steel rod of diameter 25 mm is placed inside a brass tube of the same length and inside
DQGRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUVRIPPDQGPPUHVSHFWLYHO\)LJ:KDWLVWKHGHIRUPDWLRQ
RIWKHURGDQGWKHWXEHZKHQDIRUFHRIN1LVDSSOLHGRQWKHPWKURXJKDULJLGSODWH"7DNH
Es î51PP2
and Eb î51PP2.
Fig. 1.34
(Ans. PPGHIRUPDWLRQVLQWKHURGDQGWKHWXEHDUHHTXDO
6. Two cylindrical rods one of steel and the other of brass are joined at D and restrained by rigid
supports at A and B)RUWKHORDGLQJJLYHQLQ)LJDQGDVVXPLQJEs = 2 51PP2 and
Eb 51PP2¿QGa) the reactions at A and B and (bWKHGHÀHFWLRQRISRLQWD.
Fig. 1.35
(Ans. (a) RA N1), RB = 37.2 kN ()

(bPP)).
7. $ FRPSRVLWH EDU PDGH RI EUDVV DQG VWHHO LV ¿[HG EHWZHHQ WZR VXSSRUWV )LJ ,I WKH
WHPSHUDWXUHLVLQFUHDVHGE\&¿QGWKHVWUHVVHVLQGXFHGLQWKHVWHHODQGEUDVVVHFWLRQDVVXP
ing (a) if the supports do not yield and (bLIWKHVXSSRUWV\LHOGE\PP
Fig. 1.36
Take Es î51PP2

Eb î51PP2
Ds î–51&
Db î–5 1&
(Ans. (a1PP21PP2
(b1PP21PP2).
8. $FRPSRVLWHEDUPDGHRIWZRVWHHOVHFWLRQVLVULJLGO\¿[HGDWWKHWRS7KHJDSEHWZHHQLWVORZHU
HQGDQGWKHULJLGVXSSRUWLVPP)LJ(VWLPDWHWKHVWUHVVHVLQWKHWZRVHFWLRQVLIWKH
EDULVKHDWHGWKURXJK&7DNHE î51PP2 and D î–5&
Fig. 1.37
(Ans. 1PP21PP2).
9. $ VWHHO URG RI PP GLDPHWHU SDVVHV WKURXJK D EUDVV WXEH RI PP LQVLGH GLDPHWHU DQG
PPRXWVLGHGLDPHWHU7ZRQXWVRQHRQHDFKVLGHDUHWLJKWHQHGXQWLODVWUHVVRI1PP 2 is
induced in the rod. Find the stresses in the rod and the tube, if the assembly is heated through
&7DNH
Es= 2 51PP2, Ds =1.2 –5&
Eb 51PP2, Db= 1.9 –5&
(Ans. 1PP27HQVLOH1PP2&RPSUHVVLYH
10. $ P FLUFXODU EDU RI WDSHUHG VHFWLRQ LV ULJLGO\ ¿[HG DW ERWK HQGV )LJ )LQG WKH
PD[LPXPVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHEDULILWVWHPSHUDWXUHLVLQFUHDVHGE\&7DNH
E = 2 51PP2 and D = 1.2 –5&
Fig. 1.38
(Ans. Vmax 1PP2 &RPSUHVVLYH
11. $FRPSRXQGEDUPDGHRIDVWHHOURGDQGDEUDVVURGLVULJLGO\¿[HGDWWKHWZRHQGV)LJ

)LQGWKHVWUHVVHVLQWKHWZRURGVLIWKHDVVHPEO\LVKHDWHGWKURXJK&7DNH
Es = 2 51PP2, Ds = 1.2 –5&
Eb = 1 51PP2, Db = 1.9 –5&
Fig. 1.39
(Ans. 6WUHVVLQEUDVV 1PP2
6WUHVVLQVWHHO 1PP2).
12. $WKLQZDOOHGF\OLQGHUZLWKFORVHGHQGVDQGDWKLQZDOOHGVSKHUHRIWKHVDPHGLDPHWHUDQGVDPH
wall thickness are put under the same internal pressure. Find the ratio of the change in diameter
of the cylinder to the change in diameter of the sphere.
(Ans. (2 – v±v)).
13. A 75 mm diameter compound bar is constructed by shrinking a circular brass bush onto the
RXWVLGHRIDPPGLDPHWHUVROLGVWHHOURG7KHFRPSRXQGEDULVQRZVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDO
FRPSUHVVLYHORDGRIN1'HWHUPLQHWKHORDGFDUULHGE\WKHVWHHOURGDQGWKHEUDVVEXVKDQG
WKHFRPSUHVVLYHVWUHVVVHWXSLQHDFKPDWHULDO7DNHEs *3DDQGEb *3D
(Ans. N1N103D03D

2
Principal Stresses
Christian Otto Mohr, born on 8 October 1835, was a German civil

engineer. He designed some famous bridges while working on railroad
engineering. He had keen interest in the theories of mechanics and the
strength of materials. In 1867, he became professor of mechanics at
Stuttgart Polytechnic, and in 1873 at Dresden Polytechnic. In 1874, Mohr
formalised the idea of a statically indeterminate structure. In 1882, he
developed the famous graphical method for analysing stress, known as
Mohr’s circle, and used it to propose an early theory of strength based
on shear stress. He also developed the Williot-Mohr diagram for truss
displacements and the Maxwell-Mohr method for analysing statically
indeterminate structures, the former method can also be used to determine
Christian Otto Mohr the displacement of truss nodes and forces acting on each member. The
(1835-1918) Maxwell-Mohr method is also referred to as the virtual force method for
redundant trusses.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_2
2.1 INTRODUCTION
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most simple and idealized cases. In those cases, planes on which stresses are induced, are normal to
the direction of load applied. But in the actual practice, plane is not always in such condition, rather
it is oblique to the load applied and hence stresses and strains are not simple in nature and the effect
of normal stress and shear stress are considered simultaneously for such analysis. Now the plane is
under combined or compound stress condition. We will discuss the most general case, when the body
is subjected to two normal stresses and a shear stress, that is, it is a plane stress condition.
2.2 STRESSES ON AN INCLINED PLANE

(PRINCIPAL PLANES AND PRINCIPAL STRESSES)
Consider a rectangular element of unit thickness being subjected to two normal stresses (tensile) in
x and y directions and a shear stress Wxy (Fig. 2.1). The inclined plane is HIEF. Let da be the area of
the inclined plane making an angle T with the vertical plane.
(a) Rectangular element subjected (b) Forces acting on different planes

to various stresses
Fig. 2.1
Area of plane FG = da cosT

Area of plane GH = da sinT
Normal force acting on the plane FG = Vx da cosT
Normal force acting on the plane GH = Vy da sinT
Shear force acting on the plane FG = Wxy da cosT
Shear force acting on the plane GH = Wxy da sinT
For inclined plane HIEF
Normal force acting on the plane = V x da
Shear force acting on the plane = Wxy da
Principal Stresses 55
Considering the equilibrium of forces normal to the inclined plane and tangential to it, we have
Vx da – (Vx da cosT) cosT – (Vy da sinT) sinT – ( Wxy da cosT) sinT – (Wxy da sinT) cosT = 0 ... (2.1)
Wxy da + ( Vx da cosT) sinT – ( Vy da sinT) cosT – (Wxy da cosT) cosT + (Wxy da sinT) sinT = 0 ...(2.2)
From equation (2.1), we get
Vx = Vx cos2T + Vy sin2T + 2Wxy sin T cos T
⎛ 1 + cos 2θ ⎞ + V ⎛ 1 − cos 2θ ⎞ + W sin2T

= Vx ⎜ ⎟⎠ y ⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ xy
⎝ 2 2
σx + σ y σx − σ y
= + cos 2T + Wxy sin2T ... (2.3)
2 2
From equation (2.2), we have
Wxy = (Vy – Vx) sinT cosT + Wxy (cos2T – sin2T)
= – (Vx – Vy ) sinT cosT + Wxy (cos2T – sin2T)
(σ x − σ y )
=– sin2T + Wxy cos2T ... (2.4)
2
The resultant stress on the inclined plane is
Vr = σ 2x ′ + τ 2x ′ y ′ ... (2.5)
Principal plane is a plane of zero shear stress. There are two principal planes at any arbitrary point
within a material under plane stress condition. These planes are mutually perpendicular to each other
and have only normal stresses.
For plane HIEF to be a principal plane
Wxy = 0
σx − σ y
sin2T p – Wxy cos2Tp = 0 (denoting T by Tp for principal plane)
2
(σ x − σ y )
sin2T p = Wxy cos2T p
2
2τ xy
tan2Tp = ... (2.6)
σx −σy
Since tan2T p = tan (180° + 2Tp)
Hence, there are two planes for which equation (2.6) holds good. One plane is located at
1 ⎛ 2τ xy ⎞
Tp = tan–1 ⎜ ⎟ and the other plane is separated by 90°, that is, at Tp = Tp + 90°.
1 2 ⎜σx −σy ⎟ 2 1
⎝ ⎠

2τ xy
sin 2T p =
± (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ xy
2
σx −σy
cos 2Tp =
± (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ xy
2
Substituting sin 2T p and cos 2Tp in equation (2.3), we have
⎡ σx −σy ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
σx +σy σ x − σ y ⎢± ⎥ 2τ xy
V x = + + W ⎢± ⎥
2 2 ⎢ (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2 ⎥ xy ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
⎦
σx +σy ⎡ (σ x − σ y ) 2 ⎤
1 ⎢ + 2τ xy
2
⎥
= ±
2 (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
2 ⎤
⎡ (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
σx +σy 1
= ± ⎢ ⎥
2 (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
σx +σy (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
= ±
2 2
The stress with maximum value is known as major principal stress, given by
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ 2xy
V1 = − ... (2.7)
2 2
The stress with minimum value is known as minor principal stress, given by
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ 2xy
V2 = − ... (2.8)
2 2
Maximum shear stress
For maximum shear stress, differentiate equation (2.4) w.r.t.T and equate it to zero.
d (τ x′ y ′ )
=0
dθ
⎛σx −σy ⎞
⎜ ⎟ 2 cos2Ts – Wxy (– sin2Ts) . 2 = 0
⎝ 2 ⎠
(Denoting T by Ts for shear stress)
(Vx – Vy) cos2Ts + 2Wxy sin2Ts = 0
⎛σx −σy ⎞
or tan2Ts = – ⎜ ⎟ ...(2.9)
⎜ 2τ xy ⎟
⎝ ⎠
σx −σy
Hence, sin2Ts = ±
(σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
2τ xy
and cos2T = ±
(σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
Substituting sin2Ts and cos2Ts in equation (2.4), we have

σx −σy σx −σy 2τ xy
W max = ± ± τ xy
2 (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
(σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
(σ x − σ y ) 2 2τ xy
2
= ± ± τ xy
2 (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ xy
2
(σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ
1 ⎡ (σ x − σ y )2 ⎤
= ± ⎢ + 2τ xy
2
⎥
(σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
2 ⎤
⎡ (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
1
= ± ⎢ ⎥
(σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
(σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ xy
2
= ± … (2.10)
2
Using equations (2.7) and (2.8), we get the maximum shear stress in terms of principal stresses as
σ1 − σ 2
Wmax = … (2.11)
2
Hence, the maximum shear strtess is one-half the difference between the maximum and minimum
principal stresses, and it occurs on the planes inclined at 45o to the principal planes.
Example 2.1
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(a) the principal stresses
(b) the maximum shear stress
(c) the corresponding normal stress
(d) the position of the principal planes and
(e) the plane of maximum shear stress.
Fig. 2.2
Vx = 25 MPa
Vy = – 5MPa
Wxy = 30 MPa
(a) The principal stresses are given as
σx +σy (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
V 1, V 2 = ±
2 2
25 + (−5) {25 − (−5)}2 + 4 × 302

= ± = 10 15 5
2 2
Hence, the major principal stress, V1 = (10 + 15 5 ) MPa = 43.54 MPa
The minor principal stress, V2 = (10 – 15 5 ) MPa = – 23.54 MPa Ans.
(b) The maximum shear stress is

σ1 − σ 2
Wmax =
2
43.54 (23.54)
= = 33.54 MPa Ans.
2
(c) The normal stress is the average stress acting on all the four faces.
σx +σy 25 5
Vav = = = 10 MPa Ans.
2 2
(d) Using equation (2.6), we have
2τ xy 2 × 30 60
tan 2Tp = = = =2
σx −σy 25 − (−5) 30
2Tp = tan–1 (2) = 63.4o and 180o + 63.4o = 243.4o

or Tp = 31.7o and 121.7o Ans.
These are the angles made by the principal planes with the plane AB.
(e) If Ts be the angle made by the planes of maximum shear stress with AB, then
σx −σy
tan 2Ts = – (using equation (2.9))
2τ xy
25 − (−5) 1
=– =–
2 × 30 2
2Ts = – 26.5o
Ts = – 13.25o
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(in the anticlockwise direction) is
Ts = 76.72o and 166.72o Ans.
Example 2.2
Show that the sum of the normal stresses on any set of two perpendicular planes at a point in a strained
material is constant.
Fig. 2.3
ABCD is the rectangular element on which two principal stresses Vx and Vy are acting. An inclined
plane AE is making an angle T with the plane AB.
The principal stress acting on the plane AE is
σx +σy σx −σy
V1 = + cos2T
2 2
The principal stress on another plane at (T + 90o ) is
σx +σy σx −σy
V2 = – cos (180o + 2T)
2 2
σx +σy σx −σy
= – cos2T [cos (180° + 2T) = – cos2T]
2 2
Now V1 + V2 = Vx + Vy = Constant
Example 2.3
The principal stresses at a point across two perpendicular planes are 60 MPa and 50 MPa. Find the
normal, tangential and resultant stress and its obliquity on a plane at 20° with the major principal
plane.
Solution: Refer Fig. 2.4 (a).
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.4
AB is the major principal plane. Given,
V1 = 60 MPa
V2 = 50 MPa
T = 20o
The normal stress on the inclined plane AE is
σ + σ 2 σ1 − σ 2
Vx = 1 + cos 40o + 0 (using equation (2.3))
2 2
(because no shear stress is acting)
60 + 50 60 − 50
= + cos 40o = 58.83 MPa Ans.
2 2
The tangential stress on the plane AE is given as
σ1 − σ 2
Wxy = sin 40o (using equation (2.4))
2
60 50
= sin 40o = 3.21 MPa Ans.
2
The resultant stress is
Vr = σ 2x ′ + τ 2x ′ y ′
= (58.83)2 (3.21)2 = 58.91 MPa Ans.

If I is the angle of obliquity (Refer Fig. 2.4 (b)), then

τx ′y ′ 3.21
tan I = = = 0.054
σx ′ 58.83
or I = 3.12 Ans.
Example 2.4
At a certain point in a strained material, there are two mutually perpendicular planes. The normal
stresses acting on them are 80 MPa tensile and 30 MPa compressive. If the major principal stress is
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(a) the shear stress acting on two planes
(b) the minor principal stress and
(c) the maximum shear stress at the point.

Given, Vx = 80 MPa
Vy = –30 MPa
Fig. 2.5
Let V1 and V2 be the major and the minor principal stresses and Wxy , the shear stress acting on the
two planes.
V1 = 100 MPa (Given)
(a) The major principal stress is given by
σx +σy (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
V1 = +
2 2
80 − 30 (80 + 30)2 + 4τ xy
2
100 = +
2 2
or Wxy = 51 MPa Ans.
(b) The minor principal stress is given as

σx +σy (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
V2 = –
2 2
80 30 (80 + 30)2 + 4 × 512

= – = – 50MPa
2 2
= 50 MPa (Compressive) Ans.
(c) The maximum shear stress is given as
σ1 − σ 2 100 (50)
Wmax = = = 75 MPa Ans.
2 2
Example 2.5
At a point in a strained material, the two normal stresses acting on two mutually perpendicular planes
are 180 MPa tensile and 50 MPa compressive. A shear stress of 20 MPa is also acting on these plnaes.
Find the normal stress, the tangential stress and the resultant stress on a plane inclined at 30 o to the
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Fig. 2.6
CD is the plane of compressive stress and DE is the inclined plane.
Given, Vx = 180 MPa
Vy = – 50 MPa
Wxy = 20 MPa
T = 90 – 30 = 60
The normal stress on the plane DE is given as
σx +σy σx −σy
Vx = + cos 2T + Wxy sin 2T (using equation (2.3))
2 2
180 − 50 180 + 50
= + cos 120 + 20 sin 120
2 2
= 24.82 MPa Ans.
The shear stress on the plane DE is given as

σx − σ y
W xy = sin 2T – Wxy cos 2T (using equation (2.4))
2
180 50
= sin 120o – 20 cos 120o = 109.6 MPa Ans.
2
The resultant stress on the plane DE is given as
Vr = σ 2x ′ + τ 2x ′ y ′ (using equation (2.5))
= (24.82) 2 (109.6) 2 = 112.37 MPa Ans.

The angle of obliquity I is given by
τx ′ y ′ 109.6
tan I = = = 4.41
σx ′ 24.82
or I = 77.24 Ans.
Example 2.6
At a certain point within a strained material, the two normal stresses acting on two mutually perpendicular
planes are 60 MPa tensile and 30 MPa compressive. The maximum principal stress is limited to
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Fig. 2.7
Given, Vx = 60 MPa
Vy = – 30 MPa
V1 = 100 MPa
The major principal stress is given as
σx +σy (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
V1 = +
2 2
60 − 30 (60 + 30)2 + 4τ 2xy

100 = +
2 2
On solving, we get Wxy = 72.11 MPa Ans.
The maximum shear stress is given as
(σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
Wmax = (using equation (2.10))

2
(60 + 30) 2 + 4 × 5200

= = 85 MPa Ans.
2
Example 2.7
In a strained material, the state of stress at a point is given below:
Vx = 40 MPa, Vy = 25 MPa and Wxy = 15 MPa
Find the following parameters:
(a) the principal stresses on two mutually perpendicular planes at the point
(b) the maximum shear stress
(c) the principal stress planes
(d) the planes of maximum shear stress and
(e) the normal stress and shear stress on the planes of maximum shear stress.
Fig. 2.8
(a) The major principal stress is given as
σx +σy (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
V1 = +
2 2
40 + 25 (40 − 25) 2 + 4 × 152

= + = 49.27 MPa Ans.
2 2
The minor principal stress is given as
σx +σy (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
V2 = –
2 2
40 25 (40 − 25) 2 + 4 × 152

= – = 15.73 MPa Ans.
2 2
(b) The maximum shear stress is obtained as
σ1 − σ 2
Wmax =
2
49.27 15.73
= = 16.77 MPa Ans.
2
(c) The principal planes are given by
σ1 − σ 2
tan 2Tp = (using equation (2.6))
2
2τ xy
= =2
σx −σy
2Tp = 63.44o and 243.44o
or Tp = 31.72o and 121.72o
Hence, Tp = 31.72o
1
and Tp = 121.72o
2
(d) The planes of maximum shear stress are given by

σx −σy
tan 2Ts = – (using equation (2.9))
2τ xy
40 − 25
=– = – 0.5
2 × 15
2Ts = 153.44 and 333.44°
or Ts = 76.72 and 166.72
The angle between maximum shear stress plane and the direction of V x is 76.72o. The normal stress
on the planes of maximum shear stress is given as
σx +σy σx −σy
Vx = + cos 2Ts + Wxy sin 2Ts
2 2
(using equation (2.3))
40 + 25 40 − 25
= + cos (153.44o) + 15 sin (153.44o)
2 2
= 32.5 MPa Ans.
The shear stress on the planes of maximum shear stress is given as

σx −σy
Wxy = sin 2Ts – Wxy cos 2Ts (using equation (2.4))
2
40 25
= sin (153.44o) – 15 cos (153.44o)
2
= 16.77 MPa Ans.
The principal planes and the planes of maximum shear stress are shown in Fig. 2.8.
Example 2.8
At a section in a beam the tensile stress due to bending is 50 N/mm2 and there is a shear stress of
20 N/mm2. Determine the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses and calculate the
maximum shear stress.
Solution: Given,
Bending stress, Vb = 50 N/mm2
Shear stress, W = 20 N/mm2
V
b
σ2 + 4τ2
b
V1 = +
2 2
= 50 + 50 2 + 4 × 20 2
2 2
= 57.01 N/mm2 (Tensile) Ans.

V
b
σ2 + 4τ2
b
V2 = –
2 2
2 2
= 50 – 50 + 4 × 20 = – 7.01 N/mm2
2 2
2
= 7.01 N/mm (Compressive) Ans.
The angle made by the principal planes with the vertical section of the beam is given as
tan 2Tp = 2τ
σ1 – σ2
2 × 20
= = 0.625
57.01 – (–7.01)
Hence, Tp = 16º and 106º Ans.
The maximum shear stress is

σ1 − σ 2
Wmax =
2
57.01 − ( −7.01)
=
2
= 32.01 N/mm2 Ans.
Example 2.9
At a point in an elastic material, the stresses on three mutually perpendicular planes are as follow:
First plane: 50 MPa tensile and 40 MPa shear
Second plane: 30 MPa compressive and 40 MPa shear
Third plane: No stress
Find the following parameters:
(a) the magnitude and positions of the principal stresses
(b) the position of planes on which the maximum shear stress acts and
(c) the normal and shear stresses on the planes of maximum shear stress.
Given, Vx = 50 MPa
Vy = – 30 MPa
Wxy = 40 MPa
(a) The principal stresses are given as
Fig. 2.9
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ 2xy
V1, 2 = ±
2 2
50 − 30 (50 + 30)2 + 4 × 402
= ±
2 2
= (10 ± 56.56) MPa
Hence, the major principal stress is
V1 = 10 + 56.56
= 66.56 MPa (Tensile) Ans.
and, the minor principal stess is
V2 = 10 – 56.56 = – 46.56 MPa
= 46.56 MPa (Compressive) Ans.
Position of principal planes

The angle made by the principal planes with the vertical section is given as
2τxy
tan 2TP = σ – σ
x y
2 × 40 80
= = =1
50 − ( −30) 80
Hence, TP = 22.5º and 112.5º Ans.

(b) If Ts be the angle made by the planes of maximum shear stress with AB, then
⎛ σx − σ y ⎞
tan 2Ts = – ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2τ xy ⎠
⎛ 50 + 30 ⎞
= – ⎜ =–1
⎝ 2 × 40 ⎟⎠
or Ts = – 22.5º
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actual angle (in the anticlockwise direction) is
Ts = 67.5º and 157.5° Ans.
The normal stresses on the planes of maximum shear stress are:
For T = 67.5º
σx + σ y σx – σ y
Vx = + cos 2θ + τxy sin 2θ
2 2
= 50 – 30 + 50 + 30 cos 135º + 40 × sin 135º

2 2
= 10 – 28.28 + 28.28
= 10 MPa Ans.
For T = 157.5º
Vx = 50 – 30 + 50 + 30 cos 315º + 40 × sin 315º

2 2
= 10 + 28.28 – 28.28
= 10 MPa Ans.
The shear stresses on the planes of maximum shear stress are:
For T = 67.5º
Vx – V y
Wxy = – sin 2T + Wxy cos 2T
2
= – 50 + 30 sin 135º + 40 × cos135º

2
= – 28.28 – 28.28
= – 56.56 MPa Ans.
For T = 157.5º
Wxy = – 50 + 30 sin 315º + 40 × cos 315º
2
= 28.28 + 28.28
= 56.56 MPa Ans.
Example 2.10
A hollow shaft of 40 mm outer diameter and 25 mm inner diameter is subjected to a twisting moment
of 120 N.m., bending moment of 800 N.m, and axial thrust of 10 kN. Calculate the maximum
compressive and shear stresses.
Fig. 2.10
Given, Outer diameter of the hollow shaft, do = 40 mm

Inner diameter of the hollow shaft, di = 25 mm
Twisting moment, T = 120 N.m
Bending moment, M = 800 N.m
Axial thrust, P = 10 kN
The bending stress is
Vb = M × y (using bending equation)

I
where I = Moment of inertia of the shaft cross-section about the neutral axis
π 4
= ( d 0 − d i4 )
64
y 'LVWDQFHRIWKHRXWHUPRVW¿EUHIURPWKHQHXWUDOD[LV
d
= 0
2
M d
Now Vb = × 0
π 4 2
( d 0 − d i4 )
64
32 Md 0
=
π( d 04 − d i4 )
32 × 800 × 40 × 10−3 1
= −3 4 −3
× 6 MPa
π[( 40 × 10 ) − ( 25 × 10 )] 10
= 150.25 MPa
The shear stress is

d
W= T × 0 (using torsion equation)
J 2
⎡ ⎤
16Td 0 ⎢ J = Polar moment of inertia ⎥
=
π( d 04 − d i4 )
⎢
⎢ of the shaft cross-section ⎥⎥
⎢ π 4 ⎥
⎢ = (d 0 − di )
4
⎥
⎣ 32 ⎦
−3
16 × 120 × 40 × 10 1
= −3 4 −3 4
× 6 MPa
π[( 40 × 10 ) − ( 25 × 10 ) ] 10
= 11.27 MPa
The direct stress (compressive) is ⎡ A = Cross-section area of the hollow shaft ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ = π ( d 02 − d i2 )
P
V= – ⎥
A ⎥⎦
⎣⎢ 4
10 × 10−3 1
=– ×
6 MPa
π −3 2 −3 2 10
[( 40 × 10 ) − ( 25 × 10 ) ]
4
= – 13.06 MPa
The maximum tensile stress along the axis of the shaft is
Vb + V = 150.25 + (–13.06) = 137.19 MPa
and the maximum compressive stress = 150.25 + 13.06
= 163.31 MPa
Since 163.31 MPa > 137.19, hence 163.31 MPa (Vc) is used in the expression for principal stresses.
The principal stresses are given as

σ′ σ′ 2 + 4τ2
V1, 2 = ±
2 2
163.31 (163.31)2 + 4 × (11.27)2
= ±
2 2
= (81.65 ± 82.43) MPa
Hence, V1 = 81.65 + 82.43
= 164.08 MPa
and V2 = 81.65 – 82.43 = – 0.78 MPa
Hence, the maximum compressive stress is
V2 = 0.78 MPa Ans.
The maximum shear stress is obtained as
σ1 − σ 2 164.08 − ( −0.78)
Wmax = =
2 2
= 82.43 MPa Ans.
Example 2.11
Fig. 2.11 shows a hollow shaft of 150 mm external diameter and 80 mm internal diameter. At its free
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point A, located 1 m from the free end, and at the top shaft surface.
Fig. 2.11

Given,
External diameter of the hollow shaft,
d0 = 150 mm
Internal diameter of the hollow shaft,

di = 80 mm
Length of the hollow shaft, l= 1m
The twisting moment on the shaft is
T = (25 × 103) × 500 × 10–3 N.m

2
= 6250 N.m
The bending moment on the shaft is
M = (25 × 103) × 1 N.m
= 25000 N.m
The maximum bending stress induced in the shaft is
32 Md 0
Vb = (using bending equation)
π( d 04 − d i4 )
32 × 25000 × 150 × 10−3 1

= −3 4 −3 4
× 6 MPa
π[(150 × 10 ) − (80 × 10 ) ] 10
= 82.09 MPa
Shear stress induced in the shaft is
16Td 0
W= (using torsion equation)
π( d 04 − d i4 )
16 × 6250 × 150 × 10−3 1

= −3 4 −3 4
× 6 MPa
π[(150 × 10 ) − (80 × 10 ) ] 10
= 10.26 MPa
σb σb2 + 4τ 2
V1, 2 = ±
2 2
82.09 (82.09)2 + 4 × (10.26)2

= ±
2 2
= (41.04 ± 42.30) MPa
Hence, V1 = Major principal stress
= 41.04 + 42.30
= 83.34 MPa Ans.
and V2 = Minor principal stress

= 41.01 – 42.30
= – 1.26 MPa
Negative sign associated with V2 is indicative of its compressive nature. Ans.
V1– V2
Wmax =
2
83.34 − ( −1.26)
=
2
= 42.3 MPa Ans.
2.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE OF PLANE STRESS

0RKU¶VFLUFOHLVXVHIXOIRUSUREOHPVLQYROYLQJSODQHVWUHVVHVWR¿QGWKHVWUHVVHVRQDQLQFOLQHGSODQH
JUDSKLFDOO\RUDOWHUQDWLYHO\WR¿QGDQLQFOLQHGSODQHZLWKWKHVWUHVVHVJLYHQ,WZDVGHYHORSHGE\D
famous German civil engineer Otto Mohr (1835–1918). The results obtained by using this method
are very close to that being obtained by analytical method.
Consider a rectangular element of a material being subjected to biaxial stress condition as shown
in Fig. 2.12.
Fig. 2.12
Let Vx = Normal tensile stress on planes AB and CD

Vy = Normal tensile stress on planes AD and BC
T = Angle made by inclined plane AE with AB
Wxy = Shear stress on all the planes AB, BC, CD with DA
V x = Normal stress on inclined plane AE
W xy = Shear stress on inclined plane AE
Construction of Mohr’s Circle (Refer Fig. 2.13)

z A proper scale is chosen to represent the stresses.
z Normal stresses are taken on the abscissa the x-axis and shear stresses on the ordinate the y-axis).
z To represent Vx and Vy, two points M and N are located on x-axis such that ON = Vx and
OM = Vy, and Vx > Vy .
z Normals are dropped at the points M and N above and below x-axis such that MY = + Wxy and
NX = – Wxy.
z Points X and Y are joined together to get a straight line XY. This line intersects x-axis at C. Taking
C as centre and CX or CY as radius, draw a circle. The resulting circle is called Mohr’s circle.
The circle cuts x-axis at two points K and L.
OL = Vmax = V1 = Maximum (major) principal stress
OK = Vmin = V2 = Minimum(minor) principal stress
σx + σ y
z The centre C of the Mohr’s circle is located at .
2
z ²XCL (measured anticlockwise) = 2Tp, half of this angle i.e., TpLVGH¿QHGDVWKHDQJOHPDGHE\
the major principal plane with plane AB of the element under consideration in Fig. 2.12.
z The radius of the Mohr’s circle gives the maximum shear stress.
Fig. 2.13 The Mohr’s circle.
z To know the position of the inclined plane AE, a point S is taken on the circle such that
²LCS = 2T (measured anticlockwise). The perpendicular distance from S on x-axis gives
shear stress Wxy and the distance of this perpendicular from y-axis gives normal stress Vxc on the
inclined plane.
The complete sequence of construction of the Mohr’s circle is shown in Fig. 2.13.
Sign Conventions
z The tensile stresses are considered positive and hence they are plotted on right side of the origin.
z The compressive stresses are considered negative, hence they are plotted on left side of the
origin.
z If the shear stress acting on a face has the tendency to rotate the element clockwise, then it is
considered to be positive and is taken above x-axis (Fig. 2.14 (a)).
Fig. 2.14
z If the shear stress acting on a face has the tendency to rotate the element counterclockwise, then
it is considered to be negative and is taken below x-axis (Fig. 2.14 (b)).
Example 2.12
'UDZ0RKU¶VFLUFOHIRUDWZRGLPHQVLRQDOVWUHVV¿HOGVXEMHFWHGWRa) pure shear (b) pure biaxial
tension (c) pure uniaxial tension and (d) pure uniaxial compression.
Solution:
Conditions Mohr’s Circle
(a) Pure shear
(b) Pure biaxial tension
Contd...
(c) Pure uniaxial tension
(d) Pure uniaxial compression
Example 2.13
Using normal and shear stresses given in Example 2.1,
(a) draw the Mohr’s circle
(b ¿QGWKHSULQFLSDOVWUHVVHV
(c ¿QGWKHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVDQG
(d ¿QGWKHSRVLWLRQRISULQFLSDOSODQHV
Solution: (a) Refer Fig. 2.15.
Selection of Scale
Take 0.5 cm = 5 MPa
Hence, Vy = 5 MPa = 0.5 cm
Vx = 25 MPa = 2.5 cm
Wxy = 30 MPa = 3.0 cm
The Mohr’s circle is shown in Fig. 2.16.
Fig. 2.15
Fig. 2.16
(b) From Fig. 2.16, we have

Vmax = V1 = 4.35 cm = 43.5 MPa Ans.
Vmin = V2 = – 2.31 cm = – 23.1 MPa Ans.
(c) The maximum shear stress is

Wmax = 3.3 cm = 33 MPa Ans.
(d) The position of principal planes are given as:

2Tp = 63.5
or Tp = 31.75
1
and 2Tp = 243.5
or Tp = 121.75 Ans.
2
Example 2.14
At a point in the cross-section of a loaded member, the maximum principal stress is 15 N/mm2 tensile
and maximum shear stress of 8 N/mm28VLQJ0RKU¶VFLUFOH¿QGa) the magnitude and nature of
direct stress on the plane of maximum shear stress (b) the state of stress on a plane, making an angle
30º with the plane of maximum principal stress.
Solution: Selection of Scale

Take 1 cm = 5 N/mm2
The Mohr's circle is shown in Fig. 2.17.
Fig. 2.17
OL = V1 = Maximum principal stress
= 15 N/mm2
CL = Wmax= Maximum shear stress
= Radius of Mohr's circle
= 8 N/mm2
The direct stresses on the plane of maximum shear stress are:

OC = Vx = 1.4 cm = 7 N/mm2 (Tensile)
OK = Vy = – 0.2 cm = – 1 N/mm2 (Compressive) Ans.
The stresses on a plane making an angle 30º with the plane of maximum principal stress are:
ON = Vx = 2.2 cm = 11 N/mm2 (Tensile)
OM = Vy = 0.6 cm = 3 N/mm2 (Tensile)
YN = Wxy = 1.4 cm = 7 N/mm2 Ans.
Example 2.15
A circle of 100 mm diameter is drawn on a mild steel plate before it is subjected to direct tensile stresses
of 80 N/mm2 and 20 N/mm2 in two mutually perpendicular directions and a shear stress of 40 N/mm2.
Find the major and minor axes of the ellipse formed as a result of deformation of the circle. Assume,
E = 200 GPa and Poisson’s ratio as 0.25.
Given, Diameter of the circle on the plate, d = 100 mm
Tensile stress in x-direction is Vx = 80 N/mm2
Tensile stress in y-direction is Vy = 20 N/mm2

Shear stress, Wxy = 40 N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity, E = 200 GPa
= 200 × 109 Pa
Poisson’s ratio v = 0.25
Fig. 2.18
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ 2xy
V1, 2 = ±
2 2
80 + 20 (80 − 20)2 + 4 × 402
= ±
2 2
= (50 ± 50) N/mm2
Hence, V1 = 50 + 50 = 100 N/mm2
and V2 = 50 – 50 = 0
σ σ 100 × 106 Pa
Strain produced in the direction of V1 is 1 = 1
–ν 2 =
E E 200 × 109 Pa
–4
= 5 × 10
σ2 σ1
Strain produced in the direction of V2 is 2 = –ν
E E
= – 1.25 × 10–4
Change in diameter of the circle along V1 is 'd1 = 1d
= 5 × 10–4 × 100 = 0.05 mm
Change in diameter of the circle along V2 is 'd2 = 2d
= – 1.25 × 10–4 × 100 = – 0.0125 mm
As a result of the stresses applied in x and y directions, the circle takes the form of an ellipse
(Fig. 2.18). The diameter of the circle increases along V1 and decreases along V2.
Hence, major diameter of the ellipse = (100 + 0.05) mm
= 100.05 mm Ans.
and minor diameter of the ellipse = (100 – 0.0125) mm
= 99.9875 mm Ans.
Example 2.16
A thin cylinder with closed ends has an internal diameter of 50 mm and a wall thickness of 2.5 mm.
It is subjected to an axial pull of 10 kN and a torque of 500 N.m, while under an internal pressure of
6 MN/m2 .
(a) Determine the principal stresses in the tube and the maximum shear stress.
(b 5HSUHVHQW WKH VWUHVV FRQ¿JXUDWLRQ RQ D VTXDUH HOHPHQW WDNHQ LQ WKH ORDG GLUHFWLRQ ZLWK
direction and magnitude indicated (schematic).
(c) Sketch the Mohr’s stress circle.
Solution: Given,
Inside diameter of the cylinder, d = 50 mm
Wall thickness of the cylinder, t = 2.5 mm
Axial pull, P = 10 kN
Torque applied, T = 500 N.m
Internal pressure, p = 6 MN/m2
The cross-sectional area of the cylinder is
A = Sd × t = S × 50 × 10–3 × 2.5 × 10–3
= 3.927 × 10–4 m2
(a) The hoop stress is given as
pd –3
Vh = = 6 × 50 × 10 –3 = 60 MPa
2t 2 × 2.5 × 10
The longitudinal stress is
Vh 60
Vl = = = 30 MPa
2 2
The direct stress due to axial pull is
P = 10 × 103 × 1 MPa
V= = 25.46 MPa
A 3.927 × 10 –4 106
The longitudinal stress acts along the axis of the cylinder and the hoop stress acts perpendicular
to it. The direct stress also acts along the axis of the cylinder. Hence, the total stress acting along the
axis is
Vl + V = 30 + 25.46 = 55.46 MPa = Vx (say)
and Vh = Vy (say)
The shear stress is
2T 2 × 500 1
Wxy = 2 = −3 2 −3
× 6 MPa = 50.93 MPa
πd t π × (50 × 10 ) × ( 2.5 × 10 ) 10
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ 2xy
V1, 2 = ±
2 2
55.46 + 60 (55.46 − 60)2 + 4 × (50.93)2

= ±
2 2
= (57.73 ± 50.98) MPa
Hence, V1 = Major principal stress
= 57.73 + 50.98 = 108.71 MPa Ans.
and V2 = Minor principal stress
= 57.73 – 50.98 = 6.75 MPa Ans.
The maximum shear stress is obtained as
σ1 − σ 2 108.71 – 6.75
Wmax = = = 50.98 MPa Ans.
2 2
(b) and (c)
The stress configuration on a square element and the related Mohr’s circle is shown in
Fig. 2.19.
Vh W
Wxy
Wmax Wxy
V Vl Vl V M V
O C N L
V2
Wxy Vx
Vy
Vh V1
(a 6WUHVVFRQ¿JXUDWLRQRQDVTXDUHHOHPHQW b) Mohr’s circle

Fig. 2.19
Example 2.17
A circular shaft is subjected to combined loads of bending M and torque T. With the help of Mohr’s
circle diagram, represent the stresses on an element of the shaft surface. From this diagram or by
FDOFXODWLRQ ¿QG WKH PD[LPXP VKHDU VWUHVV GXH WR WKH FRPELQHG HIIHFW RI WKHVH JUDGXDOO\ DSSOLHG
loads of M and T.
Solution: The bending stress is
32 M
Vb = (using bending equation)
πd 3
M = Bending moment
d = Diameter of the shaft
The shear stress is
16 M
W= (using torsion equation)
πd 3
σb σb2 + 4τ 2
V1, 2 = ±
2 2
16
= (M ± M 2 + T 2 )
πd 3
7KHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLVREWDLQHGDV
σ1 − σ 2
WPD[ =
2
σb2 + 4τ 2
=
2
16 M
= M2 −T2
πd 3
Fig. 2.20
The Mohr’s circle is shown in Fig. 2.20.
ON = Vb
OL = V1
OK = V2
OY = NX = W
CC c = WPD[
1. What is principal stress? How many principal stresses are there for a plane stress condition?
2. What is a principal plane? What is its significance?
3. Who invented Mohr’s circle?
4. What does the radius of Mohr’s circle indicate?
5. How is the plane of maximum shear stress located?
6. When is the shear stress positive or negative?
1. The stresses are said to be compound, when

(a) normal and shear stresses are acting simultaneously
(b) torsion and bending stresses are acting simultaneously
(c) normal and bending stresses are acting simultaneously
(d) bending and stresses are acting simultaneously.
2. The principal planes are the planes of
(a) maximum shear stress (b) minimum shear stress
(c) maximum normal stress (d) zero shear stress.
3. The principal stresses are given as
σx +σy (σ x + σ y )2 − 4τ xy
2
σx +σy (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ xy
2
(a) ± (b) ±
2 2 2 2
σx −σy (σ x + σ y )2 + 4τ xy
2
σx −σy (σ x + σ y )2 − 4τ xy
2
(c) ± (d) ± .
2 2 2 2
4. The principal stresses are basically
(a) shear stresses (b) bending stresses
(c) normal stresses (d) none of these.
5. The planes of maximum shear stress are located at which of the following angle to the principal
SODQHV"
(a) 90 (b) 45
(c) 60 (d) 30
6. The maximum shear stress is equal to
(σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ xy
2
(σ x + σ y )2 + 4τ xy
2
(a) ± (b) ±
2 2
(σ x + σ y )2 − 4τ xy
2
(c) ± (σ x − σ y ) − 4τ xy
2 2
(d) ± .
2 2
7. The principal planes are separated by
(a) 180 (b) 45 (c) 90 (d) 60
8. The maximum shear stress is equal to
(a) one-half of the algebraic difference of the principal stresses
(b) the algebraic difference of the principal stresses
(c) the sum of the principal stresses
(d) the difference of the principal stresses.
9. For uniaxial loading condition, the maximum shear stress is equal to
(a) uniaxial stress (b) two times the uniaxial stress
(c) three times the uniaxial stress (b) one-half of uniaxial stress.
10. For a complex stress system, the total number of principal planes is
(a) two (b) four (c) three (d) none of these.
11. The radius of the Mohr’s circle indicates the
(a) maximum principal stress (b) minimum principal stress
(c) maximum shear stress (d) minimum shear stress.
12. In case one principal stress is zero, the other principal stress is equal to
(a) maximum shear stress (b) two times the maximum shear stress
(c) three times the maximum shear stress (d) none of these.
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (a)
9. (d) 10. (c) 11. (c) 12. (b).
EXERCISES
1. A rectangular element is subjected to a tensile stress of 60 MPa, a compressive stress of

20 MPa and a shear stress of 30 MPa. Find (a) the principal stresses, (b) the maximum
shear stress and (c) the location of the principal planes.
(Ans. (a) 70 MPa, – 30 MPa; (b) 50 MPa; (c) 18.4o and 108.4o).
2. The stresses at a point on two perpendicular planes BC and AC are as shown in Fig. 2.21.
Determine the position of the plane AB such that the shear stress on it is equal to zero. What
ZLOOEHWKHQRUPDOSULQFLSDOVWUHVVHVRQVXFKSODQH"
Fig. 2.21
(Ans. T = 18.43, 90 MPa (Tensile), 10 MPa (Compressive)).

3. The principal stresses at a point within a strained material are 90 MPa and 70 MPa as shown
in Fig. 2.22. Find the normal, the tangential and the resultant stress on a plane inclined at 30°
to the axis of the major principal stress.
Fig. 2.22
(Ans. 75 MPa, 8.66 MPa, 75.5 MPa).

4. At a certain point in a strained material, two normal stresses, one a tensile stress of 100 MPa
and another a compressive stress of 90 MPa are applied at two mutually perpendicular planes.
If maximum diUHFWVWUHVVLVOLPLWHGWR03DWHQVLOH¿QGWKHVKHDUVWUHVVRQWKHSODQHVRQ
which two normal stresses are acting. (Ans. 109.54 MPa).
5. For a biaxial stress system, Vx = 65 MPa, Vy = 75 MPa and Wxy = 40 MPa. Find (a) the principal
stresses and their planes and (b) the maximum shear stresses and the planes on which they
occur. (Ans. (a) 110.31 MPa, 29.68 MPa, 48.56°, 138.56°
(b) 40.315 MPa, 3.56°, 93.56°).
6. At a point in a strained material, the resultant intensity of stress across a plane is 100 MPa tensile
inclined at 45° to its normal. The normal component of stress intensity across the plane at right
angle is 30 MPa compression. Find the position of principal planes and stresses across them.
$OVR¿QGWKHYDOXHRIPD[LPXPVKHDUDWWKDWSRLQW
(Ans. 27.25°, 117.25°, 100.7 MPa, – 66.35 MPa, 86.6 MPa).
7. At a point in a loaded specimen, the principal stresses acting on two mutually perpendicular
planes are 60 MPa and 40 MPa, both being compressive. Determine the resultant stress acting
on a plane inclined at 60° measured clockwise to the plane on which the larger of the normal
stresses is acting. (Ans. 45.82 MPa).
8. A steel shaft is subjected to a torque of 20 kNm and a bending moment of 10 kNm. The
diameter of the shaft is 100 mm. Calculate the maximum and the minimum principal stresses
and the maximum shear stress in the shaft at its surface.
(Ans. 165 MPa, – 63 MPa, 114 MPa).
9. At a point in a strained material, the vertical shear stress is 15 MPa and the horizontal tensile
VWUHVV LV 03D 8VLQJ 0RKU¶V FLUFOH PHWKRG ¿QG WKH SULQFLSDO VWUHVVHV DQG GLUHFWLRQ RI
principal planes. (Ans. 32 MPa, – 7 MPa, 25°, 115°).
10. At a point in a material, there is a horizontal tensile stress of 270 MPa, a vertical tensile stress
of 130 MPa and shearing stress of 40 MPa downward on left. With the aid of Mohr’s circle or
RWKHUZLVH¿QGRXWWKHPD[LPXPDQGWKHPLQLPXPSULQFLSDOVWUHVVHVDQGWKHSODQHVRQZKLFK
they act. Determine also the maximum shearing stress in magnitude and direction.
(Ans. 280.62 MPa, 119.38 MPa, 14.87°, 104.87°, 80.62 MPa, 59.87°, 149.87°).
11. For a plane stress condition in which Vx = 140 MPa, Vy = 20 MPa and Wxy ±03D¿QGWKH
principal stresses and the locations of the principal planes.
(Ans. 165 MPa, –5 MPa, – 22.5°, – 112.5°).
12. For the plane stress condition shown in Fig.¿QGVx and the position of the principal planes,
if the maximum principal stress is – 7MPa.
Fig. 2.23
(Ans. 105 MPa, – 26.6º, – 116.6°).
13. )RUWKHSODQHVWUHVVFRQGLWLRQVKRZQLQ)LJ¿QGWKHSULQFLSDOVWUHVVHVDQGWKHSRVLWLRQRI
the principal planes.
Fig. 2.24
(Ans. 102.5 MPa, – 62.5 MPa, 36°, 126°).
14. A tensile stress V1 and a shear stress W act on a given plane of a material. Show that the principal
stresses are always of opposite sign. If an additional tensile stress V2 acts on a plane perpen-
dicular to that of V1¿QGWKHFRQGLWLRQWKDWERWKSULQFLSDOVWUHVVHVPD\EHRIWKHVDPHVLJQ
(Ans. W= (σ1σ 2 ) ).

3
Centroid and Moment of Inertia
Figure shows an I-section, which is one of the most widely used cross-sections for beams.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_3
3.1 CENTRE OF GRAVITY

7KH FHQWUH RI JUDYLW\ RI D ERG\ LV WKH SRLQW ZKHUH WKH HQWLUH ZHLJKW RI WKH ERG\ LV DVVXPHG WR EH
concentrated. In other words, it is the point where the weight of the body acts. It may or may not be
located within the body and its position depends upon the shape of the body. It is denoted by G.
If the mass is uniformly scattered in the body, then the body can be assumed to be made of many
elemental masses m1, m2, m3, ... . Suppose these elemental masses are located at distances x1, x2, x3, ... from
yD[LVDQGy1, y2, y3, ... from xD[LVWKHQFHQWUHRIJUDYLW\RIWKHERG\LVGH¿QHGE\ x and y JLYHQE\
x =
m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3 + …
=
∑ mx ... (3.1)
m1 + m2 + m3 + … ∑m
and y =
m1 y1 + m2 y2 + m3 y3 + …
=
∑ my ... (3.2)
m1 + m2 + m3 + … ∑m
3.2 FIRST MOMENT OF AREA AND CENTROID
7KH¿UVWPRPHQWRIDSODQHDUHDGH¿QHVWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHDUHD7KHFHQWURLGLVGH¿QHGDVWKHFHQWUHRI
JUDYLW\RIDSODQHDUHDZKHUHWKHHQWLUHDUHDLVDVVXPHGWREHFRQFHQWUDWHG&RQVLGHUDQDUHDA located
in the xy-plane as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Fig. 3.1 Plane area A with the centroid G.
Further we consider a small element of area dA in the plane area AZLWKDFHQWURLGKDYLQJFRRUGLQDWHV

(x, yUHODWLYHWRWKHx and yD[HV
7KH¿UVWPRPHQWRIWKHDUHDA with respect to the xD[LVLVGH¿QHGDV
Qx = ∫ y dA ... (3.3)
A
6LPLODUO\WKH¿UVWPRPHQWRIWKHDUHDA with respect to the yD[LVLVGH¿QHGDV
Qy = ∫ x dA ... (3.4)
A
Centroid and Moment of Inertia 91
The values of Qx and Qy may be positive, negative or zero, depending on the location of the origin O
of the coordinate axes. In SI units, Qx and Qy are expressed in m3, and their dimension is [L3].
The centroid G of the area ALVGH¿QHGDVWKHSRLQWLQWKHxy-plane that has coordinates
Qy Q
x = and y = x ... (3.5)
A A
7KH¿UVWPRPHQWRIDQDUHDKDVWKHIROORZLQJSURSHUWLHV
,I WKH FHQWURLG RI WKH DUHD FRLQFLGHV ZLWK WKH RULJLQ RI WKH xy FRRUGLQDWH V\VWHP IRU ZKLFK
x = y = 0, then Qx = Qy = 0.
)RUDQDUHDKDYLQJDQD[LVRIV\PPHWU\WKHFHQWURLGRIWKHDUHDOLHVRQWKDWD[LV
,IWKHDUHDFDQEHVXEGLYLGHGLQWRVLPSOHJHRPHWULFVKDSHVOLNHUHFWDQJOHVWULDQJOHVFLUFOHVHWF
of areas A1, A2, A3WKHQHTXDWLRQVDQGFDQEHH[SUHVVHGLQWKHIROORZLQJIRUPV
⎛ ⎞
Qx = ∑ ⎜ ∫ ydA⎟ = Σ (Qx )i = Σ Ai yi ... (3.6)
⎝ Ai ⎠
⎛ ⎞
Qy = ∑ ⎜ ∫ xdA⎟ = Σ(Q ) = Σ Ai xi
y i ... (3.7)
⎝ Ai ⎠
ZKHUH xi , yi) are the coordinates of the centroid of area Ai.
)RUWKHSXUSRVHRILOOXVWUDWLRQFRQVLGHUDQDUHDA consisting of a number of elemental areas a1, a2,
a37KHLUORFDWLRQVZUWxySODQHDUHVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 3.2 Location of the centroid.
A = a1 + a2 + a3 + ...
= ∑a
Let x = Distance of the centroid of the area A from the y-axis
y = Distance of the centroid of the area A from the x-axis
8VLQJWKHPRPHQWSULQFLSOHRIDUHDZHKDYH
a x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + …
x = 1 1
a1 + a2 + a3 + …
=
∑ ax
∑a
=
∑ ax ...(3.8)
A
a1 y1 + a2 y2 + a3 y3 + …
and y =
a1 + a2 + a3 + …
=
∑ ay
∑a
=
∑ ay ...(3.9)
A
x and y WDNHQWRJHWKHUJLYHVWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHDUHDA.
Example 3.1
Find the centroid of a T-section shown in Fig. 3.3.
Fig. 3.3
Solution: Refer Fig. 3.3. The entire TVHFWLRQ LV GLYLGHG WZR SDUWV DQG 7KH VHFWLRQ LV
symmetrical about YY D[LV KHQFH WKH FHQWURLG ZLOO OLH VRPHZKHUH RQ WKLV OLQH /HW AB is chosen as
the reference line.
For part (1)
Area a1 = 200 30 = 6 103 mm2
Distance of its C.G. from AB
y1 = ⎛ 250 + 30 ⎞ = 265 mm
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
For part (2)

Area a2 = 250 20 = 5 103 mm2
250
y2 = = 125 mm
2
%\GH¿QLWLRQ y = a1 y1 a2 y2
a1 a2
(6 × 103 × 265) + (5 × 103 × 125)

= = 201.36 mm
(6 × 103 ) + (5 × 103 )
and x =0
+HQFHWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHJLYHQVHFWLRQOLHVDWDGLVWDQFHRIPPIURPAB on line YY. Ans.
Example 3.2
Find the centroid of an I-section shown in Fig. 3.4.
Fig. 3.4
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ7KHHQWLUHVHFWLRQLVGLYLGHGLQWRWKUHHSDUWVDQG7KHVHFWLRQLV

symmetrical about YYD[LVKHQFHFHQWURLGRIWKHVHFWLRQZLOOOLHRQLW/HWAB be the reference line.
For part (1)
Area a1 = 150 20 = 3 103 mm2
⎛ 20 ⎞
y1 = ⎜ 30 + 200 + ⎟ = 240 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
For part (2)

Area a2 = 200 25 = 5 103 mm2
⎛ 200 ⎞
y2 = ⎜ 30 + ⎟ = 130 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
For part (3)
Area a3 = 250 30 = 7.5 103 mm2
30
y3 = = 15mm
2
%\GH¿QLWLRQ
a1 y1 a2 y2 a3 y3
y =
a1 a2 a3
(3 × 103 × 240) + (5 × 103 × 130) + (7.5 × 103 × 15)

= = 95.64 mm
(3 × 103 ) + (5 × 103 ) + (7.5 × 103 )
and x =0
+HQFHWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHJLYHQVHFWLRQOLHVDWDGLVWDQFHRIPPIURPAB. Ans.
Example 3.3
Find the centroid of the angle section (L-section) shown in Fig. 3.5.
Fig. 3.5
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ7DNHAB and ACDVWKHUHIHUHQFHD[HV7KHJLYHQVHFWLRQLVGLYLGHGLQWR

two parts (1) and (2).
For part (1)
Area a1 = 250 15 = 3750 mm2
Distance of its C.G. from AC

15
x1 = = 7.5 mm
2
250
y1 = = 125 mm
2
For part (2)
Area a2 = (120 – 15) 15
= 1575 mm2
⎡ ⎛ 120 − 15 ⎞ ⎤
x2 = ⎢15 + ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
= 67.5 mm
15
y2 = = 7.5 mm
2
%\GH¿QLWLRQ
a1 x1 a2 x2
x =
a1 a2
(3750 × 7.5) + (1575 × 67.5)

=
3750 + 1575
= 25.24 mm
a1 y1 a2 y2
and y =
a1 a2
(3750 × 125) + (1575 × 7.5)

=
3750 + 1575
= 90.24 mm
+HQFHWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHJLYHQVHFWLRQLVORFDWHGDWDGLVWDQFHRIPPIURPAC and at a distance

of 90.24 mm from AB. Ans.
Example 3.4
Find the centroid of the channel section shown in Fig. 3.6.
Fig. 3.6
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ7KHFKDQQHOVHFWLRQLVGLYLGHGLQWRWKUHHSDUWVDQG/HWAB and

ACEHWKHD[HVRIUHIHUHQFH
For part (1)
Area a1 = 50 15 = 750 mm2
50
x1 = = 25 mm
2
⎡ 15 ⎤
y1 = ⎢(150 − 15) + ⎥ = 142.5 mm
⎣ 2⎦
For part (2)
Area a2 = [150 – (15 2)] 10
= 1200 mm2
10
x2 = = 5 mm
2
150
y2 = = 75 mm
2
For part (3)
Area a3 = 50 15 = 750 mm2

50
x3 = = 25 mm
2
15
y3 = = 7.5 mm
2
%\GH¿QLWLRQ
a1 x1 a2 x2 a3 x3
x =
a1 a2 a3
(750 × 25) + (1200 × 5) + (750 × 25)

= = 16.11 mm
750 + 1200 + 750
and y = a1 y1 a2 y2 a3 y3
a1 a2 a3
(750 × 142.5) + (1200 × 75) + (750 × 7.5)

= = 75 mm
750 + 1200 + 750
+HQFHWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHVHFWLRQOLHVDWDGLVWDQFHRIPPIURPAC and at a distance of 75 mm

from AB. Ans.
Example 3.5
A circular part of diameter 70 mm is cut out from a circular plate of diameter 200 mm as shown in Fig. 3.7.
Find the centroid of the remaining part.
Solution: Refer Fig. 3.7. Let AB and CDEHWKHD[HVRIUHIHUHQFH
G &HQWURLGRIWKHFLUFXODUSODWH
G &HQWURLGRIWKHFLUFXODUSDUWEHLQJFXWVKDGHGDUHD
G = &HQWURLGRIWKHUHPDLQLQJSDUW
Fig. 3.7
For circular plate

Area of the plate, a1 = π 2002 = 3.141 104 mm2
4
Its C.G. lies on AB i.e., y1 = 0 and the distance of the C.G. from CD is
200
x1 = = 100 mm
2
For part being cut
π
Area of the shaded portion, a2 = 702 = 3.848 103 mm2
4
Its C.G. from CD
⎡ 70 ⎤
x2 = ⎢(200 − 70) + ⎥ = 165 mm
⎣ 2⎦
For remaining part
The distance of the C.GRIWKHUHPDLQLQJSDUWIURP&'LV
a x a2 x2
x = 1 1
a1 a2
(3.141 × 104 × 100) − (3.848 × 103 × 165)

=
3.141 × 104 − 3.848 × 103
= 90.92 mm
and y =0
+HQFHWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHUHPDLQLQJSDUWOLHVRQXX line at a distance of 90.92 mm from CD. Ans.
Example 3.6
Find the centroid of the section shown in Fig. 3.8.
Fig. 3.8
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ7KHHQWLUHVHFWLRQLVGLYLGHGLQWRWKUHHSDUWVDQG7DNHAB and

BC as the reference lines.
For part (1)
1 π
Area a1 = 502 = 982.14 mm2
2 4

4 × 25
x1 = 25 – = 14.39 mm
3π
Distance of its C.G. from BC
50
y1 = = 25 mm
2
For part (2)
Area a2 = 70 50 = 3500 mm2
⎛ 70 ⎞
x2 = ⎜ 25 + ⎟ = 60 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
50
y2 = = 25 mm
2
For part (3)
1
Area a3 = 50 50 = 1250 mm2
2
⎛ 50 ⎞
x3 = ⎜ 25 + 70 + ⎟ = 111.66 mm
⎝ 3 ⎠
100
y3 = = 33.33 mm
3
%\GH¿QLWLRQ
x 'LVWDQFHRIWKHFHQWULRGRIWKHJLYHQVHFWLRQIURPAB
a1 x1 a2 x2 a3 x3
=
a1 a2 a3
(981.74 × 14.39) + (3500 × 60) + (1250 × 111.66)

= = 63.45 mm
981.74 + 3500 + 1250
and y 'LVWDQFHRIWKHFHQWULRGRIWKHJLYHQVHFWLRQIURPBC
a1 y1 a2 y2 a3 y3
=
a1 a2 a3
(981.74 × 25) + (3500 × 25) + (1250 × 33.33)
= = 26.82 mm
981.74 + 3500 + 1250
+HQFHWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHJLYHQVHFWLRQOLHVDWDGLVWDQFHRIPPIURPAB and at a distance of
26.82 mm from BC. Ans.
Example 3.7
Find the centroid of the area bounded by the x-axis, the line x = a and the parabola y2 = k x as shown
in Fig. 3.9.
Fig. 3.9
Solution: Consider a vertical elementary strip of thickness dx at a distance x from the y-axis as shown
in Fig. 3.9.
The area of the strip is dA = y dx
y
The centroid of the strip is located at distance of y = from the x-axis.
2
The distance of the centroid of the whole area from the x-axis is given as
y y 2 dx
y = ∑ dA . y′ ∫ ydx .
2 = ∫ 2
=
∑ dA A A
a
∫ Kx dx
0
= (y2 = kx)
2A
a
K ⎛ x2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
2 A ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠0
Ka 2
=
4A
a2 1
= K. .
4 A
b 2 . a 2 . 3b
=
a 4 8
3b
=
8
Now consider a horizontal strip of thickness dy at a distance x from the y-axis as shown in Fig. 3.10.
Fig. 3.10
The length of the strip = (a – x)

The area of the strip is dA = (a – x) dy
⎛ a− x⎞ ax
The centroid of the strip is located at a distance of x = ⎜ x + ⎟ = 2 from the y-axis.
⎝ 2 ⎠
The distance of the centroid of the whole area from the y-axis is given as
x = ∑ dA . x ′
∑ dA
b
a+x
∫ (a − x) dy . 2
0
=
A
b
1
2 A ∫0
= (a 2 − x 2 ) dy
⎧ 2 2⎫
⎪ 2 ⎛y ⎞ ⎪
b
1
2 A ∫0
= ⎨a − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎬ dy (y2 = kx)
⎪⎩ ⎝ k ⎠ ⎪⎭
1 ⎡ 2
b b
y4 ⎤
= ⎢ ∫ a dy − ∫ 2 dy ⎥
2 A ⎢⎣ 0 0 K ⎦⎥
1 ⎡⎢ 2 b ⎛ y 5 ⎞ ⎤⎥
b
= (a y )0 − ⎜⎜ ⎟
2A ⎢ ⎝ 5 K 2 ⎟⎠0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎤
⎢ 5 ⎥
1 ⎢ 2 b ⎥
= a b−
2A ⎢ ⎛ b4 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ 5⎜ 2⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎥⎦
:KHQy = b, then x = a, hence
y2 b2
K = x = a
1 ⎡ 2 a 2b ⎤ 1 .4 2
+HQFH x = ⎢a b − ⎥ = a b
2A ⎣ 5 ⎦ 2A 5
=
1 . 4 a 2b = 3a
⎛ 2ab ⎞ 5 5
⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
2⎜
+HQFHWKHFHQWURLGLVORFDWHGDWWKHSRLQW x , y ), that is, ⎛⎜ a, b ⎞⎟ .

3 3
Ans.
⎝5 8 ⎠
Example 3.8
Find the coordinates of the centroid of a quarter-ellipse shown in Fig. 3.11, using direct integration
method.
Fig. 3.11
Solution: The equation of the ellipse is

x2 y2
+ =1
a 2 b2
where a and bDUHWKHVHPLPDMRUDQGVHPLPLQRUD[HVRIWKHHOOLSVH
From the equation of ellipse, we have

a 2
x = b − y2 ...(1)
b
b 2
y = a − x2 ...(2)
a
Now consider a vertical strip of height y and width dx at a distance x from the y-axis as shown in
Fig. 3.11.
Area of the strip dA = y ·dx
The distance of the centroid of the strip from the y-axis is
x =
∫ xdA
∫ dA
a
∫ x. ydx
= 0
a
∫ ydx
0
a
b
∫ x. a a 2 − x 2 dx
0
= a (on substituting y from equation (2))
b 2
∫ a a − x dx
2
∫x a 2 − x 2 dx
or x = 0
a ... (3)
∫ a − x dx
2 2
0
Let x = a sin T then dx = a cosT dT ... (4)
when x = 0, T= 0
π
x = a, T=
2
Equation (3) can now be expressed as
π
2
∫ a sin θ · ( a 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ) · a cos θd θ

x = 0
π
2
∫
0
a 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ · a cos θd θ
π
2
∫ a sin θ · a cos θ · a cos θ d θ

0
= π
2
∫ a cos θ · a cos θ d θ
0
π
2
∫a sin θ cos2 θ d θ
3
= 0
π
2
∫a cos2 θ d θ
2
0
π
2
∫ sin θ (1 − sin θ) d θ
2
(cos 2T = 2 cos2 T – 1)
0
= a· π
⎛ 1 + cos 2θ ⎞
2
∫ ⎜⎝
2
⎟⎠ d θ
0
π
2
∫ (sin θ − sin θ) d θ
3
= 2a · 0
π
2
∫ (1 + cos 2θ) d θ
0
⎛ 3 sin θ − sin 3θ ⎞
2
∫ sin θ − ⎜⎝ 4
⎟⎠ d θ
= 2a · 0 π
2
∫ (1 + cos 2θ) d θ
0
π
2
⎛ 3 sin θ sin 3θ ⎞
∫ ⎜⎝ sin θ −
4
+
4 ⎠
⎟ dθ
= 2a · 0 π
2
∫ (1 + cos 2θ) d θ
0
π
⎡ 3 cos θ cos 3θ ⎤ 2
⎢⎣ − cos θ + 4 − 12 ⎥⎦
= 2a · 0
π
⎡ sin 2θ ⎤ 2
⎢⎣θ + 2 ⎥⎦
0
⎛ π 3 π 1 3π 3 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ − cos + cos − cos + cos 0 − cos 0 + cos 0⎟⎠
2 4 2 12 2 4 12
= 2a ·
⎛π 1 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ + sin π − sin 0 − sin 0⎟⎠
2 2 2
⎛ 3 1⎞ ⎛ 4⎞
⎜⎝ − 0 + 0 − 0 + 1 − + ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
4 12 12
= 2a · = 2a ·
⎛π ⎞ ⎛ π⎞
⎜⎝ + 0 − 0 − 0⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2 2
4a
or x =
3π
Similarly, the distance of the centroid of the strip from the xD[LVLV
⎛ y⎞
∫ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ dA
y =
∫ dA
As the centroid of the area dA lies a distance (y/2) from the xD[LV
a
⎛ y⎞
∫ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ y · dx
or y = 0
a (dA = ydx)
∫ ydx
0
∫ y dx
2
1 0
= ·
2 a
∫ ydx
0
a
b2 2
1 ∫0 a
2
( a − x 2 ) dx
= · a (on substituting y from equation (2))
2 b 2
∫ a a − x dx
2
∫ (a − x 2 ) dx
2
b 0
= ·
2a a
∫0
a 2 − x 2 dx
π
2
∫ (a − a 2 sin 2 θ) a cos θ d θ
2
b 0
= · π (using equation (4))
2a 2
∫0
a 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ a cos θ dx
π
2
b ∫0
a 2 cos2 θ · a cos θ d θ
= · π
2a 2
∫ a cos θ · a cos θ d θ
0
π
2
b ∫0
cos3 θ d θ
= · π
2 2
∫ cos θ d θ
2
⎛ cos 3θ + 3 cos θ ⎞
2
∫ ⎜⎝
b 0 4
⎟⎠ d θ
= · π (cos3T = 4cos3T – 3cosT)
2
⎛ 1 + cos 2θ ⎞
2
∫ ⎜⎝
0
2
⎟⎠ d θ
π
2
(cos 3θ + 3 cos θ ) d θ
b ∫0
= · π
4 2
∫ (1 + cos 2θ) d θ
0
π
⎡ sin 3θ ⎤2
⎢ + 3 sin θ ⎥
b ⎣ 3 ⎦0
= · π
4
⎡ sin 2θ ⎤ 2
⎢⎣θ + 2 ⎥⎦
0
⎛1 3π π sin 0 ⎞
× sin + 3 sin − − 3 sin 0⎟
b ⎜⎝ 3 2 2 3 ⎠
= ·
4 ⎛π 1 sin 0 ⎞
⎜⎝ + × sin π − 0 − ⎟
2 2 2 ⎠
⎛1 ⎞
× ( −1) + 3 × 1 − 0 − 0⎟
b ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠
= ·
4 ⎛π 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ + × 0 − 0 − 0⎟⎠
2 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 8⎞
⎜ − + 3⎟
b ⎝ 3 ⎠ b ⎜⎝ 3⎟⎠
= · = ·
4 π 4 ⎛ π⎞
2 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2
4b
or y =
3π
⎛ 4 a , 4b ⎞
+HQFHWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHTXDUWHUHOOLSVHLV x , y ), that is, ⎜ .
⎝ 3π 3π ⎟⎠
7KHFHQWURLGVRIVRPHLPSRUWDQWJHRPHWULHVDUHJLYHQLQ7DEOH
Table 3.1
Figure Centroid Area

7UDSH]RLG
h (a 2b)
x =
3 ( a b) ( a b) h
2 2 2
y = a + ab + b
3 (a + b)
Triangle
( a b)
x =
3 1
bh
2
y = h
3
Rectangle
x = b
2
bd
y = d
2
&RQWG
Parallelogram
(a cos θ + b)
x =
2
ab sin T
a sin T
y =
2
Semi-circle
x =0
π r2
4r
y = 2
3π
Quarter-circle
4r
x =
3π π r2
4r 4
y =
3π
Semi-parabola
3
x = a
8 2ah
3
2
y = h
5
Parabola
x =0
4ah
2
y = h 3
5
&RQWG
Quarter-ellipse
4a
x =
3π π ab
4
y =
4b
3π
Parabolic segment
(2nd degree)
3
x = a
4
ah
3 3
y = h
10
General spander
⎛ n +1 ⎞
x =⎜ ⎟a
⎝n + 2⎠ ah
(n 1)
⎛ n +1 ⎞ h
y =⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2n + 1 ⎠ 2
3.3 MOMENT OF INERTIA

$ERG\URWDWLQJDERXWDQD[LVLQDUHIHUHQFHIUDPHUHVLVWVDQ\FKDQJHLQLWVURWDWLRQDOPRWLRQDQJXODU
YHORFLW\2QDFFRXQWRIWKLVSURSHUW\WKHERG\LVVDLGWRKDYHDPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRUURWDWLRQDOLQHUWLD
DERXWWKDWD[LV
The moment of inertia is of two types:
z Mass moment of inertia
z Area moment of inertia, also called Second moment of area
3.3.1 Mass Moment of Inertia

If a particle of mass m is located at a distance rIURPDQD[LVRIURWDWLRQWKHQLWVPRPHQWRILQHUWLDI
DERXWWKDWD[LVLVJLYHQDV
I = mr2 ...(3.10)
If m1, m2, m3DUHWKHPDVVHVRIWKHYDULRXVSDUWLFOHVFRQVWLWXWLQJWKHERG\DQGr1, r2, r3 ... are their
GLVWDQFHVIURPWKHD[LVRIURWDWLRQ)LJWKHQWKHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHERG\DERXWWKDWD[LVLV
JLYHQDV
Fig. 3.12
I = m1 r12 + m2 r22 + m3 r32 + = 6mr2 ... (3.11)

If the mass is continuously distributed in the body, then
I = ∫ r 2 dm ... (3.12)
where dmLVWKHPDVVRIDQLQ¿QLWHVLPDOO\VPDOOHOHPHQWRIWKHERG\DWDGLVWDQFHrIURPWKHD[LVRI
rotation.
3.3.2 Radius of Gyration w.r.t. Mass Moment of Inertia

The radius of gyration, KRIDERG\LVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDGLDOGLVWDQFHIURPWKHJLYHQD[LVRIURWDWLRQ
WKHVTXDUHRIZKLFKRQEHLQJPXOWLSOLHGE\WKHWRWDOPDVVRIWKHERG\JLYHVWKHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRI
WKHERG\DERXWWKDWD[LV+HQFH
I = MK2 = 6mr2 ... (3.13)
where M is the total mass of the body.
)URP(TXDWLRQZHKDYH
I
K = ... (3.14)
M
3.3.3 Second Moment of Area

The moments of inertia of a plane area, with respect to the xyD[HVDVVKRZQLQ)LJDUHGH¿QHGDV
∫y
2
Ix = dA ... (3.15)
∫ x dA
2
and Iy = ... (3.16)
where x and y are the coordinates of the differential elements of area dA. Because dA is multiplied by
the square of the distance, the moments of inertia are also called second moments of the area. Further,
the integrals Ix and Iy are also referred to as rectangular moments of inertia, as they are computed from
the rectangular coordinates of the element dA:KLOHHDFKLQWHJUDOLVDFWXDOO\DGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLWLV
possible in many applications to select elements of area dALQWKHVKDSHRIWKLQKRUL]RQWDORUYHUWLFDO
VWULSVDQGWKXVUHGXFHWKHFRPSXWDWLRQVWRLQWHJUDWLRQLQDVLQJOHYDULDEOH7KHPRPHQWVRILQHUWLDDUH
DOZD\VSRVLWLYHDQGKDYH6,XQLWVRIP4, and their dimension is [L4].
3.3.4 Radius of Gyration w.r.t. Second Moment of Area

7KHUDGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQRIDQDUHDDERXWDQD[LVLVGH¿QHGDVLWVGLVWDQFHIURPWKHJLYHQD[LVWKHVTXDUH
RIZKLFKRQEHLQJPXOWLSOLHGE\WKHWRWDODUHDRIWKHERG\JLYHVWKHVHFRQGPRPHQWRILQHUWLDDERXWWKDW
D[LV,WLVJLYHQDV
I = AK2
I
or K = ... (3.17)
A
For the xD[LV
Ix
Kx = ... (3.18)
A
For the yD[LV
Iy
Ky = ... (3.19)
A
7KHFRQFHSWRIWKHUDGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQLVXVHIXOLQWKHDQDO\VLVRIEHKDYLRXURIVWUXFWXUDOPHPEHUVOLNH
beams, columns etc.
3.4 PRODUCT OF INERTIA

The product of inertia of a plane area is also called the product second moment of area or the product
PRPHQWRILQHUWLDRUVLPSO\WKHSURGXFWRILQHUWLD,WLVGH¿QHGZLWKUHVSHFWWRDVHWRISHUSHQGLFXODU
D[HVO\LQJLQWKHSODQHRIWKHDUHD:LWKUHVSHFWWRWKHxyD[HVDVVKRZQLQ)LJWKHSURGXFW
PRPHQWRILQHUWLDLVGH¿QHGDV
Ixy = ∫ xydA
A
... (3.20)
As each element of the area dA is multiplied by the product of its coordinates, hence the product of
LQHUWLDFDQEHSRVLWLYHQHJDWLYHRU]HUR,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRQRWHWKDWSURGXFWRILQHUWLDRIDQDUHDLV]HUR
ZLWKUHVSHFWWRDQ\SDLURID[HVLQZKLFKRQHD[LVHLWKHUx or yD[LVLVDQD[LVRIV\PPHWU\RIWKHDUHD
As most of the structural members used in bending applications consist of cross-sections of a
FRPELQDWLRQRIUHFWDQJOHVWKHYDOXHRIWKHSURGXFWRILQHUWLDIRUVXFKVHFWLRQVLVGHWHUPLQHGE\WKH
addition of the IxyYDOXHIRUHDFKUHFWDQJOH,WKDV6,XQLWRIP4 and dimension [L4].
3.5 PRINCIPAL AXES AND PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF INERTIA

3ULQFLSDOD[HVDUHWKHD[HVDERXWZKLFKWKHSURGXFWRILQHUWLDRIWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIDEHDPLV]HUR$OO
SODQHVHFWLRQVZKHWKHUWKH\KDYHDQD[LVRIV\PPHWU\RUQRWKDYHWZRPXWXDOO\SHUSHQGLFXODUD[HV
DERXWZKLFKWKHSURGXFWRILQHUWLDLV]HUR6LPSOHEHQGLQJRIDEHDPWDNHVSODFHDERXWDSULQFLSDOD[LV
DQGWKHPRPHQWVDUHDSSOLHGLQDSODQHSDUDOOHOWRRQHVXFKD[LV7KHPRPHQWVRILQHUWLDRIDQDUHDDERXW
WKHSULQFLSDOD[HVDUHFDOOHGWKHSULQFLSDOPRPHQWVRILQHUWLDDQGWKHLUPD[LPXPDQGPLQLPXPYDOXHV
DUHUHVSHFWLYHO\UHIHUUHGWRDVWKHPD[LPXPSULQFLSDOPRPHQWRILQHUWLDDQGWKHPLQLPXPSULQFLSDO
moment of inertia.
The expression for the principal moments of inertia can be obtained using the expression for the principal
stresses given below.
2
σx + σ y ⎛ σx − σ y ⎞
V 1, V 2 = ± ⎜ ⎟ + τ 2xy ... (3.21)
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Substituting Vx = Ix , Vy = Iy and Wxy = Ixy in equation (3.21), we can write the expression for the principal
moments of inertia as
2
Ix + I y ⎛ Ix − I y ⎞
I 1, I 2 = ± ⎜ + I xy2 ... (3.22)
2 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
where
I1 = Maximum principal moment of inertia
I2 = Minimum principal moment of inertia
Ix = Moment of inertia of the section about the x-axis
Iy = Moment of inertia of the section about the y-axis.
Ixy = Product moment of inertia of the section with respect to x and y axes.
7KHRULHQWDWLRQRIWKHSULQFLSDOD[HVLVGH¿QHGDV
2I xy
tan 2Tp = – ... (3.23)
Ix − I y
The two values of TpGLIIHUE\DQGGH¿QHWKHWZRSHUSHQGLFXODUSULQFLSDOD[HVRIZKLFKRQH
corresponds to the maximum moment of inertia and the other corresponds to the minimum moment of
Inertia. There are no shear stresses on the principal planes, hence the product of inertia is zero with respect
to the principal axes.
3.6 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR SECOND MOMENTS OF AREA

The transformation equations for the normal and shear stresses for a plane stress condition can be
represented in a graphical form, known as Mohr’s circle, as discussed in the chapter of principal
stresses. The coordinates of each point on the circle correspond to the normal and shear stresses acting
RQVSHFL¿FVHWRISHUSHQGLFXODUSODQHV0RKU¶VFLUFOHFDQDOVREHDSSOLHGWRWKHVHFRQGPRPHQWVRIDUHD
to represent the transformation equations for the second moments of area and the product of inertia of
area, and the coordinates of each point on the circle represent the moment of inertia and the product of
LQHUWLDZLWKUHVSHFWWRDVSHFL¿FVHWRISHUSHQGLFXODUD[HV)RUFRQVWUXFWLQJWKHFLUFOH)LJb)), the
second moments of area are plotted on the horizontal axis (the x-axis) and the product of inertia on the
vertical axis (the y-axis). Two points, say A and B are considered. Point A with coordinates (Ix , Ixy) is
plotted above the horizontal axis, if Ixy is positive. Similarly, point B with its coordinates (Iy , – Ixy) is
plotted below the horizontal axis. The two points A and B are now joined by a straight line, and a circle
is constructed with this line (AB) as the diameter. The resulting circle is called Mohr’s circle for second
moments of area with centre C. OR (IP ) and OS (IP ) are the principal second moments of area with
2 1
WKHLUPLQLPXPDQGPD[LPXPYDOXHVUHVSHFWLYHO\7R¿QGWKHVHFRQGPRPHQWRIDUHDDERXWVRPHRWKHU
axis, say the neutral axis (NA), which is inclined at an angle D to the x-axis, a point N is chosen on the
circle such that < ACN = 2Din the counterclockwise direction. The horizontal coordinate of N gives the
value of second moment of area about the neutral axis, that is, INA.
(a) Mohr’s circle for a plane stress condition (b) Mohr’s circle for second moments of area
Fig. 3.13 Comparison of Mohr’s circles of plane stress and second moment of area.
2QFRPSDULQJ0RKU¶VFLUFOHVIRUSODQHVWUHVVDQGVHFRQGPRPHQWVRIDUHDDVVKRZQLQ)LJZH
¿QGWKDWWxy is associated with – Ixy. The point A with its coordinates (Ix , IxyLQ)LJb) is plotted
above the horizontal axis, if Ixy is positive. In contrast, the corresponding point P with its coordinates
(Vx , – WxyLQ)LJa) is plotted below the horizontal axis for positive Wxy. Otherwise, the procedure
to construct Mohr’s circle for the second moments of area is identical to Mohr’s circle for plane stress.
3.7 PARALLEL-AXES THEOREM

7KHSDUDOOHOD[HVWKHRUHPLVXVHGWR¿QGWKHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIDSODQHDUHDDERXWDQD[LVSDUDOOHO
to its centroidal axis. Consider an area A with its centroid G having coordinates ( x , y ) as shown in
)LJ7KHKRUL]RQWDOFHQWURLGDOD[LVLVWKHxc-axis, which is parallel to the x-axis and the vertical
centroidal axis is the yc-axis, which is parallel to the yDL[V)XUWKHUDQHOHPHQWRIDUHDdA is considered,
where x and yFRRUGLQDWHVDUHGH¿QHGDV
x = x + xc
y = y + yc
where x is the x-coordinate of the centroid G, which represents the perpendicular distance between two
vertical parallel axes, namely the y-axis and the yc-axis. Similarly, y is the y-coordinate of the centroid
G, which represents the perpendicular distance between two horizontal parallel axes, namely the x-axis
and the xc-axis.
Fig. 3.14
7KHPDWKHPDWLFDOVWDWHPHQWVRIWKHSDUDOOHOD[HVWKHRUHPIRUWKHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDDUHQRZH[SUHVVHGDV
Ix = I x + Ay
2
(for the xD[LVDQGWKHxcD[LV
Iy = I y + Ax 2 (for the yD[LVDQGWKHycD[LV
where I x = Ixc = Moment of inertia about the centroidal xD[LVWKDWLVWKH
xcD[LV
I y = Iy c = Moment of inertia about the centroidal yD[LVWKDWLVWKH
y cD[LV
7KHSDUDOOHOD[HVWKHRUHPIRUWKHSURGXFWRILQHUWLDRIDQDUHDFDQEHREWDLQHGE\VXEVWLWXWLQJx and y in
WKHH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHSURGXFWRILQHUWLDWKDWLV
Ixy = ∫ xydA
= ∫ ( x + x ′)( y + y ′)dA
= ∫ x ′y ′dA + x ∫ y ′dA + y ∫ x ′dA + x y ∫ dA
where ∫ x ′y ′dA = I xy = Ixcyc = Product of inertia of the cross-sectional area with
UHVSHFWWRWKHFHQWURLGDOD[HVx any y, that is, the
D[HVxc and yc.
∫ y ′dA = ∫ x ′dA DVWKH\DUHWKH¿UVWPRPHQWRIDUHDDERXWWKH

FHQWURLGDOD[HVx and y.)
and ∫ dA =A
+HQFHHTXDWLRQRIWKHSURGXFWRILQHUWLDRIWKHDUHDUHGXFHVWR
Ixy = I xy + A x y ... (3.26)
(TXDWLRQUHSUHVHQWVWKHPDWKHPDWLFDOVWDWHPHQWRIWKHSDUDOOHOD[HVWKHRUHPIRUWKHSURGXFWRI

inertia of an area.
1RZWKHSRODUPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIDQDUHDLVH[SUHVVHGDV
Jo = Ix + Iy ... (3.27)
where Jo = Polar moment of inertia about the origin O.
2QVXEVWLWXWLQJIx and Iy from equations (3.24) and (3.25), we get
Jo = ( I x + Ay ) + ( I y + Ax 2)
2
= I x + I y + A( x + y )
2 2
+HQFH Jo = J G + Ar 2 ... (3.28)

where J G = I x + I y = Polar moment of inertia of the area about the centroid G
r 2 = x + y , and its square root r =

2 2
x 2 + y 2 represents the distance between O and
G as shown in Fig. 3.14.
(TXDWLRQ UHSUHVHQWV WKH PDWKHPDWLFDO VWDWHPHQW RI WKH SDUDOOHOD[HV WKHRUHP IRU WKH SRODU
moment of inertia of an area.
3.8 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A RECTANGULAR SECTION

&RQVLGHUDUHFWDQJXODUVHFWLRQOABC (Fig. 3.15).
Let b :LGWKRIWKHVHFWLRQ
Fig. 3.15
d = Depth of the section

XX +RUL]RQWDOFHQWURLGDOD[LV
YY 9HUWLFDOFHQWURLGDOD[LV
&RQVLGHUDVWULSSDUDOOHOWRWKHxD[LVRIWKLFNQHVVdy at a distance y from the XX-D[LV
Area of the strip = dA = bdy

Moment of inertia of the strip about the XX-axis = dA y2
= by2 dy
The moment of inertia of the entire section about the XX-axis is found as
d /2
IXX = ∫ by 2 dy
−d / 2
d /2
⎛ y3 ⎞
= b ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠− d / 2
b ⎡ ⎛ d ⎞3 ⎛ d ⎞3 ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥
3 ⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
b ⎛ d3 d3 ⎞
= ⎜ + ⎟
3 ⎜⎝ 8 8 ⎟⎠
bd 3
= ... (3.29)
12
The moment of inertia about the YY-axis is given as
db3
IYY = ... (3.30)
12
The moment of inertia about the x-axis is given as
Ix = IXX + Ah2
2 ⎛ d⎞
bd 3 ⎛d ⎞ ⎜⎝ h = ⎟⎠
= + (bd) ⎜ ⎟ 2
12 ⎝2⎠
bd 3
= ... (3.31)
3
The moment of inertia about the y-axis is given as

Iy = IYY + Ah2
db3 2 ⎛ b⎞
= + (bd)
⎛b⎞ ⎜h = ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 2⎠
12 ⎝2⎠
db3
= ... (3.32)
3
3.9 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A SOLID CIRCULAR SECTION

First method
Consider a circular section of radius r (Fig. 3.16).
An elemental strip of thickness dy is considered at a distance y from the x-axis.
Area of the strip, dA = 2r cos T . dy
Now y = r sinT
dy = r cosT dT
Hence, dA = 2r cosT . r cosT dT
= 2r2 cos2 TdT
Fig. 3.16
The moment of inertia of the section about the centroidal axis XX is given as
IXX = ∫ y 2 dA
π/2
= ∫ ( r sin θ)2 . 2r 2 cos2 θ d θ

−π /2
π/2
∫ sin 2 θ cos2 θ d θ
4
= 4r
0
π r4
4
π ⎛d⎞ πd4
= = ⎜ ⎟ = (d = 2r) ... (3.33)
4 4 ⎝ 2⎠ 64
where d is the diameter of the circular section.
πd4
Similarly, IYY = ... (3.34)
64
Also Ix = IXX and Iy = IYY
πd4
and Iz = ... (3.35)
32
Second method
&RQVLGHUDQHOHPHQWDOULQJRIWKLFNQHVVdx at a radius x ( Fig. 3.17).
Area of the elemental ring,
dA = 2S xdx
Fig. 3.17
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHULQJDERXWDQD[LVSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHSODQHRIWKHFLUFXODUVHFWLRQ
(zD[LVFDOOHGSRODUPRPHQWRILQHUWLDLVJLYHQE\
Iz = Area of the ring Radius2
ring
= 2S xdx x2
= 2Sx3dx
7KHSRODUPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHHQWLUHVHFWLRQLVJLYHQDV
r
Iz = ∫ I zring
0
r
∫ 2πx dx
3
=
0
r
⎛ x4 ⎞ πr 4
= 2S ⎜ ⎟ =
⎜ 4 ⎟ 2
⎝ ⎠0
πd4 ⎛ d⎞
= ⎜r = ⎟
32 ⎝ 2⎠
Now Iz = IXX + IYY

= 2IXX ( IXX = IYY)
Iz πd 4
IXX = = = Ix ... (3.36)
2 64
πd4
Similarly, IYY = = Iy ... (3.37)
64
3.10 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A HOLLOW CIRCULAR SECTION

Refer Fig. 3.18.
Fig. 3.18
IXX = IYY (also Ix = Iy , Ix = IXX and Iy = IYY)
π π 4
= D4 – d
64 64
π
= (D4 – d 4) ... (3.38)
64
π
and Iz = (D4 – d4) ... (3.39)
32
where D = 2R
d = 2r
3.11 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A SEMI-CIRCLE

Refer Fig. 3.19.
π 4
Ix = d ... (3.40)
128
π 4
Also Iy = d ... (3.41)
128
Fig. 3.19
πd4
and IZ = ... (3.42)
64
where d = 2r
Ix = IXX + Ah2 XVLQJSDUDOOHOD[HVWKHRUHP
or IXX = Ix – Ah2
π 4 1 ⎛ π 2 ⎞ ⎛ 4 d ⎞2
= d – ⎜ d ⎟ ⎜ × ⎟
128 2⎝4 ⎠ ⎝ 3π 2 ⎠
= 0.00686d 4 = 0.11r4 ... (3.43)
3.12 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A QUARTER-CIRCLE

Refer Fig. 3.20.
Fig. 3.20
1 ⎛ π 4⎞
Ix = ⎜ d ⎟
2 ⎝ 128 ⎠
π 4
= d = Iy ... (3.44)
256
Ix = IXX + Ah2 XVLQJSDUDOOHOD[HVWKHRUHP
IXX = Ix – Ah2
π ⎛π 2 ⎞ 4 d⎞
2
⎜ d ⎟ ⎛⎜
1
= d4 – × ⎟
256 4 ⎝4 ⎠ ⎝ 3π 2 ⎠
= 0. 00343d4 = 0.0549r4 = IYY ... (3.45)

πd4
and Iz = ...(3.46)
128
7KHVHFRQGPRPHQWVRIDUHDRIVRPHPRUHSODQH¿JXUHVDUHJLYHQLQ7DEOH
Table 3.2
Figure Second moment of area

Triangle
bh3
IXX =
36
hb3
IYY =
48
bh3
Ix =
12
Ellipse
π 3
Ix = ba
4
π 3
Iy = ba
4
πab 2
Iz = ( a + b2 )
4
Parabola
2ah3
Ix =
15
16a 3h
Iy =
15
Quarter-ellipse
πab3
Ix =
16
πba 3
Iy =
16
Parallelogram
a 2b sin 3 T
Ix =
3
ab
Iy =
6 sin T
(2a2 cos2 T + 3ab cos T + 2b2)
Example 3.9
Find the second moment of area of an LVHFWLRQDERXWWKHFHQWURLGDOD[HVX X and YY as shown in
Fig. 3.21.
Solution: Refer Fig. 3.21. x and y DUHJLYHQDV
x = 25.24 mm
and y = 90.24 mm
The moment of inertia of the section about the XXD[LVLVWKHVXPRIWKHPRPHQWVRILQHUWLDRIWKH
WZRSDUWVDERXWWKHVDPHD[LVDQGLVJLYHQE\XVLQJWKHRUHPRISDUDOOHOD[HVDV
IXX = IXX + IXX

1 2
⎡ 2⎤
= ⎢ 1 × 15 × 2503 + 250 × 15 × ⎛⎜ 250 − 90.24 ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣12 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡1 15 ⎞ ⎤
2
⎛
+ ⎢ × (120 − 15) × 153
+ {(120 − 15) × 15} × ⎜ 90 .24 − ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣12 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 30.47 106 mm4 Ans.
Fig. 3.21
The moment of inertia of the section about the YYD[LVLVJLYHQDV

IYY = IYY + IYY
1 2
⎡1 15 ⎞ ⎤
2
⎛
= ⎢ × 250 × 153
+ 250 × 15 × ⎜ 25 .24 − ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣12 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡1 2⎤
+ ⎢ × 15 × 105 + 105 × 15 × (67.5 − 25.24) ⎥
3
⎣12 ⎦
= 55.1 105 mm4 Ans.
Example 3.10
Find the second moment of area of a TVHFWLRQVKRZQLQ)LJDERXWWKHFHQWURLGDOD[HVXX and YY.
Solution: Refer Fig. 3.22. The section is symmetrical about the YYD[LVKHQFH
x =0
and y = 201.36 mm
Using thHRUHPRISDUDOOHOD[HVWKHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHVHFWLRQDERXWWKHXX-D[LVLVJLYHQDV
IXX = IXX + IXX
1 2
⎡1 2⎤
= ⎢ × 200 × 30 + 200 × 30 × (265 − 201.36) ⎥
3
⎣12 ⎦
⎡1 2⎤
+ ⎢ × 20 × 250 + 250 × 20 × (201.36 − 125) ⎥
3
⎣12 ⎦
= 7.99 107 mm4 Ans.
Fig. 3.22
The moment of inertia of the section about the YY-D[LVLVJLYHQDV

IYY = IYY + IYY
1 2
⎛1 1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 30 × 2003 + × 250 × 203 ⎟ = 2.016 107 mm4 Ans.
⎝ 12 12 ⎠
Example 3.11
Find the second moment of area of an IVHFWLRQVKRZQLQ)LJDERXWWKHFHQWURLGDOD[HVXX and YY.
The section is symmetrical about the YYD[LVKHQFH
x =0
and y = 95.64 mm
8VLQJWKHRUHPRISDUDOOHOD[HVWKHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHVHFWLRQDERXWWKHXXD[LVLVJLYHQDV
IXX = IXX + IXX
1 2
⎡1 2⎤ ⎡1 2⎤
= ⎢ × 150 × 20 + 150 × 20 × (240 − 95.64) ⎥ +
3
⎢12 × 25 × 200 + 200 × 25 × (130 − 95.64) ⎥
3
⎣ 12 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 2⎤
+ ⎢ × 250 × 30 + 250 × 30 × (95.64 − 15) ⎥
3
⎣ 12 ⎦
= 7.55 107 mm4 Ans.
Fig. 3.23
The moment of inertia of the section about the YYD[LVLVJLYHQDV

IYY = IYY + IYY
1 2
⎡1 1 1 3⎤
= ⎢ × 20 × 150 + × 200 × 25 + × 30 × 250 ⎥ = 4.49 107 mm4
3 3
Ans.
⎣12 12 12 ⎦
Since IXX > IYY , hence the section is more stronger about the XXD[LV
Example 3.12
Find the second moment of area of the shaded
section shown in Fig. 3.24 about its centroidal
D[LVSDUDOOHOWRWKHEDVH
Solution: 7KH JLYHQ VHFWLRQ LV V\PPHWULFDO
about the YYD[LVDQGLVHTXLYDOHQWWRDVHFWLRQ
made of two triangles and one square minus one
semi-circle as shown in Fig. 3.25. Let XX and YY
EHWKHFHQWURLGDOD[HV
Fig. 3.24
Fig. 3.25
+HUH x =0
Calculation of y
Part (1) Part (2) Part (3) Part (4)
1 1
Area, a1 = × 25 × 50 a4 = × S u 252
2 a2 = 625 mm2 a3 = 50 × 50 2
= 625 mm 2 = 2500 mm2 = 981.74 mm2
Distance of C.G. from AB

50 50 4 × 25
50 y2 = y3 = y4 =
y1 = 3 2 3π
3
= 16.67 mm = 16.67 mm = 25 mm = 10.61 mm
The distance of the centroid of the section from ABLVJLYHQDV
a1 y1 + a2 y2 + a3 y3 − a4 y4
y =
a1 + a2 + a3 − a4
(625 × 16.67) + (625 × 16.67) + (2500 × 25) − (981.74 × 10.61)

= mm
625 + 625 + 2500 − 981.74
= 26.34 mm
The second moment of area of the section about the XXD[LVLVIRXQGE\XVLQJSDUDOOHOD[HVWKHRUHP
IXX = IXX + IXX + IXX

1 2 3
⎡ 25 × 503 1 ⎛ 50 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ 50 × 503
2
⎤
=2 ⎢ + × 25 × 50 × ⎜⎝ 26. 34 − ⎟⎠ ⎥ + ⎢ + 50 × 50 × (26.34 − 25) 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ 36 2 3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 12 ⎦
⎡ 2⎤
π × 25 2
⎛ 4 × 25 ⎞ mm4
– ⎢0.11 × 254 + × ⎜ 26.34 − ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎝ 3π ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 5.3 105 mm4 Ans.
Example 3.13
Find the second moment of area of the section shown in Fig. 3.26 about its centroidal axes.
Fig. 3.26
Solution: The section is symmetrical about both XX and YY axes.

The second moment of area of the section about the XX-axis is given as
IXX = IXX for I-section + IXX for two plates
⎡ 1 ⎛1 2 ⎞⎤
= ⎢⎛⎜ × 70 × 103 + 70 × 10 × 702 ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ × 10 × 1303 + 0 ⎞⎟ + ⎜ × 70 × 10 + 70 × 10 × 70 ⎟ ⎥
1 3
⎣⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠⎦
⎡1 5⎞ ⎤
2
⎛
+ 2 ⎢ × 90 × 53 + 90 × 5 × ⎜ 65 + 10 + ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣12 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
7 4
= 1.41 × 10 mm Ans.
The second moment of area of the section about the YY-axis is given as
IYY = IYY for I-section + IYY for two plates
⎡ ⎛1 3⎞ 1 3⎤ ⎡1 3⎤
= ⎢ 2 ⎜ × 10 × 70 ⎟ + × 130 × 10 ⎥ + 2 ⎢ × 5 × 90 ⎥ = 1.19 106 mm4 Ans.
⎣ ⎝ 12 ⎠ 12 ⎦ ⎣12 ⎦
Example 3.14
Find the expressions for the moments of inertia of a rectangle shown in Fig. 3.27 about the x-axis, the
y-axis, the horizontal centroidal axis (XX) and the vertical centroidal axis (YY).
Solution:
Fig. 3.27
An elementary area dA (horizontal) is considered as shown in Fig. 3.27.

The moment of inertia of the rectangle about the x-axis is given as
∫y
2
Ix = dA
h
∫y (where dA = b.dy)
2.
= b dy
o
h
= b ∫ y 2 dy
o
h
⎡ y3 ⎤ bh3
= b⎢ ⎥ = Ans.
⎣ 3 ⎦o 3
For moment of inertia of the rectangle about the y-axis, we consider a vertical elementary area dA.
2
Hence, Iy = ∫x dA′
b
= ∫ x . h dx
2
o
b
b ⎡ x3 ⎤ hb3
= h ∫ x dx = h ⎢ ⎥ =
2
Ans.
⎣ 3 ⎦o 3
0
)RUWKHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHUHFWDQJOHDERXWLWVKRUL]RQWDOFHQWURLGDOD[LVIXX), we use parallel-

D[HVWKHRUHPDV
Ix = IXX + Ad 2
where d 3HUSHQGLFXODUGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWZRD[HV
+HQFH IXX = Ix – Ad 2
2
bh 3 ⎛ h⎞
= − bh . ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎝ 2⎠
bh3 bh3 bh3
= = Ans.
3 4 12
6LPLODUO\WKHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHUHFWDQJOHDERXWLWVYHUWLFDOFHQWURLGDOD[LVIYYLVJLYHQDV
IYY = Iy – Ad 2
2
hb3 ⎛b⎞
= −b⋅h⋅⎜ ⎟
3 ⎝2⎠
hb3 hb3 hb3

= = Ans.
3 4 12
Example 3.15
)LQGWKHH[SUHVVLRQVIRUWKHPRPHQWVRILQHUWLDRIDFLUFOHDERXWLWVGLDPHWUDOD[HV
&RQVLGHUDQHOHPHQWDU\DUHDdA.
dA = rdT¹dr
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHFLUFOHDERXWLWVKRUL]RQWDOGLDPHWHUWKHKRUL]RQWDOFHQWURLGDOD[LVLVJLYHQDV
∫y
2
IXX = dA
∫ ∫ (r sin θ) ⋅ rd θ ⋅ dr
2
=
R 2π
= ∫ ∫ sin θ ⋅ d θ ⋅ r 3dr
2
o o
R 2π
⎛ 1 − cos 2θ ⎞ ⎛ 2 1 − cos 2θ ⎞
= ∫∫ ⎟⎠ d θ ⋅ r dr ⎜⎝ sin θ = ⎟⎠
3
⎜⎝ 2
o o
2
R 2π 2π ⎤
1 ⎡
FIG. 3.28
= ∫ ⎢ ∫ dθ − ∫ cos 2θ d θ ⎥ ⋅ r 3dr
2 o ⎢⎣ o o ⎥⎦
R 2π R
1 ⎡ sin 2θ ⎤ 1
= ∫ ⎢⎣θ − 2 ⎥⎦ ⋅ r dr = 2 ∫ 2π ⋅ r dr
3 3
2o o o
R
R
⎛ r4 ⎞ πR 4
= π ∫ r dr = π ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
3
Ans.
o ⎝ 4 ⎠o 4
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHFLUFOHDERXWLWVYHUWLFDOGLDPHWHUWKHYHUWLFDOFHQWURLGDOD[LVLVJLYHQDV
∫x
2
IYY = dA
2π R
∫ ∫ (r cosθ ) ⋅ rdθ ⋅ dr = ∫ ∫ r dr ⋅ cos θ dθ

2 3 2
=
o o
2π R ⎛ 2 1 + cos 2θ ⎞
⎛ 1 + cos 2θ ⎞ ⎜ cos θ =
= ∫ ∫ r dr ⋅ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ d θ ⎟
3
⎝ 2 ⎠
o o
2π 2π ⎤
2π
R4 1 R4 ⎡
= ∫ ⋅ ⋅ (1 + cos 2θ ) d θ =
4 2
⎢
8 ⎢⎣ o∫ d θ + ∫ cos 2θ ⋅ dθ ⎥
⎥⎦
o o
2π
R4 ⎡ sin 2θ ⎤ R4 πR 4
= ⎢θ + 2 ⎥ = ⋅ 2π = Ans.
8 ⎣ ⎦o 8 4
πR 4 πD 4
+HQFH IXX = IYY = = (D = 2R)
4 64
Example 3.16
)LQG WKH H[SUHVVLRQV IRU WKH PRPHQWV RI LQHUWLD RI D WULDQJOH VKRZQ LQ )LJ DERXW LWV EDVH WKH
KRUL]RQWDOFHQWURLGDOD[LVDQGWKHKRUL]RQWDOD[LVSDVVLQJWKURXJKLWVYHUWH[
Fig. 3.29
Consider a triangle of base b and height h. G represents its centroid.

An elemental area dA, parallel to the base of the triangle, is considered.
dA = x dy ... (1)
From similar triangles OCD and ABC, we have
b h
x = (h y )
b (h y )
x =
h
On substituting x in equation (1), we get
b (h − y )
dA = ⋅ dy
h
Now the moment of inertia of the triangle about its base is given as
∫y
2
Ix = dA
h
b (h − y ) b⎡
h h ⎤
= ∫y ⋅
2
⋅ dy = ⎢ h ∫ y 2 dy − ∫ y 3 dy ⎥
o
h h ⎢⎣ o o ⎥⎦
b ⎡⎢ ⎛ y 3 ⎞ ⎛ y 4 ⎞ ⎤⎥
h h
b ⎛ h3 h 4 ⎞
= h −
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ h ⋅ − ⎟⎟
h ⎢ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠o ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠o ⎥ h⎝ 3 4 ⎠
⎣ ⎦
bh 3 bh 3 bh3
= − = Ans.
3 4 12
Using parallel-axes theorem, we have
Ix = IXX + A.h2
where h = Perpendicular distance between the x-axis and the XX-axis
A = Area of the triangle
Now IXX = Ix – A.h2
2
bh3 1 ⎛h⎞
= − ×b×h×⎜ ⎟
12 2 ⎝3⎠
bh3 bh3 3bh3 2bh3 bh3
= = = Ans.
12 18 36 36
The moment of inertia of the triangle about the axis passing through its vertex IV , using parallel-axes
theorem, is given by
IV = IXX + Ah2
where h = Perpendicular distance between the axis passing through vertex and the XX-axis
2h
=
3
2
bh3 1 ⎛ 2h ⎞
IV = + ×b×h×⎜ ⎟
36 2 ⎝ 3 ⎠
bh3 2 3
= bh
36 9
bh3 8 bh3 bh3
= = Ans.
36 4
Example 3.17
Find the moment of inertia of the area shown in Fig. 3.30 about the x-axis.
Solution:
Consider an elemental area dA parallel to the xD[LVDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH
dA = (30 – x) dy
The moment of inertia of the area about the x-axis is given as
∫y
2
Ix = dA
30
∫y
2
= (30 − x) dy
o
Fig. 3.30
30 30 ⎛ 2⎞
y2 ⎜⎜ x = y ⎟⎟
= 30 ∫y dy − ∫ y ⋅ ⋅ dy
2 2
⎜⎜⎝ ⎟
30 30 ⎟⎠
0 0
30 30
⎛ y3 ⎞ 1 ⎛ y5 ⎞
= 30 ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ = 270000 – 162000 = 108000 cm4 Ans.
⎜ 3 ⎟ 30 ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠0
⎝ ⎠0
Example 3.18
Find the moment of inertia of the shaded section shown in Fig. 3.31 about its centroidal axes.
Fig. 3.31
Solution:
The section is symmetrical about both x and y axes, hence these two axes are also the centroidal axes
with ODVRULJLQDVZHOODVWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHVHFWLRQ+HQFHZHDUHUHTXLUHGWR¿QGIx and Iy.
Diameter of each semi-circle = 2 × 70 = 140 mm
Calculation of Ix
The moment of inertia of the shaded section about the horizontal centroidal axis is given as
Ix = IXX – IXX – IXX
section square ABCD semi-circle EFG semi-circle HIJ
1 π ⎛ 1 π ⎞
= × ( 200)4 − 2 × × (140)4 ⎜⎝ I XX semi-circle EFG = I XX semi-circle HIJ = × × (140)4 ⎟
12 128 2 64 ⎠
= 1.14 × 108 mm4 Ans.

Calculation of Iy
1
IYY = × ( 200) 4
square 12
= 1.34 × 108 mm4
The moment of inertia of the semi-circle EFG about its diameter EG is
1 π × (140) 4
IEG = × = 9.43 × 106 mm4
2 64
The distance of the centroid of the semi-circle EFG from EG is

4r
h = (r = Radius of the semi-circle)
3π
4 × 70
= = 29.7 mm
3π
The area of the semi-circle EFG is
πr 2
A =
2
π × (70) 2
= = 7696.9 mm2
2
The moment of inertia of the semi-circle EFG about its vertical centroidal axis Y1Y1, using parallel-axes
theorem, is given as
IEG = IY + Ah2 (h = Distance between EG and Y1Y1)

1Y1
or IY = IEG – Ah2
1Y1
= 9.43 × 106 – 7696.9 × (29.7) 2
= 2.64 × 106 mm4

Now the moment of inertia of the semi-circle EFG about the y-axis, that is, the vertical centroidal axis
YY, is given as
IYY = IY + Ah12 (h1 = Distance between YY and Y1Y1)
EFG 1Y1
= 2.64 × 106 + 7696.9 × (100 – 29.7) 2 (h1 = 100 – h)
= 4.06 × 107 mm4
Also IYY = IYY = 4.06 × 107 mm4
HIJ EFG
Finally, the moment of inertia of the shaded section about the vertical centroidal axis is given as
IYY = IYY – IYY
section square semi-circles
= (1.34 × 108 – 2 × 4.06 × 107 ) mm4

= 5.28 × 107 mm4 Ans.
Example 3.19
Calculate the product of inertia Ixy for the plane area (an angle section) with respect to the axes x and y
as shown in Fig. 3.32
Fig. 3.32
Solution:
The angle section consists of two rectangles (1) and (2) having dimensions of 20 mm × 150 mm and
170 mm × 20 mm respectively.
The product of inertia Ixy for each rectangle is calculated separately and then they are added to get Ixy
for the angle section, that is,
(Ixy) section = (Ixy)1 + (Ixy)2
Ixy for rectangle (1)
(Ixy)1 = ( I xy )1 + A1 x1 y1 (using parallel-axes theorem)
where ( I xy )1 is the product of inertia of the rectangle about its own centroidal axes, and –x 1 and –y1 are
the distances of its centroid from y and x axes respectively.
Since the rectangle is symmetrical about its both centroidal axes, hence
( I xy )1 = 0
Hence, (Ixy)1 = 0 + (150 × 20) × (10) × (75) = 2.25 × 106 mm4
It is also symmetrical about its both centroidal axes, hence its
( I xy )2 = 0
Now (Ixy)2 = ( I xy )2 + A2 –x 2 –y2
= 0 + (170 × 20) × (105) × (10) = 3.57 × 106 mm4
Hence, (Ixy) section = (Ixy)1 + (Ixy) 2
= (2.25 × 106 + 3.57 × 106) mm4
= 5.82 × 106 mm4 Ans.
Example 3.20
Determine the product of inertia Ixy of the Z-section with respect to the axes x and y as shown in Fig. 3.33.
Fig. 3.33
Solution:
The Z-section is split into three rectangles (1), (2) and (3) having cross-sections (90 mm × 10 mm),
(10 mm × 250 mm) and (90 mm × 10 mm) respectively, and their areas are found as
A1 = 90 × 10 = 900 mm2
A2 = 10 × 250 = 2500 mm2
A3 = 90 × 10 = 900 mm2
The product of inertia Ixy of each rectangle is calculated separately and they are added to get Ixy for the
Z-section, that is,
(Ixy)section = (Ixy )1 + (Ixy )2 + (Ixy )3
(Ixy)1 = (Ixy)1 + A1 –x 1 –y1
where (Ixy)1 is the product of inertia of the rectangle about its own centroidal axes, and –x 1 and –y1 are the
distances of its centroid from y and x axes respectively.
Since the rectangle (1) is symmetrical about its own centroidal axes, hence (Ixy)1 = 0
Now (Ixy)1 = 0 + (90 × 10) × (50) × (120) (using parallel-axes theorem)
= 5.4 × 106 mm4


6LQFHWKHUHFWDQJOHLVDOVRV\PPHWULFDODERXWLWVFHQWURLGDOD[HVVRLWVIxy)2 = 0. Also, the centroid
O of the Z-section coincides with the centroid of the rectangle, that is, –x 2 = 0 and –y2 = 0.
+HQFH I ) = (I ) + A –x –y
xy 2 xy 2 2 2 2 XVLQJSDUDOOHOD[HVWKHRUHP
= 0 + (10 × 250) × (0) × (0)
=0
7KHUHFWDQJOHLVDOVRV\PPHWULFDODERXWLWVRZQFHQWURLGDOD[HVVRLWVIxy)3 = 0.
+HQFH I ) = (I ) + A –x –y
xy 3 xy 3 3 3 3
XVLQJSDUDOOHOD[HVWKHRUHP
= 0 + (90 × 10) × (– 50) × (–120)
= 5.4 × 106 mm4
Therefore, the product of inertia Ixy of the entire Z-section is calculated as
(Ixy)section = (Ixy)1 + (Ixy)2 + (Ixy)3
= 5.4 × 106 + 0 + 5.4 × 106
= 10.8 × 106 mm4 Ans.
1. What is the difference between centre of gravity and centroid?

2. What is the significance of radius of gyration?
3. What is centroidal axis? Do the centroidal axis same as the neutral axis?
4. Why is the area moment of inertia also called the second moment of area?
5. What is product of inertia? What is its value about a principal axis?
6. What is the use of parallel-axes theorem?
7. What is principal moment of inertia?
1. The centroid of a hollow cone of height h and radius r placed on its base lies at the following distance.
h h
(a) from the base (b) from the base
3 4
2h 2h
(c) from the base (d) IURPWKHDSH[
3 3
2. The centroid of a solid cone of height h and radius r placed on its base lies at the following distance.
h h
3 4
2h 2h
(c) from the base (d) IURPWKHDSH[
3 3
3. The centroid of a semi-circle of radius r lies at the following distance from its base.
3z 4r 4π 3r .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4r 3π 3r 4π
4. The centroid of an equilateral triangle of side l lies at the following distance (perpendicular) from
any side.
2 2 3 l
(a) l (b) (c) (d) 3 .
l
3 l 2 3 2
5. The centroid of a right-angled triangle with base b and height h is
⎛ 2 , 1 ⎞ ⎛ b h⎞ ⎛ b h⎞ ⎛ 1 , 1 ⎞
(a) ⎜ b h⎟ (b) ⎜ , ⎟ (c) ⎜ , ⎟ (d) ⎜ b h⎟ .
⎝ 3 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 2⎠ ⎝ 3 3⎠ ⎝ 3 3 ⎠
6. The moment of inertia of a triangular section of base b and height hDERXWWKHFHQWURLGDOD[LVSDUDOOHO

to its base is
b3 h b3 h bh3 bh3 .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
36 18 36 18
7. The moment of inertia of a square section of side aDERXWWKHFHQWURLGDOD[LVSDUDOOHOWRLWVVLGHLV
a4 a4 a4 a4 .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 12 8 16
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b).
EXERCISES
1. Find the centroid of the Z-section shown in Fig. 3.34.
Fig. 3.34
(Ans. x = 39.23 mm, y = 44.62 mm).
2. Find the centroid of the channel section shown in Fig. 3.35.
Fig. 3.35
(Ans. x = 38.75 mm, y = 110 mm).

3. Find the centroid of the angle section shown in Fig. 3.36.
Fig. 3.36
(Ans. x = 13.82 mm, y = 43.82 mm).

4. Find the centroid of the shaded portion of the section shown in Fig. 3.37 after a square is cut out
from it.
Fig. 3.37
(Ans. y = 45.74 mm).

5. Find the centroid and the area moment of inertia of the I-section shown in Fig. 3.38 about its
FHQWURLGDOD[HV
Fig. 3.38
(Ans. x = 0, y = 45.64 mm, IXX = 1.47 107 mm4, IYY = 2.31 106 mm4).
6. Find the coordinates of the centroid of a quarter-ellipse shown in Fig. 3.39, using direct integration
method.
y
x2 y2
+ =1
b a2 b2
x
O
a
Fig. 3.39
4a 4b .
(Ans. x = , y = )
3π 3π
7. Find the centroid of the shaded area formed by a straight line y = mx and a curve y = kx2 as shown
in Fig. 3.40, using direct integration method.
Fig. 3.40
a 2
(Ans. x = , y = b ).
2 5
8. Determine the second moment of area of a triangle of base b and height h about its centroidal axes
and base.
bh3 hb3 bh3
(Ans. IXX = , I = , I = ).
36 YY 48 base 12
9. Determine the second moment of area of a semi-circle of radius r about its horizontal centroidal
axis. (Ans. 0.11r4).
10. Find the moment of inertia of the shaded area shown in Fig. 3.41 about the x-axis and the horizontal
centroidal axis.
Fig. 3.41
(Ans. 6.16 × 105 mm4, 5.76 × 105 mm4).

11. Find the product of inertia Ixy of the I-section shown in Fig. 3.42. .
Fig. 3.42
(Ans. – 3.23 × 105 mm4).
12. Determine the product of inertia Ixy of the Z-section shown in Fig. 3.43.
Fig. 3.43
(Ans. 5.85 × 106 mm4).

4
Shear Forces and Bending
Moments in Beams
Figure shows a simple beam, one of the widely used statically determinate beams loaded with a central
point load W.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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+RZLVWKHQDWXUHRIDEHQGLQJPRPHQWFXUYHGHFLGHG"

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_4
4.1 WHAT IS A BEAM?

Beam iVDVWUXFWXUDOPHPEHUGHVLJQHGWRVXSSRUWYHUWLFDOORDGV)ORRUVRIDEXLOGLQJDUHVXSSRUWHGRQ
beams. Many shafts of machinery act simultaneously as torsion members and as beams. Application
RIORDGSURGXFHVVKHDUDQGEHQGLQJLQWKHEHDP:KHQORDGVDUHQRWDFWLQJDWULJKWDQJOHVWKH\ZLOO
DOVRSURGXFHD[LDOIRUFHVLQWKHEHDP
Beams are usually long, straight prismatic bars placed horizontally. There are two important points
in the design of a beam; one is the determination of shear forces and bending moments as a result
RIWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIH[WHUQDOORDGVRQWKHEHDPDQGWKHRWKHULVWKHVHOHFWLRQRIWKHVXLWDEOHFURVV
sections of the beam to resist shearing forces and bending moments.
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS

%HDPVDUHFODVVL¿HGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHVXSSRUWVSURYLGHGDQGDUHGLVFXVVHGEHORZ
z A simple beam is supported at its two ends. One end is hinge supported and the other end is
roller supported.
A pin or hinge support is capable of resisting a force acting in any direction of the plane, that is,
LWSUHYHQWVKRUL]RQWDORUYHUWLFDOPRYHPHQWEXWGRHVQRWSUHYHQWURWDWLRQKHQFHWKHEHDPFDQ
rotate in the plane. Such support has two reaction force components, one in the horizontal and
DQRWKHULQWKHYHUWLFDOGLUHFWLRQEXWKDVQRPRPHQWUHDFWLRQ
$UROOHUDOORZVIUHHPRYHPHQWLQDKRUL]RQWDOSODQHDQGKHQFHKDVQRUHDFWLRQLQWKHKRUL]RQWDO
GLUHFWLRQEXWSUHYHQWVYHUWLFDOPRYHPHQW$WWKHVDPHWLPHLWGRHVQRWSUHYHQWURWDWLRQKHQFH
WKHEHDPLVIUHHWRURWDWH+HQFHLWKDVRQO\RQHUHDFWLRQIRUFHLQWKHYHUWLFDOGLUHFWLRQDQGQR
moment reaction. Roller and pin supports taken together are termed as simple supports.
z An overhanging beamLVRQHZKRVHFHUWDLQSRUWLRQH[WHQGVEH\RQGWKHVXSSRUWRQRQHRUERWK
sides.
A continuous beam has more than two supports.
z
z A cantilever beamLV¿[HGDWRQHHQGDQGIUHHDWWKHRWKHUHQG
z A ¿[HGEHDPLVFRQ¿QHGEHWZHHQWZRVXSSRUWV
)L[HGVXSSRUWFDQUHVLVWDIRUFHLQDQ\GLUHFWLRQDVZHOODVDPRPHQWRUDFRXSOH,WLVLQEXLOWDW
WKHHQGDQGLVSUHYHQWHGIURPURWDWLQJ
z A SURSSHGFDQWLOHYHUEHDPKDVDVXLWDEOHVXSSRUWLQRUGHUWRSUHYHQWLWVGHÀHFWLRQ
6LPSO\ VXSSRUWHG RYHUKDQJLQJ DQG FDQWLOHYHU EHDPV DUH FDWHJRUL]HG DV VWDWLFDOO\ GHWHUPLQDWH
EHDPVZKLOHFRQWLQXRXV¿[HGDQGSURSSHGFDQWLOHYHUDVVWDWLFDOO\LQGHWHUPLQDWHEHDPV,WVKRXOG
EHQRWHGWKDWWKHUHDFWLRQVZLOOEHGHWHUPLQDWHLIWKHVXSSRUWVLQYROYHRQO\WKUHHXQNQRZQV,IPRUH
XQNQRZQVDUHLQYROYHGWKHQWKHUHDFWLRQVZLOOEHVWDWLFDOO\LQGHWHUPLQDWHEHFDXVHWKHPHWKRGVRI
VWDWLFVDUHQRWVXI¿FLHQWWRGHWHUPLQHWKHUHDFWLRQVDQGWKHSURSHUWLHV RIWKHEHDPZLWKUHJDUGWR
its resistance to bending must be taken into consideration. The shear force and bending moment
diagrams are drawn for statically determinate beams only.
'LIIHUHQW W\SHV RI EHDPV DUH VKRZQ LQ )LJ ,Q ¿JXUHV a b DQG c), beams are hinge
supported at A and roller supported at B, C, and BDQG&UHVSHFWLYHO\ZKHUHDVLQ¿JXUHVGe), and
fEHDPVDUH¿[HGDWA, A and B, and AUHVSHFWLYHO\
Shear Forces and Bending Moments in Beams 145
Fig. 4.1 Types of beams.
4.3 TYPES OF LOADINGS

z A FRQFHQWUDWHGORDG is acting at a poinWDQGKHQFHLWLVDOVRFDOOHGDSRLQWORDG)LJa,W
LVH[SUHVVHGLQQHZWRQV1LQSI units.
z A GLVWULEXWHG ORDG DFWV RYHU D ¿QLWH OHQJWK RI WKH EHDP )LJ b ,W LV VSHFL¿HG E\ WKH
intensity of loading per unit length, say w1PLQSIXQLWV:KHQLWKDVDFRQVWDQWYDOXHIRUD
certain part of the beam, it is said to be uniformly distriEXWHGRYHUWKDWSDUWRIWKHEHDPXGO).
Fig. 4.2 Types of loadings.
8QLIRUPO\ YDU\LQJ ORDG implies the increase or decrease of loading intensity at a constant rate
along the length of the beam. Distributed load may be represented by a parabolic, cubic or a higher
RUGHUFXUYHIRUQRQXQLIRUPO\YDU\LQJORDG$XQLIRUPORDGLVVKRZQE\DUDFWDQJXODUGLVWULEXWLRQ
D XQLIRUPO\YDU\LQJ ORDG E\ D WULDQJOH DQG WKH FRPELQDWLRQ E\ D WUDSH]LXP GUDZQ RQ WKH EHDP
)LJb) and Fig. 4.3).
Fig. 4.3 Types of uniformly-varying loads.
4.4 CALCULATION OF BEAM REACTIONS

The beam reactions are calculated by using the three fundamental equations of static equilibrium.
6Fx = 0
6Fy = 0
and 6Mz = 0
The beam is usually placed horizontally, so it is the x-axis and the load on the beam is placed verti-
cally, so it is the y-axis.
4.5 SHEAR FORCES IN A BEAM

Consider a section XX of the beam at its certain distance (Fig. 4.4). The part to the left of the section is
in equilibrium under the action of three forces: the vertical reaction force at A, that is, RA, the external
load W1, and force V induced at the section. For the equilibrium of the part to the right of the section,
an opposite force V acts at the section, so that its equilibrium is decided by the reaction force at B
i.e., RB, the external load W2, and the force V. The force V is called vertical shear force. Numerically,
the shear force is equal to the algebraic sum of all the vertical components of the external forces
to the left or to the right of the section. Whether the right-hand segment or the left-hand segment is
used to determine the shear force at a section is immaterial and only arithmetical simplicity governs.
Fig. 4.4 Shear force in a beam.

4.6 BENDING MOMENTS IN A BEAM

:KHQDORDGLVDSSOLHGRQWKHEHDPEHQGLQJPRPHQWLVGHYHORSHGZKLFKWHQGVWREHQGWKHEHDPLQ
WKHSODQHRIWKHORDGV7RFRXQWHUDFWWKHPRPHQWFDXVHGE\H[WHUQDOORDGLQWHUQDOUHVLVWLQJPRPHQW
is produced to satisfy the static equilibrium condition for moment. Magnitude of the internal resisting
PRPHQWLVHTXDOWRWKHH[WHUQDOPRPHQW7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWDVHFWLRQLVHTXDOWRWKHDOJHEUDLF
sum of moments to the left or to the right of the section.
4.7 SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

a) For shear force: ,IWKHSRUWLRQRIWKHEHDPWRWKHOHIWRIWKHVHFWLRQPRYHVXSZDUGDQGWKHSRUWLRQ
WRWKHULJKWRIWKHVHFWLRQFRPHVGRZQZDUGWKHQLWLVGXHWRSRVLWLYHVKHDU5HYHUVHRILWLVGXH
WRQHJDWLYHVKHDU)LJ
Fig. 4.5
b) For bending moment: :KHQ EHQGLQJ PRPHQW FDXVHV XSZDUG FRQFDYLW\ LQ WKH EHDP LW LV
WHUPHGDVSRVLWLYH%0VDJJLQJ$VDUHVXOWRISRVLWLYH%0WKHXSSHUSDUWRIWKHEHDPLVLQ
compression and the lower part in tension, thereby increasing the length of the bottom surface
and decreasing the length of the top surface of the beam. On the other hand, if bending moment
SURGXFHV GRZQZDUG FRQFDYLW\RUSURGXFHV FRPSUHVVLRQ LQWKH ORZHU SDUWDQGWHQVLRQLQWKH
XSSHUSDUWRIWKHEHDP¶VFURVVVHFWLRQWKHQLWLVFDOOHGDQHJDWLYHEHQGLQJPRPHQWKRJJLQJ
)LJ
Fig. 4.6
4.8 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS (SFD AND BMD)
Shear force and bending moment diagrams are the pictorial representation of shear forces and
EHQGLQJPRPHQWVUHVSHFWLYHO\7KHD[LVRIWKHEHDPLVVKRZQE\DKRUL]RQWDOOLQHDQGYDOXHVRIVKHDU
IRUFHDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQWDUHVKRZQRQLWDVYHUWLFDOOLQHVDFFRUGLQJWRDVXLWDEOHVFDOH3RVLWLYH
YDOXHVDUHVKRZQDERYHWKHD[LVDQGQHJDWLYHYDOXHVEHORZWKHD[LVRIWKHEHDP$OOWKHYDOXHVDUH
WKHQMRLQHGE\DVWUDLJKWOLQHRUDFXUYHGHSHQGLQJXSRQWKHQDWXUHRIORDGLQJ
%HWZHHQWZRSRLQWORDGVWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLVWULEXWLRQLVVKRZQE\DVWUDLJKWOLQH,IWKHUHLV
XQLIRUPO\GLVWULEXWHGORDGEHWZHHQWZRSRLQWVWKHQWKHFXUYHLVSDUDERODRIVHFRQGRUKLJKHURUGHU
The bending moment MLVPD[LPXPRUPLQLPXPZKHQ dM = 0. Thus at sections where shear
dx
IRUFHLV]HURRUFKDQJHVLWVVLJQIURPPD[LPXPWRPLQLPXPWKH%0LVHLWKHUPD[LPXPRUPLQLPXP
There may be a point in the bending moment diagram, where the bending moment is zero and the sign
RIWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWVDUHFKDQJHG7KLVSRLQWLVFDOOHGLQÀHFWLRQSRLQWRUSRLQWRIFRQWUDÀH[XUH
The shear force diagram consists of horizontal straight lines in case of point loads and inclined
straight lines in case of uniformly distributed loads. The corresponding portions in the bending
PRPHQW GLDJUDP DUH LQFOLQHG VWUDLJKW OLQHV DQG SDUDEROLF FXUYHV 7KH VKHDU IRUFH GLDJUDP KDV
SDUDEROLF FXUYHV DQG EHQGLQJ PRPHQW GLDJUDP KDV FXELF SDUDEROLF FXUYHV IRU XQLIRUPO\ YDU\LQJ
loads.
4.9 POINT OF CONTRAFLEXURE
,WLVDOVRFDOOHGSRLQWRILQÀHFWLRQ,WLVWKHSRLQWZKHUHWKHFXUYDWXUHRIWKHGHÀHFWLRQFXUYHDQG

EHQGLQJPRPHQWFKDQJHVLJQV7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWDQGWKHFXUYDWXUHRIWKHGHÀHFWLRQFXUYHERWK
DUH]HURDWWKLVSRLQW+RZHYHUDSRLQWZKHUHERWKEHQGLQJPRPHQWDQGFXUYDWXUHGHÀHFWLRQDUH
]HURLVQRWQHFHVVDULO\DSRLQWRIFRQWUDÀH[XUHDVWKH\PD\EH]HURZLWKRXWFKDQJLQJVLJQVDWWKDW
point.
4.10 SFD AND BMD FOR CANTILEVER BEAMS

4.10.1 Cantilever Beam carrying a Point Load at its Free End
5HIHU)LJa). AB is the length of the beam.
Calculations for shear forces
Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance [ from the free end B.
Shear force at the section is V = + W and it is independent of the distance [,WUHPDLQVFRQVWDQW
WKURXJKRXWWKHOHQJWKRIWKHFDQWLOHYHU)LJb)).
Calculations for bending moments
Bending moment at the section is
M[ = – :[KRJJLQJ
Bending moment at the free end, MB IRU[ = 0)
%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWWKH¿[HGHQGMA = – Wl IRU[ = l)
The equation of B.M. at the section represents a straight line, hence the bending moments at A and
BDUHFRQQHFWHGE\DVWUDLJKWOLQH)LJc)).
Fig. 4.7
Alternative method (for bending moment)

A section of the beam may be selected at a distance [IURPWKH¿[HGHQG)LJ
Bending moment at the section is, M[ = – Wl – [)
%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWWKH¿[HGHQGA, MA = – Wl – 0) = – Wl IRU[ = 0)
Fig. 4.8
Bending moment at the free end B, MB = – Wl – l IRU[ = l)
4.10.2 Cantilever Beam carrying Uniformly Distributed Load (udl) throughout the Span
5HIHU)LJa).
Consider a section XX of the beam at C, a distance [ from the free end B)LJa)).

Shear force at the section is V = + Z[
Shear force at the free end B, VB IRU[ = 0)
6KHDUIRUFHDWWKH¿[HGHQGA, VA = + wl IRU[ = l)
The equation of the shear force at the section represents a
VWUDLJKWOLQHKHQFHWKHYDULDWLRQRIWKHVKHDUIRUFHEHWZHHQA
and BLVVKRZQE\DVWUDLJKWOLQH)LJb)).
wx
M[ = – Z[¹ [ = –

Bending moment at B, MB IRU[ = 0)
wa
Bending moment at A, MA =– IRU[ = l)

Fig. 4.9
The equation of the bending moment at the section represents
DSDUDERODKHQFHWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWYDULDWLRQLVSDUDEROLFEHWZHHQA and B)LJc)).
Alternative method
Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance [IURPWKH¿[HGHQGA)LJ
Fig. 4.10
Shear force at the section is

V = + wl – [)
Shear force at the free end, VB = + wl – l IRU[ = l)
6KHDUIRUFHDWWKH¿[HGHQG VA = + wl IRU[ = 0)
(l x) w (l x)2
M[ = – wl – [) ¹ =–
2 2
Bending moment at the free end is
w (l l ) 2
MB = IRU[ = l)
2
%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWWKH¿[HGHQGLV
w (l 0)2 wl
MA = =– IRU[ = 0)
2
4.10.3 Cantilever Beam carrying Uniformly Distributed Load over a certain Length
from the Free End
5HIHU)LJa).
Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance [ from the free end B)LJa)).
Fig. 4.11
V = + Z[
Shear force at the free end, VB IRU[ = 0)
Shear force at C is
VC = + wa IRU[ = a)
The shear force between A and C remains constant at wa7KHVKHDUIRUFHYDULDWLRQEHWZHHQ

B and C is shown by an inclined straight line and between A and C by a horizontal straight line
)LJb)).

[ wx
M[ = – Z[ ¹ =–

Bending moment at free end, MB IRU[ = 0)
Bending moment at C is
wa
MC = – IRU[ = a)

%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWWKH¿[HGHQGLV
MA = – wa ⎛⎜ l −a⎞
⎟
⎝ ⎠
7KHYDULDWLRQRIWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWEHWZHHQB and CLVVKRZQE\DSDUDEROLFFXUYHDQGEHWZHHQ
A and CE\DQLQFOLQHGVWUDLJKWOLQH)LJc)).
4.10.4 Cantilever Beam carrying Uniformly Distributed Load over a certain Length
from the Fixed End
Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance [ from C)LJa)).
V = + Z[
Shear force at C, VC IRU[ = 0)
Fig. 4.12
Shear force at A, VA = wa IRU[ = a)

6KHDUIRUFHYDULDWLRQEHWZHHQA and C is shown by an inclined straight line and there is no shear
force for the portion BC)LJb)).
[ wx
M[ = – Z[ ¹ =–

Bending moment at C, MC IRU[ = 0)
wa
Bending moment at A, MA = – IRU[ = a)

7KHYDULDWLRQRIWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWEHWZHHQA and C is parabolic and there is no bending mo
ment on BC)LJc)).
4.10.5 Cantilever Beam carrying Uniformly Distributed Load over its Entire Span
and a Point Load at its Free End
5HIHU)LJa).
Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance [ from the free end B)LJa)).
Fig. 4.13

V Z[ + W)
Shear force at B is
VB w . 0 + W) = + W IRU[ = 0)
6KHDUIRUFHDWWKH¿[HGHQGA is
VA wl + W IRU[ = l)
The SFDLVVKRZQLQ)LJb).
⎛ x⎞
M[ = – ⎜ Wx + w ⋅ x ⋅ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ wx ⎞
= – ⎜⎜ Wx + ⎟
⎝ ⎟⎠
Bending moment at B is
⎛ w ⋅ 02 ⎞
MB = – ⎜⎜ W ⋅ 0 + ⎟ IRU[ = 0)
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
Bending moment at A is
⎛ ⎞
MA = – ⎜ Wl + wl ⎟ IRU[ = l)
⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝
Since the equation for bending moment at the section represents a parabola, hence the bending
PRPHQWYDULDWLRQEHWZHHQA and BLVSDUDEROLF)LJc)).
4.10.6 Cantilever Beam carrying several Point Loads

Let us consider that three point loads W1, W and W3DUHDFWLQJDWUHVSHFWLYHGLVWDQFHVRIl1, l and l
IURPWKH¿[HGHQGA)LJa)).
Part BD
Consider a section XX of the beam between B and D, at a distance [1 from free end B. Shear force at
the section is V = + W3 and it remains constant between B and D.
M[ = – W3 [1
Bending moment at B, MB IRU[1 = 0)
Bending moment at D, MD = – W3l – lIRU[1 = l – l)
7KHYDULDWLRQRIWKHVKHDUIRUFHEHWZHHQB and D is shown by a horizontal straight line and that of
bending moment by an inclined straight line.
Part CD
Consider a section XX of the beam between C and D, at a distance [ from B.

V W + W3), and it remains constant between C and D.
Fig. 4.14
M[ = – [W3 [ + W {[±l – l)}]

MC = – [W3l – l1) + W {l – l1 – l + l`@ IRU[ = l – l1)
= – [W3l – l1) + Wl – l1)]
Part AC
Consider a section XX of the beam between A and C, at a distance [3 from B.
V W1 + W + W3), and it remains constant between A and C.
M[ = – [W3 [3 + W {[3±l – l)} + W1 {[3±l – l1)}]
MA = – [W3 l + W {l – l + l} + W1 {l – l + l1`@ IRU[3 = l)
= – [W3 l + W l + W1 l1]
The SFD and the BMDDUHVKRZQLQ)LJbDQGcUHVSHFWLYHO\
4.10.7 Cantilever Beam carrying Uniformly Varying Load

7KHORDGRQWKHFDQWLOHYHUYDULHVXQLIRUPO\IURP]HURDWIUHHHQGWRwXQLWOHQJWKDWWKH¿[HGHQG
)LJa)).
Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance [ from the free end B.
's ABC and BDEDUHFRPSDUHGWR¿QGWKHUDWHRIORDGLQJDWWKHVHFWLRQ
AC AB
=
DE BD
AC.BD w.x
or DE = AB = l
V = + Triangular load BDE
1
= + × base × height
2

1 wx wx
= + × x× =+
2 l l
Shear force at B, FB IRU[ = 0)

Shear force at A is
wx
VA = + IRU[ = l)
l
Fig. 4.15
[
M[ = – Triangular load BDE
3
wx 2 x wx3
=– u =–
2l 3 6l
Bending moment at the free end, MB IRU[ = 0)
%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWWKH¿[HGHQGA is
wl 2
MA = – IRU[ = l)
6
7KHYDULDWLRQRIWKHVKHDUIRUFHEHWZHHQA and BLVVKRZQE\DSDUDEROLFFXUYHDQGRIWKHEHQGLQJ
PRPHQWE\DFXELFFXUYH)LJbDQG)LJcUHVSHFWLYHO\
Example 4.1
'UDZWKHVKHDUIRUFHDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPVIRUDFDQWLOHYHUEHDPORDGHGDVVKRZQLQ
)LJa).
Solution: Calculations for shear forces
Shear force at G is
VG N1DQGLWUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWXSWRE.
Shear force just to the right of D
N1
Fig. 4.16
Shear force just to the left of D

N1
Shear force at C is
VC
N1DQGLWUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWXSWRB.
Shear force just to the left of B

N1DQGLWUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWXSWRA.
7KHVKHDUIRUFHYDULDWLRQEHWZHHQC and D, and between D and E are shown by inclined straight
OLQHV)LJb)).
Bending moment at G is
MG = 0
Bending moment just to the right of F
= – 1) = –N1¹m
Bending moment just to the left of F
= –VLQFHDFRXSOHRIPDJQLWXGHN1¹m is acting at F)
= –N1¹m
Bending moment at E is
ME = –>@ –N1¹m
Bending moment at D is
MD = – ⎡ 2 × 3 + 20 + 2 × 1 × ⎤ = –N1¹m
1
⎢ 2 ⎥⎦
⎣
MC = – ⎡ 2 × 4 + 20 + 2 × 2 × 2 + 3 × 1⎤ = –N1¹m
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎤
MB = – ⎢ 2 × 5 + 20 + 2 × 2 × ⎜1 + ⎟ + 3 × 2 ⎥ = –N1¹m
⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎦
MA = – ⎡⎢ 2 × 6 + 20 + 2 × 2 × ⎛⎜ 2 + 2 ⎞⎟ + 3 × 3 + 5 × 1⎤⎥ = –N1¹m
⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎦
The BMDLVVKRZQLQ)LJc).

Example 4.2
)LQGWKHUHDFWLRQDWWKH¿[HGHQGRIWKHFDQWLOHYHUORDGHGDVVKRZQLQ)LJa). Draw also shear
force and bending moment diagrams.
Fig. 4.17
Solution: Reaction at A
Total downward load on the beam
N1
+HQFHWKHYHUWLFDOXSZDUGUHDFWLRQDWWKH¿[HGHQGA
N1
Taking moments of forces about AWKHUHVXOWDQWPRPHQWRQWKHEHDPLVJLYHQDV
M R = – 30 ±&RXSOHDWE) – 30 ±&RXSOHDWB)
= –N1¹P&ORFNZLVH
+HQFHDUHDFWLRQPRPHQWRIN1¹PDQWLFORFNZLVHZLOODFWDWWKH¿[HGHQGA along with a
YHUWLFDOUHDFWLRQRIN1

Shear force between D and F N1
Shear force just to the left of D N1DQGLWUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWXSWRC.
Shear force just to the left of C N1DQGLWUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWXSWRA.
Bending moment at F is
MF = 0
Bending moment just to the right of E = –N1¹m
Bending moment just to the left of E = – –N1¹m
6LQFHDFRXSOHRIPDJQLWXGHN1¹m is acting at E)
MD = – –N1¹m
MC = – 3 + 10 + 30 1) = –N1¹m
Bending moment just to the right of B
= – 4 + 10 + 30 ±N1¹m
Bending moment just to the left of B
= – –N1¹P6LQFHDQRWKHUFRXSOHRIPDJQLWXGH
N1¹m is acting at B)
M A = –± –N1¹m
4.11 SFD AND BMD FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

4.11.1 Simply Supported Beam carrying a Central Point Load
A simply supported beam AB of length l with a point load W acting at its centre is shown in
)LJa).
Reactions at A and B
7R¿QGWKHUHDFWLRQVDWWKHWZRVXSSRUWVA and B, take moments of the forces about A.
l
RB l = W

W
or RB = )

Also RA + RB = W = Load on the beam

or RA = W – RB
W
= ()
2
Consider a section XX of the beam in BC, at a distance x from B.
W
V =–
2
Fig. 4.18
W,
Shear force just to the right of C is – and it remains constant for the portion BC.
2
W W,
Shear force just to the left of C is – +W=+ and it remains constant for the portion AC.
2 2

W
M[ = + ¹[

W l l
Bending moment at C, MC = IRU[ = )

Wl
=+
4
W l
MA = + ¹ l – W¹ = 0

The bending moments between B and C, and between A and C are joined by inclined straight lines
because B.M. at the section represents a straight line.
The SFD and the BMDDUHVKRZQLQ)LJbDQGcUHVSHFWLYHO\
4.11.2 Simply Supported Beam carrying an Eccentric Point Load

A simply supported beam AB is carrying a point load W at a distance a from A and b from B
)LJa)).
Taking moments of the forces about AZHKDYH
RB l = W a
Wa
or RB = )
l
But RA + RB = W
or RA = W – RB
Wb
= )
l
Wa .
Shear force between B and C is –
l
Shear force just to the left of C is
Wa Wb
– +W = , and it remains constant for the portion AC.
l l

The bending moments at A and B are zero.
MC = RB b
Wab
=
l
Fig. 4.19
The SFD and the BMDDUHVKRZQLQ)LJbDQG)LJcUHVSHFWLYHO\

4.11.3 Simply Supported Beam carrying Uniformly Distributed Load (udl)

over its Entire Span
The intensity of loading on the beam is wXQLWOHQJWK)LJa)).
l
RB l = w l

l
7RWDOORDGHTXLYDOHQWWRXGO is w lDFWLQJDWLWVFHQWUHRIJUDYLW\i.e. at a distance from A.)

wl
or RB = )

1RZ RA + RB = wl = Total load on the beam
wl
or RA = )

Fig. 4.20

Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance [ from B.
wl
V = – RB + Z[ = – wx

wl
Shear force at B, VB = – IRU[ = 0)

wl wl
Shear force at A, VA = – + wl IRU[ = l) = +

Shear force at midpoint C of the beam

wl wl
=– + =0

[
M[ = RB [ – Z[

wl wx
= x

wl wl
MA = l IRU[ = l)

=0
Bending moment at midpoint C of the beam is

wl l w ⎛ l ⎞ l
MC = ⋅ − ⎜ ⎟ IRU[ = )
⎝⎠
2
wl
=
8
The equation of the bending moment at the section represents a parabola, hence the bending mo
PHQWFXUYHLVSDUDEROLF)LJc)).
4.11.4 Simply Supported Beam carrying Uniformly Varying Load which varies
from Zero at Each End to w per unit length at the Midpoint
The beam is of length l and carries wXQLWOHQJWKRIORDGDWLWVPLGSRLQWC)LJa)).
wl l
RB l =

wl l
6LQFHWRWDOORDGRQWKHEHDP , and it acts at a distance from A.)

wl
or RB = )
4
wl
But RA + RB =

wl wl wl
or RA = = )
2 4 4
Fig. 4.21

Consider a section XX of the beam in BC at a distance [ from B.
V = – RB + Triangular load BEF
Compare 's BCD and BFE.
CD EF
=
BC FB
CD FB
EF =
BC
wx wx
= =
⎛l⎞ l
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

1
The triangular load BEF = × base × height
2
1 2 wx wx 2
× x×
= =
2 l l
+HQFHVKHDUIRUFHDWWKHVHFWLRQLV
wl wx 2
V =–
4 l
wl
Shear force at B, VB = – IRU[ = 0)
4
2
wl w ⎛ l ⎞ l
Shear force at C is VC =– + ⎜ ⎟ IRU[ = )
4 l ⎝2⎠
wl w l 2
=– + ⋅ = 0
4 l 4
wl wl wl
Shear force at A is VA = – =+
4 2 4
The shear force diagram is parabolic, since the equation of the shear force at the section represents
DSDUDEROD)LJb)).
[
M[ = RB [ – Triangular load BEF
3
wl wx 2 x wl wx3
= x − ⋅ = x
4 l 3 4 3l
Bending moments at A and B are:

MA = 0
MB = 0
)RUEHQGLQJPRPHQWWREHPD[LPXP
dMx
=0
dx
wl wx 2
=0
4 l
l
,WJLYHVWKHYDOXHRI[ = QHJDWLYHYDOXHKDVQRVLJQL¿FDQFH

l .
+HQFHWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWLVPD[LPXPDW[ =

l
Substituting [ = LQ WKH HTXDWLRQ IRU EHQGLQJ PRPHQW DW WKH VHFWLRQ WR JHW PD[LPXP B.M.,
ZHKDYH
3
wl l w ⎛ l ⎞ wl 2
MPD[ = MC = ⋅ − ⋅⎜ ⎟ =+
4 2 3l ⎝ 2 ⎠ 12
4.11.5 Simply Supported Beam carrying Uniformly Varying Load which varies
from Zero at One End to w per unit length at Other End
5HIHU)LJa). Load at A is zero and at B is w per unit length.
w u l 2l
RB l = u
2 3
2l
6LQFHWKHFHQWUHRIJUDYLW\RIDWULDQJOHOLHVDWDGLVWDQFH IURPWKHYHUWH[
3
wl
or RB = )
3
wl
and RA + RB =

wl wl wl
or RA = – = )
3
Fig. 4.22

Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance [ from A. Shear force at the section is
V = + RA – Triangular load ADE
Compare 's ABC and ADE.
BC DE
=
AB AE
BC AE wx
DE = =
AB l
+HQFHVKHDUIRUFHDWWKHVHFWLRQLV
wl 1 wx wl wx 2
V =+ − ×x × =+
6 2 l 6 2l
Shear force at A is
wl
VA = IRU[ = 0)

Shear force at B is
wl w . wl
VB = + l IRU[ = l) = –
6 2l
7R¿QG[, equate F[ to zero.
l
:HJHW[ = LJQRULQJQHJDWLYHYDOXH
3
7KHYDULDWLRQRIWKHVKHDUIRUFHLVSDUDEROLFVLQFHWKHVKHDUIRUFHHTXDWLRQDWWKHVHFWLRQUHSUHVHQWV
DSDUDEROD)LJb)).
[
M[ = RA [ – Triangular load ADE
3
wl wx 2 x wl wx3
x− = ⋅ = x
6 2l 3 6 6l
Bending moment at A, where [ = 0, is
MA = 0
and MB IRU[ = l)

l .
7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWLVPD[LPXPZKHUHVKHDUIRUFHLV]HURWKDWLVDW[ =
3
0D[LPXPEHQGLQJPRPHQWLV
3
wl l w⎛ l ⎞
MPD[ = ⋅ − ⎜ ⎟
6 3 6l ⎝ 3 ⎠
wl 2 wl 2 wl 2
= =
6 3 18 3 9 3
7KH EHQGLQJ PRPHQW GLDJUDP LV D FXELF FXUYH EHFDXVH WKH EHQGLQJ PRPHQW HTXDWLRQ DW WKH
VHFWLRQLVDFXUYHRIWKLUGRUGHU)LJc)).
4.11.6 Simply Supported Beam subjected to a Couple

The couple is acting at point C )LJa)).
Take moments of the forces about B.
RA l = M
M
or RA =
l
But RA + RB = 0 or RB = – RA
Consider a section of the beam at a distance [ from A.
V = + RA
M .
The shear force between A and B remains constant at +
l
Fig. 4.23

M
M[ = + RA [ = + [
l
MA IRU[ = 0)
Ma
MC = + IRU[ = a)
l
Bending moment just to the right of C

Ma M (a − l ) M Mb
= –M= =– l – a) = –
l l l l
M
MB = RA l – M =l−M =0
l
The bending moments between A and C, and between B and C are shown by inclined straight lines
)LJc)).
Example 4.3
'UDZWKHVKHDUIRUFHDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPVIRUWKHEHDPVKRZQLQ)LJa).
Solution: Reactions at A and B
Take moments of the forces about A.
RB 1 + 10
80
or RB = N1)
4
and RA + RB N1
or RA N1)

Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance [ from A. The shear force at the section is
V = + RA
N1
The shear force between A and CUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWDWN1

Shear force just to the right of C
±
Fig. 4.24
The shear force remains zero for the portion CD.

Shear force at B is
VB ±±
= –N1
The shear force between A and C is connected by a horizontal straight line and between B and D
by an inclined straight line due to XGOIRUWKLVSRUWLRQ)LJb)).
M [ = + RA ¹ [
[
MA IRU[ = 0)
MC IRU[ = 1 m)
N1¹m
MD ± 1
N1¹m
MB ±± ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = 0

⎝⎠
The bending moment for AC is shown by an inclined straight line, for CD by a horizontal straight
line and for BDE\DSDUDEROLFFXUYH)LJc)).
Example 4.4
Solution: Reactions at A and D
RD ⎛⎜ 0.5 + ⎞⎟

2
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 45 ⎞
or RD = ⎜ ⎟ N1)
⎝ 4.5 ⎠
But RA + RD N1
or RA N1)
Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance [ from A.
V = + RA N1
The shear force for the portion ABUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWDWN1
Shear force at C is
VC ± ±N1
The shear force between C and DUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWDW±N1

The shear force for AB and CD are shown by two horizontal lines and for BC, by an inclined
VWUDLJKWOLQH)LJb)).
M [ = + RA ¹ [
[
Fig. 4.25
MA IRU[ = 0)
MB = + RA

N1¹m

MC = + RA ±

± N1¹m
⎛ ⎞
MD = + RA ± ⎜ + ⎟ = 0
⎝ ⎠
Location of zero shear force
Compare 's MNO and OPQ.
MN PQ
=
MO OP
20 10
=
y (2 y )
or y = 1.33 m
+HQFHWKHVKHDUIRUFHLV]HURDWDGLVWDQFHP=PIURPA.
7KHPD[LPXPEHQGLQJPRPHQWRFFXUVDWOJLYHQE\
MO = MPD[
= + RA ±îîî N1¹m
Example 4.5
RB 3 = + 70
2QVROYLQJZHJHW RB N1)
But RA + RB N1
or RA ± N1)

The shear force between A and C remains constant at RA N1
± –N1
Shear force at B is
VB ±±
= –N1
Fig. 4.26

The bending moments at A and B are zero, since the beam is simply supported.
MA = MB = 0
MC = + RA 1
1
N1¹m

Example 4.6
Fig. 4.27

⎛ ⎞
RB + 10 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2QVROYLQJZHJHW RB N1)
But RA + RB N1
or RA = 30 – RB ± N1)

Shear force at A is
VA = + RA N1
Sear force at C is
VC = + RA±
± N1
Shear force at B is
VB = + RA±± ±N1

M A = MB = 0

MC = + RA ±

± N1¹m

MN PQ
=
NO OP
2.5 17.5
=
y 2 y
6ROYLQJIRUy, we get
y P
+HQFHWKHVKHDUIRUFHLV]HURDWDGLVWDQFH
P PIURPA.
⎛2 ⎞ 0.25
MO = MPD[ = + RA ± ⎜ + 0.25⎟ – 10
⎝2 ⎠ 2
±± N1¹m

Example 4.7
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
Fig. 4.28
Reactions at A and E
RE
or RE N1)
1RZ RA + RE = 7
or RA N1)
Shear force at A is
VA = + RA N1
The shear force between A and BUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWDWN1
Shear force just to the right of B
± ±N1
The shear force between B and EUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWDW±N1
Bending moments at A and E are zero, because the beam is simply supported.
M A = ME = 0
MB = + RA ¹ N1¹m
MC = + RA 3 – 7 ±N1¹m
Bending moment just to the right of C ± N1P

MD = + RA ± ±N1¹m
Bending moment just to the right of D ± N1¹m

/RFDWLRQRISRLQWRIFRQWUDÀH[XUH
There are two points where bending moments are zero, one point lies between B and C and other
between C and D.
MN PQ
=
NO OP
MN PQ
=
NO NP NO
4.25 1.25
=
NO 2 NO
or NO P
+HQFHWKH¿UVWSRLQWRIFRQWUDÀH[XUHOLHVDWDGLVWDQFHRI PIURPA.

1RZFRPSDUH's PRS and STU.

PR UT
=
PS ST
3.75 1.75
=
PS 2 PS
or PS P
+HQFHWKHVHFRQGSRLQWRIFRQWUDÀH[XUHOLHVDWDGLVWDQFHRI
P PIURPA.
Example 4.8
7KHORDGLQJRQDVLPSO\VXSSRUWHGEHDPRIOHQJWKPYDULHVJUDGXDOO\IURPN1PDWRQHHQGWR
N1PDWWKHRWKHUHQG'UDZWKHVKHDUIRUFHDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPVIRUWKLVEHDP
Solution: 5HIHU )LJ 7KH JLYHQ EHDP LV FRQYHUWHG LQWR DQ HTXLYDOHQW EHDP VXFK WKDW LW
FRQVLVWVRIXQLIRUPO\GLVWULEXWHGORDGRILQWHQVLW\N1PWKURXJKRXWLWVOHQJWKDQGDXQLIRUPO\YDU\
ing load with zero at BWRDPD[LPXPORDGRIN1PDWA.
10 1 10
RB 10 = 3 10 + 4 10
2 2 3
or RB N1)
1
Also RA + RB = 3 10 + 4 N1
2
or RA N1)
Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance [ from B.
7KHUDWHRIORDGLQJYHUWLFDOIRUWKHWULDQJXODUORDGDWWKHVHFWLRQLV 4 [ .
Shear force at the section is 10
V = – RB + 3[ + Triangular load at the section
1 4[
= – RB + 3[ + u [ ±[[
2 10
Shear force at B is
VB = – RB ±N1 IRU[ = 0)
Shear force at A is
VA ± IRU[ P N1
The SFDLVVKRZQLQ)LJc).

[ 1 4[ [
M[ = + RB [ – 3 [ − × × [ × [±[±[3
2 2 10 3
Fig. 4.29
For shear force to be zero

d Mx
=0
dx
±[±[ = 0
2QVROYLQJZHJHW [ RU±
:HDFFHSW [ P%HFDXVH[ = –PFDUULHVQRPHDQLQJ

%HQGLQJPRPHQWLVPD[LPXPDWWKHSRLQWZKHUHVKHDUIRUFHLV]HURi.e., at [ P
M PD[ ±±3 N1¹m
MA = MB = 0
The BMDLVVKRZQLQ)LJG).
Example 4.9
Solution:
7KHORDGRIN1LVDSSOLHGRQWKHEHDPWKURXJKDEUDFNHWRIOHQJWKP¿[HGWRLWDWDGLVWDQFHRIP
from A'XHWRWKLVDORDGRIN1DQGDEHQGLQJPRPHQWRI N1¹m are acting at C.
RB 4
or RB N1)
Also RA + RB N1
or VA N1)

Shear force at A is
VA = + RA N1
The shear force between A and CUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWN1
The shear force just to the right of C ± ±N1
The shear force between B and CUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWDW±N1
The SFDLVVKRZQLQ)LJc).
Fig. 4.30

MA = MB = 0
Bending moment just to the left of C = + RA 4
N1¹m
Bending moment just to the right of C ±
N1¹m
The BMDLVVKRZQLQ)LJG).
4.12 RELATIONS AMONG LOAD, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

AB is a simple beam supported at A and BDQGORDGHGZLWKYDU\LQJORDGZLWKLQWHQVLW\wXQLWOHQJWK
)LJ
Fig. 4.31
End A is chosen as the origin. A section CDPQ of length G[ of beam is considered.

7KHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQORDGDQGVKHDUIRUFHLVJLYHQDV
dV
W =
dx
i.e., the rate of change of shear force at any section is equal to the rate of loading at that section.
7KHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQVKHDUIRUFHDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQWLVJLYHQDV
dM
V =
dx
,WPHDQVWKDWWKHUDWHRIFKDQJHRIEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWDQ\VHFWLRQLVHTXDOWRWKHVKHDUIRUFHDW
that section.
4.13 SFD AND BMD FOR OVERHANGING BEAMS
4.13.1 Overhanging Beam with equal Overhangs on Each Side and loaded with
Point Loads at the Ends
The beam is supported at B and C7KHOHQJWKRIWKHEHDPLVla>)LJa)].
Reactions at B and C
W a + RC l = Wl + a)
or RC = W )
But RB + RC = W + W W
or RB = W )

Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance [ from A.
V =–W
The shear force between A and B remains constant at – W.

= – W + RB = – W + W = 0
Fig. 4.32
The shear force remains zero between B and C.
M.
= l−M =0
l
Shear force at C is
VC = 0 + RC = + W
The shear force between C and D remains constant at + W.

The shear forces between A and B, and between C and D are connected by horizontal straight lines
)LJb)).

M[ = – :[
Bending moment at A, where [ = 0, is
MA = 0
Bending moment at B, where [ = a, is
MB = – Wa
MC = – Wa + l) + RB l
= – Wa – Wl + Wl
= – Wa
MD = – Wa + l + a) + RBl + a) + RCa
= – Wa – Wl – Wa + Wl + Wa + Wa = 0
The bending moment diagrams between A and B, and between C and D are shown by inclined
VWUDLJKWOLQHV)LJc)).
4.13.2 Overhanging Beam with equal Overhangs on Each Side and loaded with a
Uniformly Distributed Load over its Entire Span
5HIHU)LJa).
Reactions at B and C
w a a + RC l = wl + a)
(l a)
2
wa w
+ RC l = [l + ala]

w (l 2a)
or RC = )
2
But RB + RC = wla)
w (l 2a)
or RB = )
2
Fig. 4.33

Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance [ from A. Shear force at the section is
V = – Z[
Shear force at A,
VA IRU[ = 0)
Shear force at B,
VB = – wa IRU[ = a)
= – wa + RB
w
= – wa + la)

w
= l

Shear force at C is
w
VC = l – wl

wl
=–


wl
=– + RC

wl w
=– + la)

= wa
Shear force at D is
VD = wa – wa = 0
x
M[ = − w . x .
2
Bending moment at A, MA IRU[ = 0)

MB = – w ¹ a ¹ a
2
wa 2
=–
2
(a l )
MC = – w (a + l) + RB l
2
w w
=– (a + l)2 + (l + 2a) l
2 2
w 2
=– a
2
MD = 0
⎛ l⎞
The shear force is zero at a distance ⎜ a + ⎟ from A. It is the position of the maximum bending
moment. ⎝ 2⎠
The maximum bending moment is given as
⎛ l⎞ ⎛ l⎞ 1 ⎛ l ⎞
Mmax = − w ⎜ a + ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ a + ⎟ ⋅ + RB ⎜ a + − a ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
w⎛ l⎞ w l
= − ⎜ a + ⎟ + (l + 2a ) ⋅
2⎝ 2⎠ 2 2
w ⎛ l2 2⎞
= ⎜⎜ − a ⎟⎟
2⎝4 ⎠
Case I
When a < l , then Mmax will be positive.

2
Case II
When a = l , then Mmax = 0

2
w ⎛ l2 2⎞
⎜⎜ − a ⎟⎟ = 0
2⎝4 ⎠
l ⎛w ⎞
or a =±
⎜ ≠ 0⎟
⎝2 ⎠
l ⎡ ⎛ l⎞ ⎤
:HDFFHSW a = + ⎢ because ⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ carries no meaning.⎥
2 ⎣ 2 ⎦
Case III
:KHQa > l , then MPD[ZLOOEHQHJDWLYH

The BMDIRUDOOWKHFDVHVDUHVKRZQLQ)LJcGDQGe).
Example 4.10
Solution:
Reactions at B and E
⎛ 8⎞
± 4 – 3 ⎜ 4 + 4 + ⎟ + RE
⎝ 2⎠
or RE N1)
Also RB + RE
N1
or RB N1 )

Shear force at A is
VA = –N1
The shear force between A and BUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWDWN1

= –RB ±
N1
The shear force between B and CUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWDWN1
= + 74.13 – 70
N1
Fig. 4.34
The shear force between C and DUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWDWN1

Shear force at E is
VE = + 4.13 – 3 ±N1
Shear force just to the right of E

±RE
±


The bending moments at A and E are zero.
MA = ME = 0
MB = – –N1¹m
MC = –RB 4
N1¹m
MD = –RB ± 4
= –±
N1¹m

Compare two triangles MNO and OPQ.
MN PQ
=
NO OP
MN PQ
=
NO NP NO
4.13 19.87
=
NO 8 NO
or NO = 1.37 m
+HQFHWKHVKHDUIRUFHLV]HURDWDGLVWDQFH± PIURPE.
6.63
MPD[ = MO = +RE ±
2
6.63
±
2
N1¹m
Example 4.11
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. 4.35(a).
Fig. 4.35
Solution:
Reactions at B and D
Taking moments of the forces about A, we have
RB 2.5 + RD 7.5 = 40 5.5
= 220 … (1)
and RB + RD = 20 + 40 = 60 kN … (2)
From equation (2)
RB = 60 – RD
Substituting RB in equation (1), we get

(60 – RD) 2.5 + RD 7.5 = 220
or RD = 14 kN ()
On using equation (2), we get

RB = 60 – 14 = 46 kN ()
Consider a section XX of the beam at a distance x from A. Shear force at the section is
V = – 20 kN
The shear force between A and B is constant at – 20 kN.

= – 20 + RB = – 20 + 46 = + 26 kN
The shear force between B and C is constant at 26 kN.

Shear force just to the right of C = + 26 – 40 = – 14 kN
The shear force between C and D is constant at – 14 kN.
The shear force diagram is shown in Fig. 4.35 (b).
Mx = – 20x
MA = 0 (for x = 0)
MB = – 20 2.5 (for x = 2.5 m)
= – 50 kN¹m
MC = – 20 (2.5 + 3) + RB 3
= + 28 kN¹m
Bending moment D is
MD = – 20 (2.5 + 3 + 2) + 46 (3 + 2) – 40 2
=0
The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 4.35 (c).
'LIIHUHQWLDWHEHWZHHQVWDWLFDOO\GHWHUPLQHDQGLQGHWHUPLQDWHEHDPV*LYHWZRH[DPSOHVRIHDFK
type.
:KDWLVDSLQQHGVXSSRUW"+RZGRHVLWGLIIHUIURPDUROOHUVXSSRUW"
:K\LVEHQGLQJPRPHQWVRFDOOHG"
:KDWDUHSRVLWLYHDQGQHJDWLYHEHQGLQJPRPHQWVDOWHUQDWLYHO\FDOOHG"
:KDWW\SHRIEHQGLQJPRPHQWDFWVRQDVLPSOHEHDPDQGRQDFDQWLOHYHUEHDP"
:KLFKWZRW\SHVRIORDGLQJDWUDSH]RLGDOGLVWULEXWLRQFRQVLVWVRI"
:KDWLVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQVKHDUIRUFHDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQW"
:KDWLVSRLQWRIFRQWUDÀH[XUH"
1. 7KHVKHDUIRUFHDWDQ\VHFWLRQRIDEHDPLVSRVLWLYHLI
a WKHOHIWSDUWLVPRYLQJXSDQGWKHULJKWSDUWPRYLQJGRZQ
b WKHULJKWSDUWLVPRYLQJXSDQGWKHOHIWSDUWPRYLQJGRZQ
c WKHOHIWSDUWLVPRYLQJXSDQGWKHULJKWSDUWGRHVQRWPRYH
G) none of these.
2. 7KHPD[LPXPEHQGLQJPRPHQWZKHQDSRLQWORDGWLVDFWLQJDWWKHIUHHHQGRIDFDQWLOHYHU
beam of length l, is
Wl Wl
a) b) c) Wl G) Wl .
4
3. 7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPIRUDFDQWLOHYHUEHDPFDUU\LQJDSRLQWORDGDWLWVIUHHHQGLV
JLYHQDV
4. 7KHPD[LPXPEHQGLQJPRPHQWIRUDFDQWLOHYHUEHDPFDUU\LQJDXGO of intensity wXQLWOHQJWK

RYHULWVHQWLUHVSDQLVJLYHQDV
2 wl .
a) wl b) wl c) wl G) –
4 8
5. 7KHYDULDWLRQRIEHQGLQJPRPHQWIRUDFDQWLOHYHUEHDPFDUU\LQJDXGO of intensity wXQLWOHQJWK
RYHULWVHQWLUHVSDQLVVKRZQE\
a DVWUDLJKWOLQH b) a second degree parabola
c DWKLUGGHJUHHSDUDEROD G) an ellipse.
6. 7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPIRUDFDQWLOHYHUEHDPFDUU\LQJDXGORYHULWVFHUWDLQOHQJWKIURP
the free end is shown as
7. 7KHVKHDUIRUFHDQGWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPVIRUDFDQWLOHYHUEHDPFDUU\LQJDXGORYHULWV
FHUWDLQOHQJWKIURPWKH¿[HGHQGDUHJLYHQDV
8. The PD[LPXP EHQGLQJ PRPHQW IRU D VLPSO\ VXSSRUWHG EHDP VXEMHFWHG WR D SRLQW ORDG DW LWV
FHQWUHLVJLYHQDV
2
a) Wl b) Wl c) Wl G) Wl .
4 4
9. The shear force diagram for a simply supported beam carrying a XGORYHULWVHQWLUHVSDQLVVKRZQ
as
10. 7KH PD[LPXP EHQGLQJ PRPHQW IRU D VLPSO\ VXSSRUWHG EHDP VXEMHFWHG WR D XGO of intensity
wXQLWOHQJWKRYHULWVHQWLUHVSDQLVJLYHQDV
wl 2 3 wl 2 wl 2 .
a) b) wl c) G)
6 24 8 12
11. The reactions at the two supports of a simply supported beam carrying a XGO of intensity wXQLW
OHQJWKRYHULWVHQWLUHVSDQDUHJLYHQDV
w, w wl , wl .
a) b) wl , wl c) wl , wl G)
2 2 4 4 2 2 2
12. The load and shear force relationship is
a) G F = ZG[ b) GZ = )G[ c) G) = ZG[ G) F = ZG[
13. The shear force and bending moment relationship is
d M d F dF dF .
a) F = b) M = c) M = G) F =
dx dx dx dx
14. 7KHPD[LPXPEHQGLQJPRPHQWIRUDVLPSO\VXSSRUWHGEHDPFDUU\LQJDXGOZKLFKYDULHVIURP
zero at each end to wSHUXQLWOHQJWKDWLWVPLGSRLQWLVJLYHQDV
wl 2 wl 3 2 wl 2 .
a) b) c) wl G)
8 12 12 24
15. 7KHUHDFWLRQVDWWKHWZRVXSSRUWVIRUWKHEHDPLQ4XHVWLRQ1RDUHJLYHQDV
wl , wl wl , wl wl , wl wl , wl .
a) b) c) G)
4 2 4 4 8 8 8 4
16. 7KHPD[LPXPEHQGLQJPRPHQWIRUDVLPSO\VXSSRUWHGEHDPFDUU\LQJDXGOZKLFKYDULHVIURP
zero at one end to wSHUXQLWOHQJWKDWRWKHUHQGLVJLYHQDV
wl 2 2 wl 2 wl 2 .
a) b) wl c) G)
24 8 9 3 8 3
ANSWERS
1. a) 2. c) 3. c) 4. G) 5. b) 6. c) 7. b) 8. c) 9. b)
10. c) 11. G) 12. c) 13. G) 14. c) 15. b) 16. c).

EXERCISES
1. 'UDZ WKH VKHDU IRUFH DQG EHQGLQJ PRPHQW GLDJUDPV IRU WKH EHDP VKRZQ LQ )LJ $OVR
LQGLFDWHWKHORFDWLRQDQGPDJQLWXGHRIPD[LPXPEHQGLQJPRPHQW,VWKHUHDQ\FRQWUDÀH[XUH"
Fig. 4.36
Ans. MPD[ N1¹m at 3 m from E&RQWUDÀH[XUHH[LVWVDWPIURPA).

2. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. 4.37.
Fig. 4.37
Ans. MC = MPD[ N1¹m).
3. 'UDZ WKH VKHDU IRUFH DQG EHQGLQJ PRPHQW GLDJUDPV IRU WKH EHDP VKRZQ LQ )LJ $OVR
GHWHUPLQHWKHORFDWLRQDQGPDJQLWXGHRIWKHPD[LPXPEHQGLQJPRPHQW
Fig. 4.38
Ans. M ±N1PDWB; MPD[ N1¹m, 1.333 m left of C).

Fig. 4.39
⎛ ⎛l ⎞ ⎛π x ⎞ ⎛l ⎞

⎛π x ⎞ ⎛l ⎞
l⎞
⎜ Ans. F = wo ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟ ; M = wo ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜⎝ l ⎟⎠ ; MPD[ = wo ⎜ ⎟ , at [ = ⎟⎠ .
⎝ ⎝π ⎠ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎝π ⎠ ⎝π ⎠
Fig. 4.40
Ans. B.M. just to the left of C N1¹m; B.M. just to the right of C N1¹m).
Fig. 4.41
Ans. B.M. just to the right of D N1¹m; B.M. just to the left of D N1¹m).
7. 'UDZWKHVKHDUIRUFHDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPVIRUWKHEHDPVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 4.42
Ans. MB = MPD[ N1¹m).
Fig. 4.43
Ans. MPD[ N1¹m).
Fig. 4.44
Ans. MPD[ N1¹m).

10. 'UDZWKHVKHDUIRUFHDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPVIRUWKHEHDPVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 4.45
Ans. MC N1¹m; MD N1¹m; ME N1¹m).

11.'UDZWKHVKHDUIRUFHDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPVIRUWKHEHDPVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 4.46
Ans. B.M. just to the left of C N1¹m

B.M. just to the right of C N1¹m
MD N1¹m, ME N1¹m).
Fig. 4.47
Ans. MC N1¹m; MD = N1¹m).
Fig. 4.48
Ans. MC N1¹m, B.M. just to the right of D N1¹m

B.M. just to the left of D ±N1¹m).
Fig. 4.49
Ans. FB ±N1FA N1
For ACVKHDUIRUFHLVFRQVWDQWDWN1
For BCVKHDUIRUFHLVFRQVWDQWDW±N1
M A = MB = 0
MOHIWRID ±N1P
MULJKWRID N1P MPD[
MC N1P
Fig. 4.50
Ans. FB = ±N1
For BDWKHVKHDUIRUFHLVFRQVWDQWDW±N1
FOHIWRID N1
For CDWKHVKHDUIRUFHLVFRQVWDQWDWN1
FOHIWRIC N1
For ACWKHVKHDUIRUFHLVFRQVWDQWDWN1
M A = MB = 0).

5
Stresses in Beams
D. J. Jourawski, born in 1821, was a Russian bridge and railway engineer.

In 1844, only two years after graduating from the Institute of Engineers
of Ways of Communication in St. Petersburg, he was assigned the task of
GHVLJQLQJ DQG FRQVWUXFWLQJ D PDMRU EULGJH RQ WKH ¿UVW UDLOZD\ OLQH IURP
Moscow to St. Petersburg. He developed the now widely used approximate
theory for shear stresses in beams, also called the shear formula and applied
his theory to various shapes of beams.
D. J. Jourawski
(1821-1891)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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:KDWLVDQHODVWLFFXUYH"
:KDWGRHVWKHVHFWLRQPRGXOXVRIDFURVVVHFWLRQLQGLFDWH"
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:K\GRHVWKHQHXWUDOD[LVDOZD\VSDVVWKURXJKWKHFHQWURLG"

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_5
5.1 PURE BENDING IN BEAMS

When external loads are applied on a beam, it bends in a curve due to bending moments produced.
Stresses produced in the beam may be shear and bending. If only bending stresses are considered and
shear force is neglected, the beam is said to be under pure bending or simple bending. Bending stresses
may be tensile and compressive. If a cantilever beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 5.1(a), its upper layer
is under tension and the bottom layer is in compression as is shown in Fig. 5.1(b). In between the two
layers, there is a plane where no stress is acting. Such a plane is known as neutral plane. The magnitude
of bending stress at any depth of a beam is proportional to its distance from the neutral plane.
Fig. 5.1
5.2 SIMPLE BENDING THEORY

The beam upon loading bends in the form of a curve, known as elastic curve. Following assumptions
are considered for the simple bending equation:
z The material of the beam is isotropic and homogeneous.
z The transverse sections of the beam, which were plane before bending remain so even after
bending.
z The Young’s modulus of elasticity of the beam material remains same in tension as well as
in compression.
z The stresses produced are within the elastic limits.
z The radius of curvature of the beam is very large as compared to its cross-sectional
dimensions.
z There is no resultant push or pull on the cross-section of the beam.
z The loads are applied in the plane of bending.
Let us consider certain portion of a beam being subjected to pure bending as shown in Fig. 5.2, where
GH represents the neutral plane. The beam bends in a curve of radius R, known as radius of curvature.
The two transverse sections AC and BD meet at point O, known as centre of curvature, making an angle T
between them.
A layer EF of beam at a distance y from the neutral plane is considered.
GH = RT
and EF = (R + y) T
The strain produced in EF is given as
EF − GH ( R + y ) θ − Rθ y
° = = = ... (5.1)
GH Rθ R
Stresses in Beams 209
Fig. 5.2
From Hooke’s law, we have

Stress
=E
Strain
σb
=E
∈
σb
RUҏ ° = ...(5.2)
E
where Vb = Bending stress
E = Modulus of elasticity of the beam material
From equations (5.1) and (5.2), we have
y σ
= b
R E
σb E
or = ... (5.3)
y R
E
For a given loading condition, is constant. Hence, the bending stress varies directly proportional to
R
its distance from the neutral plane. Bending stress is maximum at outermost layer of beam, where y is
maximum and zero at neutral plane, where y is zero.
The transverse section of beam is shown in Fig. 5.2 (b). An elemental area Ga is considered at a distance
y from the neutral axis.
Force acting on the elemental area
= Vb Ga
Moment of this force about the neutral axis (NA)
= Vb Ga y
E 2
= y Ga (using equation (5.3))
R
The moment of resistance is

E 2
∑
R
y Ga
The moment of resistance is equal to bending moment M.
E 2 E
M = ∑ y Ga =
R
∑ y 2 δa
R
where ∑ y 2 δa = Second moment of area about the neutral axis = I
E
Hence, M = .I
R
M E
or = ... (5.4)
I R
Comparing equations (5.3) and (5.4), we have
σb E M
= = ... (5.5)
y R I
Equation (5.5) is known as simple bending equation or ÀH[XUHIRUPXOD.
5.3 POSITION OF THE NEUTRAL AXIS

Let us consider the cross-section of a beam (Fig. 5.2 (b)). For equilibrium of the section, net force acting
on it must be zero.
Force acting on the elemental area
= E y Ga
R
Total force on the beam section
E E
R∫
= ∫ R y Ga = y δa
E
R∫
For equilibrium y δa = 0
or ∫ y δa = 0
E
since is a constant quantity.
R
In the above equation, Ga 0 but y = 0, indicating that the distance from the neutral axis to the centroid
of the cross-sectional area must be zero. Hence, the neutral axis always passes through the centre of the
area i.e., its centroid.
5.4 SECTION MODULUS

From bending equation, we have
M σb
=
I y
The bending stress is maximum, when y is maximum.
M I
= =S
σbmax ymax
I
where S = Section modulus =
ymax
The unit of S is P3, and it is a measure of strength of beam section. The bending stress can be
expressed as
M
Vb = ... (5.6)
max S
5.5 COMPOSITE BEAM

$FRPSRVLWHÀLWFKHGEHDPLVPDGHRIWZRGLIIHUHQWPDWHULDOVIRUH[DPSOHVWHHODQGFRQFUHWHRUZRRG
and iron. One of the materials of the beam is called reinforcing material and is used to increase the strength
of the beam. The basic assumptions of simple bending theory are applicable to composite beams.
A composite beam consisting of a wooden beam and two steel plates is shown in Fig. 5.3. The two
materials are rigidly connected and hence they have the same radius of curvature and same strains are
produced in both of them.
Fig. 5.3
Let Vs = Stress produced in the steel plate

Vw = Stress produced in wood
Es = Modulus of elasticity of steel
Ew = Modulus of elasticity of wood
7KHVWUHVVHVSURGXFHGDUHFRQVLGHUHGDWDFHUWDLQ¿[HGGLVWDQFHIURPWKHQHXWUDOD[LV
Now Strain in steel = Strain in wood
σs σw
=
Es Ew
σs Es
or = =P ... (5.7)
σw Ew
where P = Modular ratio
The moment of resistance of the steel plate is given as
Is
Ms = Vs ... (5.8)
y
where Is = Moment of inertia of the steel plate about the neutral axis (NA)
y = distance from neural axis
The moment of resistance of wood is given as
Iw
Mw = Vw ... (5.9)
y
where Iw = Moment of inertia of the wooden section
The moment of resistance of the composite beam is the sum of the two moments of resistance.
M = Ms + Mw ...(5.10)
Is Iw 1
= Vs + Vw = [V I + Vw Iw] ...(5.11)
y y y s s
σw
= [P,s + Iw] (using equation (5.7)) ... (5.12)
y
bd 3
But Iw =
12
td 3 td 3
Is = 2. =
12 6
d
and y =
2
Using Is, Iw and y in equation (5.11), we have
σwd 2
M = (b + 2PW) ... (5.13)
6
σ s d 2 ⎛ b + 2t ⎞
or M = ⎜ ⎟ ... (5.14)
6 ⎝m ⎠
Hence, the moment of resistance of the composite beam is similar to that of a wooden beam of width
(b + 2PW) and depth d. The resulting wooden beam is called equivalent beam. Alternatively, it is also
⎛b ⎞
similar to that of an equivalent steel beam of width ⎜ + 2t ⎟ and depth d.
⎝ m ⎠
5.6 BEAMS OF UNIFORM STRENGTH
We have seen that bending moment is maximum at the centre and zero at the two support ends of a
simply supported beam. If the beam is designed in such a way that it has uniform bending stress over the
entire span so that it has uniform strength throughout its length, then the resulting beam is called a beam
of uniform strength. For that, beam is expected to have minimum cross-section at the two supports and
gradually increasing towards the centre of the beam, thus preventing wastage of material. The change
in cross-section is made effective by
(a) Keeping width of beam constant, but reducing its depth
(b) Keeping depth of beam constant, but reducing its width
(a) When width is constant and depth is varying.
Consider a simply supported beam of length l carrying a point load W at the centre (Fig. 5.4).
The reactions at the two supports are found as
W
RA = RB =
2
Fig. 5.4
Let D be a point at a distance [ from A, where depth is required to be found.

The bending moment at D is given as
W
MD = x
2
2
The moment of resistance is V bd D . (using bending equation)
6
where dD represents the diameter of the beam at D.

Equating the two moments, we have
bd D2 W
V = [
6 2
3Wx
or dD = ... (5.15)
σb
Since W, V and b are constants for a given beam, hence depth at any section is proportional to [,
thereby indicating that the variation of depth is parabolic between points A and B.
l
The depth at C (where [ = ) is
2
3Wl
d = ... (5.16)
2 σb
(b) When depth is constant and width is varying.

Consider the same loading condition. Depth and width are shown in Fig. 5.5. The bending moment at
W
D is again [.
2
Fig. 5.5
bD d 2 .
The moment of resistance is V
6
On equating the two moments, we have
bD d 2 W
Vu = × [
6 2
3Wx
or bD = ... (5.17)
σd 2
W, V, and d are constants for the beam, hence width at any section is proportional to [.
⎛ l⎞
The width at C ⎜ where x = ⎟ is
⎝ 2⎠
3Wl
b = ...(5.18)
2σ d 2
Example 5.1
A 5 m cantilever beam of cross-section 150 mm 300 mm weighing 0.05 kN/m carries an upward
concentrated load of 30 kN at its free end (Fig. 5.6). Determine the maximum bending stress at a section
2m from the free end.
Fig. 5.6
Solution: The bending moment at the section (2 m from the free end) is given as
⎛ 2⎞
M = 30 2 – ⎜ 0.50 × 2 × ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
= 59 kN.m = 59 106 N.mm

The moment of inertia of the beam section about the neutral axis (NA) is given as
1
I = 150 3003 = 3.375 108 mm4
12
Using bending equation, we have
σb M
=
y I
M .
or Vb = y
I
59 × 106 . ⎛ 300 ⎞
= = 26.22 N/mm2 Ans.
3.375 × 108 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
The top layer of the beam is under compression and the bottom layer is in tension. Both layers are
subjected to an equal stress of 26.22 N/mm2.
Example 5.2
A 5m long steel beam having an I-section is simply supported at its ends (Fig. 5.7). The tensile stress in
beam does not exceed 25 MPa. Determine the safe uniformly distributed load to be placed on the entire
span of the beam.
Fig. 5.7
Solution: The moment of inertia of the beam section about the neutral axis is given as
I = M.I. of rectangle 250 mm 400 mm – 2 (M.I. of
rectangle 105 mm 320 mm)
1 1
= 250 4003 – 2 105 3203 mm4
12 12
= 7.598 10–4 m4
If w kN/m be the uniformly distributed load to be placed on the entire beam, then the bending
moment under this condition is
wl 2 w × 25
M = = kN¹m
8 8
M σ
= b
I y
w × 25 1 25 × 106
=
8 7.598 × 10−4 ⎛ 400 ⎞
103 × ⎜ × 10−3 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Solving for w, we get w = 30.392 kN/m Ans.

Example 5.3
A simple steel beam of 4 m span carries a uniform load of 6 kN/m over its entire span and a point load
N1DWLWVFHQWUH,IWKHSHUPLVVLEOHVWUHVVGRHVQRWH[FHHG03D¿QGWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHEHDP
assuming depth to be twice of breadth.
Solution: Given,
Length of the beam, =4m l
Uniform load, = 6 kN/m = 6 103 N/m
w
Point load, = 2 N = 2 kN = 2 103 N
W
Bending stress, = 100 106 N/m2
Vb
Let Width of the beam =b
Depth of the beam =d
d = 2b (Given)
The maximum bending moment due to udl and point load is given as
wl 2 Wl
M = +
8 4
6 × 103 × 42 2 × 103 × 4
= + = 14000 N¹m
8 4
The moment of inertia of the beam section about the neutral axis is calculated as
1 1 . . 2
I = bd 3 = b (2b)3 = b4
12 12 3
d 2b
y = = =b
2 2
M σb
=
I y
14000 100 × 106

=
2 4
b b
3
Solving for b, we get b = 0.0594 m = 59.4 mm
and d = 2b = 118.8 mm
Hence, the cross-section of the beam is 59.4 mm 118.8 mm. Ans.
Example 5.4
A simply supported beam of cross-section 50 mm by 50 mm having a length of 800 mm is capable of
carrying a point load of 3 kN at its centre. This beam is required to be replaced by a cantilever beam of
the same material having cross-section 50 mm by 100 mm and length 1500 mm. Determine the maximum
point load that can be placed at the free end of the cantilever.
Solution:
For simply supported beam
Load on the beam, W1 = 3 kN
Length of the beam, l1 = 800 mm
Width of the beam, b = 50 mm
Depth of the beam, d = 50 mm
The distance of the neutral axis from the outermost layers is
50
y1 = = 25 mm
2
The moment of inertia of the beam section about the neutral axis is obtained as
1
I1 = 50 503 = 520833.33 mm4
12
The bending moment is given as
W1 l1 3 × 800
M1 = = = 600 kN¹mm
4 4
σb M1
=
y1 I1
M1 600 × 25
or Vb = . y1 = = 0.0288 kN/mm2
I1 520833.33
For cantilever beam
Load on the beam, W2 = ?
Length of the beam, l2 = 1500 mm
The distance of the neutral axis from the outermost layer is
100
y2 = = 50 mm
2
The moment of inertia of beam section about the neutral axis is
1
50 1003 = 4166666.7 mm4
I2 =
12
The bending moment is found as
M2 = W2 l2 = 1500 W2 kN¹mm
Since both beams are made of the same material, hence equal bending stresses will be developed
in both of them.
Again using bending equation, we have

σb M2
=
y2 I2
0.0288 1500 W2
=
50 4166666.7
or W2 = 1.6 kN Ans.
Example 5.5
A simple beam of length 5 m carries two types of loads : a udl of 6 kN/m is acting over the entire span
and a point load of 2 kN at a distance 2 m from the left support. Cross-section of the beam is shown in
Fig. 5.8. Calculate the maximum bending stress at a distance 3.5 m from the left support.
Solution: Support reactions at A and C
Taking moments of the forces about A, we get
⎛ 5⎞
RC 5 = 2 2 + ⎜ 6 × 5 × ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
or RC = 15.8 kN ()
But RA + RC = 2 + (6 5) = 32 kN
Fig. 5.8
or RA = 32 – RC = 32 – 15.8
= 16.2 kN ()
Bending moment at the desired section XX
The bending moment at the section is given as
3.5
M = RA 3.5 – 2 (3.5 – 2) – 6 3.5 = 16.95 kN¹m
2
Calculation of moment of inertia

Distance ‘y’ of the
Area ‘a’ of the ay
Component centroid of component
component (mm2) (mm3)
from PQ (mm)
400
Rectangle (1) 400 × 250 = 100000 = 200 20000000
2
π
Circle (2) × 1502 = 17671.46(–) (400 – 100) = 300 5301437.6 (–)
4
Total ∑a = 82328.54 — ∑ ay =14698562

The distance of the centroid of the whole section or the neutral axis from PQ is given as
y =
∑ ay
∑a
14698562
= = 178.5 mm
82328.54
Hence, yt = 178.5 mm
yc = (400 – 178.5) mm = 221.5 mm
Now INA = Irectangle – Ihole
⎡⎧ 1 2⎫
= ⎢ ⎨ × 250 × 400 + 250 × 400 × (200 − 178.5) ⎬
3
⎣ ⎩12 ⎭
⎧π π 2 ⎫⎤
– ⎨ × 150 + × 150 × (221.5 − 100) ⎬⎥ 10–12 m4
4 2
⎩ 64 4 ⎭⎦
= 1.093 10–3 m4
Bending stress at XX
σb M
=
y I
M
or Vb = .y (since yc > yt )
I c
16.95 × 103
= −3 221.5 10–3 N/m2 = 3432343.1 N/m2
1.093 × 10
= 3.43 MPa Ans.
Example 5.6
Compare the weights of two equally strong beams of circular sections made of same material, one
2
being of solid section and the other of hollow section with inside diameter being of outside
diameter. 3
Solution: Let diameter of the solid cicular beam = D
Inside diameter of the hollow circular beam = Di
Ouside diameter of the hollow circular beam = D0
2
Given, Di = D
3 0
The section modulus of the solid beam is given as
1 π D4 π
SS = = = D3
y 64 ⎛ D ⎞ 32
⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
The section modulus of the hollow beam is given as
π D03 ⎡ ⎛ Di ⎞ ⎤
4
π D0
SH = 4 4
(D0 – Di )/ = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
64 2 32 ⎢ ⎝ Do ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
π D03 ⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞4 ⎤ 65π D03

= ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ =
32 ⎢⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 32 × 81
Since the beams are of equal strength, hence their section modului are equal.
SS = SH
π D3 65π D03
=
32 32 × 81
3
⎛ D ⎞ 65
⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ D0 ⎠ 81
D
or = 0.9292
D0
Being same material for the two beams, their bending stresses are equal. In other words, ratio of
their weights is equal to the ratio of their cross-sectional areas.
If WS = Weight of the solid beam
WH = Weight of the hollow beam
WS π 2 π
Then = D (D02 – Di2)
WH 4 4
D2 D2
= =
( Do2 − Di2 ) ⎡ ⎛ D ⎞2 ⎤
Do2 ⎢1 − ⎜ i ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ Do ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Using ratios D and Di , we get
D0 D0
WS (0.9292) 2
= = 1.55
WH ⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞2 ⎤
⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
WS = 1.55 WH Ans.
Example 5.7
A wire of diameter d is wound round a cylinder of diameter D. Determine the bending stress produced on
WKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHZLUH+HQFHRURWKHUZLVH¿QGWKHPLQLPXPUDGLXVWRZKLFKDPPGLDPHWHU
circular and of high tensile steel can be bent without undergoing permanent deformation. Take yield stress
= 1700 N/mm2 and E = 200 GPa. What is the magnitude of bending moment necessary for this?
Solution: Using bending equation, we have
σb E
=
y R
⎛ d D⎞
σb E ⎜⎝ y = and R = ⎟⎠
= 2 2
(d / 2) ( D / 2)
d
Vb = E × Ans.
D
E×d
or D =
σb
⎛ σb = 1700 N/mm 2 ⎞
−3
200 × 10 × 10 × 10
9
⎜ ⎟
= m ⎝ d = 10 mm ⎠
1700 × 106
= 1.17647 m = 1176.47 mm
D 1176.47
Now R = = = 588.23 mm Ans.
2 2
Again using bending equation , we have
σb 2σ b π 4
M = ×I = × d
( d / 2) d 64
πd 3 π × (10 × 10−3 )3 × 1700 × 106

= × Vb = = 166.9 N.m Ans.
32 32
Example 5.8
The shear force diagram for a rectangular cross-section beam AD is shown in Fig. 5.9. Width of the beam
is 100 mm and depth is 250 mm. Determine the maximum bending stress in the beam.
Solution: Given,
Fig. 5.9 shows that shear force at D is zero and it gradually increases to 5 kN (15 kN – 10 kN) at C
indicating that there is a udl of intensity 5 kN/m between C and D. At C, the shear force increases
further by 5 kN. There is no load on BC, hence the SFD between B and C remains constant. At B,
the shear force further increses by 5 kN so that between A and B, the shear force remains constant at
15 kN. The loaded beam is shown in Fig. 5.10.
Fig. 5.9 Shear Force Diagram (SFD). Fig. 5.10 Loaded Beam.
The bending moments at different points are given as

MD = 0
1
MC = −5 × 1 ×
2
= – 2.5 kN.m
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
MB = ⎢ −5 × 1 − 5 × 1 × ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
= – 12.5 kN.m
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
MA = ⎢ −5 × 1 − 5 × (1 + 1) − 5 × 1⎜1 + 1 + ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
= – 27.5 kN.m = Mmax
The moment of inertia of the cross-section of the beam is found as
1 3 1
I = bd = × (100 × 10−3 ) × (250 × 10−3 )3 m 4
12 12
= 1.302 × 10–4 m4
The maximum bending stress is given by

M d
ıb = u (y = d/2)
I 2
−27.5 × 103 250 × 10−3 1
= × × 6 MPa
1.302 × 10−4 2 10
= – 26.4 MPa
Example 5.9
A composite beam is made by placing two steel plates, 10 mm thick and 200 mm deep, one
each on both sides of a wooden section 100 mm wide and 200 mm deep. Determine moment
E
of resistance of the section of beam. Given, s = 20. The stress in the wood should not exceed
Ew
7.5 N/mm2.
Solution: The composite beam is shown in Fig. 5.11.
Fig. 5.11
Given, Thickness of the steel plate, t = 10 mm

Depth of the steel plate and the wooden section, d = 200 mm
Width of the wooden section, b = 100 mm
σs E
Modular ratio, P = = s = 20
σw Ew
Stress in wood, Vw = 7.5 N/mm2

Stress in the steel plate, Vs = mVw
= 20 × 7.5 = 150 N/mm2
The moment of resistance of the steel plate is given as
M s = V s. I s (using equation (5.8))

y
⎛ td 3 ⎞ 1
= Vs ⎜ 2 . ⎟ .
⎝ 12 ⎠ (d / 2)
σ s td 2
=
3
150 × 10 × (200)2
=
3
= 20000 kN¹mm
The moment of resistance of the wooden section is given as
Iw
Mw = Vw (using equation (5.9))
y
bd 3 . 1
= Vw
12 (d / 2)
σ w bd 2 7.5 × 100 × (200)2

= =
6 6
= 5000 kN¹mm
Hence, the moment of resistance of the composite beam is given as
M = Ms + Mw
= (20000 + 5000) kN.mm
= 25000 kN¹mm Ans.
Example 5.10
$ÀLWFKHGEHDPFRQVLVWVRIWZRWLPEHUMRLVWVHDFKPPZLGH 250 mm deep, is reinforced by a steel
SODWHPPZLGHDQGPPGHHSSODFHGV\PPHWULFDOO\LQWKHJURRYHPDGHLQWKHFHQWUHDQG¿[HG
¿UPO\)LJ)LQGWKHPRPHQWRIUHVLVWDQFHRIEHDP7KHPD[LPXPEHQGLQJVWUHVVLQWLPEHULVQRW
to exceed 8.5 N/mm2. Take Es = 2 105 N/mm2 and Ew = 104 N/mm2.
Solution:
For timber joist
Width, b = 80 mm
Depth, d = 250 mm
Fig. 5.12
Maximum bending stress,

Vw = 8.5 N/mm2
For steel plate
Width, b = 25 mm
Depth, d = 180 mm
Es
and P = = 20
Ew
The stress in the timber at a distance 90 mm from neutral axis (NA) is given as
8.5
Vw = 90 = 6.12 N/mm2
125
Strain in the timber at 90 mm from NA is
σw′ 6.12
°w = = = 6.12 10–4
Ew 104
At 90 mm from neutral axis, strains in timber as well as in steel are same.
Maximum stress in steel is given as
Vs = Es °s
= 2 105 6.12 10–4 = 122.4 N/mm2 (°s = °w)
The moment of resistance of timber is given as
I
Mw = Vw . w (using equation (5.9))
y
1 ⎛1 1 3⎞
⎜ × 160 × 250 − × 25 × 180 ⎟
3
= 8.5
125 ⎝ 12 12 ⎠
= 13340467 N¹mm
The moment of resistance of steel is given as

Is
Ms = Vs . (using equation (5.8))
y
1 ⎛1 3⎞
= 122.4 ⎜ × 25 × 180 ⎟ = 16524000 N¹mm
90 ⎝ 12 ⎠
7KHWRWDOPRPHQWRIUHVLVWDQFHRIWKHÀLWFKHGEHDPLVJLYHQDV
M = Mw + Ms
= (13340467 + 16524000) N¹mm
= 29864467 N¹mm Ans.
5.7 SHEAR STRESSES IN BEAMS

In the derivation of bending equation, the beam is assumed to be subjected to pure bending and no shear
force is considered. As a result, only longitudinal stresses, called bending stresses are produced in such
cases. Now if beam is loaded in the transverse direction, as is the case most common in practice, shear
stresses and bending moments both are produced. Shear stresses are due to shear force acting along
depth of the transverse cross-section of beam. For equilibrium of the cross-section, complementary shear
stresses of equal intensity are considered on longitudinal planes parallel to the axis of beam. Calculation
of shear stresses are important although shear deformations are relatively small and bending stresses are
dominating in majority of the cases.
5.8 SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION (GENERAL CASE)

Let us consider a small length AB = G[ of the beam (Fig. 5.13).
M = Bending moment at left side, that is, at AAc
M + GM = Bending moment at right side, that is, at BBc
Fig. 5.13
Consider an elementary area Ga at a height y from the neutral axis.

From bending equation, we have
M
VAA = y (bending stress at AA)
I
( M + δM )
and VBB = y (bending stress at BB)
I
The force acting on face CC of the elemental area at A is
M
F1 = y Ga
I
The force acting on face DD of the elemental area at B is
( M + δM )
F2 = y Ga
I
where Ga = b. Gy
Net unbalancing force (longitudinal) acting on the elementary area between A and B
= F 2 – F1
( M + δM ) M δM
= y Ga – y Ga = y Ga
I I I
Total unbalanced force acting on the area between A and B
δM
y2
= ∫
y1 I
y Ga
This force is balanced by shear force (longitudinal) acting on the area between A and B and is
equal to
W.b.G[
where W = Shear stress at the section
Equating two forces, we have
δM
y2
W . b . G[ . = ∫
y1 I
y Ga
y2
dM
y2
1 ⎛ dM ⎞
or W =
I . bdx ∫ y δa = ⎜ ⎟
Ib ⎝ dx ⎠ ∫
y1
y δa
y1
y2
1 VQ V
=
Ib
V ∫
y1
y δa =
Ib
=
Ib
Ay ... (5.19)
where V = Vertical shear force at the section

y2
∫
y1
y δa = First moment of area of the cross-section above C cDc about the neutral axis
=Q
=Ay
y = Distance of C.G. of area above the plane C cDc where the shear stress is W
For a given section of beam, I and b are constants. Hence, the variation of shear stress depends
upon A y . The shear stress is maximum for the maximum value of A y and is minimum for the
minimum value of A y . Accordingly, the shear stress is maximum at the neutral axis and zero at
extreme faces of beam.
5.9 SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN A RECTANGULAR CROSS-SECTION

Refer Fig. 5.14.
Let b = Width of the beam
d = Depth of the beam
Wmax = Maximum shear stress
W = Shear stress at CD
y = Distance of plane at CD from the neutral axis
Ay = Distance of C.G. of ABDC
I = Moment of inertia of cross-section about the neutral axis
1
= bd 3
12
Fig. 5.14
⎛d ⎞
A = Area ABDC = ⎜ − y ⎟ b
⎝2 ⎠
1 ⎛d ⎞ 1 ⎛d ⎞
Ay = y + ⎜ − y⎟ = ⎜ + y⎟
2⎝2 ⎠ 2⎝2 ⎠
Hence, the moment of area ABDC about the neutral axis is given as
1 ⎛d ⎞ b ⎛ d2 ⎞
Ay = ⎛⎜ − y ⎞⎟ b ⎜ + y ⎟ = ⎜
d − y2 ⎟
⎝2 ⎠ 2 ⎝2 ⎠ 2⎝ 4 ⎠
Using equation (5.19), we have

V V b ⎛ d2 ⎞
W = A y = ⎜ − y2 ⎟
Ib Ib 2⎝ 4 ⎠
V ⎛ d2 ⎞
= ⎜ − y2 ⎟ ... (5.20)
2I ⎝ 4 ⎠
This is the equation of a parabola, hence the shear stresss variation is parabolic in nature
(Fig. 5.14 (b)).
For maximum shear stress, put y = 0.
Equation (5.20) reduces to an equation giving maximum value of shear stress as
V . d2
Wmax =
2I 4
V d2 3V
= = ... (5.21)
1 4 2bd
2 × bd 3
12
d
For minimum shear stress, put y =
2
Equation (5.20) reduces to an equation giving minimum value of shear stress as
Wmin = 0 ... (5.22)
d .
Hence, the shear stress is zero at extreme faces of the cross-section for which y =
2
The average shear stress is given as
V
Wav = ... (5.23)
bd
&RPSDULQJWKLVHTXDWLRQZLWKHTXDWLRQZH¿QG
3
Wmax = W ... (5.24)
2 av
5.10 SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN A CIRCULAR CROSS-SECTION

Refer Fig. 5.15.
Let r = Radius of the circular section
I = Moment of inertia of the beam cross-section about the neutral axis
π 4 π 4
= r = d , d being diameter
4 64
Fig. 5.15
Consider an elementary strip ABDC of thickness dy at a distance y from the neutral axis.
b = Width of the strip
= 2 r 2 − y2 ...(5.25)
Moment of the strip about the neutral axis
= Area of the strip y
= bdy y
= (2 r 2 − y 2 × dy ) y = 2y r 2 − y 2 dy
The moment of the area above CD about the neutral axis is Ay, given by
y=r
Ay = ∫
y=y
2 y r 2 − y 2 dy ...(5.26)
From equation (5.25)
b = r 2 − y2
or b2 = 4 (r2 – y2)
= 4r2 – 4y2
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. y, we have
db
2b = 0 – 4 2y
dy
= – 8y
bdb
or ydy = − ... (5.27)
4
Making necessary changes in the limits of integration, we have
when y = y, b = b
y = r, b = 0
Using equations (5.25), (5.27) and changed limits of integration, equation (5.26) changes to
0 0
b 2 db 1 ⎛ b3 ⎞ 1 3
Ay = ∫
b
4
=– ⎜ ⎟ =
4 ⎝ 3 ⎠ b 12
b ... (5.28)

V V 1 V b2
W = Ay = b3 =
Ib Ib 12 12 I
V V
= 4 (r 2 − y 2 ) = (r2 – y2) ... (5.29)
12 I 3I
This is an equation of parabola suggesting that shear stress variation is parabolic in nature. The
shear stress is maximum, when y = 0 (at the neutral axis).
V
Wmax = r2 ... (5.30)
3I
The shear stress is minimum, when y = r.
Wmin = 0 ... (5.31)
On substituting ILQHTXDWLRQZH¿QG
V 2
Wmax = π 4 r
3× r
4
4 V
= ... (5.32)
3 πr2
The average shear stress is given as

V
Wav = ...(5.33)
πr2
4
Wmax = W ... (5.34)
3 av
5.11 SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN AN I-SECTION

Refer Fig. 5.16.
Fig. 5.16
Let D = Depth of I-section

d = Depth of the web
B :LGWKRIWKHÀDQJH
b = Width of the web
I = Moment of inertia of I-section about the neutral axis (NA)
V = Shear force at the section
6KHDUVWUHVVGLVWULEXWLRQLQWKHÀDQJH
For the hatched portion at a distance y from the neutral axis, we have
⎡ ⎛D ⎞⎤ ⎡ 1⎛D ⎞⎤
A y = ⎢ B ⎜ − y ⎟⎥ ⎢ y + ⎜ − y ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝2 ⎠⎦ ⎣ 2⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
where y is the distance of centroid of the hatched portion from the neutral axis.
B ⎛ D2 ⎞
or Ay = ⎜ − y2 ⎟ ... (5.35)
2⎝ 4 ⎠
Using equation (5.19) and making necessary changes, we have
B ⎛ D − y2 ⎞ V ⎛ D2 2⎞
2
V
W = ⎜ ⎟ = 2I ⎜ 4 − y ⎟ ... (5.36)
IB 2 ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
7KLV LV DQ HTXDWLRQ RI SDUDEROD KHQFH VKHDU VWUHVV YDULDWLRQ LQ ÀDQJH LV SDUDEROLF LQ QDWXUH
D
$WXSSHUSDUWRIWKHÀDQJHZKHUHy =
2
Wu = 0 ... (5.37)
d
$WORZHUSDUWRIWKHÀDQJHZKHUHy =
2
V
Wl = (D2 – d 2) ... (5.38)
8I
Shear stress distribution in the web

Consider Fig. 5.17.
For any section XX in the web, we have
⎡ ⎛ D − d ⎞⎤ ⎡ d 1 ⎛ D − d ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛d ⎞⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎛d ⎞⎤
A y = ⎢B ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎢ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + ⎢b ⎜ − y1 ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ y1 + ⎜ − y1 ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ⎣ 2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝2 ⎠⎦ ⎣ 2⎝2 ⎠⎦
Fig. 5.17
B 2 b ⎛ d2 ⎞
= ( D − d 2
) + ⎜ − y12 ⎟ ...(5.39)
8 2⎝ 4 ⎠
V
W = Ay
Ib
V
= [B (D2 – d2) + b (d2 – 4y12)] ....(5.40)
8 Ib
The shear stress increases as y1 decreases and is maximum when y1 = 0. The variation of the shear
stress is parabolic in the web section.
V
Wmax = [B (D2 – d2) + bd2 ... (5. 41)
8 Ib
d
$WWKHMXQFWLRQRIZHEDQGÀDQJHZKHUHy1 = ), the shear stress is found to be
2
VB
Wj = (D2 – d2) ...(5.42)
8 Ib
The shear stress distributions for some other sections are given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1
Section 6HFWLRQ¿JXUH 6KHDUVWUHVVGLVWULEXWLRQ
1. Triangular
2. Thin circular
Example 5.11
A T-section beam shown in Fig. 5.18 is subjected to a shear force of 10 kN. Draw the shear stress
distribution diagram.
Solution: Distance of the neutral axis (NAIURPWKHWRSVXUIDFHRIWKHÀDQJHLV
500 × 20 × 10 + 600 × 20 × (300 + 20)
= 179 mm
500 × 20 + 600 × 20
Distance of the neutral axis from PQ is
620 – 179 mm = 441 mm
`
Fig. 5.18
The moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis (NA) is given as
I = I1 + I2
⎡ 500 × 203 ⎤ ⎡ 20 × (600)3 ⎤
= ⎢ + 500 × 20 × (179 − 10)2 ⎥ + ⎢ + 20 × 600 (441 − 300)2 ⎥
⎣ 12 ⎦ ⎣ 12 ⎦
(using parallel-axes theorem)
8 4
= 8.84 10 mm
'LVWDQFHRIWKHFHQWUHRIJUDYLW\RIWKHÀDQJHIURPWKHQHXWUDOD[LVLV
y f = 179 – 10 = 169 mm
8VLQJHTXDWLRQVKHDUVWUHVVDWORZHUSDUWRIWKHÀDQJHLVJLYHQDV
V 10 × 103 × (500 × 20) × 169
Wl = AI yI = = 0.038 N/mm2
Ib 8.84 × 108 × 500
Maximum shear stress

)RUÀDQJHDQGZHEDERYHWKHQHXWUDOD[LVZHKDYH
(600 − 441)
Ay = 500 20 (179 – 10) + (600 – 441) 20 = 1.69 106 mm3
2
The maximum shear stress occurs at the neutral axis (NA), given by
VAy 10 × 103 × 1.69 × 106
Wmax = = = 0.955 N/mm2
Ib 8.84 × 108 × 20
7KHVKHDUVWUHVVDWWKHMXQFWLRQRIWKHÀDQJHDQGZHELV
500
0.038 = 0.95 N/mm2
20
6KHDUVWUHVVDWWRSRIWKHÀDQJHDQGERWWRPRIWKHZHELV]HUR7KHVKHDUVWUHVVGLVWULEXWLRQLVVKRZQLQ
Fig. 5.19 (b).
Fig. 5.19
Example 5.12
An I-section beam shown in Fig. 5.20 is subjected to a bending moment of 50 kN.m at its certain section.
Find the shear force at the section, if the maximum stress is limited to 100 N/mm2.
y = Distance of the C.GRIWKHÀDQJHIURPWKHQHXWUDOD[LV PP
A $UHDRIHDFKÀDQJH
Fig. 5.20
= 160 30 = 4800 mm2

1 1
I = 160 3603 – 2 72.5 3003 = 2.9583 108 mm4
12 12
7KHVKHDUVWUHVVDWWKHORZHUSDUWRIWKHÀDQJHLVJLYHQDV
VAy V × 4800 × 165

W = = = 1.7848 10–4 V ... (1)
Ib 2.9583 × 108
7KHEHQGLQJVWUHVVDWWKHORZHUSDUWRIWKHÀDQJHLVJLYHQDV
M
V = y (using bending equation)
I
50 × 103 × 103
= × 150 = 25.35 N/mm2
2.9583 × 108
The maximum stress (principal) is given as
σ σ 2 + 4τ 2
100 = +
2 2
642.62 + 4τ 2
100 = 12.675 +
2
Solving for W, we get
W = 86.4 N/mm2
Also W = 1.7848 10–4 V (using equation (1))
86.4
which gives V = = 4.84 105 N Ans.
1.7848 × 10−4
Example 5.13
A beam of square cross-section is placed on one of its diagonal horizontally (Fig. 5.21(a)). It is subjected
to a shear force V. Draw the shear stress distribution diagram.
Fig. 5.21

Let a = Side of the square PQRS
d = Diagonal of the square = 2a
Consider a section XX at a distance y from P.
The Moment of inertia of the square section about the neutral axis (NA) is given as
3
⎛d ⎞
d ×⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ d4
I =2 =
12 48
1
Cross-sectional area above XX, A = 2y y = y2
2
The shear stress at XX is given as
V . Ay
W = (using equation (5.19))
Ib
⎛ d 2y⎞
V . y2 . ⎜ − ⎟
⎝2 3⎠
=
d4
× 2y
48
2
6V ⎛ a 2 ⎞
= 4 ⎜ y − y⎟ (in terms of a) ... (1)
a ⎝ 2 3 ⎠
This is the equation of a parabola, suggesting that the variation of the shear stress is parabolic in
nature.
For W to be maximum, we have
dτ
=0
dy
3a 3d
which gives y = =
4 2 8
Position of the maximum shear stress from the neutral axis (NA) is
3d d a
– =
8 8 4 2
Using equation (1), we have
6V ⎛ a 3a 2 9a 2 ⎞ 9 V
Wmax = 4 ⎜
. − . ⎟ = ... (2)
a ⎝ 2 4 2 3 32 ⎠ 8 a2
The average shear stress occurs at the neutral axis, given by
V
Wav = 2
a
τ max 9
Now = = 1.125
τ av 8
The shear stress distribution is shown in Fig. 5.21 (b).
Example 5.14
The cross-section (Fig. 5.22) of a steel beam is subjected to a shear force of 20 kN. Draw the shear
stress distribution diagram.
Solution: The moment of inertia of cross-section about the neutral axis (NA) is given as
1 π
I = 120 1603 – (90)4 = 3.77 107 mm4
12 64
Fig. 5.22
The moment of interia is calculated by assuming that given cross-section is made of a rectangu-
lar cross-section 120 mm 160 mm minus two semi circles equivalent to a full circle of diameter
(45 + 45) mm = 90 mm.
Shear stresses at L and Y (where y = 0) are zero.
Shear stress at Q and S
Area above Q, A = (120 35) mm2 = 4200 mm2
Distance of the centroid of this area from the neutral axis (NA) is
35
y = 45 + = 62 .5 mm
2
VAy
Now W =
Ib
20 × 103 × 4200 × 62.5

= = 1.16 N/mm2
3.77 × 107 × 120
This is the shear stress at Q. By symmetry, the shear stress at S = 1.16 N/mm 2, that is,
MN = XZ = 1.16 N/mm2. The variation of the shear stress between L and N, and between Y and Z is
parabolic in nature.
Shear stress at the neutral axis

80 ⎛ π × 45 4 × 45 ⎞
2
A y = 120 80 – ⎜⎜ × ⎟⎟ = 323250 mm3
2 ⎝ 2 3π ⎠
VAy 20 × 103 × 323250

Now WNA = Wmax = = = 5.71 N/mm2
Ib 3.77 × 107 × 30
The shear stress distribution is shown in Fig. 5.22 (b).
Example 5.15
A TVHFWLRQEHDPPPGHHSDQGPPZLGHKDVÀDQJHDQGZHEWKLFNQHVVRIPP,WFDUULHVD
udlRIWKHLQWHQVLW\N1PRYHUWKHRYHUKDQJSRUWLRQRIWKHEHDPDQGDSRLQWORDGRIN1)LJ
'UDZWKHEHQGLQJVWUHVVDQGVKHDUVWUHVVGLVWULEXWLRQGLDJUDPIRUWKHEHDP
Fig. 5.23
Solution: The beam ABKDVDWRWDOVSDQRIPZLWKRYHUKDQJSRUWLRQBCRIOHQJWKP

Support reactions at A and C
Using 6MA ZHKDYH
⎛ 2⎞
RC 6 – 5 2 ⎜ 3 + 3 + ⎟ ± 3 = 0
⎝ 2⎠
or RC N1)
Now RA + RC N1
or RA N1)
)RUDQ\VHFWLRQEHWZHHQC and D, at a distance xIURPA, the bending moment is
Mx = RA x±x – 3)
= 18.33x±x +120 = – 21.67x + 120
Bending moment at D, where x = 3 m, is
MD = – 21.67 N1¹m = Mmax
Bending moment at C, where x = 6 m, is
MC = – 21.67 6 + 120 = –N1¹m
Calculations for bending stresses

Refer Fig. 5.24(a).
If the neutral axis is located at a distance of y IURPWKHWRSVXUIDFHRIWKHÀDQJHWKHQ
⎛ 30 ⎞ ⎛ 270 ⎞
⎜150 × 30 × ⎟ + 30 × 270 × ⎜ 30 + ⎟
y = ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 111.42 mm
(150 × 30) + (30 × 270)
The moment of inertia of whole section about the neutral axis (NA) is given as
2
150 × 303 ⎡ 30 ⎤
I = + 150 30 ⎢111.42 − ⎥
12 ⎣ 2⎦
2
30 × 2703 ⎛ 270 ⎞
+ + 30 270 ⎜188.58 − ⎟
12 ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 1.146 108 mm4

7KHEHQGLQJVWUHVVDWWKHWRSVXUIDFHRIWKHÀDQJHLVFRPSUHVVLYHJLYHQE\
M max
VC = ×y
I
54.99
= 111.42 = 0.0534 MPa
1.146 × 108
Fig 5.24
The bending stress at the lower part of the beam is tensile, given by
54.99
Vt = (300 – y )
1.146 × 108
54.99
= (300 – 111.42) = 9.04 10–5 kN/mm2
1.146 × 108
= 0.0904 MPa
Calculations for shear stresses
Since RC > RA, hence maximum shear force is equal to
RC = 31.67 kN, which occurs at C (= V).
(Ay DWWKHORZHUSDUWRIÀDQJH 30 (111.42 – 15)
= 433890 mm3
( y 'LVWDQFHRIWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHÀDQJHIURPWKHQHXWUDOD[LV
b = 150 mm
+HQFHWKHVKHDUVWUHVVDWWKHORZHUSDUWRIWKHÀDQJHLVJLYHQDV
VAy
Wl =
Ib
31.67 × 433890
= kN/mm2
1.146 × 108 × 150
= 8 10–4 kN/mm2 = 0.8MPa
7KHVKHDUVWUHVVLQWKHZHEDWWKHMXQFWLRQRIWKHÀDQJHDQGZHELVJLYHQDV
31.67 × 433890
Wj = kN/mm2 (b = 30 mm)
1.146 × 108 × 30
= 4 10–3 kN/mm2 = 4 MPa
The shear stress at the neutral axis is maximum, given by
WNA = Wmax
31.67 × 533328.25
=
1.146 × 108 × 30
= 4.91 10–3 kN/mm2 = 4.91 MPa
⎛ 111.42 − 30 ⎞
[ b = 30 mm and Ay = 150 30 (111.42 – 15) + 30 (111.42 – 30) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 533328.25 mm2]
The shear stress distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 5.24 (c) and the bending stress distribution
diagram in Fig 5.24 (b).
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1. The section modulus is the ratio of

(a) Moment of inertia and bending stress
(b) Moment of inertia and the distance from neutral axis
(c) Moment of inertia and modulus of elasticity
(d) Modulus of elasticity and moment of inertia.
2. The section modulus for a circular beam of diameter d is given as
π 4 π 3 π 3 π 2
(a) d (b) d (c) d (d) d .
64 64 32 64
3. The section modulus for a rectangular beam of width b and depth d is given as
1 1 3 1 1 2
(a) bd 3 (b) bd (c) bd 2 (d) bd .
12 6 12 6
4. The moment of inertia of a circular section of diameter d about the neutral axis is given as
π 4 π 4 π 3 π 3
(a) d (b) d (c) d (d) d .
64 32 64 32
5. The bending stress is proportional to
(a) moment of inertia (b) modulus of elasticity
(c) its distance from neutral axis (d) radius of curvature.
6. The bending stress is maximum at
(a) neutral axis (b) top layer of beam
(c) bottom layer of beam (d) top and bottom layer of beam.
7. The bending stress is zero at

(a) neutral axis (b) top layer of beam
(c) bottom layer of beam (d) top and bottom layer of beam.
8. The strength of a beam depends upon
(a) modulus of elasticity (b) bending moment
(c) section modulus (d) radius of curvature.
9. The bending equation is valid for a beam subjected to
(a) only bending moment and no shear force (b) combined bending and shear force
(c) shear force only (d) normal force only.
10. A composite beam is made of
(a) more than one material (b) three materials
(c) more than one cross-section (d) plastic material.
11. The shear stress at neutral axis of a rectangular section is
(a) average shear stress (b) maximum shear stress
(c) minimum shear stress (d) none of these.
12. For a triangular section, the shear stress is maximum at a height of
H 2H
4 3
H H
(c) from the base (d) from the apex.
3 2
13. The shear stress variation across a rectangular section is
(a) hyperbolic (b) parabolic (c) circular (d) elliptical.
14. The relationship between maximum shear stress and average shear stress for a rectangular section
is given as
(a) Wav = 1.33Wmax (b) Wmax = 1.33Wav (c) Wav = 1.5Wmax (d) Wmax = 1.5Wav.
15. The ratio of maximum shear stress and average shear stress for a triangular section is
(a) 0.66 (b) 1.33 (c) 1.5 (d) 0.75.
16. In the equation of shear stress, y LVGH¿QHGDVWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKH
(a) two extreme faces of section
(b) neutral axis and the C.G. of the area above the neutral axis
(c) neutral axis and the extreme face of the section
(d) none of these.
17. Compared to the bending deformation, the shear deformation is
(a) large (b) small (c) very large (d) zero.
18. The shear stress varies directly proportional to

(a) moment of inertia about the neutral axis
(b) width of the beam
(c) distance between the neutral axis and the centroid of the area above the neutral axis
(d) normal stress.
19. The shear stress is maximum, where the

(a) bending stress is minimum
(b) bending stress is maximum
(c) bending stress is zero
(d) bending stress is negative.
20. The shear stress variation for an I-section is represented as
21. For a beam of square cross-section and whose one of the diagonals is placed horizontally, the shear
stress variation is shown as
22. For a beam of cross-section shown in Fig. 5.25, the shear stress variation is shown as
Fig. 5.25
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c)

9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (b)
17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (d) 21. (b) 22. (d).
EXERCISES
1. An I-section steel beam (Fig. 5.25) is 5 m long and simply supported at ends. Find the permissible
uniform load to be placed on the beam. The maximum stress in tension does not exceed 25 N/mm2.
Fig. 5.25
(Ans. 32.93 N/mm).

2. A simply supported beam of length 4 m carries a point load of 40 kN at the centre and is supported
at ends. Find the cross-section of beam assuming depth to be twice the width. The maximum
bending stress in beam is not to exceed 200 N/mm2. (Ans. b = 67 mm, d = 134 mm).
3. Compare the weights of two equally strong beams of circular sections made of the same material,
one is solid and the other hollow with inside diameter being 2/5 of outside diameter.
(Ans. Ws = 1.14 WH).
4. A rectangular section is to be cut from a circular log of wood of diameter D. Find the dimensions of
the strongest section in bending.
⎛ D 2 ⎞.
⎜⎜ Ans. b= ,d =D ⎟
⎝ 3 3 ⎟⎠
5. A cast iron pipe having inside diameter 300 mm and outside diameter 350 mm is used to carry wa-
WHUDQGLVVXSSRUWHGDWWZRHQGVPDSDUW7KHVSHFL¿FZHLJKWRIFDVWLURQDQGZDWHUDUH 104
N/m3 and 1.0 104 N/m3 respectively. Determine the maximum bending stress induced in the pipe,
if it is running full of water. (Ans. 1.447 N/mm2).
6. A timber beam of rectangular section section 60 mm wide 150 mm deep is reinforced by two steel plates
having 12 mm thickness on both sides. The composite beam is a simply supported beam of length 2.5 m
and carries a load of 10 kN at its centre. Find the depth of steel plates. The maximum stress in the timber
section is not to exceed 12 N/mm2. The modular ratio, P is 14. (Ans. 92.53 mm).
7. $ÀLWFKHGEHDPFRQVLVWVRIDZRRGHQVHFWLRQPPZLGH 200 mm deep. It is to be reinforced by
providing a steel plate at its bottom. The steel plate is 150 mm wide and 10 mm thick. The maximum
stress in wood is not to exceed 8 106 Pa and the modular ratio, P is 15. Determine the moment of
resistance of beam. (Ans. 1.33 108 N ¹mm).
8. $ÀLWFKHGEHDPFRQVLVWVRIWZRWLPEHUMRLVWVHDFKPPZLGH 250 mm deep, is reinforced

E\DVWHHOSODWHPPZLGHDQGPPGHHSSODFHGV\PPHWULFDOO\LQWKHFHQWUHDQG¿[HGWR
the timber joists. Find the maximum uniformly distributed load to be placed on beam of simply
supported nature of length 6 m. The maximum stress in timber is not to exceed 10 N/mm2. Given,
the modular ratio, P is 20. (Ans. 14 kN/m).
9. A TVHFWLRQEHDPV\PPHWULFDODERXWWKHYHUWLFDOD[LVKDVWKHÀDQJHPP 10 mm and web
120 mm PP:KDWLVWKHSHUFHQWDJHRIVKHDUIRUFHVKDUHGE\WKHZHE" Ans. 95.1%).
10. An I-section beam shown in Fig. 5.26 is subjected to a shear force of 50 kN. Find the magnitude and
position of the maximum shear stress.
Fig. 5.26
(Ans. 12.2 N/mm2 at the neutral axis, which is located at 105 mm from the base).
11. A T-section beam shown in Fig. 5.27 is subjected to a shear force of 40 kN. Find the magnitude and
position of maximum shear stress. Also draw the shear stress distribution diagram.
Fig. 5.27
(Ans. 12.81 N/mm2 at neutral axis, which is located at 76.3 mm

IURPWKHWRSVXUIDFHRIWKHÀDQJH
12. Find the ratio of the maximum shear stress and mean shear stress for a hexagonal cross-section,
whose one of the diagonals is placed horizontally. (Ans. 1.2).
13. An ornamental beam in the form of a cross-bar (Fig. 5.28 (a)) has a span of 4 m and carries a udl of
20 kN/m inclusive of its weight. Determine the maximum shear stress in the cross-section and draw
the shear stress diagram.
Fig. 5.28
(Ans. 14.72 MPa, for second part of the problem refer Fig. 5.27 (b)).
14. A wooden beam of rectangular section 200 mm by 300 mm is used as a simply supported beam
carrying a udl of w ton/m. What is the maximum value of w, if the maximum shear stress developed
in the beam section is limited to 5 N/mm2DQGWKHVSDQOHQJWKLVP" Ans. 6.66 N/m).

6
'HÀHFWLRQVRI%HDPV
William Herrick Macaulay, born on 16 November 1853, was a British

mathematician. He developed the Macaulay’s method, which is used
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(1853-1936)
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Consider two points A and B on the elastic curve.
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Let T $QJOHPDGHE\WKHWDQJHQWGUDZQDWSRLQWAZLWKWKHD[LVRIWKHEHDP
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=
EI ∫ Mdx ... (6.6)
7KHGHÀHFWLRQLVREWDLQHGE\LQWHJUDWLQJHTXDWLRQDV

1
\ =
EI ∫ (∫ Mdx) dx ... (6.7)
6.3 SIGN CONVENTIONS

zThe x and \D[HVDUHSRVLWLYHWRWKHULJKWDQGXSZDUGUHVSHFWLYHO\
z7KHGHÀHFWLRQ\LVQHJDWLYHGRZQZDUG
dy
z 7KHVORSH is positive when measured counterclockwise with respect to the positive x D[LV
dx
DQGLVQHJDWLYHZKHQPHDVXUHGFORFNZLVH
z 7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWM LVSRVLWLYHZKHQLWSURGXFHVFRPSUHVVLRQLQWKHXSSHUSDUWRIWKHEHDP
DQGLVQHJDWLYHZKHQLWSURGXFHVWHQVLRQLQWKHXSSHUSDUW
,Q)LJM and TB are positive, whereas \and TADUHQHJDWLYH
)LJ
'28%/(,17(*5$7,210(7+2'
7KLVPHWKRGLVEDVHGRQ¿QGLQJVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQXVLQJHTXDWLRQVDQG
5HIHU)LJ
)LJ
7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWWKHVHOHFWHGVHFWLRQXX at a distance xIURPWKH¿[HGHQGALVJLYHQDV

Mx = – WO – x
8VLQJGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQRIÀH[XUHZHKDYH
dy
EI =M
dx
= – WO – x
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHJHW
dy Wx 2
EI = – Wlx + + C1
dx 2
)XUWKHULQWHJUDWLRQJLYHV
x 2 Wx3
(,\ = – Wl + + C1 x + C2
2 6
where C1 and CDUHWKHFRQVWDQWVRILQWHJUDWLRQ

7KHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVDUH
dy
At A, where x DQG\
dx
ZKLFKJLYHVC1 DQGC
(TXDWLRQVDQGRQVXEVWLWXWLQJC1 and C are reduced to
dy 1 ⎡ Wx 2 ⎤
= ⎢ − Wlx + ⎥
dx EI ⎣ 2 ⎦
1 ⎡ Wlx 2 Wx3 ⎤
and \ = ⎢− + ⎥
EI ⎣ 2 6 ⎦
TXDWLRQLVDVORSHHTXDWLRQDQGHTXDWLRQDGHÀHFWLRQHTXDWLRQ

(
7KHVORSHDWSRLQWBZKHUHx = OLVJLYHQE\
⎛ dy ⎞ 1 ⎛ Wl 2 ⎞
TB = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎝ −Wl . l +
⎝ dx ⎠ x = l EI 2 ⎟⎠
Wl
= −
El
7KHGHÀHFWLRQDWBZKHUHx = OLVIRXQGWREHPD[LPXPJLYHQE\
1 ⎛ l 2 Wl 3 ⎞ Wl 3
\B = \PD[ = ⎜ − Wl ⋅ + = −
6 ⎟⎠

EI ⎝ 2 3El
7KHQHJDWLYHVLJQVKRZVWKHGRZQZDUGGHÀHFWLRQ
7KHGHÀHFWLRQDWAZKHUHx LV]HUR
&DQWLOHYHU%HDPFDUU\LQJudlRYHULWV(QWLUH6SDQ
5HIHU)LJ
)LJ
7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWWKHVHFWLRQLV
(l − x)
Mx = − w (l − x)
2
w (l − x) 2
=–
2
dy
EI =M
dx
w (l x)2
=–
2
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHKDYH
dy 1 ⎡ w (l − x)3 ⎤
=– ⎢− + C1 ⎥
dx EI ⎣ 2 3 ⎦
1 ⎡ w (l − x)4 ⎤
\ =– ⎢ + C1 x + C2 ⎥
EI ⎣6 4 ⎦
dy
At A, where x
dx
and \
(TXDWLRQRQVXEVWLWXWLQJERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQJLYHV
wl 3
C1 =
6

wl 4
C = −
24
+HQFHHTXDWLRQVDQGRQVXEVWLWXWLQJC1 and C are reduced to
dy 1 ⎡ w wl 3 ⎤
⎢ − (l − x) +
3
=– ⎥
dx EI ⎣ 6 6 ⎦
1 ⎡ w (l − x)4 wl 3 wl 4 ⎤
and \ =– ⎢ + x − ⎥
EI ⎣ 24 6 24 ⎦
(TXDWLRQVDQGDUHXVHGWR¿QGWKHVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQUHVSHFWLYHO\

)RUVORSHDWB, put x = OLQHTXDWLRQ
⎛ dy ⎞ wl 3
= T = –
⎜ ⎟ B
6 EI
⎝ dx ⎠ x = l
)RUGHÀHFWLRQDWB, put x = OLQHTXDWLRQ
1 ⎡ wl 3 wl 4 ⎤
\B = – ⎢ l− ⎥
EI ⎣ 6 24 ⎦
wl 4
=–
8EI
&DQWLOHYHU%HDPVXEMHFWHGWRD3XUH&RXSOHDWLWV)UHH(QG
5HIHU)LJ
)LJ
%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWWKHVHFWLRQLV
Mx = – MR
dy
EI =M
dx
= – MR
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHKDYH
dy
EI = – M R x + C 1
dx
x
(,\ = – MR+ C 1 x + C

dy
At A, where x DQG\
dx
ZKLFKJLYHV C1 DQGC
+HQFHHTXDWLRQVDQGRQVXEVWLWXWLQJC1 and Care reduced to
1
[M o x]
dy
=–
dx EI
1 ⎡ x2 ⎤
\ =– ⎢ o ⎥
M
EI ⎣ 2⎦
(TXDWLRQVDQGDUHXVHGWR¿QGWKHVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQUHVSHFWLYHO\

)RUVORSHDWB, put x = OLQHTXDWLRQ
⎛ dy ⎞ M l
TB = ⎜ ⎟ = − o .
⎝ dx ⎠ x = l EI
)RUGHÀHFWLRQDWB, put x = OLQHTXDWLRQ
Mo l
\B = −
EI
&DQWLOHYHU%HDPFDUU\LQJD3RLQW/RDGDQ\ZKHUHRQLWV6SDQ
5HIHU)LJ
)LJ
Consider a section XX at a distance xIURPA in the portion AC.

Mx = – W a – x
dy
EI =M
dx
= – W a – x
,QWHJUDWLRQRIWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQUHVXOWVLQ
dy W (a − x)2
EI = + C1
dx 2
W ( a − x )3
(,\ – + C1 x + C2
2 3
dy
At A, where x DQG\
dx
Wa
ZKLFKJLYHV C1 = –

Wa3
C =
6
dy 1 ⎡W (a − x)2 Wa 2 ⎤
= ⎢ − ⎥
dx EI ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
1 ⎡ W (a − x)3 Wa 2 Wa3 ⎤
\ = ⎢− − x+ ⎥
EI ⎣ 6 2 6 ⎦
TXDWLRQLVDVORSHHTXDWLRQDQGHTXDWLRQDGHÀHFWLRQHTXDWLRQ
(
)RUVORSHDWC, put x = aLQHTXDWLRQ
⎛ dy ⎞ Wa
TC = ⎜ ⎟ =–
⎝ dx ⎠ x = a EI
Since there is no load on the portion BC, hence C cBcUHPDLQVVWUDLJKWLQGLFDWLQJWKDWVORSHVDWWKH
points B and CDUHHTXDO
Wa
TB = TC = –
EI
)RUGHÀHFWLRQDWC, put x = aLQHTXDWLRQ
1 ⎡ Wa3 Wa3 ⎤ Wa3

\C = ⎢ − + ⎥ = –
EI ⎣ 2 6 ⎦ 3EI
In ' BCP
PB ′ PB′
tan TB = =
PC ′ (l − a)
tan TB TBIRUVPDOOYDOXHRITB)
PBc O – a) TB
Wa
= –O – a) XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
EI
HQFHWKHGHÀHFWLRQDWBLVJLYHQDV
+
\B = BP + PB = \C + PB
Wa3 Wa 2
or \B = \PD[ = − − (l − a )
3EI 2 EI
⎡Wa 3 Wa 2 ⎤
= −⎢ + (l − a ) ⎥
⎣ 3EI 2 EI ⎦
&DQWLOHYHU%HDPFDUU\LQJ*UDGXDOO\9DU\LQJ/RDG
5HIHU)LJ
)LJ
Consider a section XX at a distance xIURPWKH¿[HGHQGA.

&RPSDULQJ'V ABC and EBD.
AC AB
=
ED EB
AC . w
or ED = EB = (l − x)
AB l
EB
Mx = –$UHDRIWKHWULDQJOHEBD)
3
1 w (l − x)
= – (l − x) × (l − x ) ×
2 l 3
w (l − x)3
=–
6l
VLQJHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
8
dy w (l − x)3
EI =M=–
dx 6l
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHJHW
dy w (l − x) 4
EI =+ . + C1
dx 6l 4
w . ( l − x )5
)XUWKHULQWHJUDWLRQJLYHV (,\ = – + C1 x + C
24l 5
dy
At A, where x DQG\
dx
wl 3
ZKLFKJLYHV C1 = –
24
wl 4
C = +
120
dy 1 ⎡ w wl 3 ⎤
= ⎢+ (l − x)4 − ⎥
dx EI ⎣ 24l 24 ⎦
1 ⎡ w wl 3 wl 4 ⎤
and \ = ⎢− (l − x)5 − x+ ⎥
EI ⎣ 120l 24 120 ⎦
RUVORSHDWB, put x = OLQHTXDWLRQ

)
⎛ dy ⎞
TB = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠ x = l
wl 3
= −
24 EI
RUGHÀHFWLRQDWBSXWx = lLQHTXDWLRQ

)
wl 4
yB = −
30 EI
6.4.6 Simple Beam carrying a Central Point Load

5HIHU)LJ
Fig. 6.8
8VLQJ 6 M A ZHKDYH
l
RB l = W
2
W
or RB =(n)
2
1RZ RA + RB = W
W
or RA = W – RB = (n)
2
&RQVLGHUDVHFWLRQXXDWDGLVWDQFHx from A
W
Mx = + x
2
8VLQJHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
d2y W
EI 2
= M= x
dx 2
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHJHW
2
dy Wx
EI = + C1
dx 4
Wx3
)XUWKHULQWHJUDWLRQJLYHV EIy = + C1 x + C2
12
ZKHUHC1DQGC2DUHWKHFRQVWDQWVRILQWHJUDWLRQ
dy O
DWC IRU x = )
dx
\ DWA IRU x
Wl 2
ZKLFKJLYHV C1 = − and C
16
dy 1 ⎡ W 2 Wl 2 ⎤
= ⎢+ x − ⎥
dx EI ⎣ 4 16 ⎦
1 ⎡ W 3 Wl 2 ⎤
\ = ⎢+ x − x⎥
EI ⎣ 12 16 ⎦
TXDWLRQFDQEHXVHGWR¿QGWKHVORSHDWDQ\SRLQWEHWZHHQA and C.

(
)RUVORSHDWA, put x LQHTXDWLRQ
⎛ dy ⎞ Wl 2
TA = ⎜ ⎟ =–
⎝ dx ⎠ x = 16 EI
Wl 2
and TB = – TA =
16 EI
( TXDWLRQFDQEHXVHGWR¿QGWKHGHÀHFWLRQDWDQ\SRLQWEHWZHHQA and &
O
)RUGHÀHFWLRQDWC, put x = LQHTXDWLRQ

1 ⎡ Wl 3 Wl 3 ⎤ Wl 3
\C = \PD[ = ⎢+ − ⎥ =–
EI ⎣ 96 32 ⎦ 48EI
7KUQHJDWLYHVLJQVKRZVWKHGRZQZDUGGHÀHFWLRQ
6LPSOH%HDPFDUU\LQJudlRYHULWV(QWLUH6SDQ
5HIHU)LJ
)LJ
Support reactions at A and B
Using 6MA = 0, we have

l
RB l = w l
2
wl
or RB = (n)
2
Now RA + RB = wl
wl
or RA = (n)
2
Consider a section XX at a distance x from A within A and C.
x
Mx = RA x – wx ×
2
wlx wx 2
=− ... (6.58)
2 2
d2y
EI =M
dx 2
wlx wx 2
= – ... (6.59)
2 2
On integration, we get
dy 1 ⎡ wl 2 w 3 ⎤
= ⎢ x − x + C1 ⎥ ... (6.60)
dx EI ⎣ 4 6 ⎦
1 ⎡ wl x3 wx 4 ⎤
Further integration gives y = ⎢ − + C1 x + C2 ⎥ ... ( 6.61)
EI ⎣ 12 24 ⎦
where C1 and C2 are the constants of integration.
The boundary conditions are:
dy l
= 0 at C (for x= )
dx 2
y = 0 at A (for x = 0)
wl 3
which gives C1 = – and C2 = 0
24
Equations (6.60) and (6.61) on substituting C1 and C2 become

dy 1 ⎡ wl 2 w 3 wl 3 ⎤
= ⎢ x − x − ⎥ ... (6.62)
dx EI ⎣ 4 6 24 ⎦
dy ⎡ wlx3 wx 4 wl 3 ⎤
y = ⎢ − − x⎥ ... (6.63)
dx ⎣ 12 24 24 ⎦
TXDWLRQFDQEHXVHGWR¿QGWKHVORSHDWDQ\SRLQWEHWZHHQA and C.
(
RUVORSHDWASXWx = 0 in equation (6.62).
)
⎛ dy ⎞ wl 3
TA = ⎜ ⎟ =– ... (6.64)
⎝ dx ⎠ x = 0 24 EI
wl 3
TB = – TA = ... (6.65)
24 EI
(TXDWLRQFDQEHXVHGWR¿QGWKHGHÀHFWLRQDWDQ\SRLQWEHWZHHQA and C.
l
)RUGHÀHFWLRQDWCSXWx = in equation (6.63).
2
1 ⎡ wl 4 wl 4 wl 4 ⎤ 5 . wl 4
yC = ymax = ⎢ − − ⎥ =– ... (6.66)
EI ⎣ 96 384 48 ⎦ 384 EI
7KUQHJDWLYHVLJQVKRZVWKHGRZQZDUGGHÀHFWLRQ
6ORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQXQGHUGLIIHUHQWORDGLQJFRQGLWLRQVDUHJLYHQLQ7DEOH
Table 6.1
S.N. Loading condition Slope (T) 'HÀHFWLRQ(y) Remarks

1. TA = 0 yA = 0 7KH HODVWLF FXUYH LV
4 VWUDLJKWEHWZHHQB and
TB = TC wa
yC = – C EHFDXVH RI QR ORDG
8 EI RQWKDWSRUWLRQ
wa3
=–
6 EI ⎡ wa 4
yB = − ⎢
⎣ 8 EI
wa3 ⎤
+ (l − a)⎥
6 EI ⎦
2. TA = 0 yA = 0 7KHHODVWLFFXUYHLV
FRQWLQXRXVEHWZHHQA
⎡ w ⎡ w
TB = – yB = − ⎢ and B.
⎢⎣ 6 EI ⎣ 24 EI
(l3 – a3)] (3l 4 – 4a3l + a4)]
Contd...
S.N. Loading condition Slope (T) 'HÀHFWLRQ(y) Remarks

3. \A \B = 7KHPD[LPXP
7 wl 3
TA = – 4 GHÀHFWLRQRFFXUV
360 El 13wl
\PD[ = – at a distance
2000 EI x OIURP
wl 3 A.
TB =
45EI 147 wl 4 C LV FHQWUH RI WKH
\C = –
2340 EI beam.
\A = \B 7KHPD[LPXP

Wb (l 2 − b 2 )
TA = – GHÀHFWLRQRFFXUV
6 EIl Wa b
2 2
at
\C = –
3EIl
TB = – TB l 2 b2
x=
\PD[= 3
Wb (l 2 − b 2 )
= 2
Wb ( l − b )
2 3/ 2
6 EIl –
9 3 EIl
5. \A = \B 7RWDOORDGRQEHDP
5wl 3
TA =– wl
192 EI \C = \PD[ =

TB = – TA
wl 4
3 =– wl
5wl 120 EI RA = RB =
=
192 EI
TC
6. w \A = \B 7KHPD[LPXP
TA = – u GHÀHFWLRQRFFXUVDWC,
6 EI where x O – a).
⎡ a 2l a 4 3⎤ \C = \PD[
⎢ − − (l − a ) ⎥
⎣ 2 4l ⎦
0.0056 wl 4
=–
1 ⎡ wa 2 EI
TB = – TA = ⎢
EI ⎣ 4
wl
+ (l − a )
6
wa 2l wa 4 ⎤
+ − ⎥
12 24l ⎦
([DPSOH
$PFDQWLOHYHUEHDPKDYLQJUHFWDQJXODUFURVVVHFWLRQLVORDGHGZLWKDSRLQWORDGRIN1DWLWVIUHH
HQG)LQGWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHEHDP7KHPD[LPXPEHQGLQJVWUHVVLVQRWWRH[FHHG1PP and
WKHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQLVUHVWULFWHGWRPP7DNHE 1PP.
Solution: Given,
/HQJWKRIWKHEHDP O = 3 m
Load on the beam, W N1 3 N
%HQGLQJVWUHVV Vb 1PP
0D[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQ \PD[ = 8 mm
/HWZLGWKRIWKHEHDP b
'HSWKRIWKHEHDP d
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIEHDPDERXWWKHQHXWUDOD[LVLVJLYHQDV
1
bd 3
I =
12
7KHPD[LPXPQHJDWLYHEHQGLQJPRPHQWLVJLYHQDV
M =WO
3 3 = 3 N¹mm
7KHPD[LPXPEHQGLQJVWUHVVLVJLYHQDV
Muy
VPD[ = XVLQJEHQGLQJHTXDWLRQ
I
d
3 u 107 u
5 = 2
1
bd 3
12
or bd = 3.6
7KHPD[LPXPQHJDWLYHGHÀHFWLRQRFFXUVDWWKHIUHHHQGRIWKHFDQWLOHYHUJLYHQE\
Wl 3
\PD[ = XVLQJ(TXDWLRQ
3EI
104 u (3 u 1000)3
8 =
bd 3
3 u 2 u 104 u
12
or bd 3
6ROYLQJHTXDWLRQVDQGZHJHW
d PP
and b PP Ans.
([DPSOH
$PVLPSOHEHDPKDYLQJFURVVVHFWLRQPPPPFDUULHVDSRLQWORDGRIN1DWDGLVWDQFH
RIPIURPWKHOHIWHQG)LQGWKHVORSHDWWKHWZRHQGVGHÀHFWLRQXQGHUWKHORDGDQGWKHPD[LPXP
GHÀHFWLRQ7DNHE 1PP.
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
Given,
/HQJWKRIWKHEHDP O P PP
:LGWKRIWKHEHDP PP
'HSWKRIWKHEHDP PP
)LJ
Load on the beam, W N1 N

'LVWDQFHRIORDGIURPA, a P
'LVWDQFHRIORDGIURPB, b = 1.5 m
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIEHDPDERXWWKHQHXWUDOD[LVLVJLYHQDV
1
I = 3
12
mm
7KHVORSHDWWKHHQGALVJLYHQDV
Wb (l 2 b 2 )
TA = – VHH7DEOH
6 EIl
2 × 104 × 1.5 × 103 × (20002 − 15002 )

=–
6 × 2 × 104 × 1.5625 × 109 × 2000
= – ± radian
= ––3GHJUHH Ans.
7KHVORSHDWWKHHQGBLVJLYHQDV
Wb (l 2 b 2 )
TB = VHH7DEOH
6 EIl
2 × 104 × 1.5 × 103 × (20002 − 15002 )

=–
6 × 2 × 104 × 1.5625 × 109 × 2000
= –± radian
= ––3GHJUHH Ans.
7KHGHÀHFWLRQXQGHUWKHORDGLV
Wa 2b2
\C = – VHH7DEOH
3EIl
2 u 104 u (0.5 u 1000)2 u (1.5 u 1000)2

=– = –PP Ans.
3 u 2 u 104 u 1.5625 u 109 u 2000
7KHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQLV
Wb (l 2 b 2 )3 / 2
\PD[ = – VHH7DEOH
9 3EIl
2 × 104 × 1.5 × 1000 (20002 − 15002 )3 / 2

=– = –PP Ans.
9 3 × 2 × 104 × 1.5625 × 109 × 2000
([DPSOH
$FDQWLOHYHUEHDPRIXQLIRUPVHFWLRQDQGRIOHQJWKOFDUULHVWZRFRQFHQWUDWHGORDGVWDWWKHIUHHHQG
DQGW at a distance ‘a¶IURPWKHIUHHHQG6WDUWLQJIURPWKH¿UVWSULQFLSOHVGHWHUPLQHWKHGHÀHFWLRQ
XQGHUWKHORDGW.
,IWKHFDQWLOHYHULVPDGHIURPDVWHHOWXEHRIFLUFXODUVHFWLRQRIPPH[WHUQDOGLDPHWHUDQGPP
thickness and O = 1.5 m, a PGHWHUPLQHWKHYDOXHRIWVRWKDWWKHPD[LPXPEHQGLQJVWUHVVLV
03D&DOFXODWHWKHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQIRUWKHORDGLQJ7DNHE *3D
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
Consider a section XX in AC at a distance xIURPWKHIUHHHQG%
)LJ
7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWWKHVHFWLRQLV
Mx = – [WxWx – a)]
dy
EI = Mx
dx
= – [Wx Wx – a)]
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHJHW
dy Wx ( x − a )2
EI = – – W + C1
dx 2
Wx
=– – Wx – a )+ C1

W . x3 ( x a )3
(,\ = – –W. + C 1x + C
2 3 3
3 W ( x − a )3
= – Wx – + C1x + C
6 3
dy
At A, where [ O
dx
and \
)URPHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
Wl
– – WO – a)+ C1

Wl
=– – :O – Wa:OD + C1

or C1 = 3 :O + Wa –:OD
2
)URPHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
W 3– W 3 3 3
– O
3 O– a) + 2 :O + Wa O±:O a + C

6
W 3 W 3
=– O – O + 3 . W . O a – 3 . W OD + W a3 + 3 :O 3 + WaO±:O a + C
6 3 3 3 3 2
⎛ 1 1 3⎞
= :O 3 ⎜ − − + ⎟ – :O a + W a3 + C
⎝ 6 3 2⎠ 3
⎛ −1 − 2 + 9 ⎞ W 3
= :O 3 ⎜
⎟⎠ – :O a + 3 a + C
⎝ 6
= :O 3 – :O a + W a3 + C
3
or C = – :O 3 – W a3 + :O a
3
(TXDWLRQRQVXEVWLWXWLQJC1 and C becomes
W 3– W ⎛3 2 ⎞
x – a)3 + ⎜ Wl + Wa − 2Wla⎟ x – :O 3 – W a3 + :O D
2
(,\ = – x
6 3 ⎝2 ⎠ 3
'HÀHFWLRQDWCIRUZKLFKx = aLVJLYHQE\

1 ⎛ W 3 3 2 W 3 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ − a + Wl a + Wa − 2Wla − Wl − a + Wl a⎟⎠
3 2 3
\ =
EI 6 2 3
1 ⎡ 3⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛3 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢Wa ⎜ − + 1 − ⎟ + Wl 2 a ⎜ + 1⎟ − 2Wla 2 − Wl 3 ⎥
EI ⎣ ⎝ 6 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
W ⎛ a3 5 2 ⎞
= ⎜ + l a − 2la 2 − l 3 ⎟ Ans.
EI ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
7KHIROORZLQJSDUDPHWHUVRIWKHWXEHDUHJLYHQ
([WHUQDOGLDPHWHU d0 PP
7KLFNQHVV W = 6 mm
/HQJWK O = 1.5 m
/HQJWK a P
%HQGLQJVWUHVV Vb 03D 1PP
<RXQJ¶VPRGXOXV E *3D î31PP

,QWHUQDOGLDPHWHURIWKHWXEH dL = d±W
±î PP
7KHPD[LPXPQHJDWLYHEHQGLQJPRPHQWRFFXUVDWAJLYHQE\
MPD[ = :OWO – a)
= :O:O±Wa
= 3:O±Wa
= 3Wî±îW VXEVWLWXWLQJO and a)
W±W
= 3.3W1PW is assumed to be in N)
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHWXEHDERXWWKHQHXWUDOD[LVLV
π
I = d – dL )
64 o
π
= – 88 PP
64
σb M
Now =
⎛ 0⎞
d I
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠

140 3
= 3.3W × 10
⎛ 100 ⎞ 1964991
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2
or W 1 Ans.
7KHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQRFFXUVDWBIRUx JLYHQE\
Wl 2 (l a)
\PD[ = – XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
EI
1667.3 × (1.5 × 103 )2
=– î±î3 mm
200 × 103 × 1964991
= – 8.6 mm Ans.
0$&$8/$<¶60(7+2'
$VLQJOHHTXDWLRQRIPRPHQWVVDWLVI\LQJDOOWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVDWDWLPHLVGLI¿FXOWWRIRUPXODWH
LQFDVHRIGRXEOHLQWHJUDWLRQPHWKRG7KH0DFDXOD\¶VPHWKRGDQLPSURYHPHQWRYHUWKHGRXEOHLQWH-
JUDWLRQPHWKRGUHPRYHVWKLVGLI¿FXOW\E\XVLQJDVLQJOHHTXDWLRQRIPRPHQWVIRUDOOWKHORDGVDFWLQJ
RQWKHEHDPDQGWKHFRQVWDQWVRILQWHJUDWLRQDSSO\HTXDOO\WRDOOWKHVHFWLRQVRIWKHEHDP,WLVDYHU\
XVHIXOPHWKRGWR¿QGWKHGHÀHFWLRQRIDEHDPLQYROYLQJGLVFRQWLQXRXVRUGLVFUHWHORDGLQJ
7KHIROORZLQJSRLQWVDUHFRQVLGHUHGGXULQJWKHVROXWLRQRISUREOHPVXVLQJWKH0DFDXOD\¶VPHWKRG
)LJ
z :RUNLVDOZD\VVWDUWHGIURPWKHH[WUHPHOHIWHQGRIWKHEHDP
z 7KHFRQVWDQWVRILQWHJUDWLRQDUHZULWWHQMXVWDIWHUWKH¿UVWWHUP
z 7KLVPHWKRGXVHVVWHSIXQFWLRQRIWKHIRUP
IQx x – a)Q such that IQx IRUx < a and

IQx x – a)QIRUx > a
where Q IRUDQ\DSSOLHGPRPHQWRQWKHEHDP
IRUSRLQWORDG
IRUXGO
)LJ
z 7KHQHJDWLYHWHUPVLQVLGHWKHEUDFNHWVDUHRPLWWHG
should
z 7KHXGOVKRXOGEHH[WHQGHGXSWRWKHULJKWHQGRIWKHEHDPLILWLVQRWVR1HJDWLYHXGO
EHDSSOLHGIRUWKHH[WHQGHGSDUWWRPDNHDEDODQFH8VLQJ0DFDXOD\¶VPHWKRGWKHHTXDWLRQRI
moment is written as
M = RA x – W1x – a) – Wx – b) + Mx – F)
7KHPHWKRGLVLOOXVWUDWHGE\WKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV
([DPSOH
7ZRSRLQWORDGVRIN1DQGN1DUHDFWLQJRQDPVLPSOHEHDPDWPDQGPUHVSHFWLYHO\IURP
WKHOHIWHQG)LQGWKHIROORZLQJ
a) the slopes at the two ends,
b WKHGHÀHFWLRQVXQGHUWKHDSSOLHGORDGV
F WKHSRVLWLRQDQGPDJQLWXGHRIWKHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQ7DNHE *3DI = 18 6 mm.
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
)LJ

8VLQJ6MA ZHKDYH
RB 5 = 5 1 + 15
or RB N1)
Now RA + RB N1
or RA ±RB ±
N1)
8VLQJ0DFDXOD\¶VPHWKRGWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWDQ\VHFWLRQLQBD at a distance xIURPALVJLYHQ
as
Mx = RA x_±x±_±x±
= 13x_±x±_±x± XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
dy
EI =M
dx
= 13x_±x±_±x±
2QLQWHJUDWLQJZHJHW
dy 1 ⎡ x2 5 ( x − 1) 2 ( x − 2) 2 ⎤
= ⎢13 + C1 − − 15 ⎥
dx EI ⎢⎣ 2 2 2 ⎥⎦
1 ⎡13 3 5 15 ⎤
\ = ⎢ x + C1 x + C2 − ( x − 1)3 − ( x − 2)3 ⎥
EI ⎣ 6 6 6 ⎦
At A, where x \ ZKLFKJLYHVC QHJOHFWLQJQHJDWLYHWHUPV
At B, where x = 5 m, \
8VLQJWKLVERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQZH¿QGC1ZLWKWKHKHOSRIHTXDWLRQDV
1 ⎡13 5 15 ⎤
⎢ × 53 + C1 × 5 + 0 − × 43 − × 33 ⎥
EI ⎣ 6 6 6 ⎦
6ROYLQJIRUC1ZHJHW
C1 = –
6XEVWLWXWLQJC1LQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
dy 1 ⎡13 2 5 15 ⎤
= ⎢ x − 30 − ( x − 1) 2 − ( x − 2)2 ⎥
dx EI ⎣ 2 2 2 ⎦
7KLVLVWKHHTXDWLRQRIVORSHJLYLQJVORSHIRUDQ\VHFWLRQRIWKHEHDP
)RUVORSHDWA, put x DQGQHJOHFWWKHQHJDWLYHWHUPV
1 ⎡13 ⎤ 30
TA = ⎢ × 0 − 30⎥ = –
EI ⎣ 2 ⎦ EI
90 u 109
Now EI = 3 N1P 18 6 ± m PP ± m)
10
N1¹m
30
Hence, TA = –
1620
= –UDGLDQ –GHJUHH Ans.
)RUVORSHDWB, put x = 5 m.
1 ⎡13 5 15 ⎤
TB = ⎢ × 52 − 30 − (5 − 1) 2 − (5 − 2) 2 ⎥
EI ⎣ 2 2 2 ⎦
UDGLDQ GHJUHH Ans.
1RZVXEVWLWXWLQJC1 and CLQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
1 ⎡13 3 5 15 3⎤
⎢ x − 30 x − ( x − 1) − ( x − 2) ⎥
3
\ =
EI ⎣ 6 6 6 ⎦
7KLVLVWKHHTXDWLRQRIGHÀHFWLRQJLYLQJGHÀHFWLRQIRUDQ\VHFWLRQRIWKHEHDP
RU GHÀHFWLRQ DW C, put x P LQ HTXDWLRQ DQG QHJOHFW WKH QHJDWLYH WHUPV ZLWKLQ WKH VPDOO
)
brackets.
1 ⎡13 3 ⎤
\C = ⎢ × 1 − 30 × 1⎥
EI ⎣ 6 ⎦
1 ⎡13 ⎤
= ⎢ − 30⎥
1620 ⎣ 6 ⎦
= –P
= –PP Ans.
)RUGHÀHFWLRQDWD, put x PLQHTXDWLRQ
1 ⎡13 5 ⎤
\D = ⎢ × 23 − 30 × 2 − (2 − 1)3 ⎥
EI ⎣ 6 6 ⎦
1 ⎡104 5⎤
= ⎢ − 60 − ⎥ = –P
1620 ⎣ 6 6⎦
= –PP Ans.
)RUPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQ
dy

dx
2QHTXDWLQJHTXDWLRQWR]HURZHKDYH
1 ⎡13 5 15 ⎤
⎢ x − − x − − x − ⎥
EI ⎣ ⎦
or 3.5x – 35x
6ROYLQJIRUxZHJHW
x PQHJOHFWLQJKLJKHUYDOXH
+HQFHWKHGHÀHFWLRQLVPD[LPXPDWDGLVWDQFHx PIURPA.
7KHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQLVREWDLQHGE\SXWWLQJx PLQHTXDWLRQ
1 ⎡13 5 15 ⎤
\PD[ = ⎢ × (2.327)3 − 30 × 2.327 − (2.327 − 1)3 − (2.327 − 2)3 ⎥
EI ⎣ 6 6 6 ⎦
1
=– u 44.54
EI
1
=– –P –PP Ans.
1620
([DPSOH
)LQGWKHVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQRIDORDGHGFDQWLOHYHUEHDPVKRZQLQ)LJ$OVR¿QGWKHSRVLWLRQ
DQGPDJQLWXGHRIPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQ7DNHÀH[XUDOULJLGLW\EIWREHHTXDOWR5 kN¹m.
)LJ
Solution: 8VLQJ0DFDXOD\¶VPHWKRGWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWDQ\VHFWLRQDWDGLVWDQFHxIURPA is
JLYHQDV
Mx ± ±x_± ±x
dy
EI =M
dx
= – ±x_± ±x
,QWHJUDWLQJHTXDWLRQZHJHW
dy 15 (6 − x)2 5 (2 − x) 2
EI = + C1 +
dx 2 2
15(6 − x)3 5(2 − x)3

(,\ = – + C1 x + C2 −
6 6

8VLQJERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQV
dy
DQG\ DWx ZHJHW
dx
C1 = –
C
(TXDWLRQLVUHGXFHGWR
dy 1 ⎡15 5 2⎤
= ⎢ ( 6 − x ) − 280 + ( 2 − x ) ⎥
2

dx EI ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
7KLVLVWKHVORSHHTXDWLRQDQGFDQEHXVHGWR¿QGVORSHIRUDQ\VHFWLRQRIWKHEHDP
)RUVORSHDWC, put x PLQHTXDWLRQ
⎛ dy ⎞ 1 ⎡15 ⎤
TC = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎢ × 42 − 280⎥
⎝ dx ⎠ x = 2m EI ⎣ 2 ⎦
1 1
=– × 160 = – 5 × 160
EI 10
= –UDGLDQ –GHJUHH Ans.
7KHPD[LPXPVORSHRFFXUVDWIUHHHQGRIWKHEHDPJLYHQE\
⎛ dy ⎞
TB = ⎜⎝ dx ⎟⎠
x=6
280 280
=– =– 5
EI 10
= –UDGLDQ
= –GHJUHH Ans.
(TXDWLRQLVUHGXFHGWR
1 ⎡ 15 5 3⎤
⎢⎣ − 6 (6 − x ) − 280 x + 546.67 − 6 ( 2 − x ) ⎥⎦
3
\ =
EI
7KLVLVWKHHTXDWLRQRIGHÀHFWLRQDQGFDQJLYHGHÀHFWLRQIRUDQ\VHFWLRQRIWKHEHDP
)RUGHÀHFWLRQDWC, put x PLQHTXDWLRQ
1 ⎡ 15 ⎤
⎢⎣ − 6 × 4 − 280 × 2 + 546.67 ⎥⎦
3
\C =
EI
173.33
=– = –P –PP Ans.
EI
7KHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQRFFXUVDWWKHIUHHHQGRIWKHEHDPx PJLYHQE\

1
\B = \PD[ = >±@
EI
1133.33
=– = –P –PP Ans.
105
7KHQHJDWLYHVLJQVDVVRFLDWHGZLWK\C and \BVKRZWKHGRZQZDUGGHÀHFWLRQVDWWKHVHSRLQWV
([DPSOH
)RUDVLPSOHEHDPORDGHGDVVKRZQLQ)LJ¿QGVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQDWLPSRUWDQWSRLQWV
7DNHÀH[XUDOULJLGLW\DVEI.
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
8VLQJ6MA ZHKDYH
RB
or RB N1)
)LJ
Now RA + RB N1

or RA ±RB ± N1)
8VLQJ 0DFDXOD\¶V PHWKRG WKH EHQGLQJ PRPHQW DW DQ\ VHFWLRQ DW D GLVWDQFH x IURP A LV IRXQG
E\ H[WHQGLQJ XGO upto the point B DQG WKHQ DSSO\LQJ QHJDWLYH XGO RI WKH VDPH LQWHQVLW\ IRU WKH
FRPSHQVDWLQJSDUWWRPDNHDEDODQFH)LJ
)LJ
The bending moment equation at the section is
(x − 4 ) (x − 8)
Mx = RA x – 25 (x – 2) – 3 (x – 4) + 3 (x – 8) + 82 (x – 10)0
2 2
3 2 3 2
= 20x | – 25 (x – 2) | − (x − 4 ) + (x − 8) + 82(x – 10)0 ... (1)
2 2
d2y 3 3
= M = 20x | – 25(x –2) | – ( x − 4) + ( x − 8) + 82(x –10)0
2 2
EI 2
... (2)
dx 2 2
dy x2 ( x − 2) − 3 . ( x − 4) + 3 . ( x − 8) + 82 x − 10
2 3 3
EI
dx
= 20 . + C1 − 25 . ( )
2 2 2 3 2 3
dy 1 ⎡ 2 25 1 1 ⎤
or = 10 x + C1 − ( x − 2) 2 − ( x − 4)3 + ( x − 8)3 + 82 ( x − 10)⎥
⎢ ...(3)
dx EI ⎣ 2 2 2 ⎦
,QWHJUDWLQJHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
1 ⎡10 x 3 25 . ( x − 2 )
3
1 . ( x − 4)
4
1 . ( x − 8)
4
82 ( x − 10) ⎤
2
y = ⎢ + C1 x + C2 − − + + ⎥
EI ⎢⎣ 3 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 ⎥⎦
⎡10 3 25 1 1 2⎤
= ⎢ x + C1 x + C2 − ( x − 2) − ( x − 4) + ( x − 8) + 41 ( x − 10) ⎥
3 4 4
... (4)
⎣3 6 8 8 ⎦
The boundary conditions are:
At AZKHUHx y = 0.
(TXDWLRQRQXVLQJWKLVERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQJLYHVC2 1HJDWLYHWHUPVZLWKLQVPDOOEUDFNHWV
are omitted.
At BZKHUHx Py = 0.
8VLQJWKLVERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQZH¿QGC1ZLWKWKHKHOSRIHTXDWLRQDV
1 ⎡10 25 1 1 ⎤
0 = ⎢ × 123 + C1 × 12 + 0 − × 103 − × 84 + × 44 + 41 × 22 ⎥
EI ⎣ 3 6 8 8 ⎦
6ROYLQJIRUC1ZHJHW
C1 = – 106.44
Substituting C1LQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
1 ⎡ 25 1 1 ⎤
⎢10 x − 106.44 − 2 ( x − 2) − 2 ( x − 4) + 2 ( x − 8) + 82 ( x − 10)⎥
dy 2 2 3 3
= ... (5)
dx EI ⎣ ⎦
7KLVLVWKHHTXDWLRQRIVORSHJLYLQJVORSHDWDQ\VHFWLRQRIWKHEHDP
6XEVWLWXWLQJC1 and CLQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
1 ⎡10 3 25 1 1 ⎤
\ = ⎢ x − 106.44 x − ( x − 2)3 − ( x − 4)4 + ( x − 8)4 + 41 ( x − 10)2 ⎥
EI ⎣ 3 6 8 8 ⎦
7
KLVLVWKHHTXDWLRQRIGHÀHFWLRQJLYLQJGHÀHFWLRQDWDQ\VHFWLRQRIWKHEHDP
Determination of slopes at various points using equation (5)
Slope at A, where x LV
106.44
TA = – QHJOHFWLQJQHJDWLYHWHUPV
EI
Slope at C, where x PLV
⎛ dy ⎞ 1
TC = ⎜ ⎟ = >±@ QHJOHFWLQJQHJDWLYHWHUPV
⎝ dx ⎠ x = EI
66.44
=–
EI
Slope at D, where x PLV
⎛ dy ⎞ 1 ⎡ 25 2⎤ 3.56
⎢⎣10 × 4 − 106.44 − 2 × 2 ⎥⎦ = EI
2
TD = ⎜ ⎟ = QHJOHFWLQJQHJDWLYHWHUPV
⎝ dx ⎠ x = EI
Slope at E, where x = 6 m, is
⎛ dy ⎞ 1 ⎡ 25 1 ⎤ 49.56
TE = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎢10 × 62 − 106.44 − × 42 − × 22 ⎥ =
⎝ dx ⎠ x = 6 EI ⎣ 2 2 ⎦ EI
Slope at F, where x = 8 m, is
⎛ dy ⎞ 1 ⎡ 25 1 3⎤ 51.56
⎢⎣10 × 8 − 106.44 − 2 × 6 − 2 × 4 ⎥⎦ = EI
2 2
TF = ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ dx ⎠ x = 8 EI
Slope at G, where x PLV
⎛ dy ⎞ 1 ⎡ 25 1 1 3⎤ 10.44
⎢⎣10 × 10 − 106.44 − 2 × 8 − 2 × 6 + 2 × 2 ⎥⎦ = – EI
2 2 3
TG = ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ dx ⎠ x = 10 EI
Slope at B, where x PLV
⎛ dy ⎞ 1 ⎡ 25 1 1 ⎤ 23.56
⎢⎣10 × 12 − 106.44 − 2 × 10 − 2 × 8 + 2 × 4 + 82 × 2⎥⎦ = EI
2 2 3 3
TB = ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ dx ⎠ x = 12 EI
'HWHUPLQDWLRQRIGHÀHFWLRQVDWYDULRXVSRLQWVXVLQJHTXDWLRQ
'HÀHFWLRQDWA, where x LV
yC = IRUFKHFN
'HÀHFWLRQDWC, where x PLV
1 ⎡10 ⎤ 79.77
yC = ⎢ × 23 − 106.44 × 2⎥ = – QHJOHFWLQJQHJDWLYHWHUPV
EI ⎣ 3 ⎦ EI
'HÀHFWLRQDWD, where x PLV
1 ⎡10 25 ⎤ 245.76
yD = × 43 − 106.44 × 4 − × 23 ⎥ = – QHJOHFWLQJQHJDWLYHWHUPV
EI ⎢⎣ 3 6 ⎦ EI
'HÀHFWLRQDWE, where x PLV
1 ⎡10 25 1 ⎤ 187.39
yE = ⎢ × 63 − 106.44 × 6 − × 43 − × 24 ⎥ = –
EI ⎣ 3 6 8 ⎦ EI
'HÀHFWLRQDWF, where x PLV
1 ⎡10 25 1 4⎤ 76.85
⎢⎣ 3 × 8 − 106.44 × 8 − 6 × 6 − 8 × 4 ⎥⎦ = – EI
3 3
yF =
EI
HÀHFWLRQDWG, where x PLV
'
1 ⎡10 25 1 1 ⎤ 24.4
yG = × 103 − 106.44 × 10 − × 83 − × 64 + × 24 ⎥ = –
EI ⎢⎣ 3 6 8 8 ⎦ EI
'HÀHFWLRQDWB, where x PLV
yB IRUFKHFN
6.6 MOMENT-AREA METHOD

7KH PRPHQWDUHD PHWKRG ZDV LQWURGXFHG E\ D IDPRXV *HUPDQ FLYLO HQJLQHHU 2WWR 0RKU
± ,W LV D VHPLJUDSKLFDO PHWKRG LQ ZKLFK WKH LQWHJUDWLRQ RI WKH EHQGLQJ PRPHQW LV
FDUULHGRXWLQGLUHFWO\XVLQJWKHJHRPHWULFSURSHUWLHVRIWKHDUHDXQGHUWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDP
,WLVEDVHGRQWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWZRWKHRUHPVNQRZQDV0RKU¶VWKHRUHPVDQGLVHTXDOO\YDOLGIRU
GHWHUPLQDWHRULQGHWHUPLQDWHEHDPV7KHPHWKRGWDNHVFDUHRIVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQE\SXUHEHQGLQJ
DQGQRVKHDUFRQVLGHUDWLRQLVPDGH7KHWZRWKHRUHPVDUHVWDWHGEHORZ
)LUVW 0RPHQW$UHD 7KHRUHP 0RKU¶V )LUVW 7KHRUHP 7KH FKDQJH LQ VORSH EHWZHHQ DQ\ WZR
SRLQWVRQDEHDPLVHTXDOWRWKHQHWDUHDRIWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPEHWZHHQWKHVHWZRSRLQWV
GLYLGHGE\WKHÀH[XUDOULJLGLW\EIRIWKHEHDP
)LJ
Consider a beam ABRIFHUWDLQOHQJWKODQGORDGHGDUELWUDULO\)LJ7DNHDQHOHPHQW CDRI

OHQJWKdx at a distance xIURPHQGBRIWKHEHDPZKHUHEHQGLQJPRPHQWLVM.
Let dT &KDQJHRIVORSHIRUWKHHOHPHQWCD between C and D
T $QJOHEHWZHHQWZRWDQJHQWVGUDZQDWA and B
7KHGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQRIÀH[XUHLV
dy
EI =M
dx
dy M
or =
dx EI
,QWHUJUDWLQJWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQEHWZHHQWKHOLPLWVA and B, we have
A A
⎛ dy ⎞ M
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = − ∫ EI dx
dx B B
A
⎛ dy ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞ Mdx
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = − ∫
dx A dx B EI
B
A
Mdx
or TA – TB = − ∫
B
EI
A
Mdx
or TB – TA = ∫ EI
B
l
Mdx
or T = ∫ EI

⎛ dy ⎞
where TA = ⎜ ⎟ = Slope at A
⎝ dx ⎠ A
⎛ dy ⎞
TB = ⎜ ⎟ = Slope at B
⎝ dx ⎠ B
(
TXDWLRQLVWKHPDWKHPDWLFDOH[SUHVVLRQRIWKH0RKU¶V¿UVWWKHRUHP
,IWKHÀH[XUDOULJLGLW\EIRIWKHEHDPLVFRQVWDQWWKHQHTXDWLRQFDQEHZULWWHQDV
A
1
TB – TA =
EI ∫ M dx
B
+HQFHWKHFKDQJHLQVORSHEHWZHHQA and B
Net area of the bending moment diagram between A and B
=
EI
Second Moment-Area Theorem (Mohr’s Second Theorem): 7KHYHUWLFDOGLVSODFHPHQWRIDSRLQW
RQDVWUDLJKWEHDPPHDVXUHGIURPWKHWDQJHQWGUDZQDWDQRWKHUSRLQWRQWKHEHDPLVHTXDOWRWKH
PRPHQWRIDUHDRIEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPEHWZHHQWKHVHWZRSRLQWVDERXWWKHSRLQWZKHUHWKLV
GHÀHFWLRQRFFXUVGLYLGHGE\WKHÀH[XUDOULJLGLW\RIEHDP
7KHWKHRUHPKHOSVWR¿QGGHÀHFWLRQRIDSRLQWZLWKUHVSHFWWRDQRWKHUSRLQWRI¿[HGSRVLWLRQIRU
which x DQGVORSHTLVDOVR]HURDQGWKLVSRLQWLVFRQVLGHUHGDVUHIHUHQFHSRLQW7KDWLVZK\LW
LVYHU\PXFKXVHIXOIRUFDQWLOHYHUEHDPV¿[HGEHDPVDQGV\PPHWULFDOO\ORDGHGVLPSO\VXSSRUWHG
EHDPVIRUZKLFKSRVLWLRQRI]HURVORSHLVZHOOGH¿QHG
)URPHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
dT $QJOHEHWZHHQWKHWDQJHQWVGUDZQDWC and D
Mdx
=
)URP)LJZHJHW EI
LM = xdT
Mdx
= x. RQVXEVWLWXWLQJdT)
EI
)RUWRWDOOHQJWKRIWKHEHDPZHKDYH
A A
Mxdx
∫ LM = ∫ EI
B B
l
Mxdx
or BB = ∫ EI

l
1
Hence, \ =
EI ∫ x . Mdx
0
+HQFHGHÀHFWLRQRIB w.r.t. A
Moment of the area of the bending moment diagram between A and B
=
EI
(TXDWLRQLVWKHPDWKHPDWLFDOH[SUHVVLRQRIWKH0RKU¶VVHFRQGWKHRUHP
5HIHU)LJ$SRLQWORDGWLVDFWLQJDWIUHHHQGBRIWKHFDQWLOHYHUEHDPRIOHQJWKO.
7
R¿QGWKHVORSH
7KHVORSHDW¿[HGHQGRIWKHFDQWLOHYHUEHDPLV]HUR
TA
)LJ
6ORSHDWIUHHHQGB is
TB &KDQJHLQVORSHRIWKHFDQWLOHYHUEHDPEHWZHHQA and BIURPB to A)
8VLQJ0RKU¶V¿UVWWKHRUHPZHKDYH
Area of the bending moment diagram between A and B
TB =
EI
1 ⎡1 ⎤ Wl
= × Wl × l = 0D[LPXPVORSH
EI ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ EI
7R¿QGWKHGHÀHFWLRQ
8VLQJ0RKU¶VVHFRQGWKHRUHPWKHGHÀHFWLRQDWBLVJLYHQDV
Moment of the area of BMD between A and B about B
\B =
EI
1 ⎛ Wl 2 2l ⎞ Wl 3
= × = 0D[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQ
EI ⎜⎝ 2 3 ⎟⎠ 3EI
&DQWLOHYHU%HDPFDUU\LQJDudlRYHULWV(QWLUH6SDQ
5HIHU)LJ$FDQWLOHYHUEHDPRIOHQJWKOLVFDUU\LQJDXGORILQWHQVLW\wPOHQJWKRYHUWKHHQWLUH
span.
)LJ
7R¿QGWKHVORSH
Slope at A TA
and TB = Slope at B
Area of BMD between A and B

= XVLQJ0RKU¶V¿UVWWKHRUHP
EI
1 ⎛ 1 wl 2 ⎞ wl 2
= × × l =
EI ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟ 6 EI 0D[LPXPVORSH
2 ⎠
7R¿QGWKHGHÀHFWLRQ
8VLQJ0RKU¶VVHFRQGWKHRUHPWKHGHÀHFWLRQDWBLVJLYHQDV
1
\B = \PD[ = 0RPHQWRIWKHDUHDRIBMD between A and B about B)
EI
1 ⎛ wl 3 3l ⎞ wl 4
= ⎜ 6 × =
EI ⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ 8EI
5HIHU)LJ$SRLQWORDGWLVDFWLQJDWFHQWUHCRIWKHEHDPRIOHQJWKO.
)LJ
7R¿QGWKHVORSH
6LQFH WKH ORDG LV SODFHG DW WKH FHQWUH RI WKH EHDP KHQFH WKH GHÀHFWLRQ RQ ERWK VLGHV RI LW LV
V\PPHWULFDODQGWKHVORSHDWWKDWSRLQWLV]HUR
Area of BMD between A and C
Slope at A is TA =
EI
1 Wl l
× ×
2 4 2 Wl 2
= =
EI 16 EI
Slope at B is
Area of BMD between B and C
TB =
EI
Wl 2
=
16 EI
7R¿QGWKHGHÀHFWLRQ
7KHGHÀHFWLRQVDWA and BDUH]HUR
'HÀHFWLRQDWC is
Moment of the area of BMD between A and C about A
\C =
EI
Wl 2 ⎛ 2 l ⎞
= ×⎜ × ⎟
16 EI ⎝ 3 2 ⎠
Wl 3
=
48EI
⎛2 O⎞
6LQFHWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHDUHDRIBMD between A and COLHVDWDGLVWDQFHRI ⎜ × ⎟ IURPA.
⎝ 3 2⎠
6LPSOH%HDPFDUU\LQJDudlRYHULWV(QWLUH6SDQ
5HIHU)LJ$XGORILQWHQVLW\w/mOHQJWKLVDFWLQJRYHUWKHHQWLUHVSDQO.
)LJ
7R¿QGWKHVORSH
6LQFHLQWHQVLW\RIXGODFWLQJRYHUWKHHQWLUHVSDQRIWKHEHDPLVXQLIRUPKHQFHWKHGHÀHFWLRQDWWKH
PLGVSDQLVPD[LPXPDQGVORSHDWWKDWSRLQWLV]HUR
Slope at A is
$UHD RI BMD EHWZHHQ A DQG C
TA =
EI
1 1 ⎛ 4 l wl 2 ⎞
= × × ×
EI 2 ⎜⎝ 3 2 8 ⎟⎠
wl 3
=
24 EI
Area of BMD between B and C wl 3

Slope at B is TB = =
EI 24 EI
7R¿QGWKHGHÀHFWLRQ
'HÀHFWLRQDWC is
Moment of the area of BMD between A and C about A
\C =
EI
wl 3 ⎛ l 3 l ⎞ 5 wl 4
= ×⎜ − × ⎟ =
24 EI ⎝ 2 8 2 ⎠ 384 EI
LQFHGLVWDQFHRIWKHFHQWURLGRISDUDEROLFVHFWLRQIURPC is
6
3 O 3 ⎛O 3 ⎞ 5
x = × = O, and its distance IURPA is ⎜ − O ⎟ = O.
8 2 16 ⎝ 2 16 ⎠ 16
([DPSOH
$ P VLPSOH EHDP LV FDUU\LQJ D XGO RI N1P RYHU LWV HQWLUH VSDQ DQG WZR SRLQW ORDGV RI
N1 DW P IURP ERWK HQGV )LQG WKH VORSH DQG GHÀHFWLRQ DW LPSRUWDQW ORFDWLRQV RI EHDP XVLQJ
PRPHQWDUHDPHWKRG7DNHE *3DDQGI ± m.
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
)LJ
8VLQJ6 MA ZHKDYH
6
RB × 6 = îî îî
2
or RB N1)
and RA + RB N1
or RA ± N1)
Bending moment diagram (BMD)
7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWVDWA and BDUH]HUR
1.5
%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWE = RB ± 1.5 N1¹m
2
6
LPLODUO\WKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWD N1¹m
7R¿QGWKHVORSH
KHVORSHDWWKHFHQWUHRIWKHEHDPSRLQWCLV]HUREHFDXVHWKHWDQJHQWWRWKHHODVWLFFXUYHDWWKDW
7
SRLQWLVKRUL]RQWDO
Area of BMD between A and D
Slope at A is TA = XVLQJ0RKU¶V¿UVWWKHRUHP
EI
1
1 ⎛1 ⎞ × 1.5 × 106.875
= ⎜ × 1 .5 × 106 .875⎟⎠ = 2
EI ⎝ 2 200 × 106 × 3.32 × 10−4
UDGLDQ Ans.
Similarly, the slope at B is
TB UDGLDQ Ans.
7R¿QGWKHGHÀHFWLRQ
Moment of the area of BMD between A and D about A
'HÀHFWLRQDWD is \D =
EI
⎛1 ⎞ 2
⎜⎝ × 1.5 × 106.875⎟⎠ × × 1.5
2 3
= P –3 m
200 × 10 × 3.32 × 10−4
6
PP Ans.
6LPLODUO\WKHGHÀHFWLRQDWE is
\E PP Ans.
'HÀHFWLRQDWCPLGVSDQLV

Moment of area of BMD between A and C about A
yC
EI
⎤ ⎡ 1.5 + 1.5 × 3 + 3 ⎤
2 2
⎡1
⎢⎣ 2 × (1 .5 + 3) × 106 .875 ×
⎥⎦ ⎢ 3 − ⎥
⎣ 3 (1.5 + 3) ⎦
P
200 × 106 × 3.32 × 10−4
±P PP Ans.

Example 6.8
$PSURSSHGFDQWLOHYHUEHDPFDUULHVDudlRIN1PRYHULWVHQWLUHVSDQDQGLVVXSSRUWHGDWLWVIUHH
HQG)LQGWKHSURSUHDFWLRQZKHQWKHIUHHHQGGRHVQRW\LHOG7DNHEI N1¹P
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
Fig. 6.23
/HWRBEHWKHSURSUHDFWLRQDFWLQJDWWKHSRLQWB)LJbJLYHVWKHBMDZKHQRQO\udlLV
VXSSRVHGWREHDFWLQJRQWKHFDQWLOHYHUDQGWKHUHLVQRSURSUHDFWLRQ)LJcJLYHVWKHBMD
ZKHQRQO\SURSUHDFWLRQDFWVDQGWKHUHLVQRudl RQWKHFDQWLOHYHU
7KHGHÀHFWLRQDWBZKHQQRSURSUHDFWLRQDFWVLVJLYHQDV
\B = XVLQJ0RKU¶V¿UVWWKHRUHP
EI
1 ⎛ 1 wl 2 ⎞ 3l
= ⎜ × × l⎟ ×
EI ⎝ 3 2 ⎠ 4
1 ⎛ 1 2 × 32 ⎞ 3
= ⎜ × × 3⎟ × × 3 –3P PP
10 ⎝ 3
4
2 ⎠ 4
7KLVGHÀHFWLRQLVGLUHFWHGGRZQZDUG
In case, when no XGOZHUHDFWLQJRQWKHFDQWLOHYHUEHDPWKHQWKHFDQWLOHYHUZRXOGKDYHGHÀHFWHG
XSZDUGE\DQDPRXQWJLYHQE\
\B =
EI
1 ⎛1 ⎞ 2
= ⎜⎝ × RB × l × l ⎟⎠ × × l
EI 2 3
2
%HFDXVHKHLJKWRIWKHWULDQJOHLVRB O and its C.GLVORFDWHGDWDGLVWDQFHRI OIURPWKHDSH[
3
1 ⎛1 ⎞ 2
or \B = 4 ⎜
× RB × 3 × 3⎟ × × 3 ± RB
10 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 3
Since end BGRHVQRW\LHOGLWPHDQVWKDWERWKGHÀHFWLRQV\B and \B are the same.
–3 ± RB
2.025 × 10−3
or RB = N1) Ans.
9 × 10−4
([DPSOH
$FDQWLOHYHUEHDPRIOHQJWKOFDUULHVWZRSRLQWORDGVDVVKRZQLQ)LJ7KHÀH[XUDOULJLGLW\IRU
the part ABLVEIDQGIRUWKHSDUW%&LV(,)LQGWKHVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQDWIUHHHQGRIWKHEHDP
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
7KHM/EIGLDJUDPLVGLYLGHGLQWRWKUHHSDUWVWULDQJOHVA1, A and A37KHLUFHQWUHRIJUDYLWLHV
2O 4O 5O
G 1 , G and G 3 are located at , and UHVSHFWLYHO\IURPWKHSRLQWC7KHM/EI) areas are
3 3 3
IRXQGDV
1 Wl Wl 2
A1 = × ×l =
2 EI 2 EI
1 Wl Wl 2
A = × ×l=
2 2 EI 4 EI
1 3Wl 3Wl 2
and A3 = × ×l=
2 2 EI 4 EI
)LJ
7KHVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQDWWKH¿[HGHQGRIWKHEHDPDUH]HUR
TA DQG\A
8VLQJ¿UVWPRPHQWDUHDWKHRUHPWKHVORSHDWCLVJLYHQDV
TC $UHDRIWKHMEIGLDJUDPEHWZHHQA and C
= A1 + A + A3
Wl 2 Wl 2 3Wl 2 3Wl 2
= + + = Ans.
2 EI 4 EI 4 EI 2 EI
8VLQJVHFRQGPRPHQWDUHDWKHRUHPWKHGHÀHFWLRQDWCLVJLYHQDV
\F 0RPHQWRIWKHMEIGLDJUDPEHWZHHQA and C about C
2l 4l 5l
= A1 × + A2 × + A3 ×
3 3 3
Wl 2 2 Wl 2 4l 3Wl 2 5l 23Wl 3
= × l+ × + × = Ans.
2 EI 3 4 EI 3 4 EI 3 12 EI
([DPSOH
,Q([DPSOHLIW = 5 kN, O PDQGEI = 1 kN¹m¿QGWKHVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQDWIUHH
HQGRIWKHEHDP
Solution: 7KHVORSHDWWKHIUHHHQGLVJLYHQDV
3Wl 2
TC =
2 EI
3 × 5 × 22
= UDGLDQ Ans.
2 × 104
7KHGHÀHFWLRQDWWKHIUHHHQGLVJLYHQDV
23Wl 3 23 × 5 × 2
3
\C = = P PP Ans.
12 EI 12 × 104
([DPSOH
)RUWKHEHDPVKRZQLQ)LJ¿QGWKHGHÀHFWLRQDWSRLQWA.
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ7KHMEIGLDJUDPLVVKRZQLQ)LJF,WFRQVLVWVRIDSDUDEROLF
VHJPHQWDQGDWULDQJOH
)LJ
7KHMEIDUHDIRUWKHSDUDEROLFVHJPHQWLVIRXQGDV
1 ⎛ wa 2 ⎞ wa3
A1 = ×⎜ × a =
3 ⎝ 2 EI ⎟⎠ 6 EI
7KHM/EIDUHDIRUWKHWULDQJOHLVIRXQGDV
1 wa 2
A = × ×l
2 2 EI
wa 2l
=
4 EI
7KHUHIHUHQFHWDQJHQWLVGUDZQDWB.
7KHWDQJHQWLDOGHÀHFWLRQRIC w.r.t. BXVLQJVHFRQGPRPHQWDUHDWKHRUHPLVJLYHQDV
\CB 0RPHQWRIWKHDUHDRIM/EIGLDJUDPEHWZHHQB and C about C
wa 2l 2l wa 2l 2
= × =
4 EI 3 6 EI
&RPSDULQJ'V ABA and BCCwe have
yC / B × awa 2l 2 a wa3l
AA = = × =
l 6 EI l 6 EI
7KHWDQJHQWLDOGHÀHFWLRQRIA w.r.t. BLVJLYHQDV
\A/B 0RPHQWRIWKHDUHDRIM/EIGLDJUDPEHWZHHQA and B about A
wa3 3 wa 4
= × a =
6 EI 4 8 EI
+HQFHWKHGHÀHFWLRQDWALVJLYHQDV
\A = \AB + AA
wa 4 wa3 l wa3 ⎡ a l ⎤
= + = + Ans.
8 EI 6 EI 2 EI ⎢⎣ 4 3 ⎥⎦
&21-8*$7(%($00(7+2'
7KHFRQMXJDWHEHDPPHWKRGLVUHJDUGHGDVWKHPRGL¿FDWLRQRIPRPHQWDUHDPHWKRG7KHPRPHQW
DUHDPHWKRGLVFRQYHQLHQWIRUWKHEHDPVRIFRQVWDQWÀH[XUDOULJLGLW\EXWWKLVPHWKRGLVSDUWLFXODUO\
XVHIXOIRUWKHEHDPVRIYDULDEOHÀH[XUDOULJLGLW\7KHPHWKRGVWDUWVZLWKWKHIRUPDWLRQRIDFRQMXJDWH
EHDPZKLFKLVDQLPDJLQDU\EHDPRIOHQJWKHTXDOWRWKHOHQJWKRIWKHDFWXDOEHDPEXWWKHORDGRQ
M
DFWLQJLWLVQRWWKHDFWXDOORDGUDWKHULWLVWKHHODVWLFZHLJKW FRUUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHDFWXDOORDG
DFWLQJDWWKHSRLQWRIDFWXDOORDG EI
7KHFRQMXJDWHEHDPPHWKRGLVEDVHGRQWZRWKHRUHPVVWDWHGEHORZ
Conjugate beam theorem I

7KHVORSHDWDQ\VHFWLRQRIDORDGHGEHDPLVHTXDOWRWKHVKHDUIRUFHDWWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJVHFWLRQRI
WKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
Conjugate beam theorem II

7KHGHÀHFWLRQDWDQ\VHFWLRQRIDORDGHGEHDPLVHTXDOWRWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJ
VHFWLRQRIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
6LPSOH%HDPFDUU\LQJD3RLQW/RDGDWLWV&HQWUH
5HIHU)LJ
)LJXUHFVKRZVDORDGHGFRQMXJDWHEHDPDQGWKHORDGLQJRYHULWLVWULDQJXODU7KHM/EI)
GLDJUDPIRUWKHDFWXDOEHDPLVWKHHODVWLFZHLJKWM/EIIRUWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
Let RA' = Reaction at A' RIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
RB' = Reaction at B' RIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
Total load on the conjugate beam

RA = RB =
2
1 Wl
×l× 2
= 2 4 EI = Wl
2 16 EI
$FFRUGLQJWRWKH¿UVWWKHRUHPWKHVKHDUIRUFHDWDQ\VHFWLRQRIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDPLVHTXDOWRWKH
VORSHDWWKDWVHFWLRQIRUWKHDFWXDOEHDP
TA = Slope at ARIWKHDFWXDOEHDP
Wl 2
6KHDUIRUFHDWARIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
16 EI
Similarly TB = Slope at BRIWKHDFWXDOEHDP
Wl 2
6KHDUIRUFHDWBRIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
16 EI
Wl 2
Hence, TA = TB =
16 EI
$FFRUGLQJWRWKHVHFRQGWKHRUHPWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWDQ\VHFWLRQRIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDPLVHTXDO
WRWKHGHÀHFWLRQDWWKDWVHFWLRQIRUWKHDFWXDOEHDP
\C 'HÀHFWLRQDWCRIWKHDFWXDOEHDP
%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWCRIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
l 1 l Wl ⎛ 1 l ⎞
= RA′ × − × × ×⎜ × ⎟
2 2 2 4 EI ⎝ 3 2 ⎠
Wl 2 l Wl 3 Wl 3
= × − =
16 EI 2 96 EI 48EI
)LJ
6LPSOH%HDPFDUU\LQJD3RLQW/RDGQRWDWWKH&HQWUH
5HIHU)LJ
)LJ
Support reactions for actual beam AB

Wb Wa
RA = and RB =
l l
7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPIRUDFWXDOEHDPLVVKRZQLQ)LJb).
Wab .
7KHPD[LPXPEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWC is
l
7KHFRQMXJDWHEHDPZLWKHTXLYDOHQWORDGLVVKRZQLQ)LJF).
Support reactions for conjugate beam AB
8VLQJ6MA ZHKDYH
⎛1 Wab ⎞ 2 ⎛1 Wab ⎞ ⎛ b⎞
RB O = ⎜ × a × ⎟ × a + ⎜⎝ × b × ⎟ × ⎜ a + ⎟⎠
⎝2 EIl ⎠ 3 2 EIl ⎠ ⎝ 3
Wa3b Wab 2 Wab

= + (3a + b) = [2a 2 + 3ab + b 2 ]
3EIl 6 EIl 6 EIl
Wab
or RB = 2
[2a 2 + 3ab + b 2 ]
6 EIl
Wab
= (l + a) a + b = O)
6 EIl
1 Wab
and RA′ + RB ′ = ×l ×
2 EIl
2QVROYLQJZHJHW
Wab
RA = (l + b)
6 EIl
8VLQJ¿UVWWKHRUHPZHKDYH
TA = Slope at ARIWKHDFWXDOEHDP
6KHDUIRUFHDWARIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
Wab
= (l + b)
6 EIl
and TB = Slope at BRIWKHDFWXDOEHDP
6KHDUIRUFHDWBRIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
Wab
= (l + a )
6 EIl
8VLQJVHFRQGWKHRUHPZHKDYH
\C 'HÀHFWLRQDWCRIWKHDFWXDOEHDP
%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWCRIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
1 Wab b
= RB′ × b − ×b× ×
2 EIl 3
Wab Wab3 Wa 2b2

= (l + a ) × b − =
6 EIl 6 EIl 3EIl
([DPSOH
)RUWKHEHDPVKRZQLQ)LJ¿QGWKHVORSHDWWKHVXSSRUWSRLQWVDQGGHÀHFWLRQXQGHUWKHJLYHQ
ORDG$OVR¿QGWKHGHÀHFWLRQDWWKHFHQWUHRIWKHEHDP7DNHE *3DDQG I –5 m.
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
)LJ
Support reactions for the actual beam

8VLQJ MA ZHKDYH
RB 5
or RB = N1)
Now RA + RB N1
and RA ±N1 N1)
BMD for the actual beam
%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWC is
MC = RB 3
N1¹m
%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWD is
MD = RA N1¹m
7KHBMDIRUDFWXDOEHDPLVVKRZQLQ)LJb).
&RQMXJDWHEHDP)LJc))

1 6.25
/RDGLQWHQVLW\MXVWWRWKHOHIWRIC =
E (3I ) EI
1 18.75
/RDGLQWHQVLW\MXVWWRWKHULJKWC = 18.75 × =
EI EI
1 3.75 × 4 5
Load intensity at D = RA × 4 × = =
E (3I ) 3EI EI

8VLQJ6MB ZHKDYH
⎡⎛ 1 6.25 ⎞ ⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 1 18.75 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤
RA 8 = ⎢⎜ × 5 × ⎟⎠ × ⎜⎝ 3 + ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ × 3 × ⎟⎠ × ⎜⎝ × 3⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 EI 3 2 EI 3 ⎦
72.91 56.25 129.16

= + =
EI EI EI
16.14
or RA =
EI
1 6.25 1 18.75 43.75
and RA′ + RB′ = 5 + 3 =
2 EI 2 EI EI
43.75 16.14 27.61
or RB = – =
EI EI EI
(a) Slopes at A and B
Slope at A is
TA 6KHDUIRUFHDWA = RA
16.14 16.14
= =
EI 200 × 106 × 4 × 10−5
UDGLDQ Ans.
Slope at B is
TB 6KHDUIRUFHDWB = RB
27.61 27.61
= =
EI 200 × 106 × 4 × 10−5
UDGLDQ Ans.

(b) 'HÀHFWLRQXQGHUWKHJLYHQORDG
'HÀHFWLRQDWC is
\C %HQGLQJPRPHQWDWCRIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
1 6.25 5
= RA 5 – 5
2 EI 3
16.14 25 × 6.25
= ×5–
EI 6 EI
16.14 × 5 25 × 6.25
= −5
–
200 × 10 × 4 × 10
6
6 × 200 × 106 × 4 × 10−5
= 6.83 –3 m = 6.83 mm Ans.
(c) 'HÀHFWLRQDWWKHPLGSRLQWD
'HÀHFWLRQDWD is
\D %HQGLQJPRPHQWDWDRIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
1 5 4 16.14 40
= RAc± = î 4 −
2 EI 3 EI 3EI
16.14 × 4 40
= –
200 × 106 × 4 × 10−5 3 × 200 × 106 × 4 × 10−5
–3P PP Ans.
([DPSOH
)RUWKHEHDPVKRZQLQ)LJILQGWKHGHIOHFWLRQDWWKHFHQWUHRIWKHEHDP7DNHE *3D
and I –5 m .
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ

8VLQJ6MA ZHKDYH
RB 3
or RB N1
Now RA +RB N1
and RA ±
N1
)LJ

%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWD is MD N1¹m
%HQGLQJPRPHQWVDWC and E are MC = ME N1¹m
7KHBMDLVVKRZQLQ)LJb).
CRQMXJDWHEHDP)LJc))
375 375 187.5

Load at D = = =
E (2 I ) 2EI EI
187.5
/RDGMXVWWRWKHOHIWRIC = = PCc
EI
/RDGMXVWWRWKHULJKWRIEc = TE
187.5 93.75
/RDGMXVWWRWKHULJKWRIC = =
2 EI EI
/RDGMXVWWRWKHOHIWRIE = SE
93.75
Hence, PQ = QC =
EI
93.75
and TS = SE =
EI

6LQFHORDGRQWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDPLVV\PPHWULFDOKHQFHWKHVXSSRUWUHDFWLRQVDUHHTXDOHDFKEHLQJ
HTXDOWRRQHKDOIRIWKHWRWDOORDGRQWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
RA = RB $UHDRI'A PC$UHDRIWUDSH]LXPCQRD
⎡1 187.5 ⎤ 1 ⎛ 93.75 187.5 ⎞ 351 ⋅ 5625

= ⎢ × 1.5 × ⎥ + ⎜ + ⎟ × 1.5 =
⎣2 EI ⎦ 2 ⎝ EI EI ⎠ EI
'HÀHFWLRQDWWKHPLGSRLQWD of the actual beam
'HÀHFWLRQDWD is
\D %HQGLQJPRPHQWDWDRIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
⎛ 1.5 ⎞ C ′ D′ ⎛ QC ′ + RD′ ⎞

= RA 3 – area A PC ⎜1.5 + – area CQRD ⎜
⎝ 3⎠
⎟
3 ⎝ QC ′ + RD′ ⎟⎠
⎛ 93.75 187.5 ⎞
2× +
351.5625 140.625 210.9375 1 . 5 ⎜ EI EI ⎟
= 3– ± ⎜ 93.75 187.5 ⎟
EI EI EI 3 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ EI EI ⎠
1054.6875 281.25 140.625 632.8125

= – – =
EI EI EI EI
632.8125
= –3P PP Ans.
⎛ 200 × 109 ⎞
⎜ 103 ⎟ × 300 × 10
–5
⎝ ⎠
([DPSOH
)RUWKHEHDPVKRZQLQ)LJ¿QGWKHVORSHDWWKHVXSSRUWSRLQWVDQGWKHGHÀHFWLRQDWWKHFHQWUH7DNH
E *3D
I ± m
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
)LJ

8VLQJ MA ZHKDYH
RB
100
or RB = N1)
4
Now RA + RB
or RA = – RB = – N1
N1)

7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWVDWA and BDUH]HUR
MA = MB
%HQGLQJPRPHQWMXVWWRWKHULJKWRIC
= RB N1¹m
%HQGLQJPRPHQWMXVWWRWKHOHIWRIC = RB ±
± ±N1¹m
&RQMXJDWHEHDP)LJc))

50
/RDGMXVWWRWKHULJKWRI C =
EI
50
/RDGMXVWWRWKHOHIWRIC =
EI
Support reactions at Ac and Bc

8VLQJ MAc ZHKDYH
1 50 2 1 50 ⎛ 2⎞
RBc ⎜2 + ⎟
2 EI 3 2 EI ⎝ 3⎠
200 400
RB =
3EI 3EI
400 − 200 50
or RB = = (↑)
3EI × 4 3EI
50
and RA =
3EI
Slope at the support points A and B of the actual beam
Slope at A 6KHDUIRUFHDWARIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
= RAc
50
=
3EI
50
= = 3.33 –6 radian Ans.
⎛ 200 × 109 ⎞ −4
3×⎜ ⎟ × 250 × 10
⎝ 103 ⎠
Similarly Slope at B = Shear force at B of the conjugate beam

= 3.33 × 10–6 radian Ans.
'HÀHFWLRQDWC
'HÀHFWLRQDWC is
yC = Bending moment at C of the conjugate beam
1 50 2
= RA × 2 – ×2× ×
2 EI 3
50 100
= ×2– =0 Ans.
3EI 3EI
Example 6.15
)LQGWKHVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQDWIUHHHQGRIDFDQWLOHYHUEHDPRIOHQJWKl carrying a point load W at
its free end.
Fig. 6.31
7KHIUHHDQG¿[HGHQGVRIWKHFDQWLOHYHUEHDPDUHFRQYHUWHGWR¿[HGDQGIUHHHQGVUHVSHFWLYHO\IRU
WKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
Slope at B of the actual beam

Slope at B is
TB 6KHDUIRUFHDWBRIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
1 Wl
= îOî
2 EI
Wl
= Ans.
EI
'HÀHFWLRQDW%RIWKHDFWXDOEHDP
'HÀHFWLRQDWB is
\B %HQGLQJPRPHQWDWBRIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
1 Wl 2
= îOî î îO
2 EI 3
Wl 3
= Ans.
3EI
([DPSOH
)LQGWKHVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQDWWKHIUHHHQGRIDFDQWLOHYHUEHDPRIOHQJWKOFDUU\LQJDSRLQWORDGDW
a certain distance O1IURPWKH¿[HGHQG
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
Slope at C is
TC 6KHDUIRUFHDWC RIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
1 Wl
= îO1î 1
2 EI
Wl12
= Ans.
2 EI
'HÀHFWLRQDWC is
\F %HQGLQJPRPHQWDWCRIWKHFRQMXJDWHEHDP
1 Wl 2
= îO1î 1 î O1
2 EI 3
Wl13
= Ans.
3EI
)LJ
([DPSOH
)RU D FDQWLOHYHU EHDP ORDGHG DV VKRZQ LQ )LJ ILQG WKH GHIOHFWLRQ DW LWV IUHH HQG 7DNH
E *3DDQGI = 1 ± m .
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWC is
MC N1¹m
%HQGLQJPRPHQWDWA is
MA N1¹m
7KHGHÀHFWLRQDWB is obtained as
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡ 20 2 ⎤ ⎡1 60 ⎛ ⎞⎤
× × 2 ⎥ + ⎢ × 2 × ⎛⎜ 2 + ⎞⎟ ⎥ + ⎢ × 2 ×
20 2 2
= ⎢ × 2× × ⎜ 2 + × 2⎟ ⎥
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= î
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⎝ ⎠
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W
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7
Torsion of Circular Members
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, born on 14 June 1736, was a French

physicist and engineer. He is best known for his Coulomb’s law used in
HOHFWURVWDWLFVIRU¿QGLQJWKHHOHFWURVWDWLFIRUFHRIDWWUDFWLRQRUUHSXOVLRQ
The SI unit of electric charge, the Coulomb (C), was named in his honour.
He derived the torsion formula in about 1775. Coulomb leaves a legacy
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the design of retaining walls. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed
on the Eiffel Tower.
Charles-Augustin
de Coulomb
(1736-1806)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_7
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The members in torsion are subjected to twisting action about their longitudinal axes. It has wide
engineering applications, most common among them is the transmission shaft which is used to
transmit power from one point to another e.g., from the prime mover (steam turbine, gas turbine etc.)
to a machine or from a motor to a machine tool, or from the engine to rear axle of an automobile.
Solid as well as hollow shafts can be used for the transmission of power.
The torsion formula was derived by a French physicist Charles A. Coulomb in about 1775. His
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Navier were further improved by St.Venant and Prandtl.
7.2 TORSION EQUATION

The following assumptions are made for circular members under torsion:
z The shaft is straight and has uniform cross-section throughout its length.
z The plane sections remain plane and do not get distorted after being subjected to torsion.
z Stresses induced in the shaft are within elastic limit.
z The twist along the shaft is uniform.
z The shaft material is homogeneous and isotropic.
Consider a solid circular shaft which is rigidly connected at one end. If a torque T is applied to the
other end, the shaft will twist, with its free end rotating through an angle T, called the angle of twist
(Fig. 7.1). The angle T varies in proportion to T for a certain range of values of T. Also, it is
proportional to the length of the shaft.
Fig. 7.1 A solid circular shaft subjected to torsion.
/HW l /HQJWKRIWKHVKDIW
R = Radius of the shaft
Torsion of Circular Members 321
G = Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus of the shaft material

I = Shear strain
W = Shear stress
:LWKWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWRUTXHSRLQW A at the radial distance shifts to A making angle T at the
centre.
² ABAc = I
² AOA = T
I and T both are expressed in radians.
AAc AAc
In ' ABA tan I = =
AB l
AAc
or I = (tan I I for small angle)
l
AA = Il ... (7.1)
AAc AAc
Again T = =
OA R
AAc= TR ...(7.2)
Il = TR
TR
I = = Imax ... (7.3)
l
It shows that the shear strain I at a given point of a shaft under torsion is proportional to the angle
of twist T and is maximum at the surface of the shaft.
Similarly for any point at a radial distance r, we can write
Tr
I = ... (7.4)
l
It simply means that the shear strain varies linearly with the distance from the axis of the shaft.
)URPGH¿QLWLRQRIVKHDUPRGXOXV
τ
G = ... (7.5)
φ
W TR
or I = = (using equation (7.3)) ... (7.6)
G l
W max GT W
or = = (using equation (7.4)) ... (7.7)
R l r
Equation (7.7) shows that the shear stress varies linearly with the radial distance r, and is maximum
at the surface of the shaft, but the relation holds good, if Hooke’s law is obeyed (Fig. 7.2).
Fig. 7.2
Now consider an elemental ring at a radial distance r from the axis of the shaft (Fig. 7.3). The
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Fig. 7.3
Shear force acting on the ring = (2S r dr)W

Torque acting on the ring = (2Sr dr W) r = 2Sr2drW ... (7.8)
tmax .
W = r
R
Using W in equation (7.8), we get
W max 3
Torque acting on the ring = 2S r dr
R
Hence, total torque acting on the entire cross-section is
R
R
τ 2π τ max ⎛ r 4 ⎞
T = ∫
0
2π max r 3 dr =
R
⎜ ⎟
R ⎝ 4 ⎠0
2π τ max R 4 τ ⎛ π R 4 ⎞ W max
= . = max .⎜ ⎟ = .J
R 4 R ⎝ 2 ⎠ R
π 4
where J = R = Polar moment of inertia of the cross-section
2
= IXX + IYY
T W
or = max ... (7.9)
J R
T W GT
= max = ... (7.10)
J R l
This is known as torsion equation and is also valid for a hollow circular shaft with suitable changes
in diameter.
7.3 TORSIONAL RIGIDITY

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T GT
=
J l
Tl
or JG = Torsional rigidity = ... (7.11)
T
Hence, the product of polar moment of inertia and modulus of rigidity is known as torsional rigid-
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of unit length producing unit twist.
7.4 POLAR MODULUS

From torsion formula, we have
T W
= max
J R
J T
or = Zp = Polar modulus = ... (7.12)
R W max
For a solid circular shaft of diameter d, the polar modulus is given as
π 4
d
Zp 32 π 3
= = d ... (7.13)
(Solid shaft)
⎛d ⎞ 16
⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
For a hollow circular shaft of external diameter d0 and internal diameter di, the polar modulus is
given as
π
(d 04 − di4 )
Zp 32 π (d 04 − di4 )
(Hollow shaft) = = . ... (7.14)
⎛ d0 ⎞ 16 d0
⎜ 2⎟
⎝ ⎠
7.5 POWER TRANSMITTED BY A SHAFT

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of rotating shafts of solid or hollow circular sections.
/HWWKHVKDIWURWDWLQJDWN rpm be subjected to a torque T.
Angle turned by the shaft in one rotation = 2S radian
Angle turned by the shaft in N rotations or angle turned per minute = 2S N radians
Power transmitted by the shaft is given as
P = Angle turned per minute torque = 2SNT ... (7.15)
z If we consider angle turned per second and T in N¹m, then equation (7.15) can be rewritten as
2πNT
P = :DWW
60
2π NT π NT
= = N: (7.16)
60 × 1000 30000
z If torque is expressed in kgf¹m and number of revolutions are considered on second basis, then
equation (7.15) can be expressed as
2π NT 2πNT
P = = (hp) (1 hp = 75 kgf.m/s) ... (7.17)
60 × 75 4500
Example 7.1
Fig. 7.4 shows the attachment of four pulleys to two different types of shafts. Pulleys B and C are
connected by a hollow shaft with inside and outside diameters of 50 mm and 80 mm respectively.
Other pulleys are connected by solid shafts of equal diameters. The torque acting on each pulley is
VKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH)LQGWKHIROORZLQJSDUDPHWHUV
(a) the maximum and minimum shear stress induced in the hollow shaft.
(b) the diameter of the solid shaft, if the maximum shear stress is not to exceed 50 MPa.
Fig. 7.4
Solution: Given,
Inside diameter of the hollow shaft, di = 50 mm
Outside diameter of the hollow shaft, do = 80 mm
(a) The net torque acting on the hollow shaft BC is given as

TBC = (5 + 10) = 15 kN¹m (Clockwise)
The polar moment of inertia of the section is found as
π
J = (d o4 − di4 )
32
π ⎡⎛ 80 ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞ ⎤ 4
4 4
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ ⎥ m = 3.4 10–6 m4
32 ⎢⎣⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Using torsion formula, we have
TBC τ
= max
J ⎛ do ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Hence, the maximum shear stress induced in the shaft BC is given as
TBC d o
Wmax = u
J 2
15 ⎛ 80 1 ⎞
= −6
×⎜ × ⎟
3.4 × 10 ⎝ 2 1000 ⎠
= 1.76 × 105 kN/m2 Ans.
The minimum shear stress induced in the shaft BC is given as

TBC ⎛ di ⎞
Wmin = ×
J ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
15 ⎛ 50 1 ⎞ 5 2
= −6
×⎜ × ⎟ = 1.1 10 kN/m Ans.
3.4 × 10 ⎝ 2 1000 ⎠
(b) Shafts AB and CD are solid shafts.
/HW d = Diameter of the two shafts
Again from torsion formula
T W
=
J (d / 2)
Both solid and hollow shafts are subjected to the same torque of 5 kN¹m.
5 50 u 106 1
= u
π 4 103 (d / 2)
d
32
Solving for d, we get
d = 0.08 m = 80 mm Ans.
Example 7.2
Three pulleys are connected by two shafts as shown in Fig. 7.5. Assuming that both shafts are solid,
¿QGWKHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHVKDIWAB and BC.
Solution: Given,
Diameter of the shaft AB, d1 = 25 mm
Diameter of the shaft BC, d2 = 35 mm
/HQJWKRIWKHVKDIW AB = 1.0 m
/HQJWKRIWKHVKDIWBC = 1.5 m
Fig. 7.5
The torque exerted on the shaft AB is

TAB = 0.5 kN¹m (clockwise)
TAB τ max
=
J ⎛ d1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
TAB τ
or = max
π ⎛ d1 ⎞
× d14 ⎜ ⎟
32 ⎝2⎠
Hence, the maximum shear stress in the shaft AB is given as
TAB × 32
Wmax =
π d13 × 2
0.5 × 32
= 3 = 162.97 MPa Ans.
⎛ 25 ⎞
π ×⎜ ⎟ ×2
⎝ 1000 ⎠
The torque exerted on the shaft BC is TBC = 1.5 kN.m (clockwise).
The maximum shear stress in the shaft BC is given as

T × 32
Wmax = BC 3
π d2 × 2
1.5 × 32
= 3 = 178.18 MPa Ans.
⎛ 35 ⎞
π ×⎜ ⎟ ×2
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Example 7.3
Four pulleys are connected by solid shafts as the shown in Fig. 7.6. Torque acting on each pulley is
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of that stress.
Fig. 7.6

Given,
Shaft parameters Shaft AB Shaft BC Shaft CD Shaft DE
Diameter 15 mm 20 mm 25 mm 30 mm
/HQJWK P P P P
Torque 5 N¹m (20 – 5) = 15 N¹m (20 + 40 – 5) (20 + 40 – 5 – 50)
= 55N¹m = 5N¹m
(clockwise) (anticlockwise) (anticlockwise) (anticlockwise)
Using torsion formula, W is given as

T d
W = u
J 2
Hence, the shear stress induced in the shaft AB is
5 ⎛ 15 ⎞
WAB = ×⎜ ⎟
π ⎛ 15 ⎞ ⎝ 2 × 1000 ⎠
4
×⎜ ⎟
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 7.54 MPa
Similarly, the shear stress induced in the shaft BC is

15 ⎛ 20 ⎞
WBC = ×⎜ ⎟ = 9.55 MPa
π ⎛ 20 ⎞ ⎝ 2 × 1000 ⎠
4
×⎜ ⎟
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
Shear stress in the shaft CD is
55 ⎛ 25 ⎞
WCD = ×⎜ ⎟ = 17.92 MPa
π ⎛ 25 ⎞ ⎝ 2 × 1000 ⎠
4
×⎜ ⎟
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
And the shear stress in the shaft DE is
⎛ 30 ⎞
5
WDE = ×⎜ ⎟ = 0.94 MPa
π ⎛ 30 ⎞ ⎝ 2 × 1000 ⎠
4
×⎜ ⎟
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
Since WCD is the biggest among all the values, hence the maximum shear stress is induced in the
shaft CD and its magnitude is 17.92 MPa. Ans.
Example 7.4
An electric motor exerts a torque of 2.5 kN¹m at D as shown in Fig. 7.7. Find the maximum shear
stress induced in the shafts AB, BC and CD, assuming that they are all solid.
Solution: The details of each shaft are given below.
Fig. 7.7
Shaft parameters Shaft AB Shaft BC Shaft CD

Diameter 30 mm 35 mm 40 mm
/HQJWK P P P
Torque 0.6 kN¹m (0.6 + 0.7) = 1.3 kN¹m (0.6 + 0.7 + 1.2) = 2.5 kN¹m
(clockwise) (clockwise) (clockwise)
For shaft AB
The maximum shear stress induced in the shaft is
T d
W = u
J 2
0.6 ⎛ 30 1 ⎞ ⎛ π 4⎞
= 4
×⎜ × ⎟ ⎜ as J = d ⎟
π ⎛ 30 ⎞ ⎝ 2 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 32 ⎠
×⎜ ⎟
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 113.17 MPa Ans.

For shaft BC
1.3 ⎛ 35 1 ⎞
W = ×⎜ ×
4 ⎟
π ⎛ 35 ⎞ ⎝ 2 1000 ⎠
×⎜ ⎟
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 154.42 MPa Ans.
For shaft CD
2.5 ⎛ 40 1 ⎞
W = ×⎜ ×
4 ⎟ = 198.94 MPa Ans.
π ⎛ 40 ⎞ ⎝ 2 1000 ⎠
×⎜ ⎟
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
Example 7.5
An electric motor running at 600 rpm exerts a torque of 3 kN¹m at D as shown in Fig. 7.8. Find angle
of twist between (a) B and C and (b) between B and D. Take G = 80 GPa.
Fig. 7.8

The details of each shaft are given below.
Shaft parameters Shaft BC Shaft CD
Diameter 40 mm 60 mm
/HQJWK P P
Torque 1.2 kN¹m (clockwise) 1.2 + 1.8 = 3 kN¹m (clockwise)
80 × 109
G = 80 GPa = = 80 × 106 kPa
103
Using torsion formula, T is given as
Tl
T =
JG
Hence, the angle of twist produced in the shaft BC is given as
1.2 × 2
TBC = 4
π ⎛ 40 ⎞
×⎜ ⎟ × 80 × 10
6
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 0.1193 radian = 6.84o (anticlockwise) Ans.
The angle of twist produced in the shaft CD is given as
3 × 1.5
TCD = 4
π ⎛ 60 ⎞
×⎜ ⎟ × 80 × 10
6
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 0.0442 radian = 2.53o (anticlockwise) Ans.
Hence, the angle of twist between B and D is
TBD = TBC + TCD
= (6.84 + 2.53)o = 9.37o (anticlockwise) Ans.
Example 7.6
Find angle of twist between A and B and between A and C for the arrangement of pulleys and shafts
shown in Fig. 7.9. Take G = 80 GPa.
Fig. 7.9

The details of each shaft are given below.
Shaft parameters Shaft AB Shaft BC
Diameter 40 mm 50 mm
Length 2.5 m 3.5 m
Torque 2 kN¹m (clockwise) 3 kN¹m (clockwise)
80 u 109
G = 80 GPa = = 80 106 kPa
103
Using torsion formula, the angle of twist for the shaft AB is given as
Tl
TAB =
JG
2 × 2.5
= 4
π ⎛ 40 ⎞
×⎜ ⎟ × 80 × 10
6
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 0.248 radian = 14.25o (clockwise) Ans.
The angle of twist for the shaft BC is given as
3 × 3.5
TBC = 4
π ⎛ 50 ⎞
×⎜ ⎟ × 80 × 10
6
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 0.214 radian = 12.25o (clockwise)
Hence, the angle of twist between A and C is given as
TAC = TAB + TBC = 14.25o + 12.25o = 26.5o (clockwise) Ans.
Example 7.7
Determine angle of twist between A and C and between A and E for the problem given in
Example 7.3. Take G = 220 GPa.
Solution: The angles of twist for different shafts are given in the following table.
Shaft Angle of twist (T)
5 × 1.8 180 ⎛ Tl ⎞
AB TAB = × ⎜⎝ using θ = ⎟
π ⎛ 15 ⎞
4
π JG ⎠
×⎜ ⎟ × 220 × 10
9
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 0.471o (anticlockwise)
15 × 1.2 180
BC TBC = × = 0.298o (clockwise)
π ⎛ 20 ⎞
4
π
×⎜ ⎟ × 220 × 10
9
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
Contd...
55 × 1.0 180
CD TCD = × = 0.373o (clockwise)
π ⎛ 25 ⎞
4
π
×⎜ ⎟ × 220 × 10
9
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
5 × 1.0 180
DE TDE = × = 0.016o (clockwise)
π ⎛ 30 ⎞
4
π
×⎜ ⎟ × 220 × 10
9
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
The angle of twist between A and C is given as

TAC = TAB – TBC
= (0.471– 0.298)o = 0.173o (anticlockwise) Ans.
The angle of twist between A and E is given as
TAE = TAB – (TBC + TCD + TDE)
= 0.471o – (0.298o + 0.373o + 0.016o)
= – 0.216o = 0.216o (clockwise) Ans.
Example 7.8
A stepped steel shaft is shown in Fig. 7.10. A torque of 100 N¹m is acting at C and another torque of
200 N¹m is acting at a distance 2 m from A. Determine angular displacement of the free end, if the
maximum shear stress in the shaft is limited to 50 MPa. Take G = 100 GPa.
Fig. 7.10
Solution:
For shaft BC
/HQJWK l1 = 3 m
Diameter, d1 = 40 mm
Torque, T1 = 100 N¹m (clockwise)
Using torsion equation, we have
T GT
=
J l
T l
or TBC = 1 1
J1 G
100 × 3 180
= × degree = 0.684o (clockwise)
π ⎛ 40 ⎞
4
π
×⎜ ⎟ × 100 × 10
9
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
For shaft AB
/HQJWK l2 = 4 m
Torque, T2 = (200 – 100) = 100 N¹m (anticlockwise)
T2 u 2
Now TAB = (Since torque is acting at a distance of 2 m from A )
J2 G
100 × 2 180
= × degree
π ⎛ 80 ⎞
4
π
×⎜ ⎟ × 100 × 10
9
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 0.028o (anticlockwise)
Hence, the angular displacement of the free end or angle of twist between A and C is given as
TAC = (0.684 – 0.028)o
= 0.656o (clockwise) Ans.
Example 7.9
A stepped steel shaft shown in Fig. 7.11, is subjected to a torque of 100 N¹m (anticlockwise) at C and
another torque of 200 N¹m (clockwise) at B. Determine angle of twist at the free end. Shear stress in
the shaft is not to exceed 60 MPa and modulus of rigidity is 84 GPa.
Fig. 7.11
Solution:
For shaft BC
/HQJWK l1 = 2 m
Torque, T1 = 100 N¹m (Anticlockwise)
Using torsion equation, the angle of twist in the shaft BC is given as
T1 l1
TBC =
J1 G
100 × 2 180
= × = 0.542o (anticlockwise)
π ⎛ 40 ⎞
4
π
×⎜ ⎟ × 84 × 10
9
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
For shaft AB
/HQJWK l2 = 4 m
Torque, T2 = 200 – 100 = 100 N¹m (clockwise)
The angle of twist in the shaft AB is given as
T2 l2
TAB =
J2 G
100 × 4 180
= × = 0.067o (clockwise)
π ⎛ 80 ⎞
4
π
×⎜ ⎟ × 84 × 10
9
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
Hence, the net angle of twist at the free end of the shaft
= TBC – TAB = (0.542 – 0.067)o = 0.475o (anticlockwise) Ans.
Example 7.10
$FRPSRVLWHVKDIWPDGHRIVWHHODQGDOXPLQLXPLV¿[HGDWA and C. A torque of 100 N¹m is applied
at point B (Fig. 7.12). Determine the following:
(a) the resisting torques induced at the supports
(b) the maximum shear stress induced in each shaft.
Take Gs = 80 GPa and GAl = 30 GPa.
Fig. 7.12
Solution:
For shaft AB
/HQJWK lS = 4 m
Diameter, dS = 80 mm
For shaft BC
/HQJWK lAl = 2 m
Diameter, dAl = 40 mm
/HW TA and TC be the torques induced (anticlockwise) at ends A and C respectively.

Given, TA + TC = 100 N¹m ... (1)
6LQFHWKHHQGVRIWKHVKDIWDUH¿[HGKHQFHWKH\FDQ¶WURWDWH
TC/A = Angle of twist of end C w.r.t. A
=0
TC × l Al TC × lS 100 × lS
+ − =0 ... (2)
J Al GAl J S GS J S GS
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 2 4 ⎥ = 100 × 4
TC +
⎢ π ⎛ 40 ⎞ 4
π ⎛ 80 ⎞
4
⎥ π ⎛ 80 ⎞
4
⎢ ×⎜ × × × × × ⎥ × ⎟ × 80 × 10
9 9 9
⎟ 30 10 ⎜ ⎟ 80 10 ⎜
⎢⎣ 32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠ 32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
On solving, we get TC = 4.47 N¹m Ans.

From equation (1), we have
TA = 100 – TC
= 100 – 4.47 = 95.53 N¹m Ans.
The maximum shear stress induced in the aluminium part is given as
⎛d ⎞
TC × ⎜ Al ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
WAl =
J Al
⎛ 40 ⎞
4.47 × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2000 ⎠ 5
= 4 = 3.55 10 Pa Ans.
π ⎛ 40 ⎞
×⎜ ⎟
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
The maximum shear stress induced in the steel part is given as
⎛d ⎞
TA × ⎜ s ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
Ws =
Js
⎛ 80 ⎞
95.53 × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2000 ⎠
= 4 = 9.50 105 Pa Ans.
π ⎛ 80 ⎞
×⎜ ⎟
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
Example 7.11
$ P ORQJ KROORZ VWHHO VKDIW RI RXWVLGH GLDPHWHU PP LV WUDQVPLWWLQJ D SRZHU RI N: DW
1000 rpm. Find thickness of the shaft, if the maximum shear stress in shaft is limited to 40 MPa.
Take G = 80 GPa.
Solution: Given,
/HQJWKRIWKHVKDIW l =3m
Outside diameter of the shaft, d0 = 75 mm
Power to be transmitted, P N:
Revolutions per minute, N = 1000
Maximum shear stress in the shaft, Wmax = 40 MPa
Using power equation, T is given as
P × 60 × 1000
T =
2π N
150 × 60 × 1000
= = 1432.4 N¹m
2π × 1000
T τ
Now = max
J ⎛ d0 ⎞
⎜ 2⎟
⎝ ⎠
T τ
= max
π ⎛ d0 ⎞
(d o4 − di4 ) ⎜ 2⎟
32 ⎝ ⎠
1432.4 40 × 106
or = = 1.06 × 109
π ⎡⎛ 75 ⎞
4
⎤ ⎛ 75 ⎞
⎢⎜ ⎟ − di ⎥
4
⎜ ⎟
32 ⎢⎣⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 2 × 1000 ⎠
Solving for di, we get

di = 0.0651 m = 65.1 mm
Hence, the thickness of the hollow shaft is
d o di 75 65.1
t= = = 4.95 mm Ans.
2 2
Example 7.12
$PORQJVROLGVKDIWWUDQVPLWVN:DWUSP)LQGWKHUHTXLUHGGLDPHWHURIWKHVKDIWDVVXPLQJ
that maximum shear stress in the shaft is limited to 25 MPa and angle of twist is not to exceed 5 o.
Take G = 80 GPa.
Solution: Given,
Power being transmitted, P N:

Maximum shear stress, Wmax = 25 MPa = 25 106 Pa
π
Angle of twist, T = 5o = × 5 = 0.087 radian
180
Modulus of rigidity, G = 80 GPa = 80 109 Pa
/HWd be diameter of the shaft. Using power equation, T is given as
P × 60 × 1000 15 × 60 × 1000
T = = = 119.36 N¹m
2π N 2π × 1200
T GT
=
J l
T GT
=
π 4 l
d
32
119.36 80 u 109 u 0.087
=
π 4 3
d
32
Solving for d, we get d = 26.9 mm
T τ max
Again =
J ⎛d ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
T 2 × τ max
=
π 4 d
d
32
T × 32
= 2 Wmax
πd3
119.36 × 32
= 2 25 106
πd3

d = 29 mm
Of the two calculated values of dZHDFFHSWWKHODUJHVWRQH:K\"+HQFHGLDPHWHURIWKHVKDIW
is 29 mm. Ans.
Example 7.13
A solid shaft of length 3.5 m and diameter 25 mm rotates at a frequency of 40 Hz. Find the maximum
power to be transmitted by the shaft, assuming that maximum shear stress in the shaft is limited
to 40 MPa and angle of twist does not exceed 6o. Take G = 80 GPa.
Solution: Given,
/HQJWKRIWKHVKDIW l = 3.5 m
Diameter of the shaft, d = 25 mm
Revolutions per minute, N = 40 60 = 2400
π
Angle of twist, T = 6o = × 6 = 0.104 radian
180
T GT
=
J l
π 4
d ×G×θ
JGT 32
T = =
l l
4
π ⎛ 25 ⎞
×⎜ ⎟ × 80 × 10 × 0.104
9
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
= = 91.16 N¹m
3.5
Again
T Wmax
=
J (d / 2)
J × 2 × τmax
or T =
d
π 4
d × 2 × τmax π 3
= 32 = d × 2 × τmax
d 32
3
π ⎛ 25 ⎞
×⎜ ⎟ × 2 × 40 × 10 = 122.71 N¹m
6
=
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
Of the two calculated values of T, we take the lowest one i.e., the accepted torque is 91.16 N¹m.
2π NT
Now P =
60 × 1000
2π × 2400 × 91.16
= N: Ans.
60 × 1000
Example 7.14
$PORQJVROLGVWHHOVKDIWWUDQVPLWVDSRZHURIN:DWUSP)LQGWKHVPDOOHVWSHUPLVVLEOH
GLDPHWHURIWKHVKDIWLIWKHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLVQRWWRH[FHHG03D$OVR¿QGWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJ
angle of twist. Take G = 80 GPa.
Solution: Given,
Maximum shear stress, Wmax = 50 MPa
/HWT be the torque applied on the shaft. Using power equation, T is given as
P × 60 × 1000
T =
2πN
20 × 60 × 1000
= = 95.5 N¹m
2π × 2000
T Wmax
= (where, d is diameter of the shaft)
J ( d / 2)
T W
or = max
π 4 d
d
32 2
95.5 50 u 106
or =
π 4 (d / 2)
d
32
d = 21.34 mm Ans.
T GT
Again =
J l
T GT
=
π 4 l
d
32
95.5 80 × 109 × θ
4 =
π ⎛ 21.34 ⎞ 3
⎜ ⎟
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
Solving for T, we get
T = 0.175 radian = 10o Ans.
Example 7.15
$ VROLG FLUFXODU VKDIW WUDQVPLWV D SRZHU RI N: DW USP )RU D OLPLWLQJ VKHDU VWUHVV RI
03D¿QGGLDPHWHURIWKHVKDIW7KHVROLGVKDIWLVUHSODFHGE\DKROORZVKDIWZLWKLQVLGHGLDPHWHU
EHLQJHTXDOWRWLPHVWKHRXWVLGHGLDPHWHU:KDWSHUFHQWRIVDYLQJLQZHLJKWFDQEHDFKLHYHG
by the replacement, if both shafts are of equal length, made of the same material, being subjected to
HTXDOPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVDQGDUHWUDQVPLWWLQJHTXDOSRZHUVDWVDPHVSHHG"
Solution: Given,
Maximum shear stress, Wmax = 70 MPa = 70 106 Pa.
/HWT be the torque applied on the shaft. Using power equation, T is given as
P × 60 × 1000
T =
2πN
100 × 60 × 1000
= = 636.62 N¹m ... (1)
2π × 1500
T Wmax
=
J ( d / 2)
T 2 × τmax
=
π 4 d
d
32
636.62 6
π 3 = 2 70 10
d
32
d = 35.91 mm Ans.
/HW do = Outside diameter of the hollow shaft
di = Inside diameter of the hollow shaft
di = 0.75do (Given)
Since two shafts are transmitting the same power at equal speed, hence they are being subjected
to same torque.
For hollow shaft
J × τmax × 2
TH =
do
π 4
(d 0 − di4 ) × τmax × 2
32
=
d0
π 4 ⎡ ⎛ di ⎞ ⎤
4
d 0 ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ × τmax × 2
32 ⎢ ⎝ d 0 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
=
d0
π 3⎡
d 0 1 − (0.75 ) ⎤ × 70 × 106 × 2 = 9395632.3d03
4
= ⎣ ⎦
32
Now 9395632.3 d03 = 636.62 (using equation (1))
Solving for do, we get
d0 = 40.76 mm
and di = 0.75 d0 = 30.57 mm
If density of the material for the two shafts is U, then
:HLJKWRIKROORZVKDIW WH = Density Area length g
π 2
= ρ × (d 0 − di ) × l × g
2
4
π 2
:HLJKWRIVROLGVKDIW WS = ρ × d × l × g
4
The percentage saving in the weight is
WS WH
100
WS
d 2 − (d 02 − di2 )
= × 100
d2
(35.91) 2 − (40.762 − 30.57 2 )
= × 100 = 43.63% Ans.
(35.91)2
Example 7.16
A hollow shaft of diameter ratio 0.6 running at 150 rpm is required to drive a screw propeller fitted
to a vessel, whose speed is 10 m/s for an expenditure of 12000 shaft horse power. The efficiency
of the propeller is 70%. Determine the shaft diameter, if the maximum shearing stress in the
shaft is 80 N/mm 2.
Solution: Given
Revolution per minute, N = 150 rpm
Speed of the vessel, V = 10 m/s
Power consumption, P = 12000 HP
(I¿FLHQF\RIWKHSURSHOOHU K = 70% = 0.70
Maximum shear stress, Wmax = 80 N/mm2
The power equation is

2πNT 1
P = ×
4500 η
2π × 150 × T 1
12000 = ×
4500 0.70
12000 × 4500 × 0.70
or T = kgf.m
2π × 150
= 40107 kgf.m
= 40107 × 9.81 N.m = 393449.7 N.m
/HW do = Outside diameter of the shaft
di = Inside diameter of the shaft
di
= 0.6 (Given)
do
The polar moment of inertia of the shaft is found as
π 4
J = (d 0 − di4 )
32
π 4 ⎧⎪ ⎛ di ⎞ ⎫⎪
4
= d 0 ⎨1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
32 ⎪ ⎝ d 0 ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
π 4
= d 0 {1 − (0.6) } = 0.0854 d 04
4
32
T d0
Wmax = u
J 2
393449.7 u 1000 d 0
or 80 = u
0.0854d 04 2
Solving for d0, we get d0 = 306.5 mm Ans.
di = 0.6 d0
= 183.9 mm Ans.
Example 7.17
Two shafts are made of same material and are of equal lengths. One of them is solid and another one
is hollow. The ratio of inside and outside diameters for the hollow shaft is 0.65. They are subjected
to the same torque and same maximum shear stress. Compare the weights of the two shafts.
Solution: /HW d = Diameter of the solid shaft
do = Outside diameter of the hollow shaft
di = Inside diameter of the hollow shaft
di
= 0.65 (Given)
do
T Wmax
=
J R
Since the torque and maximum shear stress for the two shafts are same, hence
T J
= = Constant
Wmax R
In terms of respective diameters, we have
JS JH
=
⎛d ⎞ ⎛ do ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
π 4 π 4
d (d o − di4 )
32 32
=
⎛d ⎞ ⎛ do ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2 ⎝ ⎠
⎡ ⎛ d ⎞4 ⎤
d3 = d ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
3 i
o
⎢⎣ ⎝ o ⎠ ⎥⎦
d
3
⎛d ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 1 – (0.65)4 = 0.821
⎝ do ⎠
d
or = 0.936 ... (1)
do
For the same material and same length, weight is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the
respective shaft.
π 2
d
WS 4
=
WH π 2
(d o − di2 )
4
d2
=
⎡ ⎛ d ⎞2 ⎤
d o ⎢1 − ⎜ i ⎟ ⎥
2
⎢⎣ ⎝ d o ⎠ ⎥⎦
(d / d o )2 (0.936) 2
= 2 = (using equation (1))
⎛d ⎞ 1 (0.65) 2
1− ⎜ i ⎟
⎝ do ⎠
= 1.517 Ans.
Example 7.18
A solid circular shaft 200 mm in diameter has the same cross-sectional area as a hollow circular shaft
of the same material with inside diameter of 150 mm. For the same maximum shear stress, determine
the ratio of torque transmitted by the hollow shaft to that by the solid shaft. Also, compare the angle
of twist in the above shaft for equal length and same maximum shear stress. From the above results,
ZKDWZLOOEH\RXUFRQFOXVLRQVUHJDUGLQJVWUHQJWKDQGVWLIIQHVVRIWKHWZRVKDIWV"
Solution: Given,
Diameter of the solid shaft, d = 200 mm
Inside diameter the hollow shaft, Di = 150 mm
/HW D0 = Outside diameter of the hollow shaft
l /HQJWKRIWKHWZRVKDIWV
G = Modulus of rigidity for the two shafts
TS = Torque transmitted by the solid shaft
TH = Torque transmitted by the hollow shaft
TS = Angle of twist produced in the solid shaft
TH = Angle of twist produced in the hollow shaft
Wmax = Maximum shear stress for the two shafts
JS = Polar moment of inertia for the solid shaft
JH = Polar moment of inertia for the hollow shaft
The cross-sectional areas of the solid and hollow shafts are equal.
π 2 π 2
= ( D0 − Di )
2
d
4 4
d 2 = D 02 – D i2
2002 = D02 – 1502
Solving for D0, we get D0 = 250 mm
The torque transmitted by the solid shaft is given as
Wmax ⎛ T τ max ⎞
Ts =
⎜⎝ using J = (d / 2) ⎟⎠
· Js
( d / 2)
πd 3
= τmax ... (1)
16
The torque transmitted by the hollow shaft is given as
τmax
TH = · JH
⎛ D0 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
π( D04 − Di4 )
= τmax ... (2)
16 D0
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1), we have

TH D04 Di4
=
TS D0 · d 3
2504 − 1504
= = 1.7 Ans.
250 × 2003
τ l
Now TS = max ×
( d / 2) G
τmax l
and TH = ×
( D0 / 2) G
TH d 200
Hence, = = = 0.8 Ans.
TS D0 250
Conclusions:
(a) More torque transmission means more stronger the shaft is. Hence, the hollow shaft is 1.7 times
stronger than the solid shaft.
(b/HVVHUDQJOHRIWZLVWSURGXFHGLQWKHVKDIWPHDQVPRUHVWLIIHUWKHVKDIWLV6LQFHTH < TS, hence
the hollow shaft is stiffer than the solid shaft.
Example 7.19
A solid steel shaft of diameter 40 mm is placed inside an aluminium tube and both of them
DUH FRQQHFWHG WR D ¿[HG VXSSRUW DW RQH HQG 7KH RWKHU HQG RI WKH WZR PHPEHUV DUH FRQQHFWHG
by a rigid plate as shown in Fig. 7.13. Find maximum torque to be applied to the plate, if
maximum shear stresses in the steel shaft and the aluminium tube are limited to 110 MPa and
65 MPa respectively. Take GS = 80 GPa and GAl = 28 GPa.
Fig. 7.13
Solution: Given,
For steel shaft For aluminium tube
Diameter, d = 40 mm Outside diameter, d0 = 60 mm
Shear modulus, GS = 80 GPa Thickness, t = 5 mm
= 80 109 Pa Inside diameter, di = do – 2t
= 60 – 2 5 = 50 mm
Contd...
Maximum shear stress, Shear modulus, GAl = 28 GPa

Wmax = 110 MPa = 28 109 Pa
s
= 110 106 Pa Maximum shear stress,
Wmax = 65 MPa
Al
= 65 106 Pa
/HQJWK ls PP /HQJWK lAl = 450 mm
The torque applied is distributed to the shaft and tube.

/HW T1 = Torque exerted by the tube on the plate
T2 = Torque exerted by the shaft on the plate
T = Net torque to be applied on the plate
T1 = Angle of twist produced in the tube
T2 = Angle of twist produced in the shaft
J1 = Polar moment of inertia of the tube
J2 = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft
π 4
J1 = (d o − di4 )
32
π
= (604 − 504 ) × 10−12 m 4 = 6.58 10–7 m4
32
π 4 π
J2 = d = × 404 × 10−12 m4 = 2.51 10–7 m4
32 32
Now T = T1 + T2 ... (1)
and T1 = T2 ... (2)
Tl
T =
JG
T1 l Al T2 lS
=
J1 GAl J 2 GS
⎛ 450 ⎞ ⎛ 450 ⎞
T1 × ⎜ ⎟ T2 × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ⎠
=
6.58 × 10−7 × 28 × 109 2.51 × 10−7 × 80 × 109
or T1 = 0.917 T2 ... (3)
Check for shear stresses

Using torsion formula, the torque
2 × τmax Al × J1 2 × 65 × 106 × 6.58 × 10−7
T1 = = = 1427.3 N¹m
do 60 × 10−3
The corresponding value of T2, by using equation (3), is given as

T1 1427.3
T2 = = = 1556.48 N¹m
0.917 0.917
The maximum shear stress induced in the shaft, by using T2, is given as
T ud
Wmax = 2
s 2J2
1556.48 × 40 × 10−3
= −7 N/m2 = 124 MPa
2 × 2.51 × 10
Since 124 MPa > 110 MPa i.e., maximum shear stress induced in the shaft is more than its allow-
able value, which is wrong. Hence, we accept Wmaxs = 110 MPa.
:H¿QGT2 corresponding to Wmaxs = 110 MPa
2 × τmax s × J 2
T2 =
d
2 × 110 × 106 × 2.51 × 10−7
= = 1380.5 N¹m
40 × 10−3
and T1 = 0.917T2 = 0.917 1380.5 = 1265.9 N¹m (using equation (3))
Hence, the net torque to be applied on the plate is
T = T1 + T2
= (1265.9 + 1380.5) = 2646.4 N¹m Ans.
Example 7.20
$KRUL]RQWDOVKDIWPLQOHQJWKLV¿[HGDWLWVHQGV)LJ:KHQYLHZHGIURPWKHOHIWHQGD[LDO
couples of 50 kN.m clockwise and 75 kN.m counter clockwise act at 5 m and 9 m from the left end
UHVSHFWLYHO\'HWHUPLQHWKHHQG¿[LQJFRXSOHVDQGWKHSRVLWLRQZKHUHWKHVKDIWVXIIHUVQRDQJXODUWZLVW
Fig. 7.14
*LYHQ /HQJWKRIWKHVKDIW l = 12 m
Couple at B, TB = 50 kN.m (Clockwise)
Couple at C, TC = 75 kN.m (Anticlockwise)
/HWT1 and T2 be the reactive torques at A and D respectively.
Hence, T1 + T2 = 75 – 50 = 25 kN.m ... (1)
Tl
Using torsion formula, we have T =
JG
Angle of twist at C (from left end) is
5T1 (T1 + 50) × 4
T1 = +
JG JG
Angle of twist at C (from right end) is
3T2
T2 =
JG
Now T1 = T2
5T1 (T1 + 50) × 4 3T2
+ =
JG JG JG
5T1 + 4T1 + 200 = 3T2
or 9T1 – 3T2 + 200 = 0 ... (2)
and T1 + T2 – 25 = 0 (from equation (1))
Solving equations (1) and (2), we get
T2 = 35.42 kN.m
and T1 = – 10.42 kN.m
The negative sign associated with T1 is indicative of its anticlockwise nature.
/HWDWDGLVWDQFHx (in BC) from A, angular twist is zero, which means
10.42 × 5 (50 − 10.42) × ( x − 5)
− + = 0
JG JG
– 52.1 + 39.58x – 197.9 = 0
or x = 6.32 m
Hence, the shaft suffers no angular twist at 6.32 m from A. Ans.
Example 7.21
For the shaft loaded as shown in Fig. 7.15, calculate the maximum shear stress induced and the angle
of twist for cross-section at A. The modulus of rigidity is G.
Fig. 7.15
Solution: The algebraic sum of the torques acting on the shaft is zero. TA and TB are the reactive
torques at A and B respectively.
TA + M – 4M + TB = 0
or TA + TB = 4M – M = 3M ... (1)
Using principle of superimposition, angular twists produced independently by M, 4M and TB are
considered. Then these twists are added algebraically to get the total twist of ‘free end’ BZUW¿[HG
end A. This should be zero as the end BLV¿[HG
TB × l TB × l TB × 2l TB × 2l M × 2l 4M × 2l 4M × 2l
+ + + + − − =0
J1G J 2G J 3G J 4G J 4G J 3G J 4G
or l ⎡ TB TB 2TB 2TB 2 M 8M 8M ⎤ = 0
⎢ + + + + − − ⎥
G ⎣ J1 J 2 J3 J4 J4 J3 J4 ⎦
TB TB 2TB 2TB 2M 8M 8M
+ + + + − − =0
J1 J 2 J3 J4 J4 J3 J4
⎛1 1 2 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 8 8 ⎞
TB ⎜ + + + ⎟+M ⎜ − − ⎟ =0
⎝ J1 J 2 J 3 J 4 ⎠ ⎝ J 4 J3 J 4 ⎠
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ 1 1 2 2 ⎥ ⎢ 2 8 8 ⎥ =0
TB ⎢ + + + ⎥ +M ⎢ π − −
π
⎢ (3d ) π π π π π 4 ⎥⎥
4
( 2d ) 4
( 2d ) 4
d ⎥
4 ⎢ d 4
( 2d ) 4
d
⎢⎣ 32 32 32 32 ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ 32 32 32 ⎥⎦
⎛1 1 2 ⎞ ⎛ 8 ⎞
TB ⎜ + + + 2 ⎟ + M ⎜ 2 − − 8 ⎟ = 0
⎝ 81 16 16 ⎠ ⎝ 16 ⎠
2.1998 TB – 6.5 M = 0
Hence, TB = 2.954 M
and TA = 3M – TB (using equation (1))
= 0.046 M
Since TB > TA , hence maximum shear stress is induced on account of TB .
TB d
The maximum shear stress is Wmax = u
J4 2
TB d
= ×
π 4 2
d
32
2.954 M × 32 15.04 M
= = Ans.
2πd 3
d3
TB u 2l TB × 2l
The angle of twist is TA = =
J 4G π 4
d ×G
32
32 × 2TB × l
=
πd 4G
64 × 2.954 M × l
= (on substituting TB)
πd 4G
Ml
= 60.18 Ans.
Gd 4
Example 7.22
The compound shaft shown in Fig. 7.16 is built-in at the two ends. It is subjected to a twisting moment
TDWWKHPLGGOH:KDWLVWKHUDWLRRIWKHUHDFWLRQWRUTXHVT1 and T2DWWKHHQGV"
Fig. 7.16

T1 + T2 = T (Given) ... (1)
:HZLOOXVHSULQFLSOHRIVXSHULPSRVLWLRQIRUVROYLQJWKLVSUREOHP:HFRQVLGHUWKHDQJXODUWZLVWV
produced by T and T2 independently, and then add them together algebraically to get the total twist
of ‘free end’ BZUW¿[HGHQGA. This should be zero, as the end BLV¿[HGDQGKHQFHFDQ¶WURWDWH
T2l Tl Tl
+ 2 − =0
J 2G J1G J1G
l ⎡ T2 T2 T ⎤
⎢ + − ⎥ =0
G ⎣ J 2 J1 J1 ⎦
T2 T2 T1 + T2
+ − =0 (using equation (1))
J 2 J1 J1
T2 T2 T1 T2
+ − − =0
J 2 J1 J1 J1
T2 T1
=0
J 2 J1
π 4
T1 d
J 32 1
or T2 = 1= = Ans.
J2 π 16
( 2d ) 4
32
7.6 EFFECT OF STRESS CONCENTRATION

In case of stepped shaft, where cross-section of the shaft abruptly changes at any point along its
length, stress concentrations are found to occur near the discontinuity (Fig. 7.17).
Fig. 7.17 $VWHSSHGVKDIWXVLQJD¿OOHW
,QWKH¿JXUHA and B are the locations of high stress concentration. These are the weakest points
in the shaft. A factor, known as stress-concentration factor (K), is introduced in the torsion analysis
RIVXFKVKDIWV)LJ6WUHVVFRQFHQWUDWLRQVDUHUHGXFHGE\WKHXVHRI¿OOHWVZKHUHFKDQJHLQ
cross-section takes place gradually. The stress concentration factor depends upon two factors.
(a) The ratio of the diameters of the shaft at two ends (D/d), and
(b 7KHUDWLRRIWKHUDGLXVRIWKH¿OOHWWRWKHVPDOOHVWGLDPHWHURIWKHVKDIW ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ .
r
⎝d ⎠
Fig. 7.18 6WUHVVFRQFHQWUDWLRQIDFWRUDQGXVHRI¿OOHW

7KHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLQGXFHGDWWKH¿OOHWORFDWLRQVPD\EHH[SUHVVHGDV
K . T. d
Wmax = ... (7.18)
2J
where K = Stress-concentration factor
d = Diameter at smallest end of the shaft
J = Polar moment of inertia based on smallest diameter of the shaft
T = Torque
Equation (7.18) is valid only if Hooke’s law is obeyed, that is, the maximum shear stress does not
exceed the proportional limit of the shaft material.
Example 7.23
A stepped shaft shown in Fig. 7.19 is subjected to a torque of 500 N¹m. Find the maximum shear stress
LQWKHVKDIWZKHQWKH¿OOHWUDGLXVLVPP
Fig. 7.19

Given,
Diameter at the bigger end, D = 50 mm
Diameter at the smallest end, d = 25 mm
5DGLXVRIWKH¿OOHW r = 2.5 mm
Torque to be applied, T = 500 N¹m
r 2.5
The ratio = = 0.10
d 25
D 50
The ratio = = 2.0
d 25
r D
Corresponding to = 0.10 and = 2.0, the value of stress concentration factor, K from Fig. 7.15
d d
is 1.45. Hence, the maximum shear stress induced in the shaft is given as
K .T . d
Wmax = (using equation (7.18))
2J
1.45 × 500 × (25 /1000)
= 4 = 236.31 MPa Ans.
π ⎛ 25 ⎞
2× ×⎜ ⎟
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
Example 7.24
$ VWHSSHG VKDIW VKRZQ LQ )LJ WUDQVPLWV N: RI SRZHU DW USP )LQG WKH VPDOOHVW
permissible radius of the fillet, assuming that maximum shear stress in the shaft is limited to
60 MPa.
Fig. 7.20
Solution: Given,
Diameter at the bigger end, D = 60 mm
Diameter at the smaller end, d = 50 mm
/HWT be the torque applied on the shaft.
The equation of power is
2π NT
P =
60 × 1000
P × 60 × 1000 100 × 60 × 1000
or T = = = 1123.44 N¹m
2πN 2π × 850
The maximum shear stress in the shaft is
K .T . d
Wmax =
2J
⎛ 50 ⎞
K × 1123.44 × ⎜ ⎟
6 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
60 × 10 = 4
π ⎛ 50 ⎞
2× ×⎜ ⎟
32 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
Solving for K, we get
K = 1.31
D 60
The ratio = = 1.2
d 50
D r
Corresponding to K = 1.31 and = 1.2, ratio is found to be 0.11. (using Fig. 7.15)
d d
r
= 0.11
d
or r = 0.11 d = 0.11 50 = 5.5 mm
+HQFHWKHPLQLPXPUDGLXVRIWKH¿OOHWWREHXVHGLVPP Ans.
7.7 TORSION OF A TAPERED SHAFT

Consider a tapered shaft of diameter d 1 at the bigger end and diameter d 2 at smaller end
(Fig. 7.21).
/HW W1 = Shear stress at the bigger end
W2 = Shear stress at the smaller end
G = Shear modulus of the shaft material
T = Torque applied at the two ends
l /HQJWKRIWKHVKDIW
Fig. 7.21
Consider a small length dx of diameter d at a distance x from bigger end.

The entire section of shaft is subjected to same torque T.
π 3 π 3 π 3
d1 τ1 = d 2 τ2 = d τ
16 16 16
where W = Shear stress at x
7KHDERYHHTXDWLRQRQVLPSOL¿FDWLRQEHFRPHV
d13 W1 = d 23 W2 = d3W ... (7.19)
The angle of twist produced in the length dx is
⎛ T Gθ ⎞
Tdx ⎜⎝ using = ⎟
dT = J l ⎠
JG
Tdx 32T
= π = dx ... (7.20)
4
d G π d 4
G
32
The diameter d can be expressed as
(d1 − d 2 ) x
d = d1 –
l
⎛ d − d2 ⎞
= d1 – Kx, where K = ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ l ⎠
On substituting d, equation (7.20) becomes

32T dx
dT = 4
π [d1 − Kx ] G
The total angle of twist for the entire shaft of length l is
l l
32T dx 32T −4
T =
πG ∫ (d 4
− Kx )
=
πG 0∫ (d1 − Kx ) dx
0 1
l
32T ⎡ (d − Kx )−3 ⎤ l
= ⎢ 1 ⎥ = 32T ⎡(d1 − Kx )−3 ⎤
πG ⎢⎣ 3K ⎥⎦ 3π GK ⎣ ⎦0
0
32T ⎡ −3
(d1 − Kl ) − d1 ⎤
−3
=
3πGK ⎣ ⎦
⎡⎛ −3 ⎤
32Tl d1 − d 2 ) ⎞ −3
= ⎢ d
⎜ 1 − ⋅ l ⎟ − d1 ⎥
3πG (d1 − d 2 ) ⎢⎣⎝ l ⎠ ⎥⎦
32Tl 32Tl ⎡1 1 ⎤
= ⎡ d 2−3 − d1−3 ⎤ = ⎢ 3 − 3⎥
3πG (d1 − d 2 ) ⎣ ⎦ 3πG (d1 − d 2 ) ⎢⎣ d 2 d1 ⎥⎦
32Tl ⎡ d13 − d 23 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
3πG (d1 − d 2 ) ⎢⎣ d13 d 23 ⎥⎦
32Tl ⎡ (d1 − d 2 ) (d12 + d1 d 2 + d 22 ) ⎤

= 3πG (d1 − d 2 ) ⎢⎢ d13 d 23
⎥
⎥⎦
⎣
32Tl ⎡ d12 + d1 d 2 + d 22 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ ... (7.21)
3πG ⎢⎣ d13 d 23 ⎥⎦
Maximum shear stress is induced at smaller end of the shaft because of smallest diameter at that
point, and its value is given as
16T
Wmax = ... (7.22)
πd 23
7.8 TORSION OF A THIN CIRCULAR TUBE
Consider a circular tube of outside diameter d 0 and inside diameter d i, being subjected to a
torque T (Fig. 7.22).
Thickness of the tube is
d di
t = 0
2
The polar moment of inertia of the cross-section is found as
π 4 π
J = ( d 0 − d i4 ) = ⎡ d 04 − ( d 0 − 2t )4 ⎤
32 32 ⎣ ⎦
Fig. 7.22
π ⎡ 4
4⎤
πd 04 ⎡ ⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤
4
⎛ 2t ⎞
= ⎢ d 0 − d 04 ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥ = ⎢1 − ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥
32 ⎢ ⎝ d0 ⎠ ⎥ 32 ⎢ ⎝ d 0 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
πd 04 ⎡ ⎛ 8t ⎞⎤
= ⎢1 − ⎜1 − + ... ⎟ ⎥
32 ⎢⎣ ⎝ d 0 ⎠ ⎥⎦
πd 04 8t
= × (ignoring higher powers of t)
32 d 0
πd 03 t
=
4
The torque T is given as
2 × τmax × J
T = (using torsion formula)
d0
2 × τmax × πd 03 t
= (on substituting J)
4 × d0
π 2
= d 0 t Wmax ... (7.23)
2
The angle of twist produced in the tube is given as
Tl Tl
T = = (on substituting J)
JG ⎛ πd 03 t ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × G
⎝ 4 ⎠
4Tl
= ... (7.24)
πd 03 t G
7.9 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO TORSION

The strain energy or the workdone due to torsion is given by
1
U = ×T × θ ... (7.25)
2
where torque is assumed to be applied gradually and is increasing from zero to its maximum value.
From torsion formula, for a solid circular shaft, we have

T GT Wmax
= =
J l (d / 2)
J × τmax
Hence, Ts =
(d / 2)
π 4 τmax × 2 πd 3
= d × = τmax
32 d 16
τmax × l 2 × τmax × l
and Ts = =
G × (d / 2) Gd
Substituting Ts and Ts in equation (7.25), we have for a solid shaft
1 πd 3 2 × τmax × l
Us = × τmax ×
2 16 Gd
τ2max ⎛ π 2 ⎞ τ2max
= ⎜ d × l ⎟ = 4G × VS ... (7.26)
4G ⎝ 4 ⎠
π 2
where Vs = 4 d × l = Volume of the solid shaft
For a hollow shaft of inside diameter di and outside diameter do, the values of T and T are:
πd 03 ⎡ ⎛ di ⎞ ⎤
4
TH = 16 ⎢ ⎜ d ⎟ ⎥⎥ τmax
⎢1 −
⎣ ⎝ o⎠ ⎦
2 × τmax × l
and TH =
Gd 0
Substituting T and T in equation (7.25), we get
1 πd 03 ⎡ ⎛ d ⎞4 ⎤ 2 × τmax × l
UH = × ⎢1 − ⎜ i ⎟ ⎥ τmax ×
2 16 ⎢ ⎝ do ⎠ ⎥ Gd o
⎣ ⎦
πd 02 ⎡ ⎛ di ⎞ ⎤ τ2max × l
4
= ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥×
16 ⎢ ⎝ d o ⎠ ⎥ G
⎣ ⎦
πd 02 (d o2 − di2 ) (d o2 + di2 ) τ2max × l
= × ×
16 d o4 G
⎤ τmax (d o + di )
2 2 2
⎡π 2 τ2
= ⎢ ( d o − d i
2
) × l ⎥ × × 2 = V × max × 1
⎣4 ⎦ 2G 2d o 2G
π 2
VH = (d o − di ) × l = Volume of the hollow shaft
2
where
4
d o2 di2
and = 1, when do ~ di
2d o2
τ 2max
Hence, UH = × VH ... (7.27)
2G
&RPSDULQJHTXDWLRQZLWKHTXDWLRQZH¿QGWKDWDKROORZVKDIWFDQVWRUHDSSUR[LPDWHO\
twice strain energy as compared to a solid shaft, and it is a very important point in favour of a hollow
shaft.
Example 7.25
A shaft circular in section (Fig. 7.23) and of length l is subjected to a variable torque given by
Kx2/l2, where x is the distance measured from one end of the shaft and K is a constant. Find the angle
of twist for the shaft by use of Castigliano’s theorem. Torsional rigidity of the shaft is G.
Kx 2 .
Solution: The torque is T =
l2
Consider a small length dx of the shaft at a distance x from the right end.
The angle of twist, using the Castigliano’s theorem, is given by
Fig. 7.23
l l
Tdx
T = ∫ JG
= 1
JG ∫ Tdx
0 0
l
1 Kx 2
=
JG ∫ l2
dx (on substituting T)
0
l
K
=
JGl 2 ∫ x 2 dx
0
l
K ⎛ x3 ⎞ Kl
= 2 ⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ = Ans.
JGl ⎝ 3 ⎠0 3JG
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1. The shear stress produced in a circular shaft due to pure torsion is

(a) proportional to radius of the shaft
(b) inversely proportional to diameter of the shaft
(c) inversely proportional to radius of the shaft
(d) inversely proportional to the square of radius of the shaft.
2. 7KHWRUVLRQDOULJLGLW\LVGH¿QHGDVWKH
(a) product of torque and length
(b) product of polar moment of inertia and modulus of rigidity
(c) sum of polar moment of inertia and modulus of rigidity
(d) product of polar moment of inertia and angle of twist.
3. 7KHWRUVLRQDOVWLIIQHVVLVGH¿QHGDVWKH
(a) ratio of torque to angle of twist
(b) product of torque and angle of twist
(c) sum of modulus of rigidity and angle of twist
(d) ratio of torque to polar moment of inertia.
4. The torsion equation is

T GT W T GT W
(a) = = (b) = =
I L r J L r
W J Gθ τ
(d) T = L = r .
T GT
(c) = =
J L D
where the symbols have their usual meanings.
5. $ VROLG VWHHO VKDIW RI OHQJWK P LV UXQQLQJ DW USP WUDQVPLWWLQJ D SRZHU RI N:7KH
DQJOHRIWZLVWSURGXFHGLQWKHVKDIWLVDQGWKHSHUPLVVLEOHVKHDUVWUHVVLV03D:KDWLVWKH
diameter of the shaft, if G = 8 104 N/mm2 "
(a) 68.7 mm (b) 82.55 mm
(c) 67.8 mm (d) 65.7 mm.
6. The ratio of the torques transmitted by a hollow and a solid shaft, both made of same material,
length and weight is
n2 1 n2 + 1 n2 1 n2 − 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
n n2 1 n n2 − 1 n n 1 n n +1
do .
where n =
di
7. The ratio of the weights of two shafts in Question No. 6 is
2/3
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞
2/3
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞
(a) ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ / ⎜1 − 4 ⎟ (b) ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ / ⎜1 + 4 ⎟
⎝ n ⎠⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ n ⎠⎝ n ⎠
2/3 2/3
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞
(c) ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ / ⎜1 − 4 ⎟ (d) ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ / ⎜1 + 4 ⎟ .
⎝ n ⎠⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ n ⎠⎝ n ⎠
8. The power transmitted by a shaft is given as
(a) πNT : b) πNT (hp) (c) 2πNT (hp) (d) πNT N:
30 4500 75 30
9. 7KH IRUPXOD XVHG IRU ¿QGLQJ DQJOH RI WZLVW SURGXFHG LQ D WDSHUHG VKDIW RI OHQJWK L being
subjected to a torque T is
TL ⎡ r1 + r2 + 2r1 r2 ⎤ TL ⎡ r1 + r2 + 2r1 r2 ⎤
(a) ⎢ ⎥ (b) ⎢ ⎥
3πG ⎣ (r1 r2 ) 3
⎦ 3πG ⎣ (r1 r2 )3 ⎦
2TL ⎡ r12 + r22 + r1 r2 ⎤ 3TL ⎡ r12 + r22 + r1 r2 ⎤

(c) ⎢ ⎥ (d) ⎢ ⎥.
3πG ⎣ (r1 r2 )3 ⎦ 2πG ⎣ (r1 r2 )3 ⎦
where r1 and r2 are the radii at smaller and bigger end respectively.
10. For a stepped shaft where two or more shafts are connected end-to-end, the angle of twist
produced and the torques transmitted are given respectively as
(a) T1 – T2, T1 + T2 (b) T1 + T2, T1 = T2
θ1 + θ2 , T2
(c) T1 = (d) θ1 − θ2 , T1 = T2 .
2 2 2
11. For a composite shaft made of two concentric shafts one solid and other hollow, the torque
T is given as
T T2 T
(a) T1 – T2 (b) 1 (c) T1 + T2 (d) 1 T2 .
2 2
12. For the composite shaft in Question No. 11, the angle of twist produced is equal to
θ1 − θ2
(a) T = T1 + T2 (b) T = T1 – T2 (b) T = (d) T = T1 = T2.
2
13. For a shaft being subjected to a torque T, the variation of the shear stress w.r.t. its radius is
(a) linear (b) parabolic (c) hyperbolic (d) none of these.
14. The shear stress for a shaft being subjected to a torque T is minimum at
(a) half of radius from the axis (b) axis of the shaft
(c) equal radial distances from the axis (d) its both ends.
15. The polar modulus of a shaft of diameter d is given as

3 4 3 4
(a) πd (b) πd (c) πd (d) πd .
32 64 16 32
16. The shear strain in a circular shaft varies
(a) linearly with the distance from axis of the shaft
(b) inversely proportional to the distance from axis of the shaft
(c) inversely proportional to the square of the distance from axis of the shaft
(d) linearly with the square of the distance from the shaft.
17. The shear strain is maximum

(a) at a distance equal to one-third from axis of the shaft
(b) at the centre of shaft
(c) on the surface of shaft
(d) none of these.
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (c)
10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (c)
EXERCISES
1. Find the loZHVWVSHHGDWZKLFKN:FRXOGEHWUDQVPLWWHGWKURXJKDVKDIWRIGLDPHWHUPP

7KHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLVOLPLWHGWR03D,IOHQJWKRIWKHVKDIWLVP¿QGWKHDQJOHRI
twist. Take G = 80 GPa.
(Ans. 972.5 rpm, 6.82o).
2. $VROLGFLUFXODUVKDIWWUDQVPLWVDSRZHURIN:DWUSP,IWKHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLV
OLPLWHGWR3D¿QGGLDPHWHURIWKHVKDIW:KDWSHUFHQWRIVDYLQJLQZHLJKWFDQEHDFKLHYHG
if solid shaft is replaced by a hollow shaft with inside diameter being equal to 0.6 times
the outside diameter. Both shafts are of equal length, made of same material and are being
subjected to the same maximum shear stress.
(Ans. 122.15 mm, 29.72%).
3. A hollow shaft of inside diameter 80 mm and outside diameter 120 mm is twisted by 1.5 o. Find
WKHUHTXLUHGWRUTXHLIOHQJWKRIWKHVKDIWLVP$OVR¿QGVKHDUVWUHVVDWWKHLQQHUDQGRXWHU
surfaces of the shaft. Take G = 80 GPa.
(Ans. 17 kN¹m, 41.6 MPa, 62.85 MPa).
4. (a) A hollow circular shaft of inner radius 30 mm and outer radius 50 mm and length 1 m is
subjected to a twisting moment so that the angular twist in the shaft is 0.57 o. Find the
maximum shear angle in the shaft.
(b) A hollow shaft of outer radius 100 mm and inner radius 40 mm is subjected to a twisting
moment. The maximum shear stress developed in the shaft is 50 MPa. Find the shear stress
at the inner radius of the shaft.
(Ans. (a) 0.028o; (b) 20 MPa).
5. $KROORZVWHHOVKDIWRIRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUPPLVWRWUDQVPLWDSRZHURIN:DWUSP
Find its inside diameter, if the maximum shear stress in the shaft is limited to 50 MPa.
(Ans. 82.96 mm).
6. Two pulleys are attached to different shafts as shown in Fig. 7.24. The motor attached exerts
a torque of 3.0 N¹m at C. Find the maximum shear stress induced in the shafts AB and BC,
assuming them to be solid.
Fig. 7.24
(Ans. 0.586 MPa, 0.356 MPa).
7. Part AB of the shaft shown in Fig. 7.25 has 25 mm diameter and is subjected to a maximum shear
stress of 75 MPa. Part BC has 60 mm diameter and is subjected to a maximum shear stress of
03D1HJOHFWLQJWKHHIIHFWRIVWUHVVFRQFHQWUDWLRQ¿QGWKHWRUTXHT1 applied at A and the
reaction torque exerted by the support.
Fig. 7.25
(Ans. 230 N¹m, 2120.5 N¹m (anticlockwise)).

8. Two shafts, one solid and another hollow, are made of same material and are of equal length.
They are subjected to same torque. The ratio of inside and outside diameters for the hollow
shaft is 0.75. If both shafts are subjected to the same maximum shear stress, compare their
weights.
⎛ WS ⎞
⎜ Ans. = 1.77 ⎟ .
⎝ WH ⎠
9. Find the maximum torque that can be applied safely to a shaft of diameter 300 mm. The
permissible angle of twist is 1.5o in a length of 7.5 m and the maximum shear is limited to
42 MPa. Take G = 84.4 GPa.
(Ans. 222.6 kN¹m).
10. $KRUL]RQWDOVKDIWRIOHQJWKPLV¿[HGDWLWVHQGV:KHQYLHZHGIURPWKHOHIWHQGD[LDO
couples of 50 kN¹m clockwise and 75 kN¹m anticlockwise act at 5 m and 9 m from the left
HQGUHVSHFWLYHO\'HWHUPLQHWKHHQG¿[LQJFRXSOHVDQGWKHSRVLWLRQZKHUHWKHVKDIWVXIIHUVQR
angular twist.
(Ans. 10.42 kN¹m, Clockwise (left end);
35.42 kN¹m, Anticlockwise (right end);
6.32 m from the left end).
11. A solid circular shaft is subjected to an axial torque T and a bending moment M. If M = kT,
¿QGWKHUDWLRRIWKHPD[LPXPSULQFLSDOVWUHVVWRWKHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLQWHUPVRIk. Find
the power transmitted by a 50 mm diameter shaft at a speed of 300 rpm, when k = 0.4 and the
maximum shear stress is 75 MPa.
⎛ k ⎞
⎜ Ans. 1 + , 57.6 kW⎟ .
⎜⎝ (1 + k 2 ) ⎟⎠

8
Springs
Robert Hooke, born on 18 July 1635, was an English inventor,

microscopist, physicist, surveyor, astronomer, biologist and polymath.
He founded the law of elasticity, widely known as Hooke’s Law, in 1660,
which forms the basis of design for many engineering structures and
components. He originated the word ‘Cell’ in biology, which describes
the tiniest component of a living system. He is the inventor of the iris
diaphragm in cameras, the universal joint used in the motor vehicles and
the balance wheel in a watch. He discovered the red spot of Jupiter and
ZDV WKH ¿UVW WR UHSRUW DERXW WKH URWDWLRQ RI WKH SODQHW +H GHYLVHG WKH
ZRUOG¶V¿UVWFRPSRXQGPLFURVFRSHWKDWXVHGGLDSKUDJP
Robert Hooke
(1635-1703)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
+RZGRHVWKHVSULQJGHÀHFWLRQYDU\ZLWKWKHORDGDSSOLHG"
:K\LVOHDIVSULQJDOVRFDOOHGFDUULDJHVSULQJ"
:KDWLV:DKOFRUUHFWLRQIDFWRU"
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_8
8.1 INTRODUCTION
A spring is a device used to absorb or store energy and release it when required. The deformation
produced in the spring is not of permanent nature and vanishes on removal of load due to its elastic
QDWXUH ,W ¿QGV DSSOLFDWLRQ LQ PHFKDQLFDO FORFNV VKRFN DEVRUEHUV UHFLSURFDWLQJ PHFKDQLVPV
automobile elements etc.
8.2 SPRING TERMINOLOGY

z Proof Load : It is the maximum load a spring can be subjected without undergoing permanent
deformation.
z Proof stress : It is the stress corresponding to the proof load.
z Resilience : It is the strain energy stored in the spring when loaded within elastic limit. Once the
load is removed, the energy is given up or released.
z Proof resilience : It is the maximum strain energy stored in the spring when loaded within elastic
limit.
z Modulus of Resilience : It is the maximum strain energy stored per unit volume.
z Stiffness ,WLVWKHORDGUHTXLUHGWRSURGXFHXQLWGHÀHFWLRQLQWKHVSULQJ
8.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SPRINGS

Various types of springs are employed for different applications. Important types are discussed
below.
Helical springs are in the form of a helix made of a rod of circular, square or rectangular cross-
section, but the circular section is most frequently used. Square or rectangular sections are used in
heavy duty springs. The main disadvantages of non-circular wire section springs include non-uniform
stress distribution and less energy absorbing capacity of the spring.
Helical springs are also known as torsion springs, because they are subjected to torsion. Helical
springs may be in the cylindrical or conical form.
Cylindrical helical springs are subjected to tension or compression. A conical helical spring is used
where there is a space problem or a single spring with a variable stiffness is desired. They are used for
KHDY\ORDGVDQGGHÀHFWLRQV+HOLFDOVSULQJVDUHXVHGLQVKRFNDEVRUEHUVUHFLSURFDWLQJPHFKDQLVPVIURQW
D[OHVXVSHQVLRQRIYHKLFOHVHWF7KH\DUHFODVVL¿HGLQWRWZRJURXSVGHSHQGLQJXSRQDQJOHRIKHOL[
In the close coiled helical spring, angle of helix is very small and can be approximated to zero so
that plane of the coil is at right angle to the axis of the spring.
In the open coiled helical spring, plane of the coil of the spring makes certain angle with the
horizontal.
Depending upon the nature of applications, helical springs can be of compression and tension type.
Laminated springs or leaf springs are made of a number of thin curved plates of uniform thickness
but different lengths which are placed over each other and clamped together at the centre. They may
be of cantilever, semi-elliptical or elliptical type. The most common type of leaf spring is semi-
elliptical leaf spring. For very heavy loads to be supported, it can be elliptical leaf spring. Laminated
VSULQJVDUHDOVRFDOOHGFDUULDJHVSULQJVDQG¿QGDSSOLFDWLRQLQWKHVXVSHQVLRQV\VWHPRIIURQWRUUHDU
axles of cars, trucks, trains etc. Sometimes they are also known as bending springs because being
subjected to bending only.
Springs 367
Flat springs DUHPDGHRIDÀDWVWULSDQGPD\EHLQWKHIRUPRIDFDQWLOHYHURUDVLPSOHEHDP7KH

HQGRIWKHÀDWFDQWLOHYHUVSULQJFDQEHJXLGHGDORQJDGH¿QLWHSDWKDVLWGHÀHFWV7KXVWKHVSULQJPD\
act as a structural member as well as an energy absorbing device.
Spiral spring FRQVLVWVRIDÀDWVWULSZRXQGLQWKHIRUPRIDVSLUDODQGLVORDGHGLQWRUVLRQ7KH
major stresses produced in the spring are tensile and compressive due to bending by the applied load.
Various types of springs are shown in Fig. 8.1.
Fig. 8.1 Types of springs.
Sometimes springs are used to support a body that has vibrational problems. Sofa springs are the
H[DPSOHVRIFRQLFDOKHOLFDOVSULQJV'HPHULWVRIWKHVSULQJLQFOXGHGLI¿FXOW\LQLWVPDQXIDFWXUHDQG
buckling during the use.
8.4 LOAD-DEFLECTION CURVE

,IZHSORWORDGGHÀHFWLRQGLDJUDPIRUDVSULQJDVWUDLJKWOLQHLVREWDLQHGVXJJHVWLQJWKDWGHÀHFWLRQ
LVGLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHORDGDSSOLHG)RUDQH[DPSOHLIWKHORDGLVGRXEOHGWKHQGHÀHFWLRQ
will also be doubled (Fig. 8.2). The straight relationship is valid only if the spring is stressed within
elastic limit. It is equally applicable in case when a torque or moment is acting in place of a load and
OLQHDUGHÀHFWLRQLVUHSODFHGE\DQJXODUGHÀHFWLRQ
Fig. 8.2 /RDG9HUVXVGHÀHFWLRQFXUYHIRUDVSULQJ
8.5 LEAF SPRING

A leaf spring, also called laminated spring, is shown in Fig. 8.3. The long leaf or plate fastened to
the supports is called the main leaf or master leaf. Its ends are bent to form an eye. If heavy loading
is to be applied, one or more full length leaves are provided below the master leaf. The bundle of
leaves having same thickness but different length are clamped together at the centre. All the leaves are
bent to same curvature. The spring rests on the axle of the vehicle and is pin jointed to the chasis at
the eyes.
Fig. 8.3 A leaf spring.
Consider a leaf spring hinged at both ends and carrying a load W at the centre. The load W is
distributed equally at the two eyes.
Let Span of the spring (biggest leaf) = l
:LGWKRIHDFKSODWH b
Thickness of each plate = t
Number of plates in the spring = n
Bending stress in the plate = Vb
'HÀHFWLRQRIWKHPDVWHUSODWH G
Radius of curvature of each plate = R
The bending moment is maximum at the centre and goes on decreasing towards the ends (eyes);
therefore maximum resistance of moment is required at the centre and less towards the ends. That
Springs 369
is why leafs of gradually reducing lengths are used in the spring. The law of variation of bending
moment is linear.
Using bending equation, the moment of resistance is found to be
nVb bt 2
Mr = ... (8.1)
6
The maximum bending moment due to load applied on the spring is given as
Wl
M = ... (8.2)
4
Equation (8.2) is obtained on comparing the spring with a simply supported beam loaded with a
point load at the centre.
From the two equations (8.1) and (8.2), we have
Wl nVb ¸ bt 2
=
4 6
3Wl
or Vb = ... (8.3)
2nbt 2
The radius of curvature can be obtained by considering Fig. 8.4.
Fig. 8.4
2
⎛ l ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ + (R – G)2 = R2
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
l2
or G = ... (8.4)
8R
From bending equation
Vb E
=
(t / 2) R
Et
or R = ... (8.5)
2Vb
Substituting R in equation (8.4), we get
Vb l 2
G = ... (8.6)
4 Et
where E = Modulus of elasticity of the spring material
$QRWKHUHTXDWLRQIRUGHÀHFWLRQFDQEHREWDLQHGE\VXEVWLWXWLQJVb in equation (8.6) as

3Wl 3
G = ... (8.7)
8n Ebt 3
The strain energy stored in the spring is due to the work done by the load acting on it, given by
1
U = W G ... (8.8)
2
Substituting G in equation (8.8), we get strain energy as
3
1 3Wl
U = ×W×
2 8n Ebt 3
3W 2l 3
or U = ... (8.9)
16n Ebt 3
The strain energy can also be expressed in terms of bending stress and volume of spring, given by
Vb2
U = × Volume of the spring ... (8.10)
6E
n
where Volume of spring = lbt
2
Example 8.1
A steel carriage spring is 800 mm long and carries a central load of 6 kN. The plates are 70 mm wide
and 5 mm thick. Determine the number of plates in the spring to sustain a maximum bending stress
of 200 N/mm2:KDWZLOOEHWKHGHÀHFWLRQLQWKHVSULQJ"7RZKDWUDGLXVVKRXOGHDFKSODWHEHFXUYHG
VRWKDWLWEHFRPHVVWUDLJKWXQGHUWKHJLYHQORDG"7DNHE = 200 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Length of the biggest plate, l = 800 mm
Central load on the spring, W = 6 kN = 6000 N
:LGWKRIWKHSODWH b = 70 mm
Thickness of the plate, t = 5 mm
Bending stress induced in the spring, Vb = 200 N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity of spring material, E = 200 kN/mm2 = 2 × 105 N/mm2
Let
Number of plates in the spring =n
'HÀHFWLRQRIWKHVSULQJ =G
Radius of curvature of each plate =R
Using equation (8.3) for bending stress, we have
3Wl
Vb =
2nbt 2
Springs 371
3q 6000 q 800
200 =
2 q n q 70 q 52
or n = 20.57
Hence, the number of plates can be taken to be 21.
Ans.
1RZXVLQJHTXDWLRQIRUGHÀHFWLRQZHKDYH
3Wl 3
G =
8n E bt 3
3
3× 6000 ×(800)
or G = = 31.34 mm Ans.
8 × 21× 2 ×105 × 70 × 53
For the radius of curvature, use equation (8.4).
l2
G =
8R
2
l2 (800)
or R = = = 2.552 m Ans.
8G 8 × 31.34
Example 8.2
A laminated steel spring of length 900 mm carries a central proof load of 8 kN. The maximum
GHÀHFWLRQDWWKHFHQWUHLVPPDQGWKHEHQGLQJVWUHVVVKRXOGQRWH[FHHGN1PP 2. Determine
the thickness, width, number of plates, and the radius to which the plates should be bent. Assume the
plate width to be ten times its thickness. Take E = 200 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Load on the spring, W = 8 kN = 8000 N
'HÀHFWLRQRIWKHVSULQJ G = 60 mm
Bending stress induced in the spring, Vb = 0.5 kN/mm2 = 500 N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity, E = 200 kN/mm2 = 2 × 105 N/mm2
/HW :LGWKRIWKHSODWH b
Thickness of the plate =t
Number of plates in the spring = n
Given, b = 10t ... (1)
8VLQJHTXDWLRQIRUGHÀHFWLRQZHKDYH
3Wl 2
G =
8nEbt 3
3
3× 8000 ×(900)
60 =
8n × 2 ×105 ×10t × t 3
or nt4 = 18225 ...(2)
Using equation (8.3) for bending stress, we have

3Wl
Vb =
2nbt 2
3q 8000 q 900
500 =
2n q10t q t 2
or nt3 = 2160 ...(3)
Dividing equation (2) by equation (3), we get
18225
t = = 8.43 mm
2160
Hence, the thickness of the plate can be chosen to be 8 mm. Ans.
From equation (1)
b = 10t = 10 × 8 = 80 mm Ans.
From equation (3)

2160
n = = 4.21
83
Hence, the number of plates can be 5. Ans.
7KHDFWXDOGHÀHFWLRQXQGHUWKHSURRIORDGLVJLYHQDV
3
3× 8000 ×(900)
Gp = 3 = 53.4 mm (using equation (8.7))
8 × 5 × 2 ×105 × 80 ×(8)
The radius of curvature is found by using equation (8.4).
l2
R =
8δ p
2
(900)
= = 1.896 m
8 × 53.4
Hence, the radius of curvature of each plate = 1.896 m. Ans.
Example 8.3
A steel carriage spring of length 1.5 m having plate width 150 mm and thickness 10 mm is subjected
to a bending stress of 200 N/mm2. The spring during its straightening absorbs 150 joule of energy.
Find the number of plates and their radius of curvature. Take E = 200kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Length of the biggest plate, l = 1.5 m = 1500 mm
Modulus of Elasticity of spring material, E = 200 kN/mm2 = 2 × 105 N/mm2
Springs 373

Strain energy stored in the spring, U = 150 joules
Let, Number of plates, =n
Radius of curvature of each plate, =R
The strain energy stored in the spring is given by the equation (8.10) as
Vb2 n
U = q lbt
6E 2
2
3 (200) × n ×1500 ×150 ×10
150 × 10 =
6 × 2 ×105 × 2
or n =4 Ans.
7R¿QGWKHUDGLXVRIFXUYDWXUHXVHHTXDWLRQ
Et 2 ×105 ×10
R = = =5m Ans.
2Vb 2 × 200
Example 8.4
A steel carriage spring of length 1 m has 15 leaves, each 150 mm wide and 10 mm thick. It is subjected
to a maximum bending stress of 300 N/mm2. Find the curvature of each leaf.
A load of 200 N is dropped on the spring without exceeding the given bending stress. Neglecting the
ORVVRIHQHUJ\DWLPSDFW¿QGWKHPD[LPXPKHLJKWWKURXJKZKLFKWKHORDGIDOOVRQWKHVSULQJ7DNH
E = 200 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Length of the biggest leaf, l = 1 m = 1000 mm
Number of leaves in the spring, n = 15
Width of the leaf, b = 150 mm
Thickness of the leaf, t = 10 mm
Load to be dropped on the spring, W = 200 N
Modulus of elasticity, E = 200 kN/mm2
= 2 × 105 N/mm2
Let
Radius of curvature of each plate =R
Height of load =h
The radius of curvature R can be found by using equation (8.5).
Et 2 ×105 ×10
R = = = 3.34 m Ans.
2V b 2 × 300
7KHGHÀHFWLRQLQWKHVSULQJLVJLYHQE\HTXDWLRQ
2
(1000)
G = = 37.5 mm
8 × 3.34 ×103
The potential energy at a height h is given as
P.E = W (G + h) = 200 (37.5 + h) ... (1)

The potential energy is stored in the spring as strain energy given by equation (8.10).
Vb2 n
U = q lbt
6E 2
2
(300) 15
= × × 1000 × 150 × 10 = 843.75 joule ... (2)
6 × 2 ×10 5
2
Equating equations (1) and (2), we have
200 (37.5 + h) = 843.75 × 103
or h = 4.18 m Ans.
8.6 QUARTER-ELLIPTIC LEAF SPRING

The analysis of a quarter-elliptic leaf spring (also called cantilever laminated spring) can be made by
comparing the spring with a cantilever beam loaded with a point load at its free end (Fig. 8.5). In this
case, maximum bending moment is given as
M = Wl ... (8.11)
Fig. 8.5 $TXDUWHUHOOLSWLFOHDIVSULQJ
Using equations (8.1) and (8.11), we get the equation for maximum bending stress.
6Wl
Vbmax = ... (8.12)
nbt 2
Springs 375
'HÀHFWLRQLQWKHVSULQJLVJLYHQDV
6Wl 3
G = ... (8.13)
nE bt 3
Radius of curvature of each leaf is found to be
l2 Et
R = ... (8.14)
2δ 2σbmax
Example 8.5
A quarter-elliptic leaf spring has 10 leaves with cross-section of each leaf being 100 mm × 10 mm.
The spring is 500 mm long. The bending stress is not to exceed 300 N/mm2. Determine the following
parameters of the spring.
(a) the maximum load which can be applied on the spring
(b WKHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGDQG
(c) the radius of curvature of leaves
Take E = 200 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Number of leaves in the spring, n = 10
Lenth of the biggest plate, l = 500 mm
Maximum bending stress induced in the spring, Vbmax = 300 N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity, E = 200kN/mm2 = 2 × 105 N/mm2
(a) Use equation (8.12) to get the load W acting on the spring.
6Wl
Vbmax =
nbt 2
6W q 500
300 =
10 q100 q102
or W = 10 kN Ans.
(b 7KHGHÀHFWLRQFDQEHREWDLQHGE\XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
3
6Wl 3 6 ×10 ×103 ×(500)
G = = = 37.5 mm Ans.
nE bt 3 10 × 2 ×105 ×100 ×103
(c) Use equation (8.14) for the radius of curvature.
l2 5002
R = = = 3.34 m Ans.
2δ 2 × 37.5
Example 8.6
$TXDUWHUHOOLSWLFOHDIVSULQJRIOHQJWKPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDORDGRIN1SURGXFLQJDGHÀHFWLRQ
of 100 mm. The cross-section of the spring is 70 mm × 10 mm. Determine the following parameters
of the spring:
(a) the number of leaves in the spring
(b) the maximum bending stress induced in the spring and
(c) the height through which if the given load is dropped on the spring, is to produce a maximum
bending stress of 1 kN/mm2
Solution: Given,
Load on the spring, W = 3 kN = 3 × 103 N
'HÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHVSULQJ G = 100 mm
(a) Use equation (8.13) for number of leaves in the spring.
6Wl 3
G =
nE bt 3
3
6 × 3×103 ×(700)
100 =
10 × 2 ×105 × 70 ×103
or n = 4.41
Hence, the number of leaves can be chosen to be 5. Ans.
(b) The maximum bending stress induced in the spring can be obtained by using equation (8.12).
6Wl 6 × 3×103 × 700
Vbmax = = = 360 N/mm2 Ans.
nbt 2 5 × 70 ×102
(c) If We is the equivalent gradually applied load to produce the given bending stress. Equation (8.12)
LVDJDLQXVHGWR¿QGWe.
6We q 700
1000 =
5 q 70 q102
or We = 8.34 kN
This is the equivalent impact load corresponding to the given load of 3 kN.
7KHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGE\WKHLPSDFWORDGLVJLYHQDV
3
6 × 8.34 ×103 ×(700)
Ge = = 245 mm.
5 × 2 ×105 × 70 ×103
Springs 377
Using principle’s of energy, we have

Loss of potential energy = Gain of strain energy
1
W (h + Ge) = qWe q Ge
2
where, h is the height through which the load falls.
1
3 × 103 (h + 245) = q 8.34 q103 q 245
2
or h = 95.2 mm Ans.
8.7 SPIRAL SPRING

$VSLUDOVSULQJFRQVLVWVRIDÀDWVWULSRIUHFWDQJXODUVHFWLRQZRXQGLQWRDVSLUDO)LJ,WLVXVHG
to produce torsion on the axle to which one of its end (inner one) is attached. If a force W, acting at
a radius x, is applied to the axis of the spring, a twisting moment Wx is set up.
Let
Bending stress induced in the spring = Vb
:LGWKRIVSULQJVWULS b
Length of spring strip =l
Thickness of spring strip =t
The maximum bending stress in the spring is found to be
12Wx
Vbmax = (using bending equation) ...(8.15)
bt 2
12M
= ...(8.16)
bt 2
where M = Wx :LQGLQJWRUTXHRUWXUQLQJPRPHQWRQWKHVSLQGOH
7KHDQJXODUGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHVSULQJLVJLYHQDV
Wxl Ml
T (radian) = ...(8.17)
EI EI
where E = Modulus of elasticity of the spring material
I = Moment of inertia of the spring cross-section
The strain energy stored in the spring is given as
1
U = q M qT
2
1 Wxl
= qWx q ...(on substituting T )
2 EI
W 2 x 2l
= ...(8.18)
2 EI
The number of turns given to the spindle is given as

θ
n = ...(8.19)
2π
Example 8.7
$ÀDWVSLUDOVSULQJZLWKUHFWDQJXODUVHFWLRQPPîPPLVPHWUHORQJ2QHHQGRILWLVDWWDFKHG
WRDVPDOOVSLQGOHDQGRWKHUWRD¿[HGSRLQW7KHEHQGLQJVWUHVVLVQRWWRH[FHHGN1PP 2. Find
the following parameters of the spring:
(a) the maximum turning moment applied to the spindle
(b) the number of turns and
(c) the strain energy stored in the spring
The modulus of elasticity of the spring material can be taken to be 200 kN/mm 2.
Solution: Given,
:LGWKRIWKHVSULQJVHFWLRQ b = 10 mm
Thickness of the spring section, t = 0.5 mm
Length of the spring, l = 5 m = 5 × 103 mm
Bending stress induced in the spring, Vbmax = 0.5 kN/mm2 = 500 N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity of spring material, E = 200 kN/mm2 = 2 × 105 N/mm2

(a) The maximum turning moment applied to the spindle is given by equation (8.16).
12M
Vbmax =
bt 2
12M
500 =
10 q(0.5) 2
or M = 104.16 N.mm Ans.
(b 7KHDQJXODUGHÀHFWLRQT of the spring is given by using equation (8.17).
Ml
T =
EI
104.16 × 5 ×103
= = 25 radian
5 ⎡ 1 3⎤
2 ×10 × ⎢ ×10 × (0.5) ⎥
⎢⎣12 ⎥⎦
For number of turns, use equation (8.19).
θ 25
n = = 3.97
2π 2π
Hence, the number of turns can be chosen to be 4. Ans.
Springs 379
(c) Strain energy stored in the spring can be found by using equation (8.18).
1
U = q M qT
2
1
= q104.16 q 25
2
= 1.3 joules Ans.
Example 8.8
$ÀDWVSLUDOVSULQJKDYLQJFURVVVHFWLRQPPîPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDPD[LPXPEHQGLQJVWUHVV
of 1 kN/mm27KH VSULQJ FDQ VWRUH DQ HQHUJ\ RI -RXOH:LWK E = 200 kN/mm2, determine the
following parameters of the spring:
(a) the maximum torque required
(b) the number of turns given to the spindle and
(c) the length of the spring.
Solution: Given,
:LGWKRIWKHVSULQJVHFWLRQ b = 20 mm
Thickness of the spring section, t = 0.5 mm
Maximum bending stress, Vbmax = 1 kN/mm2 = 1000 N/mm2
Energy stored in the spring, U = 10 Joule
(a) The maximum torque required can be obtained by using equation (8.16).
12M
Vbmax =
bt 2
12M
1000 =
20 q(0.5) 2
or M = 416.6 Nmm
Hence, the required torque is 416.6 Nmm. Ans.
(b) The strain energy is given as
1
U =q M qT
2
1
10 × 103 = q 416.6 q T
2
or T = 48 radian
The number of turns is given by equation (8.19).
θ 48
n = = 7.64 Ans.
2π 2π
(c) The length of the spring can be found by using equation (8.17).
Ml
T =
EI
416.6 × l
48 =
⎡1 ⎤
2 ×105 × ⎢ × 20 × (0.5)3 ⎥
⎢⎣12 ⎥⎦
or l = 4.8m Ans.
8.8 HELICAL SPRING
8.8.1 Close Coiled Helical Spring subjected to an Axial Load

Fig. 8.6 shows a close coiled helical spring subjected to an axial load W.
Let R = Mean radius of the coil
d = Diameter of the spring wire
n = Number of turns or coils in the spring
T = Angle of twist produced in the spring wire
G 'HÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGE\WKHDSSOLHGORDGW
W = Shear stress induced in the wire of spring
G = Modulus of rigidity of spring material
Each section of the wire of spring is subjected to torsional shear stress and hence such springs are
also called torsion springs. Bending effect, on account of its negligible value is neglected. Effect of
direct stress is also neglected due to similar reasons.
Total length of the spring wire, l = 2S Rn
Fig. 8.6 $FORVHFRLOHGKHOLFDOVSULQJVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOORDG

Springs 381

T GT
= ... (8.20)
J l
where T = WR = Torque applied on the spring
J = Polar moment of inertia of the spring wire
π 4
= d
32
Substituting T, J and l in equation (8.20), we have
64WR 2 n
T = ...(8.21)
Gd 4
This is the required expression for the angle of twist expressed in radian.
Shear stress induced in the spring is found by using torsion formula.
T W
=
J r
where r is radius of the spring wire.
On substituting T and JWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQJLYHVVKHDUVWUHVVLQWKHRXWHUPRVW¿EUHRIWKHVSULQJ
wire as
16WR
W = ...(8.22)
πd 3
(TXDWLRQ JLYHV PD[LPXP VKHDU VWUHVV LQGXFHG LQ WKH VSULQJ ZLUH :KLOH GHULYLQJ WKLV
equation, the effect of the curvature of the wire is neglected. This is true only when the spring is
subjected to static loads, because yielding of the spring material will relieve the stresses. Also, the
effect of direct stress has been neglected.
Curvature of the spring wire in the calculation of maximum shear stress was introduced by A.M.
:DKOZKRLVIDPRXVIRUKLVERRNµ0HFKDQLFDO6SULQJV¶FRQVLGHUHGDVWKHELEOHRIVSULQJGHVLJQ
$FFRUGLQJO\WKHHTXDWLRQIRUWKHVKHDUVWUHVVLVPRGL¿HGDV
8WD
Wmax = q KW ... (8.23)
πd 3
where KW :DKOFRUUHFWLRQIDFWRU
8C − 1 0.615
= +
4C − 4 C
D
C = Spring index = for circular spring wires
d
1
U = TT
2
1 64WR 2 n 32W 2 R3 n
= WR × = ... (8.24)
2 Gd 4 Gd 4
The strain energy in terms of shear stress can be expressed as
W2
4G
The workdone on the spring is equal to the strain energy stored in it.
1 1
U = Wδ Tθ ... (8.26)
2 2
2U
or G =
W
2 ⎛⎜ 32W 2 R3 n ⎞⎟⎟
= ⎜ ⎟ (on substituting U)
W ⎜⎜⎝ Gd 4 ⎟⎠
64WR3 n
= ... (8.27)
Gd 4
7KLVLVWKHUHTXLUHGH[SUHVVLRQIRUGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHVSULQJXQGHUWKHD[LDOORDGW.
Axial stiffness of the spring, KLVGH¿QHGDV
W Gd 4
K = ... (8.28)
G 64 R3 n
8.8.2 Close Coiled Helical Spring subjected to an Axial Twist
Let the spring shown in Fig. 8.7 is subjected to an axial couple at its free end. The effect of this may
be to open or close the spring, resulting in change in number of turns/coils of the spring. The number
of turns in the spring increases if the torque resulting from the applied couple closes the spring and
number of turns decreases if the torque opens the spring. During the analysis of such spring, effect
of torsional shear stress is neglected and only bending stress is considered.
Fig. 8.7 $FORVHFRLOHGKHOLFDOVSULQJVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOWZLVW

Springs 383
The length of the spring is obtained as

l = 2S R1 n = 2SR2 nc ...(8.29)
where R1 and R2 ,QLWLDODQG¿QDOPHDQUDGLXVRIWKHFRLOUHVSHFWLYHO\
n and nc ,QLWLDODQG¿QDOQXPEHURIFRLOVLQWKHVSULQJUHVSHFWLYHO\
Length of the spring remains constant, but radius of coil and number of coils change when axial
couple is applied.
Using bending equation, the bending moment M is given as
⎡1 1⎤
M = EI ⎢⎢ − ⎥⎥ ...(8.30)
⎣ R1 R2 ⎦
Using equation (8.29), equation (8.30) transforms to
2πEI
M = [n – nc] ... (8.31)
l
The angle of twist (in radian) at the free end of spring is given as
I = 2S (n – nc) ... (8.32)
8VLQJHTXDWLRQZH¿QGI to be
Ml
I = ... (8.33)
EI
If the spring is made of circular wire of diameter d, then
π 4
I = d
64
Equation (8.33) on using equations (8.29) and (8.31) becomes
128MRn
I = (R1 |R2 = R) ... (8.34)
Ed 4
The angular stiffness of the spring is given as
M EI
K1 =
φ l
Ed 4
= ... (8.35)
128Rn
The bending stress induced in the spring is calculated by using bending equation.
M Vb
=
I y
where Vb = Maximum bending stress induced in the spring
d
y =
2
32 M
Hence, Vb = ... (8.36)
πd3

1
U = Mφ
2
64M 2 Rn
= ... (8.37)
Ed 4
The strain energy can also be expressed in terms of bending stress, given as
Vb2
8E
8.8.3 Open Coiled Helical Spring subjected to an Axial Load
7KH¿JXUHIRUDQRSHQFRLOHGKHOLFDOVSULQJXQGHUWKHDFWLRQRIDQD[LDOORDGW is similar to as shown
in Fig. 8.6. The load produces two types of moments, one has twisting action and another has bending
effect. The two moments are :
⎫
Twisting moment, T = WR cos D⎪
⎪
⎬ ... (8.39)
Bending moment, M = WR sin D ⎪
⎪
⎭
where D = Angle of helix
The equivalent twisting moment is obtained as
Te = T2 M2
= W 2 R 2 cos 2 D W 2 R 2 sin 2 D = WR ... (8.40)
The equivalent bending moment is obtained as

1 2 2
Me = [ M T M ]
2
1
= [WR sin D W 2 R 2 cos 2 D W 2 R 2 sin 2 D]
2
1
= [WR sin α + WR ]
2
WR
= [1 sin D] ... (8.41)
2
The maximum direct stress induced in the spring wire is given as
32 M e
Vb = (using bending equation ) ... (8.42)
πd3
The maximum shear stress induced in the spring wire is given as
16Te
W = (using torsion equation) ... (8.43)
πd 3
The total length of wire in the spring is given as
l = 2S nR sec D ... (8.44)
Springs 385
The strain energy stored in the spring is due to torsion and bending effect both.
The strain energy due to torsion is given as
1 T 2l
Ut = Tθ (using torsion equation) ... (8.45)
2 2GJ
where T = Angle of twist produced in the spring wire
64WR 2 n sin D ⎡ 1 2 ⎤
= ⎢ − ⎥ ... (8.46)
d4 ⎢⎣ G E ⎥⎦
The strain energy due to bending moment is found as
1
Ub = M θ
2
M 2l ⎛ ⎞
= ⎜⎜using M = E and l = θ⎟⎟ ... (8.47)
2 EI ⎜⎝ I R R ⎟⎠
The total strain energy stored in the spring is given as
UT = Ut + Ub
l ⎡⎢ T 2 M 2 ⎤⎥
= + ... (8.48)
2 ⎢⎢⎣ GJ EI ⎥⎦⎥
W 2 R 2l ⎡⎢ cos 2 D sin 2 D ⎤⎥
= + ... (8.49)
2 ⎢⎢⎣ GJ EI ⎥⎥⎦
:RUNGRQHRQWKHVSULQJLVDOVRIRXQGDV
1
W G = UT ... (8.50)
2
&RPSDULQJHTXDWLRQVDQGZH¿QGWKHYDOXHRIGHÀHFWLRQG as
⎡ 2
2 ⎢ cos D sin 2 D ⎤⎥
G = WR l ⎢ GJ + ... (8.51)
⎢⎣ EI ⎥⎥⎦
For a spring made of circular wire of diameter d, we have
πd 4 πd 4
I= and J =
64 32
Now equation (8.51) changes to
64WR 3n sec α ⎡⎢ cos2 α 2 sin 2 α ⎤⎥

G =
d4 ⎢ G + E ⎥ ... (8.52)
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
On comparing this equation with close-coiled helical spring, where D is zero, equation (8.52)
reduces to equation (8.27).
8.8.4 Open Coiled Helical Spring subjected to an Axial Twist

Let an open coiled helical spring be subjected to a torque M which produces both twisting and
bending.
⎫
Twisting moment, T' = M sin D ⎪
⎪
⎬
Bending moment, M' = M cos D⎪ ⎪
⎭ ... (8.53)
The equivalent twisting moment is found as

Te = T' 2 M' 2
= M 2 sin 2 D M 2 cos 2 D = M ... (8.54)
The equivalent bending moment is found as

1
Me = [ M' T' 2 M' 2 ]
2
1 2 2 2 2
= [ M cos D M sin D M cos D]
2
M
=[1 cos D] ... (8.55)
2
The maximum direct stress induced in the spring is given as
32 M e
Vb = (using bending equation) ... (8.56)
πd 3
The maximum shear stress induced in the spring is given as
16Te
W = (using torsion equation) ... (8.57)
πd 3
The total strain energy stored in the spring is given as
1 1
UT = T ′ θ′ + M ′ φ′ ... (8.58)
2 2
where T c and Ic are the angles of twist due to T c and M c respectively, and are expressed as
T al M al
Tc = and I = ... (8.59)
GJ EI
1
Also UT = MI ... (8.60)
2
where I is the net angle of twist because of the combined effects.
Comparing equations (8.58) and (8.60) and using equations (8.53) and (8.59), we have
64MRn sec D ⎡⎢ sin 2 D 2 cos 2 D ⎤⎥

I =
d4 ⎢ G + E ⎥⎥⎦
... (8.61)
⎢⎣
(on using l = 2S Rn sec D)
Springs 387
On comparing this equation with close coiled helical spring, where D = 0 and subjected to an axial
twist MZH¿QGWKDWHTXDWLRQLVVLPLODUWRHTXDWLRQ
7KHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHVSULQJZLWKFLUFXODUZLUHLVIRXQGWREH
64MR 2 n sin D ⎡ 1 2 ⎤
G = ⎢ − ⎥ ...(8.62)
d4 ⎢⎣ G E ⎥⎦
Example 8.9
A close coiled helical spring of circular section having a mean coil diameter of 60 mm is subjected
to an axial load of 80 N applied at the end of spring producing a shear stress of 100 N/mm 2 and a
GHÀHFWLRQRIPP)LQGWKHGLDPHWHUWKHQXPEHURIFRLOVWKHOHQJWKRIWKHVSULQJZLUHDQGWKH
strain energy stored in the spring. Take G = 80 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Mean diameter of the coil, D = 60 mm
Axial load on the spring, W = 80 N
Shear stress induced in the spring, W = 100 N/mm2
'HÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHVSULQJ G = 50 mm
Modulus of rigidity of spring material, G = 80 kN/mm2 = 8 × 104 N/mm2
The diameter of the spring wire can be found by using equation (8.22).
16WR
W =
πd 3
⎛16WR ⎞⎟1 / 3
or d = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ πτ ⎟⎠
⎛ ⎞1/ 3
⎜⎜16 ×80 × 60 ⎟⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟
= ⎜⎜ = 4.96 mm
⎜⎜ π ×100 ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ ⎟
⎠
Hence, the diameter of the spring wire is 4.96 mm. Ans.
Using equation (8.27), number of coils in the spring can be found.
64WR3 n
G =
Gd 4
⎛ 60 ⎞⎟3
16 × 80 ×⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × n
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
50 =
8 ×104 × (4.96) 4
or n = 17.5 Ans.
The length of the spring wire is given by
l = 2S Rn
60
= 2πq × 17.5 = 3.29 m Ans.
2
The strain energy stored in the spring can be found using equation (8.24).
32W 2 R3 n
U =
Gd 4
⎛ 60 ⎞3
32 × 802 ×⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ×17.5
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
= = 1.99 joule Ans.
8 ×104 × (4.96) 4
Example 8.10
A close coiled helical spring made of steel wire of diameter 6 mm has 15 coils. The spring has mean
coil diameter of 100 mm and is subjected to an axial load of W producing a maximum shear stress
of 100 N/mm2. Find the load WWKHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGDVDUHVXOWRIWKHORDGDSSOLHGDQGWKHZRUN
GRQHWRSURGXFHWKHGHÀHFWLRQ7DNHG = 80 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Spring wire diameter, d = 6 mm
Number of coils, n = 15
Mean coil diameter, D = 100 mm
Shear stress induced in the spring, W = 100 N/mm2
Modulus of rigidity of the spring material, G = 80 kN/mm2 = 8 × 104 N/mm2
Load W can be calculated by using equation (8.22).
16WR
W =
πd 3
⎛100 ⎞⎟
16 ×W ×⎜⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
100 =
π × 63
or W = 84.8 N Ans.
7KHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHVSULQJFDQEHIRXQGE\XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
64WR3 n
G =
Gd 4
3
⎛100 ⎞⎟
64 × 84.8 ×⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎟⎠ ×
15
= = 98.1 mm Ans.
8 ×104 × 64
The workdone on the spring is given as
1 1
W G = q 84.8 q 98.1 = 4.16 Joule Ans.
2 2
Springs 389
Example 8.11
A close coiled helical spring made of steel wire of diameter 7 mm has an axial stiffness of 6 N per
mm and an angular stiffness of 100 Nmm per degree angle of twist. Find the mean radius of the coil,
the number of turns in the spring and its length. Take E = 200 kN/mm2 and G = 80 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Spring wire diameter, d = 7 mm
Axial stiffness of the spring, K = 6 N/mm
Angular stiffness of the spring, K1 = 100 Nmm/degree
The axial stiffness of the spring is given by using equation (8.28).
W Gd 4
K =
G 64 R3 n
8 q104 q 7 4
6 =
64 q R3 n
or R3n = 500208.33 ...(1)
The angular stiffness is given by equation (8.35).
M Ed 4 π
K = = ×
φ 128Rn 180
2 q105 q 74 π
100 = q
128q Rn 180
or Rn = 654.77 ...(2)
Using equations (1) and (2), we get
or R = 27.64 mm Ans.
From equation (2)

654.77
n = = 23.7 Ans.
R
The length of the spring wire is given as
l = 2S Rn = 2S × 27.64 × 23.7 = 4.11 m Ans.
Example 8.12
A close coiled helical spring made of 15 mm steel wire is subjected to an axial load of 200 N. The
VSULQJKDVFRLOVDQGLWVPHDQFRLOUDGLXVLVPP)LQGWKHGHÀHFWLRQWKHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVV
and the strain energy stored in the spring per unit voulme.
Now the axial load is replaced by an axial torque of 11 Nm. Find the axial twist, the maximum
bending stress and the strain energy stored per unit volume of the spring.
Take G = 80 kN/mm2 and E = 200 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Diameter of the spring wire, d = 15 mm
Number of coils in the spring, n = 15
Mean radius of the coil, R = 100 mm
Axial torque on the spring, M = 11 Nm
Modulus of rigidity, G = 80 kN/mm2 = 8 × 104 N/mm2
7KHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHVSULQJLVJLYHQE\HTXDWLRQ
64WR3 n
G =
Gd 4
64 q 200 q1003 q15
= = 47.4 mm Ans.
8 q104 q154
8VHHTXDWLRQWR¿QGWKHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHVSULQJ
16WR 3 16 q 200 q100
W = = = 30.18 N/mm2 Ans.
πd 3
π q153
Use equation (8.25) for the strain energy stored in the spring.
W2
U = × Volume of the spring (V)
4G
2
U W2 (30.18)
or = = = 2.84 × 10–3 Nmm/mm3 Ans.
V 4G 4 × 8 ×104
Use equation (8.34) for the axial twist in the spring.
128MRn
I =
Ed 4
128 q11q103 q100 q15
= = 0.208 radian = 11.95o Ans.
2 q105 q154
For the bending stress in the spring, use equation (8.36).
32 M 32 q11q103
Vb = = = 33.19 N/mm2 Ans.
πd 3 π q153
Use equation (8.38) for the strain energy stored in the spring.
Vb2
8E
U (33.19)2
or = = 6.88 × 10–4 Nmm/mm3 Ans.
V 8 × 2 × 105
Springs 391
Example 8.13
A close coiled helical spring made of steel wire is subjected to an axial load of 50 N. The maximum
shear stress induced in the spring is limited to 100 N/mm2. The stiffness of the spring is 0.8 N/mm of
compression and its solid length is 50 mm. Determine the following parameters:
(a) the diameter of the spring wire
(b) the mean radius of the coil and
(c) the number of coils in the spring
Take G = 80 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Maximum shear stress in the spring, W = 100 N/mm2
Stiffness of the spring, K = 0.8 N/mm
Let d = Diameter of the spring wire
n = Number of coils in the spring
Given, solid length of the spring, nd = 50 mm
(a) Use equation (8.28) for the stiffness of the spring.
Gd 4
K =
64 R3 n
8 q104 qd 4
or 0.8 = ... (1)
64 R3 n
Use equation (8.22) for the shear stress in the spring.
16WR
W =
nd 3
16 q 50 q R
100 =
nd 3
or R = 0.392d3 ... (2)
Since nd = 50
50
or n =
d
Using n and R in equation (1), we have
8 ×104 × d 4
0.8 =
⎛ 50 ⎞
64 × (0.392d 3 )3 ×⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
Solving for d, we get ⎜⎝ d ⎠
d = 4.76 mm Ans.
(b) Using equation (2), we have

R = 0.392d3
= 0.392 × (4.76)3
= 42.4 mm Ans.
(c) The number of coils in the spring is given as
50 50
n = = 10.5 Ans.
d 4.76
Example 8.14
A close coiled helical spring made of steel wire of 4 mm diameter has mean coil radius of 30 mm.
The number of turns in the spring is 5 and its pitch, when no load is acting on it, is 20 mm. Find the
axial load to be applied gradually on the spring so that the pitch reduces to minimum i.e, coils touch
each other. An impact load of 10 N is allowed to fall on the spring through a certain height so that
again the pitch is minimum. Find the height. Take G = 80 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Mean coil radius of the spring, R = 30 mm
Number of turns in the spring, n =5
Pitch while unloaded = 20 mm
Impact load on the spring, = 10 N
7KHGHÀHFWLRQLQWKHVSULQJGXULQJQRORDGFRQGLWLRQIRURQHWXUQ)LJLVJLYHQDV

G = Pitch – Spring wire diameter
= 20 – 4 = 16 mm
Fig. 8.8
8VLQJHTXDWLRQWKHGHÀHFWLRQLQWKHVSULQJLVJLYHQDV
64WR3 n
G =
Gd 4
Springs 393
64W q 303 q 5
16 =
8 q104 q 44
W = 37.9 N Ans.
7KHWRWDOGHÀHFWLRQLQWKHVSULQJLVJLYHQDV
Gt 'HÀHFWLRQLQRQHWXUQîQXPEHURIWXUQV
= 16 × 5 = 80 mm
1 1
U = W Gt = × 37.9 × 80
2 2
= 1516 Nmm = 1.51 joule ...(1)
Loss in potential energy, when load of 10 N is released from a height h, is
= 10 (h + 80) ...(2)
Equating equations (1) and (2), we have
10 (h + 80) = 1516
or h = 71.6 mm
Hence, the height of the load is 71.6 mm. Ans.
Example 8.15
A close coiled helical spring of free length 200 mm and mean coil radius 40 mm is subjected to a
maximum stress of 100 N/mm2. Find the diameter of the spring wire and the number of turns in the
spring, assuming that the spring can store a maximum strain energy of 30 joule, when the pitch is
reduced to a minimum. Take G = 80 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Maximum shear stress induced in the spring, W = 100 N/mm2
Free length of the spring, = 200 mm
Strain energy stored in the spring, U = 30 joule
Free length of the spring is its total length in uncompressed state. The solid length is its total length
in compressed state. They are related to each other as
6ROLGOHQJWK'HÀHFWLRQ )UHHOHQJWK
nd + G = Free length
or nd = 200 – G ... (1)
The shear stress is given by equation (8.22).
16WR
W =
πd 3
16W q 40
100 =
πd3
or W = 0.49d 3 ... (2)
The strain energy stored in the spring is given by equation (8.25).

W2
4G
(100) 2
30 × 103 = ×V
4 q 8 q104
or V = 96 × 104 mm3 ... (3)
But volume of the spring is given as
V = Length of the spring × Cross-sectional area of the spring wire
π 2
= 2πRn q d
4
π 2
96 × 104 = 2S × 40 × n × d
4
nd 2 = 4863.4
4863.4
or n = ... (4)
d2
The strain energy is also given as
1
U = WG
2
1
30 × 103 = × 0.49d 3 × G (on substituting W from equation (2))
2
122448.98
G =
d3
On substituting n and G in equation (1), we have
4863.4 122448.98
2
q d = 200 –
d d3
Solving for d, we get d = 25.3 mm Ans.
From equation (4)

4863.4
n = 2
= 7.6 Ans.
(25.3)
Springs 395
Example 8.16
A body of mass 25 kg moving with a velocity of 3 m/sec is to be stopped by using a close coiled
helical spring of 6 mm wire diameter and having a mean coil radius of 30 mm. The maximum shear
stress induced in the spring is limited to 500 N/mm2. Find the number of turns in the spring and the
GHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHG7DNHG = 80 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Mean radius of the coil, R = 30 mm
Maximum shear stress induced in the spring,
W = 500 N/mm2
W2
4G
The kinetic energy of the mass is given as
1 1
K.E. = mV2 = × 25 × 32 = 112.5 jolues
2 2
Equating the two energies, we have
(500) 2
112.5 × 103 = qV
4 q 8 q104
or V = 1.44 × 105 mm3
π
Also V = 2πRn q d 2
4
π
1.44 × 105 = 2S × 30 × n × × 62
4
or n = 27 Ans.
7RGHWHUPLQHWKHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHVSULQJDQHTXLYDOHQWORDGLVFDOFXODWHGZKLFKZKHQ
applied gradually on the spring may cause the given shear stress.
16WR
W =
πd 3
16W q 30
500 =
π q 63
or W = 706.8 N
The strain energy stored in the spring is equal to kinetic energy of the moving mass, given as
1
U = qW q G × = 112.5 × 103
2
2 q112.5 q103
or G = = 318.3 mm Ans.
706.8
Example 8.17
An open coiled helical spring of 8 mm wire diameter has 10 turns and mean coil radius of 60 mm. It
LVVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOORDGRI1,IWKHSLWFKRIWKHVSULQJLVPP¿QGWKHIROORZLQJ
(a) the maximum direct and shear stress induced in the spring wire
(b) the angle of twist and
(c WKHGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHIUHHHQG
Take E = 200 kN/mm2 and G = 80 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Number of turns in the spring, n = 10
Pitch of the spring, p = 70 mm
The angle of helix D is found using Fig. 8.9.
Fig. 8.9
p
tan D =
2πR
70
= = 0.185
2πq 60
or D = 10.51o
Twisting moment, T = WR cos D
Bending moment, M = WR sin D
Springs 397
The equivalent twisting moment is given by equation (8.40).

Te = WR
= 150 × 60 = 9000 Nmm
The equivalent bending moment is given by equation (8.41).
WR
Me = [1 sin D]
2
150 × 60
= [1 + sin 10.51º ] = 5320.8 Nmm
2
(a) The maximum direct stress in the spring wire is given by equation (8.42).
32 M e
Vb =
πd 3
32 q 5320.8
=
π q83
= 105.8 N/mm2 Ans.
The maximum shear stress in the spring wire is given by equation (8.43).
16Te 16 q 9000
W = = = 89.5 N/mm2 Ans.
πd3 πq 8 3
(b) The angle of twist of spring wire is given by equation (8.46).

64WR 2 n sin D ⎡ 1 2 ⎤
I = ⎢ − ⎥
d4 ⎢⎣ G E ⎥⎦
64 ×150 × 602 ×10 × sin 10.51º ⎡ 1 2 ⎤

= ⎢ − ⎥
8 4 ⎢⎣ 8 ×10 4
2 ×105 ⎥⎦
= 0.038 radian = 2.20o Ans.
(c 7KHGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHVSULQJLVJLYHQE\HTXDWLRQ
64WR3 n sec D ⎡⎢ cos 2 D 2 sin 2 D ⎤⎥
G =
d4 ⎢ G + E ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
64 ×150 × 603 ×10 × sec10.51° ⎡⎢ cos 2 10.51º 2 sin 2 10.51º ⎤⎥
=
84 ⎢ 8 ×104 + 2 ×105 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
= 63.9 mm Ans.
8.9 COMBINATION OF SPRINGS

Springs may be combined together in two ways.
z Series combination
z Parallel combination
8.9.1 Series Combination

The combination of springs in series is shown in Fig. 8.10 (a). Each spring carries the same load.
Fig. 8.10
Let W = Load applied on the spring

K1 and K2 = Stiffnesses of springs (1) and (2) respectively
K = Stiffness of the combined spring
G1 and G2 = Extensions produced in two springs respectively
7KHWRWDOGHÀHFWLRQLQWKHFRPELQHGVSULQJLVWKHVXPRIWKHGHÀHFWLRQVSURGXFHGLQGLYLGXDOO\LQ
the two springs.
G = G1 + G2 ... (8.63)
7KHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQVSULQJLV
W
G1 = ... (8.64)
K1
7KHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQVSULQJLV
W
G2 = ... (8.65)
K2
Adding the two equations (8.64) and (8.65), we have
⎡ 1 1 ⎤⎥
G1 + G2 = W ⎢⎢ + ⎥
⎣ K1 K 2 ⎦
⎡ 1 1 ⎤⎥
or G = W ⎢⎢ + ⎥ ... (8.66)
⎣ K1 K 2 ⎦
If the two springs are replaced by a single spring of stiffness KSURGXFLQJDGHÀHFWLRQG, then
W
G = ... (8.67)
K
Springs 399
Comparing equations (8.66) and (8.67), we get

W ⎡ 1 1 ⎤⎥
= W ⎢⎢ + ⎥
K ⎣ K1 K 2 ⎦
1 1 1
or = ... (8.68)
K K1 K 2
8.9.2 Parallel Combination

Two springs connected in parallel are shown in Fig. 8.10 (b). Here, each spring carries different
load and the load applied on the combined spring is the sum of the loads shared by the two springs.
'HÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQHDFKVSULQJLVWKHVDPHDQGVRLVWKHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHFRPELQHG
spring.
Let W1 = Load shared by the spring (1)
W2 = Load shared by the spring (2)
Then W = W1 + W2 ... (8.69)
GK = GK1 + GK2
or K = K1 + K2 ... (8.70)
Example 8.18
Two close coiled helical springs are connected in series. Both springs have 15 turns and the same
mean coil diameter of 50 mm. Find the diameter of spring wire of one of the two springs if the
GLDPHWHURIRWKHUVSULQJZLUHLVPP$OVR¿QGWKHORDGWREHDSSOLHGRQWKHHTXLYDOHQWVSULQJDQG
WKHLWVFRUUHVSRQGLQJGHÀHFWLRQ7KHVWLIIQHVVRIWKHHTXLYDOHQWVSULQJLV1PPDQGWKHPD[LPXP
shear stress is limited to 150 N/mm2. Given G = 80 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Number of turns in both springs, n1 = n2 = 15
50
Mean coil radius of both springs, R1 = R2 = = 25 mm
2
'LDPHWHURIZLUHLQWKH¿UVWVSULQJ d1 = 5 mm
Stiffness of equivalent spring, K = 0.5 N/mm
Maximum shear stress induced in the equivalent spring, W = 150 N/mm2
Let Diameter of wire in the second spring = d2
Load on equivalent spring =W
:KHQFRQQHFWHGLQVHULHVERWKVSULQJVZLOOFDUU\WKHVDPHORDGW, which will be acting on the

HTXLYDOHQWVSULQJEXWZLOOKDYHGLIIHUHQWGHÀHFWLRQV
7KHGHÀHFWLRQLQWKH¿UVWVSULQJG1 is given as
64WR13 n1
G1 = (using equation (8.27))
Gd14
64 qW q 253 q15
= = 0.3 W
8 q104 q 54
7KHGHÀHFWLRQLQWKHVHFRQGVSULQJG2 is given as
64WR23 n2
G2 =
Gd 24
64 ×W × (253 ) ×15 187.5W

= =
8 ×10 4
× d 24 d 24
%RWKGHÀHFWLRQVDUHDGGHGWRJHWWKHWRWDOGHÀHFWLRQLQWKHHTXLYDOHQWVSULQJ
G = G1 + G2
187.5W
= 0.3W + ... (1)
d 24
W W
But G = ... (2)
K 0.5
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we have
W ⎡ 187.5 ⎤
= W ⎢⎢0.3 + 4 ⎥⎥
0.5 ⎢⎣ d 2 ⎥⎦
⎛ 1 ⎞ 187.5
⎜⎜ − 0.3⎟⎟⎟ =
⎜⎝ 0.5 ⎠ d 24
or d2 = 3.24 mm Ans.
16WR
W =
π d 23
16W q 25
150 =
π q (3.24)3
or W = 40 N Ans.
:KLOHXVLQJHTXDWLRQVSULQJZLWKVPDOOHUZLUHGLDPHWHULVXVHGWRDYRLGLWVIDLOXUH7KH
mean coil diameter of the equivalent spring is also the same as for the two springs.
8VLQJHTXDWLRQZHJHWGHÀHFWLRQLQWKHHTXLYDOHQWVSULQJDV
W 40
G = = 80 mm Ans.
0.5 0.5
Springs 401
Example 8.19
Two close coiled helical springs are connected in parallel to take a load of 1500 N. Both springs have
16 coils and are made of equal wire diameter of 15 mm. Their mean coil diameters are 60 mm and
80 mm respectively. Find the loads shared by the two springs and the maximum shear stresses induced
LQWKHP$OVR¿QGWKHGHÀHFWLRQLQWKHHTXLYDOHQWVSULQJ7DNHG = 80 kN/mm2 for both springs.
Solution: Given,
Load on the equivalent spring, W = 1500 N
Number of coils in two springs, n1 = n2 = 16
:LUHGLDPHWHURIWKHWZRVSULQJV d1 = d2 = 15 mm
60
0HDQFRLOUDGLXVRIWKH¿UVWVSULQJ R1 = = 30 mm
2
80
Mean coil radius of the second spring, R2 = = 40 mm
2
:KHQFRQQHFWHGLQSDUDOOHOERWKVSULQJVSURGXFHWKHVDPHGHÀHFWLRQEXWVKDUHGLIIHUHQWORDGV
The total load acting on the equivalent spring is the sum total of the loads shared by both springs. Let
W1 and W2 are the respective loads on the two springs. Then,
W = W1 + W2
or 1500 = W1 + W2 ... (1)
'HÀHFWLRQVLQWKHWZRVSULQJVDUHJLYHQDV
G = G1 = G2
64W1 R13 n1 64W2 R23 n2

= ... (2)
Gd14 Gd 24
or W1 × 303 = W2 × 403 ( n1 = n2 = 16 and d1 = d2 = 15 mm)
64
W1 = W2
27
Substituting W1 in equation (1), we have
64
1500 = W2 W2
27
or W2 = 445 N Ans.
)URPHTXDWLRQZH¿QGW1.
1500 = W1 + 445
or W1 = 1055 N Ans.
7KHVKHDUVWUHVVLQWKH¿UVWVSULQJLVJLYHQE\XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
16W1R1 16 ×1055× 40
W1 = = = 47.76 N/mm2 Ans.
πd13 π ×153
The shear stress in the second spring is given as

16W2 R2 16 × 455× 40
W2 = = = 26.86 N/mm2 Ans.
πd 2
3
π ×153

64W1 R13 n1 64 q1055 q 303 q16
G = = = 7.2 mm
Gd14 8 q104 q154
+HQFHWKHGHÀHFWLRQLQWKHHTXLYDOHQWVSULQJLVPP Ans.
Example 8.20
A composite spring made of two close coiled helical springs is subjected to an axial load of 100 N.
One of the two springs is placed inside the other and both springs are concentric. The inner spring
has 10 coils and is 15 mm shorter than the outer spring of 4 mm wire diameter with number of coils
12 and mean coil diameter 50 mm. The radial clearance between the two springs is 1 mm. Find the
stiffness and the wire diameter of the inner spring, if the axial load applied on the composite spring
SURGXFHVDGHÀHFWLRQRIPPLQWKHRXWHUVSULQJ7DNHG = 80 kN/mm2 for both springs.
Solution: Given,
Axial load on the composite spring, W = 100 N
Number of coils in the inner spring, n1 = 10
Number of coils in the outer spring, n2 = 12
Mean coil diameter of the outer spring, D2 = 50 mm
:LUHGLDPHWHURIWKHRXWHUVSULQJ d2 = 4 mm
'HÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHRXWHUVSULQJ G2 = 30 mm
The axial load applied on the composite spring is shared by the two springs. Let W 1 and W2 be the
load shared by the inner and outer spring respectively, then
W = W1 + W2
or W1 + W2 = 100 N (Given) ... (1)
Use equation (8.27) to get the load (W 2 VKDUHG E\ WKH RXWHU VSULQJ LQ RUGHU WR GHÀHFW LW E\
30 mm.
64W2 R23 n2
G2 =
Gd 24
G2 q G q d 23
or W2 = = 51.2 N
64 R23 n2
and W1 = (100 – 51.2) N = 48.8 N (using equation (1))
7KHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGE\WKHORDGW1 in the inner spring is given as

G1 = (30 – 15) = 15 mm
Springs 403
The stiffness of the inner spring is given as

W1 48.8
K1 = = 3.25 N/mm Ans.
G1 15
The mean coil diameter of the inner spring is given as
D1 = D2 – d2 – 2 × 1 – d1 = 50 – 4 – 2 × 1 – d1 = 44 – d1
Again using equation (8.27) for the inner spring, we have
64W1 R13 n1
G1 =
Gd14
W1 Gd14 8 ×104 d14

= K1 = =
G1 64 R13 n1 ⎛ 44 − d1 ⎞⎟3
64 ×⎜⎜ ×10
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎟⎠
8 ×104 × 8 × d14
=
640(44 − d1 )3
103 d14
or 3.25 = (using K1)
(44 d1 )3
Solving for d1, we get
d1 = 3.8 mm Ans.
:KDWLVWKHSXUSRVHRIXVLQJDVSULQJ"
:KDWLVD[LDOVWLIIQHVVRIDVSULQJ"
:K\LVOHDIVSULQJDOVRFDOOHGFDUULDJHVSULQJ"
:KHUHLVDVSLUDOVSULQJXVHG"
:K\LVKHOLFDOVSULQJDOVRFDOOHGWRUVLRQVSULQJ"
+RZLVFORVHFRLOHGKHOLFDOVSULQJGLIIHUHQWIURPRSHQFRLOHGKHOLFDOVSULQJ"
:KDWLVWKHSXUSRVHRIFRPELQLQJVSULQJV"
+RZLVD[LDOWZLVWLQJGLIIHUHQWIURPD[LDOORDGLQJ"
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+RZLVVHULHVFRPELQDWLRQRIVSULQJVGLIIHUHQWIURPSDUDOOHOFRPELQDWLRQ"
1. The deformation produced in the spring is said to be

(a) semi-elastic (b) plastic (c) elastic (d) visco-elastic.
2. 7KHVWLIIQHVVRIWKHVSULQJLVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLRRI
(a) load and angle of twist (b ORDGDQGGHÀHFWLRQ
(c) load and strain energy (d) load and strain.
3. In a close-coiled helical spring, the
(a) plane of the coil and axis of the spring are closely attached
(b) angle of helix is large
(c) plane of the coil is normal to the axis of the spring
(d GHÀHFWLRQLVVPDOO
4. A conical helical spring is used, where
(a) space is a problem
(b) more stiffness is required
(c) more load is to be taken
(d OHVVGHÀHFWLRQLVUHTXLUHG
5. 7KHORDGGHÀHFWLRQFXUYHRIDVSULQJLVDVWUDLJKWOLQHZKHQVSULQJLVVWUHVVHG
(a) upto yield point
(b) upto ultimate point
(c) upto failure point
(d) within the elastic limit.
6. The strain energy stored in a leaf spring is given as
3W 2l 3 5Wl 3
(a) (b)
16nEbt 3 16nEbt 3
3W 2l 3W 2l 3 .
(c) (d)
16nEbt 3 16nEbt 2
7. The maximum bending stress developed in the wire of spiral spring is
12M 6M 12M 12M .
(a) (b) 2 (c) 2 (d)
bt bt bt b2t
Springs 405
8. 7KHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQDFORVHFRLOHGKHOLFDOVSULQJZKHQVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOORDGLV
64W 3 Rn 64WR3 n
(a) (b)
Gd 4 Gd 4
64WR3 n 64WR 2 n 2 .
(c) (d)
G4d G4d
9. :DKO¶VFRUUHFWLRQIDFWRULVLQWURGXFHGWR
(a) increase the number of coils in the spring
(b) take care of extra load on the spring
(c) take care of curvature of spring wire
(d) take care of extra stiffness in the spring.
10. 7KHVSULQJLQGH[LVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLRRI
(a ORDGDQGGHÀHFWLRQ
(b) mean coil diameter and spring wire diameter
(c) load and angle of twist
(d) mean coil diameter and length of spring wire.
11. )RUWZRVSULQJVEHLQJFRQQHFWHGLQVHULHVZKLFKRIWKHIROORZLQJVWDWHPHQWVLVFRUUHFW"
(a 7KHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHHTXLYDOHQWVSULQJLVWKHVXPRIWKHGHÀHFWLRQVSURGXFHGLQWKH
individual spring.
(b) The total weight is the sum of the weights acting separately on the two springs.
(c) The equivalent stiffness is the sum of the individual stiffness.
(d) The equivalent stiffness is the product of the individual stiffness.
12. The equivalent stiffness, when two springs are connected in series, is given by the expression
1 K1 K 2 K1 + K 2
(b) K =
2
(a) =
K K1 + K 2 K1 K 2
K1 K 2
(c) K = (d) K = K1 + K2 .
K1 + K 2
13. )RUWZRVSULQJVEHLQJFRQQHFWHGLQSDUDOOHOZKLFKRIWKHIROORZLQJVWDWHPHQWVLVFRUUHFW"
(a) The equivalent stiffness is the sum of the individual stiffness.
(b) The equivalent load is the sum of the individual load.
(c 7KHHTXLYDOHQWGHÀHFWLRQLVWKHVXPRIWKHLQGLYLGXDOGHÀHFWLRQ
(d 7KHHTXLYDOHQWGHÀHFWLRQLVWKHSURGXFWRIWKHLQGLYLGXDOGHÀHFWLRQ
14. For parallel combination of two springs, the expression for the equivalent stiffness is
1 K1 K 2 1 K1 + K 2
(a) = (b) K = K K
K K1 + K 2 1 2
(c) K = K1 + K2 (d) K = K1 K 2 .
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c)
10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (a) and (b) 14. (c)
Springs 407
EXERCISES
1. A quarter-elliptic laminated spring of length 700 mm is loaded with a load of 3 kN producing a

GHÀHFWLRQRIPP7KHFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHVSULQJZLUHLVPPZLGHE\PPWKLFN)LQG
the following:
(a) the number of leaves in the spring
(b) the maximum stress induced in the spring and
(c) the height through which the load is released, giving a maximum stress of 1 kN/mm 2
(Ans. (a) 13 (b) 282.57 N/mm2 (c) 269.3 mm).
2. A close coiled helical spring of mean coil radius equal to 6 times the wire diameter is subjected
WRDQD[LDOORDGRI1,WFDQDEVRUEMRXOHVRIHQHUJ\SURGXFLQJDGHÀHFWLRQRIPP7KH
maximum stress in the spring is not to exceed 80 N/mm2. Find the mean coil diameter, the wire
diameter, the number of turns in the spring and the length of the spring. Take G = 80 kN/mm2.
(Ans. 55 mm, 4.58 mm, 18.42, 3.18 m).
3. A close coiled helical spring of mean coil diameter 100 mm is subjected to a torque of 6.5 Nm
producing angular twist of 60o7KHGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHVSULQJXQGHUWKHDFWLRQRIDQD[LDOORDGRI
250 N is 120 mm. Find Poisson’s ratio of the spring wire. (Ans. 0.191).
4. A close coiled helical spring of 10 mm wire diameter has 15 turns with mean coil diameter
of 120 mm. It is subjected to an axial load of 500 N. Find the shear stress in the spring wire
(a) neglecting correction factor and (b) considering correction factor.
(Ans. (a) 152.78 N/mm2 (b) 171.03 N/mm2).
5. An open coiled helical spring of 8 mm wire diameter has mean coil radius of 120 mm and 10
turns. The angle of helix is 20o. It is subjected to an axial torque of 3 Nm. Find the following:
(a) the maximum direct and shear stress induced in the spring wire and
(b) the angle of twist. Take G = 80 kN/mm2 and E = 200 kN/mm2.
(Ans. (a) 57.88 N/mm2, 29.84 N/mm2 (b) 17.65o).
6. :KDWLVWKHHUURULQWKHFDOFXODWLRQRIVWLIIQHVVLIRSHQFRLOHGKHOLFDOVSULQJLVPLVWDNHQWREHFORVH
coiled helical spring. Given, angle of helix = 30 o and E/G = 4.0. Assume all the parameters of the
two springs to be same. (Ans. 1% (negative)).
7. A close coiled helical spring is of 80 mm mean coil diameter. The spring extends by 37.75 mm
when loaded axially by a weight of 500 N. There is an angular rotation of 45° when the spring is
subjected to an axial couple of magnitude 20 Nm. Determine Possion’s ratio of the material of
the spring. (Ans. 0.2016).
8. A truck weighing 25 kN and moving at 2.5 m/s has to be brought to rest by a buffer. Find how
many springs each of 25 coils will be required to store energy of motion during compression
of 0.2 m. The spring is made of 25 mm diameter steel rod coiled to a mean diameter of 0.2 m.
Take G = 100 GPa. (Ans. 16.3).
9. A close coiled helical spring is made of 10 mm diameter steel wire, the coil consisting of
10 complete turns with a mean diameter of 120 mm. The spring carries an axial pull of 200 N.
Determine the shear stress induced in the spring neglecting the effect of stress concentration.
'HWHUPLQH DOVR WKH GHÀHFWLRQ RI WKH VSULQJ LWV VWLIIQHVV DQG WKH VWUDLQ HQHUJ\ VWRUHG E\ LW LI
modulus of rigidity of spring material is 80 GPa.
(Ans. 61.11 MPa, 34.56 mm, 5787 N/m, 3.456 joules).
10.)LQGWKHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVDQGWKHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQDKHOLFDOVSULQJRIWKHIROORZLQJ
VSHFL¿FDWLRQVLILWKDVWRDEVRUEWKHHQHUJ\RIN1P
Mean diameter of the spring = 100 mm
Diameter of the spring steel wire = 20 mm
Number of coils = 30
Modulus of rigidity of steel = 85 GPa.
(Ans. 338.87 MPa, 187.87 mm).
11. A close coiled helical spring made of 6 mm wire diameter and mean coil diameter 100 mm
H[WHQGVE\PPXQGHUDQD[LDOORDGRI17KHVDPHVSULQJZKHQ¿UPO\¿[HGDWRQHHQG
rotates through 90º under a torque of 5.7 N.m. Calculate the value of Poisson’s ratio for the
material. (Ans. 0.3).
12. Find the load required to produce an extension of 8 mm in an open coiled helical spring made of
6 mm wire diameter, having 10 coils of mean diameter 76 mm with a helix angle of 20º. Also,
calculate the bending and shear stresses produced in the surface of the spring wire. What would
be the angular twist at the free end of the spring, when subjected to an axial torque of 1.5 N.m?
Take E = 210 GPa and G = 70 GPa.
(Ans. 20 N, 12.3 MPa, 16.8 MPa, 17.3°).
13. A compound spring is made of two close coiled helical springs connected in series, where each
spring has 12 coils at a mean diameter of 25 mm. Find the diameter of the wire in one of the
springs, if the diameter of wire in the other spring is 2.5 mm and the stiffness of the compound
spring is 700 N/m. Estimate the greatest load that can be carried by the composite spring and the
corresponding extension for a maximum shearing stress of 180 MPa.
(Ans. 63.2 mm, 44.2 N).

9
Strain Energy
Carlo Alberto Castigliano, born on 9 November 1847, was an Italian

mathematician and physicist. He is well known for his Castigliano’s
theorem, which is used for determining the displacements in a linear-elastic
system using the partial derivatives of strain energy.
Carlo Alberto Castigliano

(1847-1884)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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:KDWLVYROXPHWULFVWUDLQHQHUJ\"
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_9
9.1 INTRODUCTION
:KHQDQH[WHUQDOORDGLVDSSOLHGRQDERG\LWWHQGVWRGHIRUPWKHERG\'XULQJWKHSURFHVVLQWHUQDO
IRUFHVDUHLQGXFHGLQWKHERG\WRFRXQWHUWKHHIIHFWRIH[WHUQDOORDG,IWKHERG\UHJDLQVLWVVKDSH
DQGVL]HRQUHPRYHGRIORDGLWLVVDLGWREHZLWKLQHODVWLFOLPLW7KLVOLPLWLVGH¿QHGE\+RRNH¶V
law which states that within this limit, stress is directly proportional to strain. The internally induced
force acting on unit area of the body is called stress. Energy is stored in the body during deformation
process and this energy is called strain energy. The workdone to produce the deformation is equal to
the strain energy stored in the body.
9.2 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT LOADS

The load acting on a body may be of the following types:
(a) Gradually applied load (b) Suddenly applied load (c) Impact load
9.2.1 Strain Energy due to Gradually Applied Load

Consider a bar of length l placed vertically and one end of it is attached at the ceiling (Fig. 9.1). This
is the most general case.
Fig. 9.1
Let P = Gradually applied load

l = Length of the bar
A = Cross-sectional area of the bar
Gl 'HÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHEDU
V $[LDO RU GLUHFW VWUHVV LQGXFHG LQ WKH EDU ,W PD\ EH WHQVLOH RU
compressive, depending upon if the bar under consideration is
under tension or compression load.
E = Modulus of elasticity of the bar material
Strain Energy 411
The work done by the load is given as

1
W = P Gl ... (9.1)
2
P
%\GH¿QLWLRQ V =
A
or P =VA
Pl σl
From Hooke’s law Gl =
AE E
On substituting Gl, equation (9.1) becomes
1 P 2l
W = (in terms of P) ... (9.2)
2 AE
1 σ 2 Al
= (in terms of V) ... (9.3)
2 E
1 V2V
= (in terms of V and V) ...(9.4)
2 E
where V = Volume of the bar = Al
The strain energy stored in the bar is equal to the workdone by the load.
V2
U = ×V ...(9.5)
2E
1 V 1
= × V× ×V= × Stress × Strain × Volume ...(9.6)
2 E 2
The strain energy stored per unit volume is known as strain energy density, given as
U V2
= Strain energy density = ...(9.7)
V 2E
7KHORDGYHUVXVGHÀHFWLRQFXUYHLVVKRZQLQ)LJGeVWDQGVIRUWKHHODVWLFGHÀHFWLRQDQGPe for the
HODVWLFORDG7KHDUHDRIWKHFXUYHJLYHVWKHZRUNGRQHE\WKHORDGWRSURGXFHWKHGHÀHFWLRQ
Fig. 9.2
If the bar is not of uniform cross-sectional area as shown in Fig. 9.3, then strain energy stored in
the bar is not represented by equation (9.6).
The strain energy under this condition is given by the Equation (9.8) as
l
1 P2 dx
U =
2 E ¨ A
...(9.8)
0
Fig. 9.3
9.2.2 Strain Energy due to Suddenly Applied Load

:KHQWKHORDGLVDSSOLHGVXGGHQO\ZRUNGRQHE\WKHORDGLVJLYHQDV
W = P Gl ... (9.9)
The applied load has the same value during the deformation of the bar, hence average load is P and
not P . The workdone by the load is shown in Fig. 9.4.
2
Fig. 9.4
Strain Energy 413
The strain energy stored in the bar is given by equation (9.5).

V2
U = ×V
2E
Equating equations (9.5) and (9.9), we have

V2
PGl = ×V
2E
⎛ σ ⋅ l ⎞⎟ V2
P ⎜⎜ ⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜δl = σl ⎟⎟
= × Al
⎜⎝ E ⎟⎟⎠ 2E
⎜⎝ E ⎟⎠
V
P = ¸A
2
2P
or V = ... (9.10)
A
Hence, the stress induced by the suddenly applied load is two times the stress produced by the
same load but applied gradually.
9.2.3 Strain Energy due to Impact or Shock Load

Consider the situation, when a load P is allowed to fall freely on the collar attached to the lower end
of a bar.
Let, h = Height through which the load falls on the collar
The workdone by the falling load is given as
W = P (h + Gl) ... (9.11)
It is important to note here that the load does not change and the same load acts throughout the
process (Fig. 9.5).
Fig. 9.5
Equating workdone to the strain energy stored in the bar, we have

V2
P (h + Gl) = qV ... (9.12)
2E
⎛ σl ⎞ σ2 ⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜δl = σl and V = Al ⎟⎟
P ⎜⎜h + ⎟⎟⎟ = q Al ⎟⎠
⎜⎝ E⎠ 2E ⎜⎝ E
⎛ Al ⎞⎟ 2 ⎛ Pl ⎞⎟
or ⎜⎜ ⎟ σ − ⎜⎜ ⎟ σ − Ph = 0 ...(9.13)
⎜⎝ 2 E ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ E ⎟⎠
This is a quadratic equation in terms of V Its two values are given as
P ⎡⎢⎛ ⎞⎤
⎜⎜1 + 2 AEh ⎟⎟ ⎥
V = 1± ...(9.14)
A ⎢⎢⎣⎜⎝ Pl ⎟⎠ ⎥⎥⎦
The effect of the load is to elongate the bar, hence it produces tensile stress in the bar. Therefore,
possibility of negative stress does not arise. Equation (9.14) accordingly reduces to
P ⎡⎢ ⎛ ⎞⎤
⎜⎜1 + 2 AEh ⎟⎟ ⎥
V = 1+ ...(9.15)
A ⎢⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ Pl ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦⎥
when h = 0, then equation (9.15) becomes
2P
V = ...(9.16)
A
The equation is same as equation (9.10). Hence, in case of zero height, stress induced in the bar is
equal to stress produced by the same load but applied suddenly.
1RZVXSSRVHLIWKHGHÀHFWLRQGl is very small as compared to height h, equation (9.12) reduces
to
σ2
Ph = q Al
2E
2EPh
or V = ...(9.17)
Al
9.3 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO SHEAR

Consider a cube ABCD of side l being subjected to a shear force P which is applied tangentially to
the side CD. As a result, side CD changes to Cc Dc (Fig. 9.6).
Let I = Angle turned by the side AD as a result of P being applied
W = Shear stress induced on the side CD
A = Area of each side
= l2
G = Modulus of rigidity of the cube material
Strain Energy 415
Fig. 9.6
The shear force P is given as

P = W A = Wl 2 ...(9.18)
In ' ADDc
DD '
tan I =
AD
:KHQI is very small
δl
tan I a I = = Shear strain
l
or Gl = Il ...(9.19)
The workdone by the shear force is given as
1 1
W = Pδl = × τ l 2 × φ l (on substituting P and Gl )
2 2
⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜φ = τ ⎟⎟
1 1 τ
= × τ×φ×l 3 = × τ× ×l 3
⎜⎝ G ⎟⎠
2 2 G
τ2l 3
= ...(9.20)
2G
Hence, the strain energy stored in the cube is given as
W2
U = qV ...(9.21)
2G
where V = l 3 = Volume of the cube.
9.4 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO PURE BENDING

Consider a small length dx of the beam at a distance x from A. Let the bending moment acting on the
length be M. (Fig. 9.7).
Fig. 9.7
Bending stress acting on the elementary area (dA) at a distance yIURPWKHQHXWUDOD[LVNA) is given
by using bending equation as
M
V = ¸y ... (9.22)
I
where I 0RPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHFURVVVHFWLRQDERXWWKHQHXWUDOD[LVNA)
The strain energy stored in the elementary area is

V2
= × Volume of the elementary area
2E
V2
= dx dA
2E
M 2 y2
= dx dA (on substituting V from equation (9.22))
I 2 2E
The strain energy stored in the beam between 1 and 2 is given as
M2
dU = dx ¨ y 2 dA
2 EI 2
M2 M2 ( I = ∫ y 2 dA )
= dx ⋅ I =
dx
2 EI 2 2 EI
The strain energy stored in the entire beam is obtained as
l
U = ¨ dU
0
l
M2
= ¨ dx ...(9.23)
2 EI
0
Strain energy stored in different beams due to bending under different loading conditions are given
in Table 9.1.
Strain Energy 417
Table 9.1 Strain energy due to Bending
Loaded beam /RDGLQJ¿JXUH 6WUDLQHQHUJ\VWRUHG
1. A simple beam with a point

P 2l12l22
load not at its centre (l1 > l2)
6 EIL
2. A simple beam with a point

P 2l 3
load at its centre
96 EI
3. A simple beam with udl over

P 2l 3
the entire span
240 EI
where, P = wl = Total load
on the beam
4. A cantilever beam with a point

P 2l 3
load at free end
6 EI
5. A cantilever beam with udl

P 2l 3
over the entire span
40 EI
where, P = wl = Total load
on the beam
9.5 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO PRINCIPAL STRESSES

Consider a cube of side l being subjected to three mutually perpendicular principal stresses V 1, V2 and
V3 along x, y and z axes respectively. (Fig. 9.8).
Fig. 9.8
If 1, 2 and 3 are the strains produced in x, y and z directions respectively due to V1, V2 and V3, then
V1 V V ⎪ ⎫
∈1 = −v 2 −v 3⎪ ⎪
E E E⎪ ⎪
⎪
V2 V3 V1 ⎪⎪ ...(9.24)
∈2 = −v −v ⎬
E E E⎪ ⎪
⎪
V3 V1 V2 ⎪
∈3 = −v −v ⎪ ⎪
E E E⎪ ⎪
⎭
where v = Poisson’s ratio
E = Modulus of elasticity
The strain energy stored in the cube is given as

1
U = × Stress × Strain × Volume
2
1 1 1
= V1 1 V + V2 2 V + V V
2 2 2 3 3
V
= (V1 1 + V2 2 + V3 3) ...(9.25)
2
where V = Volume of the cube = l3
Substituting 1, 2 and 3 in equation (9.25), we have

V ⎡ 2
U = V1 + V22 + V32 − 2v (V1V2 + V2 V3 + V3V1 )⎤⎥ ...(9.26)
2 E ⎢⎣ ⎦
Strain Energy 419
Strain energy stored per unit volume of the cube is given as

1 ⎡ 2
V1 + V22 + V32 − 2v (V1V2 + V2 V3 + V3V1 )⎤⎥
U
= ⎢
⎣ ⎦ ...(9.27)
V 2 E
Equation (9.27) does not contain any shear stress term because principal planes do not have shear
stresses.
For a uniaxial stress system
V2 = 0
V3 = 0
and V1 = V
Equation (9.26) reduces to

V2
U = ×V
For a biaxial stress system 2E
V3 = 0
Equation (9.26) reduces to
V ⎡ 2
U = ⎢ V1 + V22 − 2v V1V2 ⎤⎥ ...(9.28)
2E ⎣ ⎦
9.6 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO VOLUMETRIC STRAIN
Refer Fig. 9.9.
Let V = Volumetric strain produced in the cube
K = Bulk modulus of elasticity
V1 = V2 = V3=V= Stress of equal intensity applied on all sides of the cube
Fig. 9.9
The volumetric strain is produced as a result of changes in all sides of the cube due to V 1, V2
and V3.
%\GH¿QLWLRQ
V
K =
v
3V
But V = 1 + 2 + 3 = 3 = (1 – 2v)
E
(using equation (9.24))...(9.29)
Strain produced in all the sides of the cube is same, since equal stress intensity is acting on them.
The workdone in any of the three directions is given as
1
W = î/RDGî'HÀHFWLRQ
2
⎛ ⎞
1 1 ⎜⎜∈= δl ⎟⎟
= × V l 2 × l =
2
V × × l3 ⎜⎝ l ⎟⎠
2
The total workdone is given as
3
Wt = 3W = × V × × l3
2
V
= × 3∈×V
2
V 3V
= q (1 – 2v) × V (using equation (9.29))
2 E
3 V2
= (1 – 2v) × V ...(9.30)
2 E
But E = 3K(1 – 2v)
E
or =K ...(9.31)
3(1 − 2v)
Substituting K in equation (9.30), we get
1 1 V2
Wt = × V2 × ×V = ×V
2 K 2K
Hence, the strain energy stored in the cuble is given as
V2
U = Wt = × Volume ...(9.32)
2K
9.7 SHEAR STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO PRINCIPAL STRESSES

Let a rectangular body be subjected to three mutually perpendicular principal stresses (Fig. 9.10).
Strain energy stored in the body is given as

U 1 ⎡ 2
= V1 + V22 + V32 − 2 v (V1V2 + V2 V3 + V3V1 )⎤⎥
V 2 E ⎢⎣ ⎦
Strain Energy 421
Fig. 9.10
The average stress is given as

V1 V2 V3
Vav = ...(9.33)
3
If V1 =V2 = V3 = V, then the strain energy equation reduces to
2
U 3Vav
= (1 – 2v) ... (9.34)
V 2E
Equation (9.34) is same as equation (9.32) and it gives the strain energy due to change in volume
of the body.
The volumetric strain energy due to Vav is given as
U 3V2av
= (1 – 2v)
V 2E
2
3 ⎛⎜ V1 + V2 + V3 ⎞⎟
= ⎜ ⎟
⎟⎠ (1 – 2v) (using equation (9.33))
2 E ⎜⎝ 3
1
= (V1 + V2 + V3 )2 (1 – 2v)
6E
⎛1 − 2v ⎞⎟ ⎡ 2
= ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟ V + V2 + V3 + 2 (V1V2 + V2 V3 + V3V1 )⎤⎦⎥
2 2
... (9.35)
⎝ 6 E ⎟⎠ ⎣⎢ 1
On per unit volume basis, we have
Shear strain energy = Total strain energy – Volumetric strain energy ... (9.36)
Using equations (9.27) and (9.35), the shear strain energy per unit volume is
⎛1 + v ⎞⎟ ⎡
Us = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟ (V − V2 ) + (V2 − V3 ) + (V3 − V1 ) ⎤⎦⎥
2 2 2
... (9.37)
⎝ 6 E ⎟⎠ ⎣⎢ 1
But E = 2G (1 + v)
On substituting E in equation (9.37), equation (9.37) becomes

1 ⎡
Us = (V1 − V2 ) 2 + (V2 − V3 )2 + (V3 − V1 )2 ⎤⎥ ... (9.38)
12G ⎢⎣ ⎦
This is the required expression for the shear strain energy on per unit volume basis.
If V2 = V3 = 0
and V1 = V
Hence, the shear strain energy per unit volume is
V2
Us = ... (9.39)
6G
9.8 CASTIGLIANO’S THEOREM

The Castigliano’s theorem is named after the Italian engineer Alberto Castigliano (1847-1884),
ZKR¿UVWSURSRVHGLW,WLVEDVHGRQWKHZRUNHQHUJ\SULQFLSOHDQGLVPDLQO\XVHGWRGHWHUPLQHWKH
GHÀHFWLRQRIDVWUXFWXUHIURPWKHVWUDLQHQHUJ\RIWKHVWUXFWXUHXQGHUGLIIHUHQWORDGLQJFRQGLWLRQV
There are two statements of this theorem as discussed below.
First theorem
The partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to any displacement produced within elastic
limit, as a result of the application of external forces on a given member, gives forces in the direction
of displacements. Mathematically,
sU
Pk = ... (9.40)
sGk
where U = Strain energy
Gk = Displacement in the direction of k
Pk = Force in the direction of k
Second theorem
The partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to a force produced, within elastic limit, gives
the displacement in the direction of force. Mathematically,
sU
Gk = ... (9.41)
sPk
Example 9.1
$VROLGVWHHOURGRIPOHQJWKDQGPPGLDPHWHULVVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOORDGRI N1)LQGWKH
stresses induced in the rod if the load is applied (a) gradually (b) suddenly and (c) with impact after
IDOOLQJWKURXJKDKHLJKWRIPP$OVR¿QGWKHVWUDLQHQHUJ\VWRUHGLQWKHURGXQGHUWKHJLYHQ
FRQGLWLRQV7DNHE N1PP2.
Strain Energy 423
Solution: Given,
Length of the steel rod, l = 5 m = 5 × 1000 mm
'LDPHWHURIWKHURG d = 10 mm
$[LDOORDG P = 5 kN = 5 × 103 N
Height of the impact load, h = 150 mm
(a :KHQORDGLVJUDGXDOO\DSSOLHGWKHVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHURGLVJLYHQDV
P
V =
A
where A = Cross-sectional area of the rod
π 2 π
= d = ×102 = 78.54 mm2
4 4
Hence, the stress in the rod is
5 q103
V = = 63.66 N/mm2 Ans.
78.54
The strain energy stored in the rod is given by Equation (9.3).
1 σ 2 Al
U =
2 E
1 (63.66) 2 q 78.54 q 5 q1000
= q Nmm
2 2 q105
= 3978.88 Nmm = 3.978 joule Ans.
(b :KHQORDGLVVXGGHQO\DSSOLHGWKHVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHURGLVJLYHQDV
P
V = 2
A
2 q 5 q103
= = 127.32 N/mm2 Ans.
78.54
The strain energy stored in the rod is
V2
U = qV
2E
(127.32) 2 q 78.54 q 5 q1000
= (V = Al)
2 q 2 q105 q103
= 15.91 joules Ans.
(c 'XULQJWKHLPSDFWORDGLQJWKHVWUHVVLQGXFHGLVJLYHQE\XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
P ⎡⎢ 2 AEh ⎤⎥
V = 1 + 1 +
A ⎢⎢⎣ Pl ⎥⎥⎦
⎡ ⎤
5 ×103 ⎢1 + 1 + 2 × 78.54 × 2 ×10 ×150 ⎥
5
= ⎢ ⎥
78.54 ⎢⎣ 5 ×103 × 5 ×103 ⎥⎦
= 940 N/mm2 Ans.

The strain energy stored in the rod is given as
σ2 (940) 2 × 78.54 × 5 ×103

U = ×V =
2E 2 × 2 ×105 ×103
= 867.47 joules Ans.
Example 9.2
$FXEHRIVLGHPP¿[HGDWWKHERWWRPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDVKHDUIRUFHRIN1RQLWVWRSIDFH)LQG
strain energy stored in the cube and modulus of resilience. Take G = 80 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Side of the cube, l = 100 mm
Shear force applied, P = 50 kN = 5 × 104 N
Volume of the cube, V = l3
= (100 mm)3 = 106 mm3
P 5 ×104
The shear stress produced, W = = = 5 N/mm2
A 100 ×100
The strain energy stored in the cube is given by equation (9.21).
W2
U = qV
2G
52
= 4
q106 Nmm = 156.25 Nmm
2 q8q10
= 0.156 joule Ans.
The modulus of resilience is the strain energy stored per unit volume of the cube, given by
U 156.25
= Nmm/mm3
V 106
= 1.5625 × 10–4 Nmm/mm3 Ans.
Strain Energy 425
Example 9.3
A rod of diameter 10 mm and length 1.5 m hangs vertically from the ceiling of a roof. A collar is
attached at its lower end on which a load of 250 N falls from a height of 200 mm. Find the strain
HQHUJ\DEVRUEHGDQGWKHLQVWDQWDQHRXVGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHURG7DNHE = 200 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Length of the rod, l = 1.5 m = 1.5 × 1000 = 1500 mm
Impact load to be applied, P = 250 N
Height through which the load falls, h = 200 mm
The cross-sectional area of the rod A given by
π 2
A = d
4
π
= q102 = 78.54 mm2
4
The stress induced in the rod is given by equation (9.15).
⎡ ⎤
P⎢ 2 AEh ⎥
V = ⎢1 + 1 + ⎥
A⎢ Pl ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎤
250 ⎢ 2 × 78.54 × 2 ×105 × 200 ⎥
= × ⎢1 + 1 + ⎥
78.54 ⎢ 250 ×1500 ⎥⎦
⎣
= 415.22 N/mm2 Ans.
The strain energy stored in the rod is given by equation (9.5).

σ2 σ2
U = ×V = × Al
2E 2E
2
(415.22) × 78.54 ×1500
=
2 × 2 ×105 ×103
= 50.77 joules Ans.
7KHLQVWDQWDQHRXVGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHURGLVJLYHQDV
σl
GL =
E
415.22 q1500
= = 3.11 mm Ans.
2 q105
Example 9.4
A rectangular block is subjected to three mutually perpendicular tensile stresses of magnitude
60, 70 and 80 N/mm 2. Calculate strain energy and shear strain energy. The Poisson’s ratio
is 0.3. Take E = 200 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given,
Tensile stresses, V1 = 60 N/mm2
V2 = 70 N/mm2
V3 = 80 N/mm2
Poisson’s ratio, v = 0.3
The strain energy stored per unit volume of the block is given by equation (9.27).
U 1 2
= [V1 + V22 + V32 − 2v (V1V2 + V2 V3 + V3V1 )]
V 2E
1
= [602 + 702 + 802 − 2 × 0.3(60 × 70 + 70 × 80 + 80 × 60)]
2 × 2 ×105
= 0.0153 Nmm/mm3 Ans.
The relationship between E and G is given as

E = 2G (1 + Q)
E 2 ×105
or G = = = 7.7 × 104 N/mm2
2(1 + v) 2(1 + 0.3)
The shear strain energy per unit volume is given by equation (9.38).
U 1
= [(V1 − V2 )2 + (V2 − V3 ) 2 + (V3 − V1 )2 ]
V 12G
1
= [(60 − 70)2 + (70 − 80)2 + (80 − 60)2 ]
12 × 7.7 ×104
–4
= 6.5 × 10 Nmm/mm3 Ans.
Example 9.5
Find the weight which falls through a height of 5 m on a collar attached to the lower end of a vertical
URGRIGLDPHWHUPPDQGOHQJWKP7KHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHURGLVPP
Take E = 200 GPa.
Solution: Given,
Height of the weight, h =5m
Diameter of the vertical rod, d = 40 mm
Length of the rod, l =3m
'HÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHURG Gl = 5 mm
Strain Energy 427
The cross-sectional area of the rod is A, given by

2
π 2 π ⎛ 40 ⎞⎟
A = d = ×⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
4 4 ⎝1000 ⎠
= 1.256 × 10–3 m2
The instantaneous stress produced in the rod is given as
E δl
V =
l
200 ×109 × 5 ×10−3
= = 3.34 × 108 N/m2
3
P ⎡⎢ ⎛ ⎞⎤
⎜⎜1 + 2 AEh ⎟⎟ ⎥
V = 1+
A ⎢⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ Pl ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦⎥
⎡ ⎛ −3 ⎞⎤
⎜⎜1 + 2 ×1.256 ×10 × 200 ×10 × 5 ⎟⎟ ⎥
9
8 P ⎢
3.34 × 10 = ⎢1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
1.256 ×10−3 ⎢⎢ ⎝ P ×3 ⎠ ⎥⎥
⎣ ⎦
Solving for P, we get P = 210 N Ans.
Example 9.6
A cantilever beam of length l carries a udl of intensity w per unit length over its entire span and a
point load PDWLWVIUHHHQG)LQGWKHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHEHDPXVLQJ Castigliano’s theorem.
The bending moment due to load P at a distance x from the free end is given as
M1 = – Px
The bending moment due to udl at x is given as
wx 2
M2 = –
2
Fig. 9.11
The combined bending moment at x is given as

⎛ wx 2 ⎞⎟⎟
⎜
M = – ⎜⎜ Px + ⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
The strain energy stored in the beam is given as

l
M 2 dx
U = ¨ 2 EI
0
7KHGHÀHFWLRQLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIORDGDSSOLHGXVLQJVHFRQG&DVWLJOLDQR¶VWKHRUHPLVREWDLQHGDV
sU
G =
sP
⎡ l 2 ⎤
M dx ⎥
∂ ⎢⎢ ∫ ⎥ l
⎢⎣ 0 2 EI ⎥⎦ 2 M ∂M
=
∂P
= ∫ ⋅
2 EI ∂P
⋅ dx
0
sM
But =–x
sP
l
M
Hence, G = ∫ EI
(−x )dx
0
l ⎧ ⎛
⎪ wx 2 ⎞⎟⎪⎫
⎪ ⎟⎟⎪
∫ ⎨⎪−⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝ Px +
1
= ⎬ (−x )dx (on substituting M)
EI ⎪
⎩ 2 ⎟⎠⎪ ⎪
⎭
0
l⎛ 3⎞
⎟⎟ dx
∫ ⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝ Px + 2
1 2 wx
= ⎟⎟
EI
0 ⎠
⎡ Px 3 wx 4 ⎤ l ⎡ 3 4⎤
=
1 ⎢ + ⎥ = 1 ⎢ Pl + wl ⎥ Ans.
⎢ 3 8 ⎥⎥⎦ 0 EI ⎢⎢⎣ 3 8 ⎥⎥⎦
EI ⎢⎣
when P = 0, then
wl 4
G =
8EI
1. :K\LVVWUDLQHQHUJ\VRFDOOHG"
2. :KDWLVVWUDLQHQHUJ\GHQVLW\"
3. :KDWLVWKHVWUDLQHQHUJ\VWRUHGLQDVKDIWZKHQWKHVKDIWLVVXEMHFWHGWRDWRUTXHT and produces
an angle of twist T"
4. :KDWLV&DVWLJOLDQR¶VWKHRUHP":KHUHLVLWXVHG"
5. :KDWLVWKHEDVLFSULQFLSOHRI&DVWLJOLDQR¶VWKHRUHP"
Strain Energy 429
1. Energy stored in a material during its deformation is known as

(a) elastic energy (b) plastic energy (c) strain energy (d) potential energy.
2. Strain energy stored per unit volume in a bar subjected to a gradually applied load P on its
cross-section A is given as
P2 P2 P 2P .
(a) 2 (b) (c) (d)
2A E 2 AE 2 A2 E A2 E
3. :RUNGRQHE\DJUDGXDOO\DSSOLHGORDGPRQDERG\SURGXFLQJDGHÀHFWLRQGl is given as
2 2
(c) P δ l (d) Pδ l
P ¸δ l
(a) P . Gl (b)
2 2 2
4. 7KHPD[LPXPVWUDLQHQHUJ\VWRUHGLQDERG\DWWKHHODVWLFOLPLWLVFDOOHG
(a) resilience (b) modulus of resilience
(c) proof resilience (d) potential energy.
5. The workdone by a suddenly applied load PSURGXFLQJDGHÀHFWLRQGl is given as
P2 ¸ δ l
(a) P ¸ δ l (b) P Gl (c) (d) P Gl 2.
2 2
6. The strain energy stored in a shaft of length l subjected to a torque T with its polar moment of
inertia J is
T 2l T 2l 2T 2l Tl .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 JG JG JG 2 JG
7. The strain energy stored in a simply supported beam of span l loaded with a central point load P
and moment of inertia I is
Pl 3 P 2l 2 P 2l 3 P 2l 3 .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
48EI 96 EI 96 EI 24 EI
8. The strain energy stored in a cantilever beam of span l carrying a point load P at its free end with
moment of inertia I is
P 2l 3 P 2l 3 P 2l 3 P 2l 3 .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
48EI 6 EI 24 EI 96 EI
9. The strain energy stored per unit volume in a body subjected to two mutually perpendicular
principal stresses V1 and V2 with Poisson’s ratio v is
1 1
(a) (V12 + V22 − 2v V1V2 ) (b) (σ1 σ 2 σ1σ 2 )
2E E
1 2 1
(c) (V1 + V22 − 2v V1V2 ) (d) (V1 + V2 − V1V2 ) .
E E
10. The strain energy stored per unit volume in a cube subjected to a stress intensity V on its all sides
with bulk modulus K is
V V σ2 V2 .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2K 2K 2 2K K2
11. The strain energy stored per unit volume in a cube subjected to three mutually perpendicular
principal stresses V1, V2 and V3 with 1, 2 and 3 being the strains produced in the respective
directions of the stresses is
1
(a) V11 + V2 2 + V33 (b) (V11 + V22 + V33)
2
1 2 1
(c) (V1 1 + V22 2 + V333) (d) (V112 + V2 22 + V332).
2 2
12. The stress produced by a suddenly applied load is how many times the stress produced by the
JUDGXDOO\DSSOLHGORDG"
(a) four times (b) three times (c) two times (d) eight times.
13. The stress produced in a bar of length l and cross-section A when a load P is dropped on it from
a height hSURGXFLQJQHJOLJLEOHGHÀHFWLRQLVJLYHQDV
2EPh EPh EPh EPh .

(a) (b) (c) (d)
Al Al 2 Al 3 Al
14. The strain energy stored per unit volume in a body subjected to a shear stress W is given as
2
2W2 W W W2 .
(a) (b) (c) 2 (d)
G 2G 2G G
15. Two bodies of equal cross-sections and equal lengths absorb equal strain energy when loaded
GLIIHUHQWO\7KH¿UVWERG\LVFDUU\LQJDQD[LDOORDGP and the other one is acting as a cantilever
beam with a point load P at its free end. The stresses produced in the two bodies are related as
V V V2
(a) V1 = 2 (b) V1 = V2 (c) V1 = 2 (d) V1 = 2 .
3 2 2
16. For a straight bar of length l being subjected to a tensile load P, the strain energy is given as
Pl 2 P 2l Pl 2 Pl .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 AE 2 AE AE 2
A2 E
17. For a bar of length l being subjected to a bending moment M, the strain energy is given as
M 2l Ml 2 Ml 2 Ml 2 .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 EI 2 EI EI EI
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (a)
10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (a).
Strain Energy 431
EXERCISES
1. $
YHUWLFDOEDURIOHQJWKPLV¿[HGDWLWVORZHUHQG,WLVVWULNHGE\DKRUL]RQWDOO\PRYLQJERG\
of mass 5 kg at its upper end with a certain velocity VSURGXFLQJDPD[LPXPVWUHVVRI03D
in the bar. Find V. Take E = 200 GPa. (Ans. 3.61 m/s).
2. $EDURIOHQJWKPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOORDGRIN17KHGLDPHWHURIWKHEDUIRURQHKDOI
of its length is 30 mm and for the other half 60 mm. Calculate the strain energy stored in the bar.
Take E = 200 GPa. (Ans. 2.76 joules).
3. Show that the strain energy stored in a beam of length l having rectangular cross-section
P 2l 3 ,
supported at the ends and loaded with a central point load P is given as where the symbols
have their usual meanings. 96 EI
4. A load of 20 kN falls through a height of 1 m on a rectangular beam of length 1 m with cross-

section 20 mm wide × 30 mm deep supported at the ends. Find the instantaneous stress developed
and the strain energy stored in the beam. Take E = 200 GPa. (Ans. 12747.18 N/mm2, 27 kJ).
5. A load of 2 kN is allowed to fall freely from a height of 1 m at the centre of a circular
VLPSO\ VXSSRUWHG EHDP RI OHQJWK P DQG GLDPHWHU PP )LQG WKH GHÀHFWLRQ RI WKH EHDP
Take E = 200 GPa. (Ans. 77.65 mm).
6. 8VLQJ &DVWLJOLDQR¶V WKHRUHP ¿QG WKH GHÀHFWLRQ DW WKH FHQWUH RI D VLPSO\ VXSSRUWHG EHDP RI
length l carrying a triangular load which varies from zero at one end to w/unit length at another
end.
⎛ 1 wl 4 ⎞⎟⎟ .
⎜⎜ Ans.
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 156.25 EI ⎟⎠
7. $KROORZVKDIWKDYLQJWKHRXWVLGHDQGWKHLQVLGHGLDPHWHUUDWLRRILVVXEMHFWHGWRDPD[LPXPVKHDU
5W 2 ,
stress of W. Show that the strain energy stored in the shaft on per unit volume basis is given by
where G is the shear modulus of the shaft material. 16G
8. $PORQJEDULVVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOSXOOZKLFKLQGXFHVDPD[LPXPVWUHVVRI03D7KH
area of cross-section of the bar is 2 × 10–4 m2 over a length of 0.95 m and for the central 0.05 m
length the sectional area is equal to 1 × 10–4 m2. Assuming that E for the bar material is 200 GPa,
calculate the strain energy stored in the bar. (Ans. 2.953 joules).
9. A 500 mm × 180 mm rolled steel beam is simply supported over a span of 6m. A load of 20 kN is
GURSSHGRQWRWKHPLGGOHRIWKHEHDPIURPDKHLJKWRIPP)LQGWKHPD[LPXPLQVWDQWDQHRQV
GHÀHFWLRQDQGWKHPD[LPXPVWUHVVLQGXFHG7KHVHFRQGPRPHQWRIDUHDRIWKHVHFWLRQHTXDOVWR
45218 × 10–8 m4 and the Young’s modulus is 200 GPa. (Ans. 6.026 mm, 36.715 MPa).
10. 8VLQJ WKH &DVWLJOLDQR¶V WKHRUHP FDOFXODWH WKH YHUWLFDO GHÀHFWLRQ DW WKH PLGGOH RI D VLPSO\
supported beam which carries a uniformly distributed load of intensity w over the full span l. The
ÀH[XUDOULJLGLW\EI of the beam is constant and only strain energy of bending is to be considered.
⎛ 4 ⎞
⎜⎜ Ans. 5wl ⎟⎟ .
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 384 EI ⎟⎠
11. A steel tube having outside and inside diameter of 100 mm and 60 mm respectively is bent into
the form of a quadrant of 2 m radius as shown in Fig. 9.12. One end is rigidly attached to a
horizontal base plate to which a tangent to that end is perpendicular, and the free end supports
DORDGRIN1'HWHUPLQHWKHYHUWLFDODQGKRUL]RQWDOGHÀHFWLRQVRIWKHIUHHHQGXQGHUWKLVORDG
using the Castigliano’s theorem. Take E = 200 GPa.
Fig. 9.12
(Ans. 7.353 mm, – 4.681 mm).
12. A shaft circular in section (Fig. 9.13) and of length l is subjected to a variable torque given by
kx 2 , where x is the distance measured from one end of the shaft and k is a constant. Find the
i2
angle of twist for the shaft using Castigliano’s theorem. Torsional rigidity of the shaft is JG.
Fig. 9.13
⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜ Ans. kl ⎟⎟ .
⎜⎝ 3JG ⎟⎠

10
Theory of Elastic Failure
Henri Edouard Tresca, born on 12 October 1814, was a French mechanical

engineer. He discovered the Tresca yield criterion, also called maximum
shear stress theory, which is one of the two main failure criteria used today
for ductile materials along with von Mises yield criterion. He became
an honorary member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) in 1882. He is called the ‘father of plasticity’ for his contribution
LQWKH¿HOGRIQRQHODVWLFGHIRUPDWLRQ
Henri Edouard Tresca

(1814-1885)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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:KLFKLVWKHVLPSOHVWWKHRU\RIDPDWHULDO¶VIDLOXUH"
:K\LVWKH7UHVFD¶V\LHOGFULWHULRQWKHPRVWSRSXODUWKHRU\RIDPDWHULDO¶VIDLOXUH"
:KDWLVDSULQFLSDOSODLQ"
:KDWLVWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQVWUDLQHQHUJ\DQGVKHDUVWUDLQHQHUJ\"

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_10
10.1 INTRODUCTION
When a material is stressed, there is a possibility for it to fail. Sometimes it fails without giving any
indication and sometimes the failure is delayed. The analysis of failure of materials helps to know
WKHDFWXDOUHDVRQVRIWKHLUIDLOXUH7KHUHDUH¿YHWKHRULHVUHODWLQJWRDPDWHULDO¶VIDLOXUHEXWQRQHRI
them give the exact reason of failure because of the complexity of compound stress system under
multiaxial loading. Yield point is the stage in the material, beyond which permanent deformation
occurs, and it is the most important failure criteria. The different theories of failure, also called failure
criteria, are discussed below.
10.2 MAXIMUM NORMAL STRESS THEORY

7KLVWKHRU\LVDOVRNQRZQDVPD[LPXPSULQFLSDOVWUHVVWKHRU\RU5DQNLQH¶VWKHRU\QDPHGDIWHUD
Scottish civil engineer William John Macquorn Rankine (1820–1872). It is the oldest, as well as the
simplest, of all the theories of failure, and applies well to brittle materials in all ranges of stresses,
provided a tensile principal stress exists. According to this theory, a material fails, when the maxi-
mum principal stress developed due to external load reaches the ultimate strength of the material
under uniaxial tension condition.
Consider a rectangular body being subjected to two normal stresses Vx and Vy along x and y
directions respectively (Fig. 10.1). Let Vu be the ultimate stress in simple tension.
Fig. 10.1

σx + σ y (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ 2
V1, 2 = ± ...(10.1)
2 2
The maximum principal stress is given as
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ 2
V1 = + ...(10.2)
2 2
The minimum principal stress is given as
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ 2
V2 = – ...(10.3)
2 2
Theory of Elastic Failure 435
According to this theory, V1 =Vu

σx + σ y1 2
(σ x − σ y ) + 4τ = Vu
2
+ ...(10.4)
2 2
The normalised form of the Rankine’s theory for a plane stress condition is
σ1 σ
= ± 1 or 2 = ± 1 ...(10.5)
σu σu
and is graphically represented as shown in Fig. 10.2, where V1 and V2 are the principal stresses and
Vu LVWKHXOWLPDWHVWUHQJWKLQWKHXQLD[LDOWHQVLRQWHVW7KHERXQGDU\RIWKHVTXDUHGH¿QHVWKHIDLOXUH
criterion. The material is safer for the principal stresses lying within the square, but fails when the
stresses lie on or outside the square.
Fig. 10.2 Plotting of the maximum normal stress theory.
10.3 MAXIMUM NORMAL STRAIN THEORY

This theory is also called maximum principal strain theory or Saint Venant’s criterion in honour
of a French mathematician Saint Venant. The theory holds reasonably well for cast iron (a brittle
material), but is not generally used these days as other theories give better result. According to this
theory, a material fails, when the maximum principal strain reaches the strain at the yield point in the
simple tension test.
Consider a complex stress system in which a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular
stresses Vx, Vy and Vz (Fig. 10.3). Let the major principal strain occurs in the direction of V x and Vyp
is the yield point stress.
Fig. 10.3
Principal strain in the direction of Vx is given as

σx σy σ
±v ±v z
E E E
where
E = Modulus of elasticity
v = Poisson’s ratio
According to this theory,
σx σy σ σ yp
±v ±v z =
E E E E
or Vx±v (Vy +Vz) = Vyp
10.4 MAXIMUM TOTAL STRAIN ENERGY THEORY

This theory is also called Haigh’s criterion. According to this theory, for a body being subjected to a
complex stress system, failure occurs, when the total strain energy per unit volume reaches the total
strain energy at the yield point in the simple tension test. The theory gives fairly good results for
ductile materials, but is not used these days as other improved theories are available.
&RQVLGHUDERG\ZKLFKLVVXEMHFWHGWRWKUHHPXWXDOO\SHUSHQGLFXODUVWUHVVHV)LJ
The strain energy per unit volume under the loading condition is given as
U 1
= [ 2 + σ 2y + σ 2z ±v (Vx Vy + Vy Vz + Vz Vx@
V 2E σ x
The strain energy per unit volume at the yield point, when Vyp is the yield stress, is given as
U yp σ 2yp
=
V 2E
1 2 σ 2yp
[ σ x + σ y + σ z ±v (Vx Vy + Vy Vz + Vz Vx)] =
2 2
2E 2E
2
or σ 2x + σ y + σ 2z ±v (Vx Vy + Vy Vz + Vz Vx) = V2yp
10.5 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS THEORY

This theory is also known as Tresca’s yield criterion, named after a French engineer Henri Edouard
7UHVFD±7KLVWKHRU\JLYHVEHWWHUUHVXOWZKHQDSSOLHGWRGXFWLOHPDWHULDOVDQGYDOXHV
obtained are very near to experimental values, hence oftenly used for ductile materials in machine
design and is one of the widely used laws of plasticity. According to this theory, a material fails, when
the maximum shear stress developed in the material equals to the maximum shear stress at the yield
point in the uniaxial tension test.
Consider a body being subjected to two mutually perpendicular normal stresses V x and Vy and a
shear stress W)LJ
Fig. 10.4

σ1 − σ 2
Wmax = ±
2
1 2
=± (σ x − σ y ) + 4τ
2
2
where V1 = Major principal stress
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ 2
= +
2 2
V2 = Minor principal stress
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4τ 2
= ±
2 2
The maximum shear stress, when the body is subjected to a stress Vyp, is given as
σ yp
Wmaxyp =
2
Wmax =Wmaxyp
σ1 − σ 2 σ yp
± =
2 2
1 2 σ yp
± (σ x − σ y ) + 4τ
2
2 2
2
or ± (σ x − σ y ) + 4τ = Vyp
2
The normalised form of the Tresca's yield criterion for a plane stress condition is
σ1 σ σ σ
= ± 1 or 2 = ± 1 or 1 ± 2
σ yp σ yp σ yp σ yp
DQG LWV JUDSKLFDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ IRUPV D KH[DJRQ FDOOHG 7UHVFD

V KH[DJRQ DV VKRZQ LQ )LJ
where V1 and V2 are the principal stresses and Vyp is the yield point stress in the uniaxial tension test.
Fig. 10.5 Plotting of the maximum shear stress theory.
7KHERXQGDU\RIWKHKH[DJRQGH¿QHVWKHIDLOXQHFULWHULRQ7KHPDWHULDOLVVDIHUIRUWKHVKHDU
stresses within the hexagon, but fails when the stresses lie on or outside the hexagon.
10.6 MAXIMUM DISTORTION ENERGY THEORY

7KLVWKHRU\LVDOVRNQRZQDVYRQ0LVHV\LHOGFULWHULRQQDPHGDIWHUD*HUPDQ$PHULFDQPDWKHPD
WLFLDQ5LFKDUGYRQ0LVHV±RURFWDKHGUDOVKHDUWKHRU\RUPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUDLQHQHUJ\
theory, and is the most popular theory for predicting yielding in ductile materials. According to this
theory, a material begins yielding, when the maximum shear strain energy (also called distortion
energy) per unit volume equals to the shear strain energy per unit volume at the yield point in the
uniaxial tension test.
)RUDFRPSOH[VWUHVVV\VWHPVKRZQLQ)LJWKHHQHUJ\RIGLVWRUWLRQLVJLYHQDV
Us 1
= [(V1 V2)2 + (V2±V)2 + (V±V1)2@
V 12G
where V1, V2 and V are three mutually perpendicular principal stresses.
The shear strain energy at the yield point, when the body is subjected to a stress Vyp, is given as
U yp σ 2yp
=
V 6G
Us U yp
=
V V
1 σ 2yp
2 2 2
[( V1±V2) + (V2±V) + (V±V1) ] =
12G 6G
or (V1±V2)2 + (V2±V)2 + (V±V1)2 = V2yp
The normalised form of the maximum distortion energy theory for a plane stress condition is
2 2
⎛ σ1 ⎞ ⎛ σ2 ⎞ ⎛ σ1 ⎞ ⎛ σ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ =1
⎝ σ yp ⎠ ⎝ σ yp ⎠ ⎝ σ yp ⎠ ⎝ σ yp ⎠
DQGLWVJUDSKLFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQIRUPVDQHOOLSVHDVVKRZQLQ)LJ7KHERXQGLQJRIWKHHOOLSVH
GH¿QHVWKHIDLOXUHFULWHULD7KHPDWHULDOLVVDIHUIRUWKHSULQFLSDOVWUHVVHVO\LQJZLWKLQWKHHOOLSVH
but fails if the stresses lie on or outside the ellipse. The corresponding Tresca's hexagon is shown by
dashed lines.
Fig. 10.6 Plotting of the maximum distortion energy theory.
Example 10.1
Two direct stresses are acting at two mutually perpendicular planes in a material. Both of
WKHP DUH WHQVLOH DQG DUH 1PP 2 DQG 1PP2 respectively. Find the shear stress acting
on the planes to consider the material’s failure according to maximum principal stress theory,
maximum shear stress theory and shear strain energy theory. Take yield stress to be equal to
1PP2.
Solution: Given,
Direct stress in xGLUHFWLRQ Vx 1PP2 (Tensile)
Direct stress in yGLUHFWLRQVy 1PP2 (Tensile)
Yield stress, Vyp 1PP2
The major principal stress V1 is given as
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4 τ 2
V1 = +
2 2
2
(150 − 80 ) + 4τ
2
150 + 80
= +
2 2
4900 + 4τ2
...(1)
2
The minor principal stress V2 is given as
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4 τ 2
V2 = ±
2 2
4900 + 4τ2
± ...(2)
2
According to the maximum principal stress theory, we have
V1 = Vyp 1PP2
4900 + 4τ2

2
Solving for W,we get
W 1PP2 Ans.
The maximum shear stress Wmax is given as
σ1 − σ 2
Wmax =
2
Using equations (1) and (2), we get
Wmax = 4900 + 4τ2

According to the maximum shear stress theory, we have
Wmax = Vyp 1PP2
or 4900 + 4τ2

W 1PP2 Ans.
The shear strain energy per unit volume, for a biaxial stress system, is given as
Us 1
= [(V1±V2)2 + V22 + V12] (V
V 12G
1
= [V2 + V22±V1 V2]
6G 1
According to the shear strain energy theory, we have
1 σ 2yp
2 2
[V + V2±V1 V2] =
6G 1 6G
V12 + V22±V1 V2 = V2yp 2

2 2
⎡ 4900 + 4τ2 ⎤ ⎡ 4900 + 4τ2 ⎤
or ⎢115 + ⎥ + ⎢115 − ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎛ 4900 + 4τ2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
± ⎜115 + ⎟ ⎜115 − 4900 + 4τ ⎟ 4
⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
W 1PP2 Ans.
Example 10.2
$FLUFXODUVKDIWRIGLDPHWHUPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDPD[LPXPEHQGLQJPRPHQWRI1¹mm
DQGDWZLVWLQJPRPHQWRI1¹mm. Find the factor of safety of the shaft using maximum shear
VWUHVVWKHRU\7KH\LHOGVWUHVVRIWKHVKDIWLVQRWWRH[FHHG1PP 2.
Solution: Given,
Diameter of the shaft, d PP
Bending moment, M 1¹mm
Twisting moment, T 1¹mm
Yield stress of the shaft, Vyp 1PP2
V1 =
πd3
16
[M + M2 T2 ]
=
16
[ 5 2 5 2
v 3 (3 × 10 ) + (5 × 10 ) 1PP
2
]
π × (50 )
V2 =
16
πd 3
[ M± M2 T2 ]
=
16
3 [ ±

(3 × 105 )2 + (5 × 105 ) 2 ]
π × (50 )
±1PP2
7KHQHJDWLYHVLJQVLJQL¿HVWKHFRPSUHVVLYHQDWXUHRIV2.
σ1 − σ2 36 11.53
Wmax = = 1PP2
2 2
The working simple stress corresponding to Wmax is given as
Vw = 2 Wmax
1PP2
Hence, the factor of safety is

σ yp 90
n = = Ans.
σw 47.52
Example 10.3
For a complex stress system, three principal stresses are 2VVDQG±V. The stress in simple
WHQVLRQDWWKHHODVWLFOLPLWLV1PP2. Find the value of V according to (a) the maximum principal
stress theory (b) the maximum principal strain theory (c) the total strain energy theory (d) the
maximum shear stress theory and (eWKHGLVWRUWLRQHQHUJ\WKHRU\7DNH3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRWREH
Solution: Given,
Major principal stress, V1 = 2V
Minor principal stress, V2 ±V
Third principal stress, V V
Stress at the elastic limit, Ve 1PP2
Poisson’s ratio, v
The minor principal stress is compressive because of negative sign associated with it.
(a) Using the maximum principal stress theory, we have
Major principal stress V1 = Stress at the elastic limit Ve
V1
2V
or V 1PP2 Ans.
(b) Using the maximum principal strain theory, we have
σ1 σ σ σ
−v 2 −v 3 = e
E E E E
(On replacing Vx, Vy and Vz by V1, V2 and VUHVSHFWLYHO\LQHTXDWLRQ
or V1±vV2±vV = V
or 2V ±±V±V

On solving, we get
V 1PP 2 Ans.
(c) Using the total strain energy theory, we have
2
σ12 + σ22 + σ32 − 2υ (σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ3 + σ3σ1 ) = Ve
(On replacing Vx, Vy and Vz by V1, V2 and VUHVSHFWLYHO\LQHTXDWLRQ
( 2σ ′ )2 + ( − 1σ ′ )2 + (1.5σ ′ )2 − 2 × 0.25 [( 2σ ′ × ( − 1σ ′ )
+ ( − 1σ ′ ) × (1.5σ ′) + (1.5σ ′) × 2σ ′)] 2
On solving, we get
V 1PP2 Ans.
(d) The maximum shear stress is given as
σ1 − σ2
Wmax =
2
2σ′ − (− 1σ′)
= V
2
According to the maximum shear stress theory, we have
σe 200
Wmax = =
2 2
V
or V 1PP2 Ans.
(e) Using the distortion energy theory, we have
1
[(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 ) 2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 ] = Ve2
2
1
or [(2σ′ + 1σ′)2 + (− 1σ′ − 1.5σ′)2 + (1.5σ′ − 2σ′) 2 ] 2
2
On solving, we get
V 1PP2 Ans.
Example 10.4
$ FLUFXODU VKDIW RI PP GLDPHWHU LV VXEMHFWHG WR FRPELQHG EHQGLQJ DQG WZLVWLQJ PRPHQWV
the bending moment being four times the twisting moment. Find the allowable twisting moment
according to (a) the maximum principal stress theory (b) the maximum shear stress theory and
(cWKHGLVWRUWLRQHQHUJ\WKHRU\*LYHQWKHVWUHVVDWWKHHODVWLFOLPLWLV1PP 2 and the factor
RIVDIHW\LV
Solution: Given,
Elastic limit stress, Ve 1PP2
Factor of safety, n
/HW T = Twisting moment
M = Bending moment
M = 4T (Given)
16
V1 = (M + M2 T2 )
πd 3
16
= 3
(4T (4)2 T 2 )
π × (80 )
16 T ±
= 3 (4 + 17 ) = 8 T
π × (80 )
16T
V2 = 3
(4 − 17 ) = ± 1.22 ±T
π × (80)
The working stress at the elastic limit is given as
σe 4
= 1PP2
Vw =
n 3
(a) Using the maximum principal stress theory, we have
V1 = Vw
8 ± T
On solving, we get
T 41¹mm Ans.
(b) The maximum shear stress is given as
σ1 − σ2 8 × 10−5 T + 1.22 × 10−6 T
Wmax = = ± T
2 2
Using the maximum shear stress theory, we have
σw
Wmax =
2
1.33
± T =
2
On solving, we get
T 41¹mm Ans.
(c) For a biaxial stress system, the distortion energy theory reduces to
2
σ12 + σ22 − σ1 σ2 = Vw
(8 × 10−5 T ) 2 + (− 1.22 × 10−6 T ) 2 − 8 × 10−5 T × (− 1.22 × 10−6 T ) 2
T 41mm Ans.
Example 10.5
FLUFXODUVKDIWRIGLDPHWHUPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDEHQGLQJPRPHQWDQGDWZLVWLQJPRPHQW
$
Find the relationship between the two moments assuming that they are causing failure alone
according to (a) the maximum principal stress theory (b) the maximum principal strain theory
(c) the total strain energy theory (d) the maximum shear stress theory and (e) the distortion
HQHUJ\WKHRU\7DNH3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRWREH
Solution: Given,
Poisson’s ratio, v
/HW M = Bending moment
T = Twisting moment
Ve = Stress at the elastic limit
V1 = Major principal stress
V2 = Minor principal stress
The bending stress, due to bending moment M acting alone, is given as

32 M
Vb =
πd 3
The maximum shear stress, due to twisting moment, that is, torque T acting alone, is given as
16T
W =
πd 3
Principal stresses are
16T
V1, 2 = ±
πd 3
(a) Using the principal stress theory, we have
V1 = Ve
16T 32 M
= (here Ve = Vb = bending stress)
πd 3
πd 3
or T =2M Ans.
(b) For a biaxial stress system, the maximum principal strain theory is expressed as
V1±vV2 = Ve
(On replacing Vx and Vy by V1 and V2UHVSHFWLYHO\LQHTXDWLRQ
16T ⎛ 16T ⎞ 32 M
− 0.25 ⎜ − 3 ⎟ = (Here Ve = Vb = Bending stress)
πd 3
⎝ πd ⎠ πd 3
2QVLPSOL¿FDWLRQZHJHW
T M Ans.
(c) The total strain energy theory, for a biaxial stress system, is expressed as
2
σ12 + σ 22 − 2v σ1 σ 2 = V e
8VLQJHTXDWLRQDQGUHSODFLQJVx and Vy by V1 and V2 respectively.)
2 2 2
⎛ 16T ⎞ ⎛ 16T ⎞ 16T ⎛ 16T ⎞ ⎛ 32M ⎞
⎜ 3 ⎟ + ⎜ − 3 ⎟ − 2 × 0.25 × 3 × ⎜ − 3 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ πd ⎠ ⎝ πd ⎠ πd ⎝ πd ⎠ ⎝ πd 3 ⎠
T M Ans.

(d) Using the maximum shear stress theory, we have
σe V
W = = b
2 2
16T 1 32M
= ×
πd 3 2 πd 3
or T =M Ans.
(e) For a biaxial stress system, the distortion energy theory is expressed as
σ12 + σ22 − σ1 σ2 = Ve2
2 2 2
⎛ 16T ⎞ ⎛ 16T ⎞ ⎛ 16T ⎞ ⎛ 16T ⎞ ⎛ 32M ⎞
⎜ 3 ⎟ + ⎜− 3 ⎟ − ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜− 3 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ πd ⎠ ⎝ πd ⎠ ⎝ πd ⎠ ⎝ πd ⎠ ⎝ πd 3 ⎠
T M Ans.
Example 10.6
Find the maximum principal stress developed in a cylindrical shaft 8 cm in diameter and subjected
WRDEHQGLQJPRPHQWRIN1PDQGDWZLVWLQJPRPHQWRIN1P,IWKH\LHOGVWUHVVRIWKHVKDIW
PDWHULDO LV 01P2, determine the factor of safety according to the maximum shearing stress
theory of failure.
Solution: Given,
Diameter of the shaft, d FP P
Bending moment, M N1P
Twisting moment, T N1P
Yield stress, Vyp 01P2
The bending stress is given as
32 M 32 × 25 × 103
Vb = = 01P2 01P2
πd 3 π × (0.08)3 × 106
The shear stress is given as
16T
W =
πd 3
16 × 4.2 × 103
= 01P2 01P2
π × (0.08)3 × 106
The maximum principal stress is given as
σb 1
V1 = + σb2 + 4τ 2 (' Vx = Vb and Vy
2 2
49.73 1
= + (49.73) 2 + 4 × (41.78) 2
2 2
01P2 Ans.
1
Wmax = σb2 + 4τ 2
2
1
= ( 49.73) 2 + 4 × (41.78) 2 01P2
2
According to the maximum shear stress theory, failure occurs when W maxHTXDOVWRRQHKDOIRIWKH
yield stress. Hence, the factor of safety is
σ yp 300
n = = Ans.
2 × τ max 2 u 48.62
Example 10.7
A thin walled circular tube of wall thickness t and mean radius r is subjected to an axial load P and
a torque TLQDFRPELQHGWHQVLRQWRUVLRQH[SHULPHQW
(a) Determine the state of stress exising in the tube in terms of P and T.
(b) Using the von Mises failure criterion, show that the failure takes place, when
σ2 + 3τ2 = Vyp
where Vyp is the yield stress in uniaxial tension, V and W are respectively the axial and torsional
shearing stresses in the tube.
Solution: 7KHYRQ0LVHVWKHRU\IRUDWZRGLPHQVLRQDOVWUHVVV\VWHPLVJLYHQDV
2
σ12 + σ22 − σ1σ2 = Vyp ... (1)
where V1 and V2 are the two principal stresses and Vyp is the yield stress in uniaxial tension.
5HIHU)LJIRUWKHVWDWHRIVWUHVVLQWKHWXEH$VPDOOHOHPHQWRQWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHWXEHZLWK
VWUHVVHVDFWLQJRQLWLVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH
The direct stress due to axial load P is given as
P P
V = = 2 ... (2)
A πr
The shear stress due to torque T is
T
W = ur
J
π 4
Substituting J = r in the shear stress equation, we get
2
2T
W =
πr 3
The principal stresses w.r.t. two axes system are given as
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ2xy
V1 = +
2 2
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ2xy
and V2 = −
2 2
But Vy Vx = V and Wxy = W
σ σ 2 + 4τ 2
Hence, V1 = +
2 2
Fig. 10.7
σ σ 2 + 4τ 2
and V2 = −
2 2
Substituting V1 and V2 in equation (1), we have
σ 2 σ 2 + 4τ2 σ σ 2 + 4τ 2 σ 2 σ 2 + 4τ 2 σ σ 2 + 4τ 2 ⎛ σ 2 σ 2 + 4τ 2 ⎞ 2
+ +2· · + + −2· · −⎜ − ⎟⎟ = Vyp
4 4 2 4 4 4 2 2 ⎜ 4 4
⎝ ⎠
σ2 σ 2 + 4τ 2 2
+ 3· = Vyp
4 4
σ2 3 2 4 τ2 2
+ σ + 3· = Vyp
4 4 4
2
V2W2 = Vyp
Hence, σ2 + 3τ2 = Vyp Proved.
Example 10.8
7KUHHH[DFWO\VLPLODUVSHFLPHQVRIPLOGVWHHOWXEHDUHPPLQH[WHUQDOGLDPHWHUDQGPP
in internal diameter. One of these tubes was tested in tension and the limit of proportionality was
DFKLHYHGDWDORDGRIN17KHVHFRQGZDVWHVWHGLQWRUVLRQZKHUHDVWKHWKLUGZDVWHVWHGLQWRUVLRQ
ZLWKDVXSHULPSRVHGEHQGLQJPRPHQWRI1P,IWKHIDLOXUHFULWHULDLVPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVV
estimate the torque at which the two specimens would fail.
Solution: Given,
,QWHUQDOGLDPHWHURIWKHWXEH di PP
External diameter of the tube, d PP
Bending moment, M 1P
The area of the tube is

π 2
A = (d 0 − d12 )
4
π
= (37.52 − 31.252 ) PP2
4
7KHSRODUPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHWXEHLVREWDLQHGDV
π 4
J = (d o − di4 )
32
π
= (37.54 − 31.254 ) PP4
32
The stress at the limit of proportionality is given as
70 u 103
Ve = 1PP2
337.47
1PP2
According to the maximum shear stress theory, the maximum shear stress is given by
σe
Wmax =
2
207.42
= 1PP2
2
The equivalent torque Te is given by
Te = M2 T2
τmax × J
1RZ M2 T2 =
⎛ d0 ⎞
(using torsion equation)
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
103.71 u 100517.7 u 2
= 1PP
37.5
or (350 × 103 )2 + T 2

T 1P Ans.
Example 10.9
$PLOGVWHHOVKDIWRIPPGLDPHWHULVVXEMHFWHGWRDEHQGLQJPRPHQWRIN1PDQGDWRUTXHT.
,IWKH\LHOGSRLQWRIVWHHOLQWHQVLRQLV03D¿QGWKHPD[LPXPYDOXHRIWKHWKHRU\WRUTXHZLWKRXW
causing yielding of the shaft material according to (a) the maximum principal stress theory, (b) the
maximum shear stress theory and (c) the maximum distortion strain energy theory.
Solution: Given,
Bending moment, M N1P î1PP
Yield point stress, Vyp 03D 1PP2
The bending stress is given by
M
Vb = uy (using bending equation)
I
6 1 50
= 2 × 10 × π × 1PP2 1PP2
× 50 4 2
64
The shear stress is given by
T d
W = u (using torsion equation)
J 2
1 50
= T× × 1PP2 î±T 1PP2
π 2
× 504
32
where TLVWKHWRUTXHLQ1PP
The maximum principal stress is given by
σ1 − σ2
V1 =
2
162.975 (162.975) 2 + 4 × (4.07 × 10−5 ) 2 T 2

= +
2 2
26560.85 + 6.626 × 10−9 T 2

= 81.488 +
2
The minimum principal stress is given by
26560.85 + 6.626 × 10−9 T 2

V2 = 81.488 −
2

σ1 − σ2
Wmax =
2
26560.85 + 6.626 × 10−9 T 2

=
2
(a) According to the maximum principal stress theory, we have
V1 = Vyp
26560.85 + 6.626 × 10−9 T 2

or 81.488 +
2
T 1PP 1P Ans.
(b) According to the maximum shear stress theory, we have
σ yp
Wmax =
2
26560.85 × 6.626 × 10−9 T 2 200

or =
2 2
T 1PP 1P Ans.
(c) According to the distortion energy theory, we have
2
(σ1 − σ2 ) 2 + σ12 + σ22 = 2Vyp (' V
2
⎛ 26560.85 + 6.626 × 10−9 T 2 ⎞
−9
or 26560.85 + 6.626 × 10 T + ⎜ 81.488 +
2 ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2
⎛ 26560.85 + 6.626 × 10−9 T 2 ⎞
+ ⎜ 81.488 − ⎟ î2
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

T 1PP 1P Ans.
Example 10.10
$FXEHRIPPVLGHLVORDGHGDVVKRZQLQ)LJa) Determine the principal stresses V 1, V 2 and
V . (b:LOOWKHFXEH\LHOGLIWKH\LHOGVWUHQJWKRIWKHPDWHULDOLV03D"8VHYRQ0LVHVWKHRU\
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
Fig. 10.8
Side of the cube, a PP

Yield strength, Vyp 03D 1PP2
Area of each face of the cube = a2 PP2
(a 1RUPDOVWUHVVLQxGLUHFWLRQLV
2000
Vx = 1PP2
25
1RUPDOVWUHVVLQyGLUHFWLRQLV
1000
Vy = 1PP2
25
1RUPDOVWUHVVLQzGLUHFWLRQLV
500
Vz = 1PP2
25
Shear stress in xy plane is
800
Wxy = 1PP2
25
6LQFHQRVKHDUVWUHVVLVDFWLQJRQWKHSODQHRI1IRUFHKHQFHLWLVRQHRIWKHSULQFLSDO
planes.
Hence, V = Vz 1PP2 Ans.
The other two principal stresses are given as
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y )2 + 4τ xy2
V1, 2 = ±
2 2
80 + 40 (80 − 40)2 + 4 × 322
= ± 1PP2
2 2
Hence, V1 1PP2
1PP2 Ans.
2
and V2 ±1PP
1PP2 Ans.
2 2 2
(b 1RZ V1±V2) + (V2±V) + (V±V1)
±2±2±2
1PP2
2
and 2Vyp î2 1PP2
Since (V1±V2)2 + (V2±V)2 + (V±V1)2 > 2Vyp
2
,, hence according to the von Mises theory, the
yielding will occur. Ans.
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:K\LVWKHPD[LPXPGLVWRUWLRQHQHUJ\WKHRU\DOVRFDOOHGWKHRFWDKHGUDOVKHDUWKHRU\"
1. The most important point in the consideration of a material’s failure is

(a) ultimate point (b) yield point
(c) failure point (d) elastic limit.
2. The maximum principal stress theory is also known as
(a) Haigh’s theory (b) St.Venant’s theory
(c) Rankine’s theory (d) von Mises theory.
3. )
DFWRURIVDIHW\LVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRI
(a) ultimate stress to working stress (b) working stress to ultimate stress
(c) yield stress to ultimate stress (d) lateral strain to longitudinal strain.
4. The principal stresses are given as
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4 τ 2 σx − σ y (σ x + σ y ) 2 − 4 τ 2
(a) ± (b) ±
2 2 2 2
σx + σ y (σ x − σ y ) 2 − 4 τ 2 (σ x − σ y ) 2 + 4 τ 2
(c) ± (d) σ x + σ y ± .
2 2 2
5. Hooke’s law is valid for
(a) brittle materials (b) ductile materials
(c) isotropic materials (d) isotropic and homogenous materials.
6. For a body being subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses V x, Vy and Vz, principal strain
in the xGLUHFWLRQLV
σ σy σ σ σy σ
(a) x − υ +υ z (b) x + υ +υ z
E E E E E E
σx σy σ σ υ
(c) −υ −υ z (d) x − (σ y + σ z ) .
E E E E 2
7. The maximum shear stress theory gives better results for
(a) brittle materials (b) ductile materials
(c) brittle and ductile materials both (d) nonmetallic materials.
8. For a biaxial stress system, the strain energy per unit volume is
1 1
(a) (σ2x − σ2y + 2υ σ x σ y ) (b) (σ2x + σ2y − 2υ σ x σ y )
2E 2E
1 1
(c) (σ2x + σ2y − 2υ σ x σ y ) (d) (σ2x − σ2y + 2υ σ x σ y ) .
2G 2G
9. According to the Tresca’s theory, the failure occurs, when the

(a) major principal stress exceeds the elastic limit stress
(b) maximum principal strain exceeds the elastic limit strain
(c) maximum shear stress exceeds the maximum shear stress at the elastic limit
(d) distortion energy per unit volume exceeds the distortion energy per unit volume at the elastic
limit.
10. The shear strain energy per unit volume, for a biaxial stress system, in which V 1 and V2 are the
major and minor principal stresses respectively, is given as
1 1 2
(a) [σ12 + σ22 − σ1 σ2 ] (b) [σ1 + σ22 − σ1 σ2 ]
12G 6G
1 2 1 2
(c) [σ1 − σ22 + σ1 σ2 ] (d) [σ1 − σ22 + σ1 σ2 ] .
6G 6G
11. 7KHYRQ0LVHVHTXLYDOHQWVWUHVVIRUDELD[LDOVWUHVVV\VWHPLVGH¿QHGDV
(a) σ12 − σ22 + σ1 σ2 (b) σ12 + σ22 − σ1 σ2
(c) σ1 + σ2 − σ1 σ2 (d) σ1 − σ2 + σ1 σ2 .
where V1 and V2 are the major and minor principal stresses respectively.
12. The maximum shear stress is given as

σ1 + σ2 σ1 − σ2
(a) (b)
2 2
σ12 + σ22 (σ1 + σ2 ) 2 .

(c) (d)
2 2
where V1 and V2 are the major and minor principal stresses respectively.
13. :KLFKRQHRIWKHJURXSVFRQVLVWLQJRIWZRWKHRULHVLVVDLGWREHPRGHUQEHFDXVHRIWKHLUFORVH
QHVVWRH[SHULPHQWDOYDOXHV"
(a) Rankine’s and St. Venant’s theory (b) Tresca’s and Rankine’s theory
(c) Tresca’s and von Mises theory (d) Rankine’s and von Mises theory.
14. The shear strain energy per unit volume at the elastic limit for a body being subjected to a stress
V is
V2 V2
(a) (b)
6E 6G
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ V .
(c) σ2 ⎜ + ⎟ (d)
⎝ 6 E 6G ⎠ G
15. The maximum shear stress at the elastic limit for a body being subjected to a stress V is
V
(a) 2V (b)

V V.
(c) (d)
2
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c)

10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (c)
EXERCISES
1. $ F\OLQGULFDO VKHOO PDGH RI PLOGVWHHO SODWH \LHOGV DW 1PP 2 in uniaxial tension. The
GLDPHWHURIWKHVKHOOLVPDQGLWVWKLFNQHVVLVPP)LQGWKHSUHVVXUHDWZKLFKWKHIDLOXUH
occurs according to (a) the maximum shear stress theory and (b) the distortion energy theory.
(Ans. (a1PP2 (b1PP2).
2. For a biaxial stress system, Vx 1PP2 and Vy 1PP2. Find the equivalent stress at the
elastic limit assuming that the failure occurs due to the maximum principal strain theory. Take
3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRWREH Ans. 1PP2).
3. $ SUHVVXUH YHVVHO RI LQVLGH UDGLXV PP LV VXEMHFWHG WR D SUHVVXUH RI 1PP2. Find the
WKLFNQHVVRIWKHYHVVHODFFRUGLQJWRWRWDOVWUDLQHQHUJ\WKHRU\7KHIDFWRURIVDIHW\LVDQG
WKH\LHOGLQJRFFXUVLQVLPSOHWHQVLRQDW1PP27DNH3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRWREH
(Ans. PP
4. $F\OLQGULFDOWXEHRIRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUPPDQGWKLFNQHVVPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDWRUTXHRI
2 41¹P7KHVWUHVVDWWKHHODVWLFOLPLWLQVLPSOHWHQVLRQLV1PP 2. Calculate the factor
of safety according to (a) the maximum shear stress theory and (b) the distortion energy theory.
(Ans. (ab) 2.18).
5. $VKDIWRIGLDPHWHUPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDWRUTXHRI1¹m and an axial thrust. For a factor
RIVDIHW\RI¿QGWKHPD[LPXPYDOXHRIWKHWKUXVWDFFRUGLQJWRa) the maximum shear stress
theory and (bWKHGLVWRUWLRQHQHUJ\WKHRU\7KHIDLOXUHRFFXUVDWDVWUHVVRI1PP 2 at the
elastic limit. (Ans. (a41b41
6. $WKLFNVSKHULFDOSUHVVXUHYHVVHORILQQHUUDGLXVPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDQLQWHUQDOSUHVVXUH
RI03D&DOFXODWHLWVZDOOWKLFNQHVVEDVHGXSRQa) the maximum principal stress theory and
(bWKHWRWDOVWUDLQHQHUJ\WKHRU\3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLR DQG\LHOGVWUHQJWK 03D
(Ans. PPPP
7. $FRPSRQHQWLQDQDLUFUDIWÀDSDFWXDWRUFDQEHDGHTXDWHO\PRGHOOHGDVDF\OLQGULFDOEDUVXEMHFWHG
WRDQD[LDOIRUFHRIN1DEHQGLQJPRPHQWRI1PDQGWRUVLRQDOPRPHQWRI1P$PP
GLDPHWHUVROLGEDURI7DOXPLQLXPKDYLQJVu 03DVyt 03DDQGVys
MPa is recommended for its use. Determine the factor of safety according to (a) the maximum
principal stress theory and (b) the maximum shear stress theory. (Ans.
8. $WKLQF\OLQGULFDOSUHVVXUHYHVVHOZLWKFORVHGHQGVKDYLQJLQVLGHGLDPHWHUPPLVUHTXLUHGWR
withstand an internal pressure of 4 MPa. Find the thickness of the vessel taking a factor of safety
RIDQGDVVXPLQJWKH\LHOGVWUHVVRI03DDFFRUGLQJWRWKHIROORZLQJIDLOXUHFULWHULD
(a) the maximum shear stress theory.
(b) the shear strain energy theory. (Ans. PPPP

11
Buckling of Columns
Leonhard Euler, born on 15 April 1707, was a great Swiss mathematician

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RQHRIWKHPRVWSUROL¿FPDWKHPDWLFLDQVZKRZRUNHGLQDOPRVWDOODUHDV
RI PDWKHPDWLFV VXFK DV JHRPHWU\ LQ¿QLWHVLPDO FDOFXOXV WULJRQRPHWU\
algebra and number theory. He introduced several notations used in
mathematics such as the letter eIRUWKHEDVHRIWKHQDWXUDOORJDULWKPZKLFK
DSSUR[LPDWHO\HTXDOVWRDQGLVDOVRNQRZQDV(XOHUQXPEHUWKH
*UHHNOHWWHUIRUVXPPDWLRQDQGWKHOHWWHUi to denote imaginary unit.
+HLQWURGXFHGWKHFRQFHSWRIDIXQFWLRQDQGXVHGf(xWRGHQRWHIXQFWLRQ
f applied to a quantity x7KH(XOHUFRQVWDQWȖJDPPDLVQDPHGDIWHU
KLP+HLVDOVRNQRZQIRUKLVZRUNLQPHFKDQLFVÀXLGPHFKDQLFVRSWLFV
Leonhard Euler DQGDVWURQRP\+HZDVHOHFWHGDIRUHLJQPHPEHURIWKH5R\DO6ZHGLVK
(1707-1783) $FDGHP\RI6FLHQFHVLQ
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_11
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Columns are long, slender structural members designed to support axial compressive loads. Vertical
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XQGHUWKHVSHFL¿HGORDG
11.2 IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY

z Buckling or crippling or critical load is the maximum limiting load at which the column
HLWKHUEXFNOHVRUWHQGVWREXFNOH%XFNOLQJRIFROXPQPHDQVLWVODWHUDOGLVSODFHPHQWGXULQJ
the maximum loading condition and it depends upon the length and cross-sectional area
RIWKHFROXPQ
z Slenderness ratio LVWKHUDWLRRIHIIHFWLYHOHQJWKRIWKHFROXPQWRLWVOHDVWUDGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQ7KH

FROXPQVDUHXVXDOO\FODVVL¿HGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLR7KHFULSSOLQJVWUHVVGHSHQGV
on this ratio. The smaller the slenderness ratio, the higher is the crippling stress.
z Safe load LVWKHDFWXDOORDGWREHSODFHGRQWKHFROXPQZLWKRXWSURGXFLQJDQ\EXFNOLQJDQGLV

given as
Buckling load
6DIHORDG =
Factor of safety (n )
11.3 CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMNS

z Short columns have length less than 8 times their least lateral dimension (diameter) or their
VOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRLVOHVVWKDQ6KRUWFROXPQVGRQRWEXFNOHEXWIDLOE\\LHOGLQJDQGKHQFH
FDQEHVXEMHFWHGWRPD[LPXPSHUPLVVLEOHFRPSUHVVLYHVWUHVV
zLong columns have very large lengths as compared to their lateral dimensions and their
VOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRLVJUHDWHUWKDQ6XFKFROXPQVIDLOPDLQO\E\EXFNOLQJDQGWKHHIIHFWRI
direct compressive stress is almost negligible.
zMedium columns KDYHVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRLQEHWZHHQDQGDQGIDLOGXHWRWKHFRPELQHG
HIIHFWRIEXFNOLQJDQGGLUHFWFRPSUHVVLYHVWUHVV
11.4 EULER’S THEORY

7KH(XOHU¶VWKHRU\LVDSSOLFDEOHIRUORQJFROXPQVZKHUHEXFNOLQJLVWKHPDMRUFDXVHIRUWKHLUIDLOXUH
DQG WKH HIIHFW RI GLUHFW FRPSUHVVLYH VWUHVV LV LJQRUHG RQ DFFRXQW RI LWV QHJOLJLEOH YDOXH +HUH WKH
EXFNOLQJORDGGHSHQGVRQWKHPRGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\RIWKHFROXPQPDWHULDOEXWQRWRQLWV\LHOGVWUHQJWK
Buckling of Columns 461
7KHIROORZLQJassumptions DUHPDGHZKLOHXVLQJWKH(XOHU¶VWKHRU\
z 7KHFROXPQLVLQLWLDOO\SHUIHFWO\VWUDLJKWDQGKDVXQLIRUPFURVVVHFWLRQWKURXJKRXWLWVOHQJWK
z 7KHPDWHULDORIWKHFROXPQLVKRPRJHQHRXVDQGLVRWURSLF
z 7KH FROXPQ IDLOV GXH WR EXFNOLQJ EHQGLQJ RQO\ DQG WKH HIIHFW RI GLUHFW FRPSUHVVLRQ LV
neglected.
z The column has very large length as compared to its lateral dimensions.
z +RRNH¶VODZLVREH\HGE\WKHPDWHULDORIWKHFROXPQi.e., the load acting on the column are
within elastic limit.

z 7KHFROXPQLVVXEMHFWHGWRSHUIHFWO\D[LDOORDG
z 7KHZHLJKWRIWKHFROXPQLVQRWFRQVLGHUHG
7KHIROORZLQJend conditions DUHXVHGIRUWKHORQJFROXPQVLQWKH(XOHU¶VIRUPXOD

z %RWKHQGVRIWKHFROXPQDUHKLQJHGRUSLQQHG
z %RWKHQGVDUH¿[HG
z 2QHHQGLV¿[HGDQGRWKHUHQGKLQJHG
z 2QHHQGLV¿[HGDQGRWKHUHQGIUHH
The equivalent length or the effective length RI WKH FROXPQ LV GH¿QHG DV WKH GLVWDQFH EHWZHHQ
WKHDGMDFHQWSRLQWVRILQÀH[LRQRQWKHHODVWLFFXUYHV7KHSRLQWRILQÀH[LRQLVSRVLWLRQHGQHDUWKH
HQGRIWKHFROXPQ7KHHIIHFWLYHFROXPQOHQJWKDFFRUGLQJWRGLIIHUHQWHQGFRQGLWLRQVDUHJLYHQLQ
Table 11.1.
Table 11.1 Effective length of Columns
End conditions Effective length (le )
z Both ends hinged/pinned le = l (l LVWKHDFWXDOOHQJWKRIWKHFROXPQ

z %RWKHQGV¿[HG le = l/2
l
z 2QHHQG¿[HGDQGRWKHUHQGKLQJHG le =
2
z 2QHHQG¿[HGDQGRWKHUHQGIUHH le = 2l
11.4.1 Euler’s Formula (when Both Ends of the Column are Hinged or Pinned)
Consider a long column ABRIOHQJWKl loaded with an axial compressive load PDQGKLQJHG¿[HGLQ
position but not in direction) at A and B (Fig. 11.1).
Let P EH WKH FULWLFDO ORDG ZKLFK LV UHVSRQVLEOH IRU EXFNOLQJ RI WKH FROXPQ DQG y be the lateral
GHÀHFWLRQDWDGLVWDQFHxIURPWKHHQGB.
Moment at the distance x is
M = – Py
d2y
EI =M
dx 2
d2y
EI = – Py
dx 2
Fig. 11.1
d2y
EI Py = 0
dx 2
d2y ⎛ P ⎞
or +⎜ ⎟ y =0 ...(11.1)
dx 2 ⎝ EI ⎠
Solving the above equation, we get
⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞
y = C1 cos ⎜ x ⎟ + C sin ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ ...(11.2)
⎜ EI ⎟ 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ EI ⎠
where C1 and C2DUHWKHFRQVWDQWVRILQWHJUDWLRQ
7KHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQLV
At B, where x = 0, y = 0
On substituting boundary condition in equation (11.12), we have
⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞
0 = C1 cos ⎜⎜ × 0 ⎟⎟ + C2 sin ⎜⎜ × 0 ⎟⎟
⎝ EI ⎠ ⎝ EI ⎠
= C1 1 + C2 0 = C1
which gives C1 = 0
Also at A, where x = l, y = 0
On substituting boundary condition in equation (11.12), we get
⎛ P ⎞
0 = C2 sin ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟
⎝ EI ⎠
⎛ P ⎞
For LHS to be zero, either C2 or sin ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ DUHUHTXLUHGWREH]HUR,IC2LV]HURQRGHÀHFWLRQ
⎝ EI ⎠
occurs in the column, and hence C2 can not be zero.
⎛ P ⎞
sin ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ = 0
⎝ EI ⎠
P
which means l = 0, S, 2S, 3S, ...
EI
Zero value is not admissible and values other than SFDUU\QRSUDFWLFDOVLJQL¿FDQFH
P
l =S
EI
Squaring both sides, we have
P 2
l = S2
EI
π 2 EI
or P = = Pcr ... (11.3)
l2
7KLVLVWKHUHTXLUHGH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHORDGFULWLFDOZKLFKEXFNOHVWKHJLYHQFROXPQZLWKERWK
RILWVHQGVKLQJHG
l
7KHODWHUDOGHÀHFWLRQLVPD[LPXPDWx = .
2
11.4.2 Euler’s Formula (when Both Ends of the Column are Fixed)
Consider a column ABRIOHQJWKl¿[HGERWKLQSRVLWLRQDQGGLUHFWLRQDWERWKHQGVDQGLVVXEMHFWHGWR
a crippling load P)LJ6LQFHWKHHQGVDUH¿[HGKHQFHWKH\KDYH]HURVORSHDQG]HURGHÀHFWLRQ
But there are restraint moments say M at each end.
7RGHULYHWKHUHTXLUHGIRUPXODDVHFWLRQXX is considered at a distance xIURPB, where the lateral
GHÀHFWLRQGXHWRDSSOLHGORDGLVy. The net bending moment at x is M – Py.
d2y
Hence, EI = M – Py
dx 2
d2y M P
2 = y
dx EI EI
d2y ⎛ P ⎞
or 2
+⎜ ⎟ y = M ...(11.4)
dx ⎝ EI ⎠ EI
7KHJHQHUDOVROXWLRQRIWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQLV
⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞ M
y = C1 cos ⎜ x ⎟ + C sin ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ + ...(11.5)
⎜ EI ⎟ 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ EI ⎠ P
Fig. 11.2
'LIIHUHQWLDWLQJHTXDWLRQZUWx, we get
dy P ⎛ P ⎞ P ⎛ P ⎞
= − C1 sin ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ + C2 cos ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ ...(11.6)
dx EI ⎝ EI ⎠ EI ⎝ EI ⎠
dy
At B, where x = 0, =0
dx
P
0 = 0 C2
EI
P
or C2 =0
EI
P
But 0, as P 0
EI
or C2 = 0
Also at B, where x = 0, y = 0.
M
0 = C1
P
M
or C1 =
P
Equation (11.5) on substituting C1 and C2 becomes
M ⎛ P ⎞ M
y = − cos ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ + ...(11.7)
P ⎝ EI ⎠ P
And at A, where x = l, y = 0
M ⎛ P ⎞ M
0 = − cos ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ +
P ⎝ EI ⎠ P
⎛ P ⎞
cos ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ = 1
⎝ EI ⎠
P
or l = 0, 2S, 4S, 6S, ...
EI
7DNLQJWKHOHDVWVLJQL¿FDQWYDOXHZHKDYH
P
l = 2S
EI
P 2
l = 4S2
EI
4π 2 EI
or P = = Pcr ...(11.8)
l2
,WLVWKHUHTXLUHGH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHFULWLFDOORDGZKLFKEXFNOHVWKHFROXPQ7KLVHTXDWLRQLVVDPH
l
DVIRUDFROXPQRIOHQJWK with both ends hinged. At the same time, on comparing equation (11.8)
2
ZLWKHTXDWLRQZH¿QGWKDWWKHEXFNOLQJORDGIRUDFROXPQZLWKERWKHQGV¿[HGLVIRXUWLPHV
as compared to a column with both ends hinged.
11.4.3 Euler’s Formula (when One End of the Column is Fixed and Other End Hinged)
Consider a column ABRIOHQJWKl which is hinged at AEXW¿[HGDWB (Fig. 11.3). Let M be restraint
moment at B 7R FRXQWHU WKLV DQRWKHU PRPHQW LV FRQVLGHUHG E\ DSSO\LQJ D KRUL]RQWDO IRUFH F at
point A.
The bending moment at a distance xIURPBZKHUHWKHODWHUDOGHÀHFWLRQLVy, is F (l – x) – Py.
d2y
Hence, EI = F (l – x) – Py
dx 2
d 2 y Py F (l − x)
or 2
= ...(11.9)
dx EI EI
⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞ F
y = C1 cos ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ + C2 sin ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ + (l − x) ...(11.10)
⎝ EI ⎠ ⎝ EI ⎠ P
At B, where x = 0, y = 0.
Fl
0 = C1
P
Fl
or C1 =
P
Fig. 11.3
Differentiating equation (11.10) w.r.t. x, we get

dy P ⎛ P ⎞ P ⎛ P ⎞ F
= − C1 sin ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ + C2 cos ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ − ...(11.11)
dx EI ⎝ EI ⎠ EI ⎝ EI ⎠ P
dy
Also at B, where x = 0, = 0.
dx
P F
0 = C2
EI P
F EI
or C2 =
P P
And at A, where x = l, y = 0
Equation (11.10) on substituting the above boundary condition, and C1 and C2 reduces to
Fl ⎛ P ⎞ F EI ⎛ P ⎞
0 = − cos ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ + sin ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟
P ⎝ EI ⎠ P P ⎝ EI ⎠
Fl ⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞
cos ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ = F EI
sin ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟
P ⎝ EI ⎠ P P ⎝ EI ⎠
⎛ P ⎞ EI ⎛ P ⎞
l cos ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ = sin ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟
⎝ EI ⎠ P ⎝ EI ⎠
⎛ P ⎞ P
or tan ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ = l ...(11.12)
⎝ EI ⎠ EI
⎛ P ⎞
7KHUHDUHWZRSRVVLEOHYDOXHVRI ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ to hold the above relationship good. These values are
⎝ EI ⎠
0 and 4.493 radian.
P
But l 0, as P 0
EI
P
or l = 4.493
EI
P 2 2
l = 20.187 = 2S (approx.)
EI
or P =
2π 2 EI = P ...(11.13)
cr
l2
2QFRPSDULQJWKLVHTXDWLRQZLWKHTXDWLRQZH¿QGWKDWEXFNOLQJORDGLVWZRWLPHVWKHORDG
UHTXLUHGZKHQERWKHQGVRIWKHFROXPQDUHKLQJHGRUSLQQHG,QRWKHUZRUGVDFROXPQRIHIIHFWLYH
l
length with both ends hinged will have the same crippling load.
2
11.4.4 Euler’s Formula (when One End of the Column is Fixed and Other End Free)
Consider a column ABRIOHQJWKlZKLFKLV¿[HGDWBEXWIUHHERWKLQSRVLWLRQDQGLQGLUHFWLRQDWA
(Fig. 11.4).
The bending moment at a distance xIURPBZKHUHWKHODWHUDOGHÀHFWLRQLVy, is P (d – y), d being
WKHGHÀHFWLRQDWWKHIUHHHQG
d2y
Hence, EI = P (d – y) = Pd – Py
dx 2
d 2 y Py Pd
or 2
= ...(11.14)
dx EI EI
⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞
y = C1 cos ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ + C2 sin ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ + d ...(11.15)
⎝ EI ⎠ ⎝ EI ⎠
At B, where x = 0, y = 0

0 = C1 + d
or C1 = – d
'LIIHUHQWLDWLQJHTXDWLRQZUWx, we get

dy P ⎛ P ⎞ P ⎛ P ⎞
= − C1 sin ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ + C2 cos ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ ...(11.16)
dx EI ⎝ EI ⎠ EI ⎝ EI ⎠
dy
Also at B, where x = 0, =0
dx
P P Fig. 11.4
0 = d × 0 + C2
EI EI
P
C2 =0
EI
P
But 0, as P 0 or C2 = 0
EI
Equation (11.15) on substituting C1 and C2 reduces to
⎛ P ⎞
y = − d cos ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ + d ...(11.17)
⎝ EI ⎠
And at A, where x = l, y = d
Equation (11.17) on substituting the above boundary condition becomes
⎛ P ⎞
d = − d cos ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ + d
⎝ EI ⎠
⎛ P ⎞
d cos ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ = 0
⎝ EI ⎠
But d 0
⎛ P ⎞
cos ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ = 0
⎝ EI ⎠
P π 3π 5π
or l = , , ,…
EI 2 2 2
7DNLQJWKHOHDVWVLJQL¿FDQWYDOXHZHKDYH
P π
l =
EI 2
Squaring both sides, we get

P 2 π2 π 2 EI
l = or P= = Pcr ...(11.18)
EI 4 4l 2
&RPSDULQJWKLVHTXDWLRQZLWKHTXDWLRQZH¿QGWKDWFULSSOLQJORDGLQWKLVFDVHLVRQHIRXUWK
RIWKHORDGZKHQDFROXPQZLWKERWKHQGVKLQJHGLVXVHG,QRWKHUZRUGVDFROXPQRIHIIHFWLYH
OHQJWKlZLWKERWKHQGVKLQJHGZLOOKDYHWKHVDPHFULSSOLQJORDG
11.4.5 Crippling Stress

7KH YDOXH RI WKH VWUHVV FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR WKH FULWLFDO RU FULSSOLQJ ORDG LV FDOOHG FULSSOLQJ VWUHVV RU
FULWLFDOVWUHVVDQGLVGHQRWHGE\Vcr.
P π 2 EI
Vcr = cr = 2 (using equation (11.3))
A l A
π 2 EAr 2
= (I = Ar2, where r 5DGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQ
l2 A
π2 E
= ...(11.19)
(l / r ) 2
Where (l/rLVFDOOHGWKHslenderness ratioRIWKHFROXPQ,IWKHVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRLVEDVHGRQWKH
HIIHFWLYHOHQJWKRIWKHFROXPQLWLVNQRZQDVHIIHFWLYHVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRle/r). The equation (11.19)
VKRZVWKDWFULSSOLQJVWUHVVYDULHVLQYHUVHO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHVTXDUHRIWKHVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRPHDQ
LQJWKHUHE\KLJKHUWKHVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRVPDOOHULVWKHFULSSOLQJVWUHVV+HQFHPLQLPXPYDOXHRIWKH
UDGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQrVKRXOGEHXVHGLQWKHFDOFXODWLRQRIVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRDQGWKHFULSSOLQJVWUHVVLQ
DFROXPQ$FULSSOLQJVWUHVVYHUVXVVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRSORWIRUVWUXFWXUDOVWHHOLVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 11.5 Vcr versus (l/r) plot for structural steel.

,IWKHFULSSOLQJVWUHVVVcr is higher than the yield strength VYWKHQLWLVRIQRLQWHUHVWEHFDXVHWKH

FROXPQZLOO\LHOGLQFRPSUHVVLRQDQGFHDVHWREHHODVWLFEHIRUHLWKDVDFKDQFHWREXFNOH
11.4.6 Limitations of Euler’s Formula

)URPWKH)LJLWLVFOHDUWKDWIRUKLJKHUYDOXHRIFULSSOLQJVWUHVVVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRLVORZ$WWKH
VDPHWLPHWKHFULSSOLQJVWUHVVRIWKHFROXPQFDQQRWEHPRUHWKDQLWV\LHOGVWUHQJWK+HQFHLWSXWVD
OLPLWDWLRQRQWKHXVHRI(XOHU¶VIRUPXODDQGWKHIRUPXODLVQRWYHU\XVHIXOLIWKHVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRLV
less than a particular value.
8VLQJWKHFRQGLWLRQWKDWWKHFULSSOLQJVWUHVVVKRXOGEHOHVVWKDQWKH\LHOGVWUHQJWKIRUVWUXFWXUDO
steel, we have
Vcr VY
π2 E
250 106 (using equation (11.19))
(l / r ) 2
π2 × 210 × 109
2
250 106 (using E = 210 GPa)
(l / r )
π2 × 210 × 109
(l/r)2
250 × 106
8290.46 (l/r)2
(l/r) 91 ...(11.20)
+HQFHWKH(XOHU¶VIRUPXODIRUDVWUXFWXUDOVWHHOFROXPQZLWKLWVERWKHQGVKLQJHGLVYDOLGRQO\
when the slenderness ratio (l/r) is greater than or equal to 91.
Example 11.1
$SLQHQGHGVTXDUHFURVVVHFWLRQFROXPQRIOHQJWKPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDFRPSUHVVLYHVWUHVVRI
03D8VLQJDIDFWRURIVDIHW\RI¿QGWKHFURVVVHFWLRQLIWKHFROXPQLVWRVDIHO\VXSSRUWa)
DN1ORDGDQGbDN1ORDG7DNHE = 15 GPa.
Solution: Given,
/HQJWKRIWKHFROXPQl = 3 m
Compressive stress on the column,V = 10 MPa
)DFWRURIVDIHW\
(a) The crippling load is given as
P )DFWRURIVDIHW\6DIHORDG
= 2.5 100
N1
π 2 EI
P =
l2
Pl 2
or I = 2
π E
250 × 103 × 32 4
= m
π2 × 15 × 109
= 1.52 10–5 m4
IIRUDVTXDUHFURVVVHFWLRQRIVLGHa is given as
a4
I =
12
= 1.52 10–5
or a = 0.1162 m
= 116.2 mm
Hence, the acceptable cross-section is 117 mm 117 mm. Ans.
Check
The normal stress produced in the column is given as
100 1
Vd = 3 MPa
(0.117) 2 10
= 7.3 MPa
Since V03DKHQFHWKHFDOFXODWHGFURVVVHFWLRQLVZLWKLQVDIHOLPLWDQGLVDFFHSWDEOH
(b) Crippling load is
P = 2.5 200
N1
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDI is given as
500 × 103 × 32 4
I = 2 m
π × 15 × 109
= 3.04 10–5 m4
a4
=
12
or a = 0.1382 m
= 138.2 mm
Check
The normal stress produced in the column is given as
200 1
Vd = 3 MPa = 10.47 MPa
(0.1382) 2 10
Since V > 10 MPa, the permissible compressive stress in the column, hence the above cross-
section is not acceptable. In that case, cross-section is found on the basis of given permissible
compressive stress in the column.
Area of the cross-section is
200 1
A = 3 m2
10 10
= 0.02 m2
or a = A = 0.1414 m
= 141.4 mm
Hence, the acceptable cross-section is 142 mm 142 mm. Ans.
Example 11.2
A structural steel column is in the form of a tube of thickness 15 mm and external diameter 250 mm
DQGLVPORQJ,WVRQHHQGLV¿[HGZKLOHWKHRWKHUHQGLVIUHH)LQGWKHPD[LPXPD[LDOORDGWREH
DSSOLHGRQWKHFROXPQ+RZWKLVORDGYDULHVZLWKRWKHUHQGFRQGLWLRQV"7DNHE = 200 GPa.
Solution: Given,
7KLFNQHVVRIWKHFROXPQ t = 15 mm
External diameter, d0 = 250 mm
Length of the column, l =3m
Let diEHWKHLQWHUQDOGLDPHWHURIWKHFROXPQ)LJ
1RZ di + 2t = d0
Fig. 11.6
or di = d0 – 2t
= 250 – 2 15 = 220 mm
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHFROXPQLVJLYHQDV
π ⎡⎛ 250 ⎞ ⎛ 220 ⎞ ⎤
4 4
I = ⎢⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ ⎥ m4 10–5 m4
64 ⎢⎣⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎥⎦
7KHFULSSOLQJORDGZKHQRQHHQGRIWKHFROXPQLV¿[HGZKLOHWKHRWKHUHQGIUHHLVJLYHQDV
π 2 EI
P = (using equation (11.18))
4l 2
π2 × 200 × 109 × 7.67 × 10−5 1
= × 3 N1
4×3 2
10
N1 Ans.
7KHFULSSOLQJORDGVZLWKRWKHUHQGFRQGLWLRQVDUHJLYHQDV
End conditions Crippling load
Both ends hinged π 2 EI

P =
l2
π2 × 200 × 109 × 7.67 × 10−5 1
= 2
× 3 N1
3 10
N1Ans.
%RWKHQGV¿[HG 4π 2 EI
P =
l2
⎛ π2 EI ⎞
= 4×⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ l ⎠
= 4 16822.2N1 N1Ans.
2QHHQG¿[HGDQGRWKHUHQGKLQJHG 2π 2 EI
P =
l2
⎛ π2 EI ⎞
=2 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ l ⎠
= 2 16822.2 N1Ans.
Example 11.3
$VWHHOFROXPQRIGLDPHWHUPPDQGKLQJHGDWERWKHQGVLVVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOORDG&DOFXODWH
WKHPLQLPXPOHQJWKRIWKHFROXPQIRUZKLFK(XOHU¶VIRUPXODLVYDOLG7DNHE *3DDQGOLPLWRI
proportionality = 220 MPa.
Solution: Given,
60
'LDPHWHURIWKHFROXPQ d = 60 mm = m = 0.06 m
1000
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHFROXPQLVJLYHQDV
π 4 π
I = d = × (0.06) 4 m4
64 64
= 6.36 10–7 m4
7KH(XOHU¶VIRUPXODXQGHUWKHJLYHQHQGFRQGLWLRQLVJLYHQDV
π 2 EI
l2
π 2 π 2 EI
σ× d =
4 l2
4π EI
or l =
σ d2
4π × 200 × 109 × 6.36 × 10−7

= m = 1.42 m. Ans.
220 × 106 × (0.06) 2
Example 11.4
A TVHFWLRQFROXPQRIOHQJWKPZLWKIODQJHGLPHQVLRQPP 20 mm and web dimension
120 mm PPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOORDG)LQGWKHFULSSOLQJORDGXVLQJ(XOHU¶VIRUPXOD
DVVXPLQJWKDWWKHFROXPQLVKLQJHGDWERWKHQGV7DNHE = 200 GPa.
Solution: 5HIHU)LJ
Fig. 11.7
*LYHQ/HQJWKRIWKHFROXPQ l = 2 m
<RXQJ¶VPRGXOXV E = 200 GPa = 200 109 Pa
The centroid G RIWKHVHFWLRQOLHVRQYYD[LVEHFDXVHLWLVWKHD[LVRIV\PPHWU\
Calculation of moment of inertia I
$UHDRI a1 = 100 20 = 2000 mm2
$UHDRI a2 = 120 20 = 2400 mm2
'LVWDQFHRIWKHFHQWURLGRIIURPAB is
⎛ 20 ⎞
y1 = ⎜120 + ⎟ mm = 130 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
7KHGLVWDQFHRIWKHFHQWURLGRIIURPAB is
120
y2 = mm = 60 mm
2
7KHGLVWDQFHRIWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHZKROHVHFWLRQIURPAB is
a1 y1 a2 y2
y =
a1 a2
2000 × 130 + 2400 × 60
= = 98.81 mm
2000 + 2400
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHZKROHVHFWLRQDERXWXX is given as
⎡1 2⎤
IXX = ⎢ × 100 × 20 + 100 × 20 × (130 − 98.81) ⎥
3
⎣12 ⎦
⎡1 2⎤
+ ⎢ × 20 × 120 + 120 × 20 × (98.81 − 60) ⎥ mm4
3
⎣12 ⎦
= 8507217.5 mm4 = 8.507 10–6 m4
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHZKROHVHFWLRQDERXWYY is given as
⎛1 1 3⎞
IYY = ⎜ × 20 × 100 + × 120 × 20 ⎟ mm4
3
⎝ 12 12 ⎠
= 1746666.7 mm4
= 1.746 10–6 m4
1RZ Imin = IYY = 1.746 10–6 m4
7KH(XOHU¶VIRUPXODXQGHUWKHJLYHQHQGFRQGLWLRQLVJLYHQDV
π 2 EI min
l2
π2 × 200 × 109 × 1.746 × 10−6 1
= 2
× 3 N1
2 10
N1
+HQFHWKHFULSSOLQJORDGLVN1 Ans.
11.5 EMPIRICAL FORMULAE

)RUORQJFROXPQVZKHUHVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRLVODUJHIDLOXUHLVFORVHO\SUHGLFWHGE\(XOHU¶VIRUPXOD
DQG WKH YDOXH RI FULSSOLQJ VWUHVV Vcr LV REVHUYHG WR GHSHQG RQ WKH PRGXOXV RI HODVWLFLW\ E RI WKH
material used, but not on its yield strength Vyp)DLOXUHRIYHU\VKRUWFROXPQVDQGFRPSUHVVLRQEORFNV
RFFXUVHVVHQWLDOO\DVDUHVXOWRI\LHOGDQGVcr = Vyp0HGLXPFROXPQVIDLOGXHWRWKHFRPELQHGHIIHFW
RIVY and E,QWKLVUDQJHFROXPQIDLOXUHLVDQH[WUHPHO\FRPSOH[SKHQRPHQRQDQGWHVWGDWDKDYH
EHHQXVHGH[WHQVLYHO\WRJXLGHWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIVSHFL¿FDWLRQVDQGGHVLJQIRUPXODH
(PSLULFDOUHODWLRQVH[SUHVVWKHDOORZDEOHVWUHVVRUFULWLFDOVWUHVVLQWHUPVRIHIIHFWLYHVOHQGHUQHVV
⎛l ⎞
UDWLR6LQFHDVLQJOHIRUPXODLVXVXDOO\QRWDGHTXDWHIRUDOOYDOXHVRI ⎜ e ⎟ GLIIHUHQWIRUPXODHHDFK
⎝r⎠
ZLWK D GH¿QLWH UDQJH RI DSSOLFDELOLW\ KDYH EHHQ GHYHORSHG IRU YDULRXV PDWHULDOV 6RPH W\SLFDO
HPSLULFDOIRUPXODHDUH
z 5DQNLQH*RUGRQ)RUPXOD
z -RKQVWRQ¶V3DUDEROLF)RUPXOD
z Straight Line Formula
11.5.1 Rankine-Gordon Formula

,WLVDOVRNQRZQDV5DQNLQH¶VIRUPXODQDPHGDIWHUD6FRWWLVKFLYLOHQJLQHHU:LOOLDP-RKQ0DFTXRUQ
5DQNLQHZKRJDYHWKH¿QDOIRUPXODLQWKLVUHJDUG7KHIRUPXODLVHTXDOO\YDOLGIRUVKRUW
columns as well as long columns.
7KH5DQNLQH¶VIRUPXODLV
1 1 1
= ...(11.21)
Pr Pc P
where Pr &ULSSOLQJORDGDFFRUGLQJWRWKH5DQNLQH¶VIRUPXOD
Pc 'LUHFWFUXVKLQJORDGWRFDXVHWKHIDLOXUH
= Vc . A (Vc LV WKH PD[LPXP DOORZDEOH FRPSUHVVLYH VWUHVV IRU WKH
FROXPQPDWHULDOZKLFKLVRIWHQO\WKH\LHOGVWUHVVV Y and A is
WKHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHFROXPQ
P &ULSSOLQJORDGDFFRUGLQJWRWKH(XOHU¶VIRUPXOD
π 2 EI
= (using equation (11.3))
le2
1 1 1
Hence, = +
Pr Vc A ⎛ π EI ⎞
2
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ le ⎠
1 1
= + (I = Ar2)
σc A ⎛ π EAr 2 ⎞
2
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ le ⎠
2
1 1 ⎛ le ⎞
= + 2
σc A π EA ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠
1⎡1 1 ⎛ le ⎞ ⎤
2
= ⎢ + 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
A ⎢⎣ σc π E ⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦
2
A 1 1 ⎛l ⎞
or = + 2 ⎜ e⎟
Pr σc π E ⎝ r ⎠
2
⎛ σ ⎞⎛ l ⎞ ⎛l ⎞
2
1 + ⎜ 2 c ⎟⎜ e ⎟ 1 + K1 ⎜ e ⎟
⎝ π E ⎠⎝ r ⎠ ⎝r⎠
= =
σc σc
σc
where K1 = &RQVWDQWIRUDSDUWLFXODUFROXPQPDWHULDO
π2 E
Pr σC
or = Vr = 2 ...(11.22)
A ⎛l ⎞
1 + K1 ⎜ e ⎟
⎝r⎠
where Vr 5DQNLQH¶VFULWLFDOVWUHVVIRUWKHFROXPQPDWHULDO
σc A
or Pr = 2 ...(11.23)
⎛l ⎞
1 + K1 ⎜ e ⎟
⎝r⎠
9DOXHVRIVc and K1IRUSLQQHGHQGVFROXPQVPDGHRIGLIIHUHQWPDWHULDOVDUHJLYHQLQ7DEOH7KH

VWUHVVHVDUHWKHXOWLPDWHFUXVKLQJVWUHVVHVZKLFKQHHGWREHGLYLGHGE\DIDFWRURIVDIHW\
Table 11.2 Values of Vc and K1
Column material Vc (MPa) K1 = Vc /S2E
Mild steel 320 1/7500
Cast iron 550 1/1600
:URXJKWLURQ 250 1/9000
Timber 40 1/3000
11.5.2 Johnston’s Parabolic Formula

7KLVIRUPXODZDVGHYHORSHGE\DQ$PHULFDQFLYLOHQJLQHHU%*-RKQVWRQ
$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVIRUPXODWKH-RKQVWRQ¶VFULSSOLQJORDGPj is given as
⎡ ⎛ le ⎞ ⎤
2
Pj = A ⎢ σ c − K 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(11.24)
⎢⎣ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦
Pj
= Vj -RKQVRQ¶VFULWLFDOVWUHVV
A
2
⎛l ⎞
= σc − K 2 ⎜ e ⎟ ...(11.25)
⎝r⎠
where K2 &RQVWDQWIRUDSDUWLFXODUFROXPQPDWHULDO
σc2 Vc2
= = IRUSLQQHGHQGV
4π 2 E 64 E
11.5.3 Straight Line Formula

$FFRUGLQJWRWKHVWUDLJKWOLQHIRUPXODWKHFULSSOLQJORDGLVJLYHQDV
⎡ ⎛ le ⎞ ⎤
P = A ⎢ σc − K 3 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(11.26)
⎣ ⎝ r ⎠⎦
where K3 = Constant depending upon column material
The crippling stress is
P ⎡ ⎛l ⎞⎤
Vst = = ⎢ σc − K 3 ⎜ e ⎟⎥ ...(11.27)
A ⎣ ⎝r ⎠⎦
7KHYDOXHVRIK2 and K3 are given in Table 11.3.
Table 11.3 Values of K2 and K3
Column material Vc (MPa) K2 K3
Mild steel 320 0.000057 0.0053
Cast iron 550 0.00016 0.008
:URXJKWLURQ 250 0.000039 0.0053
7KHDERYHVWDWHGWKUHHHPSLULFDOIRUPXODHXVHGWRDSSUR[LPDWHWHVWGDWDDUHVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 11.8
11.6 IS CODE FORMULA (IS: 800-1962)

7KLVLVDQRWKHUHPSLULFDOIRUPXODZKLFKLVDQ,QGLDQVWDQGDUG
⎛l ⎞
(a) For slenderness ratio ⎜ e ⎟ varying between 0 and 160
⎝r⎠
The allowable average axial compressive stress, VcIRUWKHDERYHUDQJHRIVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRLV
given as
(σ yp / n)
Vc = ...(11.28)
⎡⎛ l ⎞ n × σ′c ⎤
1 + 0. 20 sec ⎢⎜ e ⎟ × ⎥
⎣⎝ r ⎠ 4E ⎦
where Vc 6WUHVVREWDLQHGIURPVHFDQWIRUPXOD

Vyp = Guaranteed minimum yield stress
1PP2 IRUPLOGVWHHO
n )DFWRURIVDIHW\
(b) For slenderness ratio 160
)RUWKLVUDQJHRIVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRVc is given as
⎡ 1 ⎛ le ⎞ ⎤
V c = σ c′ ⎢1. 2 − ⎜ ⎟ ...(11.29)
⎣ 800 ⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦
11.7 SECANT FORMULA (FOR ECCENTRIC LOADING)

,QHDUOLHUFDVHVZHFRQVLGHUHGEXFNOLQJRIFROXPQVGXHWRFHQWULFD[LDOFRPSUHVVLYHORDGLQJ%XWWKH
ORDGDSSOLHGWRDFROXPQLVQHYHUSHUIHFWO\FHQWULFUDWKHULWLVHFFHQWULFi.e., the load is acting at a
FHUWDLQGLVWDQFHDZD\IURPWKHD[LV
Here the given eccentric load is replaced by a centric load PDQGDFRXSOHRIPRPHQWMA = Pe
(Fig. 11.9).
Consider a section at a distance xIURPWKHWRSHQGAZKHUHWKHODWHUDOGHÀHFWLRQLVy.
Bending moment at the section = MA + Py = Pe + Py
d2y
EI = – P (y + e) ...(11.30)
dx 2
d2y P
=– ( y e)
dx 2 EI
P
Substituting = K2, we have
EI
d2y
K 2 y = – K 2e ...(11.31)
dx 2
7KHJHQHUDOVROXWLRQRIHTXDWLRQLV
y = C1 sin Kx + C2 cos Kx – e ...(11.32)
Fig. 11.9
At A, where x = 0, y =0
0 = 0 + C2 – e
or C2 = e
And at B, where x = l, y =0
0 = C1 sin Kl + e cos Kl – e
C1 sin Kl = e (1 – cos Kl)
Kl Kl Kl
C1 2 sin cos = e 2 sin 2
2 2 2
Kl Kl
C1 cos = e sin
2 2
Kl
or C1 = e tan
2
Hence, equation (11.32) on substituting C1 and C2 becomes
Kl
y = e tan sin Kx + e cos Kx − e
2
⎡ Kl ⎤
= e ⎢ tan sin Kx + cos Kx − 1⎥ ...(11.33)
⎣ 2 ⎦
l
'HÀHFWLRQLVPD[LPXPZKHQx =
2
⎡ Kl ⎛ Kl ⎞ ⎛ Kl ⎞ ⎤
yPD[ = e ⎢ tan sin ⎜ ⎟ + cos ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
⎣ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
⎡ 2 ⎛ Kl ⎞ 2 ⎛ Kl ⎞ ⎤
⎢ sin ⎜ 2 ⎟ + cos ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ ⎡ ⎛ Kl ⎞ ⎤
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ − 1⎥
= e⎢ = e ⎢sec ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ...(11.34)
⎢ ⎛ Kl ⎞ ⎥ ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
⎢⎣ cos ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
5HVWRULQJ K = P ZHKDYH
EI
⎡ ⎛ P l⎞ ⎤
yPD[ = e ⎢sec ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ...(11.35)
⎢⎣ ⎝ EI 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
)URPWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQLWLVREVHUYHGWKDWyPD[EHFRPHVLQ¿QLWHZKHQ
P l π
= ...(11.36)
EI 2 2
%XWLWGRHVQRWKDSSHQDFWXDOO\DQGWKHGHÀHFWLRQLVNHSWWRDSUDFWLFDOYDOXHE\QRWDOORZLQJPWR
UHDFKDFULWLFDOYDOXHZKLFKVDWLV¿HVHTXDWLRQ
+HQFHIURPHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
π 2 EI
P = = Pcr ...(11.37)
l2
7KLVLVVDPHDVHTXDWLRQIRUDFROXPQXQGHUDFHQWULFORDG
)URPHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
Pcr l 2
EI =
π2
6XEVWLWXWLQJEILQHTXDWLRQZHJHW
⎡ ⎛π P ⎞ ⎤
yPD[ = e ⎢sec ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ...(11.38)
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 Pcr ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛ l⎞
7KHPD[LPXPVWUHVVRFFXUVZKHUHWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWLVPD[LPXPi.eDWPLGSRLQW ⎜ x = ⎟ ,
⎝ 2⎠
DQGLVWKHVXPRIWKHQRUPDOVWUHVVHVGXHWRD[LDOORDGGLUHFWVWUHVVDQGGXHWREHQGLQJFRXSOHDW
WKDWVHFWLRQEHQGLQJVWUHVV
P M max × C
Vmax = + ...(11.39)
A I
where CLVWKHGLVWDQFHRIWKHRXWHUPRVW¿EUHRIWKHFROXPQIURPLWVQHXWUDOD[LV
Mmax = Pymax + MA
= P (ymax + e) (MA = Pe)
2
and I = Ar
Substituting Mmax and I in equation (11.39), we have

P ⎡ ( ymax + e) C ⎤
Vmax = 1+ ...(11.40)
A ⎢⎣ r2 ⎥
⎦
Substituting ymaxIURPHTXDWLRQZHJHW
P ⎡ eC ⎛ P l ⎞⎤
Vmax = ⎢1 + 2 sec ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ ...(11.41)
A ⎢⎣ r ⎝ EI 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
The above equation gives the maximum stress induced in a column with its both ends hinged and
an eccentricity e7KHIRUPXODFDQEHXVHGIRURWKHUHQGFRQGLWLRQVZLWKVXLWDEOHHIIHFWLYHOHQJWK
Using I = Ar2 DQGWDNLQJHIIHFWLYHOHQJWKFRQGLWLRQHTXDWLRQPRGL¿HVWR
P ⎡ eC ⎛1 P le ⎞ ⎤
Vmax = ⎢1 + 2 sec ⎜⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(11.42)
A ⎢⎣ r ⎝2 EA r ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
7KLVLVNQRZQDVVHFDQWIRUPXODGXHWRsec term present in the above equation.

⎛ le ⎞.
,WLVYDOLGIRUDOOW\SHVRIFROXPQVDQGIRUDQ\YDOXHRIVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLR ⎜ ⎟
⎝r ⎠
$QRWKHUHTXDWLRQIRUVmax containing critical load is
P ⎡ eC ⎛π P ⎞⎤
Vmax = ⎢1 + 2 sec ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ ...(11.43)
A ⎢⎣ r ⎝2 Pcr ⎠ ⎥⎦
Equation (11.43) is obtained by substituting equation (11.38) in equation (11.40).
Example 11.5
$ FRPSUHVVLYH PHPEHU RI OHQJWK P KDV RXWVLGH DQG LQVLGH GLDPHWHUV RI PP DQG PP
UHVSHFWLYHO\'HWHUPLQHWKHFULSSOLQJORDGXVLQJ5DQNLQH¶VIRUPXODDVVXPLQJERWKHQGV¿[HG7KH
1 .
FUXVKLQJVWUHVVRIWKHPDWHULDOLV1PP2 DQG5DQNLQH¶VFRQVWDQWLV
650
Solution: Given,
/HQJWKRIWKHPHPEHU l = 2.5 m
Outside diameter, do = 40 mm
Inside diameter, di = 25 mm
1
Constant, K1 =
650
Vc 1PP2
π
The cross-sectional area, A = (402 − 252 )
4
= 243.75S mm2
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHFURVVVHFWLRQLVJLYHQDV
π
I = ( 404 − 254 ) = 33896.48S mm4
64
1RZ I = Ar2
I 33896.48π
or r = =
A 243.75π
= 11.79 mm
l 2.5
7KHHIIHFWLYHOHQJWKRIWKHPHPEHULVle = = = 1.25 m
2 2
$FFRUGLQJWRWKH5DQNLQH¶VIRUPXODWKHFULSSOLQJORDGLV
σc A
Pr = 2
⎛l ⎞
1 + K1 ⎜ e ⎟
⎝r⎠
500 × 243.75π
= 2
1 ⎛ 1.25 × 1000 ⎞
1+ ×⎜ ⎟
650 ⎝ 11.79 ⎠
1
N1 Ans.
Example 11.6
$VROLGFLUFXODUURGRIGLDPHWHUPPDQGOHQJWKPLVXVHGDVDFROXPQ2QHRIWKHHQGVRIWKH
FROXPQLVIL[HGZKLOHWKHRWKHUHQGIUHH7DNLQJDIDFWRURIVDIHW\RIILQGWKHVDIHORDGXVLQJ
(a5DQNLQH*RUGRQIRUPXODDQGb(XOHU¶VIRUPXOD7DNHE = 120 GPa.
1
5DQNLQH¶VFRQVWDQW DQGWKH\LHOGVWUHVV 1PP2.
600
Solution: Given,
'LDPHWHURIWKHFROXPQ d = 60 mm
/HQJWKRIWKHFROXPQ l =2m
)DFWRURIVDIHW\ n =3
1
5DQNLQH¶VFRQVWDQW K1 =
600
Crushing stress, Vc 1PP2
(TXLYDOHQWOHQJWKRIWKHFROXPQ
le = 2l = 2 2 m = 4 m
&URVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHFROXPQLV
π
A = × 602 = 2827.43 mm2
4
π
0RPHQWRILQHUWLD I = × 604 = 636172.51 mm4
64
1RZ I = Ar2, r EHLQJUDGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQ
I 636172.51
or r = = = 15 mm
A 2827.43
$FFRUGLQJWRWKH5DQNLQH¶VIRUPXODWKHFULSSOLQJORDGLV
σc A
Pr = 2
⎛l ⎞
1 + K1 ⎜ e ⎟
⎝r⎠
300 × 2827.43
= 2
1 ⎛ 4 × 1000 ⎞
1+ ×⎜ ⎟
600 ⎝ 15 ⎠
1 N1
7.097
5DQNLQH¶VVDIHORDG N1 Ans.
3
$FFRUGLQJWRWKH(XOHU¶VIRUPXODWKHFULSSOLQJORDGLV
π 2 EI
P =
le2
π2 × 120 × 109 × 636172.51 × 10−12

= 1
42
1 N1
47.09
(XOHU¶VVDIHORDG N1 Ans.
3
Example 11.7
)LQG WKH JUHDWHVW OHQJWK RI D FROXPQ RI FURVVVHFWLRQ PP E\ PP ZLWK LWV RQH HQG ¿[HG
DQG WKH RWKHU HQG KLQJHG WR FDUU\ D ZRUNLQJ ORDG RI N1 $VVXPH D IDFWRU RI VDIHW\ RI
1
7DNHK1 = DQGWKH\LHOGVWUHVV 1PP2.
1600
Solution: Given,
)DFWRURIVDIHW\n =3
:RUNLQJORDGP N1
%XFNOLQJORDGPr = P × n = 50 N1
Cross-sectional area, A = 50 50 = 2500 mm2
504
0RPHQWRILQHUWLD I = = 520833.33 mm4
12
1RZ I = Ar2, rEHLQJUDGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQ
I 520833.33
r = = = 14.43 mm
A 2500
$FFRUGLQJWRWKH5DQNLQH¶VIRUPXODWKHEXFNOLQJORDGLV
σc A
Pr = 2
⎛l ⎞
1 + K1 ⎜ e ⎟
⎝r⎠
400 × 2500
150 103 = 2
1 ⎛ l ⎞
1+ ×⎜ e ⎟
1600 ⎝ 14.43 ⎠
On solving, we get le = 1374 mm = 1.374 m
Under the given end condition

Actual length
(IIHFWLYHOHQJWK le =
2
$FWXDOOHQJWKRIWKHFROXPQ 2 le = 1.94 m Ans.
Example 11.8
$WXEXODUFROXPQRIOHQJWKPKDVRQHHQG¿[HGDQGRWKHUIUHH)LJ,WVFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHD
is 2500 mm2 DQGWKHPRPHQWRILQHUWLD 106 mm4. (a)LQGWKHDOORZDEOHFHQWULFORDGIRUWKH
FROXPQDQGWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJQRUPDOVWUHVVXVLQJ(XOHU¶VIRUPXODDVVXPLQJDIDFWRURIVDIHW\RI
(b,IWKHDOORZDEOHORDGREWDLQHGLQaLVDSSOLHGHFFHQWULFDOO\DWDGLVWDQFHRIPPIURPWKHD[LV
RIWKHFROXPQGHWHUPLQHWKHODWHUDOGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHWRSRIWKHFROXPQDQGWKHPD[LPXPQRUPDO
VWUHVVLQWKHFROXPQ7DNHE = 210 GPa and C = 60 mm.
Fig. 11.10
Solution: Given,
/HQJWKRIWKHFROXPQ l =3m
Cross-sectional area, A = 2500 mm2
0RPHQWRILQHUWLD I = 3.8 106 mm4
)DFWRURIVDIHW\ n =2
Eccentricity, e = 20 mm
'LVWDQFHRIWKHRXWHUPRVW¿EUHIURPWKHQHXWUDOD[LV
C = 60 mm
0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\ E = 210 GPa = 120 109 Pa
8QGHUWKHJLYHQHQGFRQGLWLRQWKHHIIHFWLYHOHQJWKLV
le = 2l = 2 3 = 6 m
7KHUDGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQr is given as
I 3.8 u 106
r = = = 39 mm
A 2500
8VLQJWKH(XOHU¶VIRUPXODWKHEXFNOLQJORDGIRUWKHFROXPQLV
π 2 EI
Pcr =
le2
π2 × 210 × 109 × 3.8 × 106 × 10−12 1
= 2
× 3 N1
6 10
N1
Pcr
Allowable centric load =
n
218.8
= N1 N1 Ans.
2
109.4 u 103
Allowable normal stress = 1PP2
2500
1PP2 = 43.76 MPa Ans.
(b8VLQJ6HFDQWIRUPXODWKHPD[LPXPODWHUDOGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHWRSRIWKHFROXPQLVJLYHQDV
⎡ π P ⎤
ymax = e ⎢sec − 1⎥ (using equation (11.38))
⎢⎣ 2 Pcr ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛π 109.4 ⎞ ⎤
= 20 ⎢sec ⎜⎜ × ⎟ − 1⎥ mm
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 218.8 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
= 20 (2.252 – l) mm = 25 mm Ans.
6LQFHWKHODWHUDOGHÀHFWLRQRFFXUVXQGHUWKHDOORZDEOHORDGKHQFHLWLVWKHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQ
The maximum normal stress in the column is given as
P ⎡ eC ⎛π P ⎞⎤
Vmax = ⎢1 + 2 sec ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ (using equation (11.43))
A ⎢⎣ r ⎝2 Pcr ⎠ ⎥⎦
109.4 × 103 ⎡ 20 × 60 ⎛π 109.4 ⎞ ⎤

= ⎢1 + sec ⎜⎜ × ⎟⎥
2500 ⎢⎣ 39 2
⎝2 218.8 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
1PP2 = 121.51 MPa Ans.
Example 11.9
FLUFXODUURGRIGLDPHWHUPPDQGOHQJWKPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOFRPSUHVVLYHORDG
$
RIN1DWDQHFFHQWULFGLVWDQFHRIeIURPWKHD[LVRIWKHURG$VVXPLQJWKHODWHUDOGHIOHFWLRQ
DWWKHPLGSRLQWRIWKHURGWREHPPILQGa) the distance e, and (b) the maximum stress in
WKHURG7DNHE = 200 GPa.
Solution: Given,
/HQJWKRIWKHURG l = 750 mm
Axial load on the rod, P N1
(a) The rod is supposed to be hinged at both ends.
(IIHFWLYHOHQJWK le = l = 750 mm
6LQFH WKH ODWHUDO GHÀHFWLRQ RFFXUV DW WKH PLGSRLQW RI WKH URG KHQFH LW LV WKH PD[LPXP
GHÀHFWLRQ
ymax = 0.75 mm
⎡ ⎛ P l⎞ ⎤
ymax = e ⎢sec ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ EI 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
,QWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQWKHHIIHFWLYHOHQJWKLVXVHG
P l 90 × 103 750
1RZ u = × = 0.926 radian = 53.1o
EI 2 π ⎛ 35 ⎞
4
2 × 1000
200 × 109 × ×⎜ ⎟
64 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
Hence, ymax = e[sec 53.1o – 1]
ymax 0.75
or e = o =
(sec 53.1 1) (1.665 1)
= 1.13 mm Ans.
(b 0RPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHVHFWLRQLV
π 4
I = d
64
π
= × 354 mm4
64
= 73661.75 mm4
π 2 π
Cross-sectional area, A = d = × 352 = 962.11 mm2
4 4
I
5DGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQ r =
A
73661.75
= = 8.75 mm
962.11
The maximum stress in the rod is given by equation (11.41).
P ⎡ eC ⎛ P l ⎞⎤
Vmax = ⎢1 + 2 sec ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
A ⎢⎣ r ⎝ EI 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
90 × 103 ⎡ ⎛ 35 ⎞ 1 o⎤ ⎛ 35 ⎞
= ⎢1 + 1.13 × ⎜ 2 ⎟ × (8.75)2 × sec 53.1 ⎥ ⎜C = ⎟
962.11 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ 2⎠
1PP2
= 133.78 MPa Ans.
Example 11.10
$VTXDUHURGRIOHQJWKPDQGFURVVVHFWLRQPPE\PPLVDFWLQJDVDFROXPQZKRVHRQH
HQGLV¿[HGDQGWKHRWKHUHQGIUHH$ORDGRIN1LVDFWLQJDWDQHFFHQWULFGLVWDQFHRIPPIURP
WKHD[LVRIWKHURG'HWHUPLQHaWKHODWHUDOGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHWRSRIWKHFROXPQDQGb) the maximum
VWUHVVLQWKHURG7DNHE = 100 GPa.
Solution: Given,
/HQJWKRIWKHFROXPQ l = 0.5 m
Load on the column, P N1
Eccentricity, e = 5 mm
&URVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHFROXPQLV
A = 25 mm 25 mm = 625 mm2
54
0RPHQWRILQHUWLD I = = 32552 mm4
12
I 32552
5DGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQ r = = = 7.21 mm
A 625
(IIHFWLYHOHQJWKRIWKHFROXPQle = 2l = 2 0.5 m = 1 m
P l 20 × 103 1
1RZ = −12
×
EI 2 100 × 10 × 32552 × 10
9
2
KHUHHIIHFWLYHOHQJWKLVXVHG
o
= 1.239 radian = 71
(a 7KHODWHUDOGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHWRSRIWKHFROXPQLVJLYHQDV
⎡ ⎛ P l⎞ ⎤
ymax = e ⎢sec ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ EI 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 5 [sec 71o – l]
= 10.36 mm Ans.
(b) The maximum stress in the rod is given as
P ⎡ eC ⎛ P l ⎞⎤
Vmax = ⎢1 + 2 sec ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
A ⎢⎣ r ⎝ EI 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
20 × 103 ⎡ ⎛ 25 ⎞ 1 o⎤ ⎛ 25 ⎞
= ⎢1 + 5 × ⎜ 2 ⎟ × (7.21) 2 × sec 71 ⎥ ⎜C = ⎟
625 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ 2 ⎠
1PP2
= 150.2 MPa Ans.
:KDWLVWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQFROXPQDQGEHDP"
:KDWLVVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLR"6WDWHLWVYDOXHVIRUVKRUWDQGORQJFROXPQV
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:KDWLV6HFDQWIRUPXOD":K\LVLWVRQDPHG")RUZKLFKW\SHRIORDGLQJLWLVXVHG"
:KDWLVPHDQWE\HFFHQWULFORDGLQJRQDFROXPQ"
:KDWLVWKH,QGLDQVWDQGDUGIRUDFROXPQ¶VIDLOXUH"
1. $VWUXFWXUDOPHPEHUVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOFRPSUHVVLYHORDGLVFDOOHGD
(a) strut (b) beam (c VKDIW d) lever.
2. 7KH(XOHU¶VIRUPXODLVYDOLGIRU
(a) short column (b) medium column
(c) long column (d) short and long columns both.
3. 7KH5DQNLQH*RUGRQIRUPXODLVYDOLGIRU
(a) short column (b) medium column
(c) long column (d) short and long columns both.
7KH(XOHU¶VFULWLFDOORDGIRUDFROXPQZLWKERWKHQGVKLQJHGLV
4π 2 EI 2π 2 EI
(a) (b)
l2 l2
π 2 EI π 2 EI .
(c) (d)
4l 2 l2
5. 7KHHIIHFWLYHOHQJWKRIDFROXPQZLWKERWKHQGV¿[HGLVequal to
(a) the actual length (b RQHKDOIRIWKHDFWXDOOHQJWK
1
(c) two times the actual length (d) times the actual length.
2
6. 7KHUDWLRRIHTXLYDOHQWOHQJWKRIDFROXPQWRLWVOHDVWUDGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQLVNQRZQDV
(a IDFWRURIVDIHW\ b 3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLR
(c) slenderness ratio (d PRPHQWRILQHUWLD
7. 7KHVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLRLVOHVVWKDQIRU
(a) long columns (b) short columns
(c) medium columns (d) short and medium columns both.
8. $VKRUWFROXPQIDLOVPDLQO\GXHWR
(a EXFNOLQJ
(b) compressive stress
(c FRPELQHGHIIHFWRIEXFNOLQJDQGFRPSUHVVLYHVWUHVV
(d) tensile stress.
9. 7KHUDGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQRIDFLUFXODUVHFWLRQRIGLDPHWHUPPLV
(a) 25 mm (b) 50 mm (c) 12.5 mm (d) 20 mm.
10. The crippling stress varies
(a) directly proportional to the slenderness ratio
(b) inversely proportional to the slenderness ratio
(c LQYHUVHO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHFXELFSRZHURIWKHVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLR
(d LQYHUVHO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHVTXDUHRIWKHVOHQGHUQHVVUDWLR
11. )RU(XOHU¶VIRUPXODWREHYDOLGWKHFULSSOLQJVWUHVVRIWKHFROXPQLV
(a) more than its yield strength
(b) less than its yield strength
(c) equal to its yield strength
(d) equal to its ultimate strength.
12. For a long column, the slenderness ratio is greater than
(a) 30 (b) 90
(c) 120 (d) 200.
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c)

10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (c).
EXERCISES
1. 7KHGHVLJQRIDKROORZVWHHOURGUHTXLUHVDFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIPP2. Knowing that the

HIIHFWLYHOHQJWKRIWKHURGLVPGHWHUPLQHWKHFULWLFDOORDGZKHQWKHUDWLRRIRXWHUGLDPHWHUWR
LQQHUGLDPHWHULV7DNHE = 200 GPa. (Ans. N1
2. 7KHFURVVVHFWLRQVRIWKHWZREUDVVURGVXVHGDVFRPSUHVVLRQPHPEHUVHDFKRIPHIIHFWLYH
OHQJWKDUHVKRZQLQ)LJ)LQGWKHIROORZLQJ
(a WKHZDOOWKLFNQHVVRIWKHKROORZVTXDUHURGIRUZKLFKWKHURGVKDYHWKHVDPHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHD
(b) using E *3DGHWHUPLQHWKHFULWLFDOORDGRIHDFKURG
Fig. 11.11
(Ans. (a) 7.47 mm; (bN1N1
3. Find the dimension dVRWKDWWKHWZRFROXPQVVKRZQLQ)LJKDVWKHVDPHZHLJKW$OVR¿QG
WKHFULSSOLQJORDGVIRUWKHWZRFROXPQV
Fig. 11.12
7DNH E1 = 210 GPa

E2 = 80 GPa
U1 = 6 103NJP3
U2 = 3 103 NJP3
(Ans.PPN1N1
4. A circular rod shown in Fig. 11.13 is used as a compressive member. Find (aWKHGHÀHFWLRQRI
WKHWRSRIWKHFROXPQDQGbWKHPD[LPXPVWUHVVLQWKHURG7DNHE = 150 GPa.
Fig. 11.13
(Ans. (a) 2.56 mm, 77.82 MPa).
5. $VTXDUHURGRIOHQJWKPDQGFURVVVHFWLRQPP 20 mm is acting as a column whose

ERWKHQGVDUHKLQJHG$ORDGRIN1LVDFWLQJDWDQHFFHQWULFGLVWDQFHeDQGWKHODWHUDOGHÀHFWLRQ
RIWKHWRSRIWKHFROXPQLVPP)LQGa) the distance e and (b) the maximum stress in the rod.
7DNHE = 210 GPa.
(Ans. 8.12 mm, 162.75 MPa).
6. $FLUFXODUURGRIOHQJWKPLVDFWLQJDVDFROXPQDQGLVKLQJHGDWERWKHQGV)LJ,WLV

VXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOORDGPDWDQHFFHQWULFLW\RIPP)LQGWKHORDGPZKLFKZLOOEXFNOHWKH
FROXPQ$OVR¿QGP at which the maximum allowable stress reaches 120 MPa.
Fig. 11.14
(Ans N1N1
7. )LQG WKH VKRUWHVW OHQJWK RI D KLQJHGKLQJHG VWHHO FROXPQ KDYLQJ D UHFWDQJXODU FURVVVHFWLRQ
60 mm PPIRUZKLFKWKHHODVWLF(XOHU¶VIRUPXODDSSOLHV7DNH\LHOGVWUHQJWKDQGPRGXOXV
RIHODVWLFLW\IRUVWHHODV03DDQG*3DUHVSHFWLYHO\ Ans. 1.54 m).
8. $URXQGVWHHOURGRIPPGLDPHWHUDQGPORQJLVVXEMHFWHGWRDJUDGXDOO\LQFUHDVLQJD[LDO
FRPSUHVVLYHORDG8VLQJ(XOHU¶VIRUPXOD¿QGWKHEXFNOLQJORDG$OVR¿QGWKHPD[LPXPODWHUDO
GHÀHFWLRQFRUUHVSRQGLQJWREXFNOLQJFRQGLWLRQ%RWKHQGVRIWKHFROXPQFDQEHWDNHQDVKLQJHG
$VVXPH<RXQJ¶VPRGXOXVIRUVWHHODVHTXDOWR*3DDQGWKH\LHOGVWUHVVDV1PP 2.
(Ans. 1PP
9. $YHUWLFDOFROXPQPKLJKLV¿[HGDWEDVHDQGDFORFNZLVHPRPHQWRIN1¹m is applied at
WKHWRSRIWKHFROXPQ$KRUL]RQWDOIRUFHPLVDSSOLHGWRWKHFROXPDWDKHLJKWRIPDERYHWKH
EDVHVRDVWRJLYHDFRXQWHUFORFNZLVHPRPHQW'HWHUPLQHWKHYDOXHRIP so that the horizontal
GHÀHFWLRQVDWWKHWRSRIWKHFROXPDQGDWWKHSRLQWRIDSSOLFDWLRQRIP shall be equal (i) when the
GHIHFWLRQVDUHRQWKHVDPHVLGHiiZKHQWKHGHÀHFWLRQVDUHRQWKHRSSRVLWHVLGHVRIWKHYHUWLFDO
OLQHWKURXJKWKHIRRWRIWKHFROXPQ Ans N1N1
10. A tubular steel strut is 6.5 cm external diameter and 5 cm internal diameter. It is 2.5 m long and
has hinged ends. The load is parallel to the axis but is eccentric. Find the maximum eccentricity
IRUDFULSSOLQJORDGRIRIWKH(XOHUYDOXH7KH\LHOGVWUHVVLV03DDQGE = 210 GPa.
(Ans. 5.57 mm).
11.$VWUDLJKWOHQJWKRIVWHHOEDUPORQJDQGPP 5 mm section is compressed longitudinally
XQWLO LW EXFNOHV$VVXPLQJ WKDW WKH (XOHU¶V IRUPXOD DSSO\ WR WKLV FDVH HVWLPDWH WKH PD[LPXP
FHQWUDOGHÀHFWLRQEHIRUHWKHVWHHOSDVVHVWKH\LHOGSRLQWRI03D7DNHE = 210 GPa.
(Ans. 138 mm).

12
Pressure Vessels
Gabriel Lame, born on 22 July 1795, was a noted French mathematician

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IRUPZKHUHWKHYDULDEOHVZHUHVHSDUDEOHDQGVROYHWKHUHVXOWLQJIRUPRI
WKHJHQHUDOL]HG/DSODFH¶VHTXDWLRQ*DXVVFRQVLGHUHG/DPHWKHIRUHPRVW
)UHQFKPDWKHPDWLFLDQRIKLVWLPHZKRKDVEHHQLPPRUWDOL]HGLQ)UHQFK
VRFLHW\DORQJZLWK/DSODFHDQG3DVFDO/DPHLVPRVWIDPRXVIRUKLVVWXG\
RIFODVVHVRIHOOLSVHOLNHFXUYHVNQRZQDV/DPHFXUYHV+LVVLJQL¿FDQW
Gabriel Lame FRQWULEXWLRQ WR HQJLQHHULQJ ZDV WR DFFXUDWHO\ GH¿QH WKH VWUHVVHV DQG
(1795-1870) FDSDELOLWLHVRIDSUHVV¿WMRLQWDVIRXQGLQDGRZHOSLQLQDKRXVLQJ7KH
/DPH¶V FRQVWDQWV XVHG LQ PHFKDQLFV RI VROLGV DOWKRXJK QRW GH¿QHG E\
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6FLHQFHV+HLVRQHRIWKHJUHDWHVW)UHQFKVFLHQWLVWVZKRVHQDPHLVLQVFULEHGRQWKH(LIIHO7RZHU
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_12
12.1 INTRODUCTION
3UHVVXUHYHVVHOVDUHXVHGWRVWRUHOLTXLGVDQGJDVHVXQGHUSUHVVXUH7KH\FDQEHWKLQZDOOHGRUWKLFN
ZDOOHGGHSHQGLQJXSRQWKHLUGLDPHWHUWKLFNQHVVd/tUDWLR,IWKLVUDWLRLVHTXDOWRRUJUHDWHUWKDQ
WKHQWKHSUHVVXUHYHVVHOVDUHFDWHJRULVHGDVWKLQZDOOHGZKHUHDVWKLFNZDOOHGSUHVVXUHYHVVHOVKDYH
WKLVUDWLROHVVWKDQ0RVWFRPPRQO\XVHGSUHVVXUHYHVVHOVDUHF\OLQGULFDODQGVSKHULFDOSUHVVXUH
YHVVHOV7\SLFDOH[DPSOHVRISUHVVXUHYHVVHOVLQFOXGHSLSHVWDQNVERLOHUVDQGUHVHUYRLUV
12.2 STRESSES IN A THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELL

7KHGLVWULEXWLRQRIVWUHVVLQWKLQZDOOHGYHVVHOVLVFRQVWDQWDFURVVWKHWKLFNQHVVDVWKHLULQVLGHDQG
RXWVLGHUDGLLDUHQHDUO\HTXDO&RQVLGHUDWKLQF\OLQGULFDOYHVVHORILQVLGHUDGLXVrDQGZDOOWKLFNQHVV
tFRQWDLQLQJDÀXLGRIJDXJHSUHVVXUHpDVVKRZQLQ)LJa
7KHVKHOOLVVXEMHFWHGWRWZRW\SHVRIVWUHVVHVQDPHO\ORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVVl DFWLQJDORQJWKHD[LV
RIWKHVKHOODQGKRRSRUFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOVWUHVVVh) acting along its cLUFXPIHUHQFH
Fig. 12.1
1RZFRQVLGHUDVPDOOHOHPHQWRIOHQJWKdxRIWKHZDOORIWKHYHVVHO)LJb%HFDXVHRIWKH

D[LVV\PPHWU\RIWKHYHVVHOQRVKHDUVWUHVVLVDFWLQJRQWKHHOHPHQW+HQFHVh and Vl are treated as
SULQFLSDOVWUHVVHVZKHUHVhLVWKHPDMRUSULQFLSDOVWUHVVDQGVl WKHPLQRUSULQFLSDOVWUHVV
&RQVLGHULQJ WKH HTXLOLEULXP RI WKH HOHPHQW LQ WKH WUDQVYHUVH GLUHFWLRQ WKDW LV LQ WKH GLUHFWLRQ
QRUPDOWRLWVOHQJWKZHKDYH
Vht dx) – p rdx) = 0
Vh t = pr
pr
or Vh =
t
pd
=
2t
where dLVWKHLQVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHVKHOO
Pressure Vessels 497
7KLVLVWKHUHTXLUHGH[SUHVVLRQIRUKRRSVWUHVVRUFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOVWUHVVZKLFKLVWHQVLOHLQQDWXUH
1RZFRQVLGHULQJWKHHTXLOLEULXPRIWKHHOHPHQWLQWKHORQJLWXGLQDOGLUHFWLRQWKDWLVDORQJWKHD[LV
RIWKHYHVVHOZHKDYH
VlSrt) – p Sr2) = 0
6LQFHWKHDUHDRIWKHÀXLGVHFWLRQLVSr2DQGWKDWRIZDOOVHFWLRQSrt
pr
or Vl =
2t
pd
=
t
7KLVLVWKHUHTXLUHGH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVV
&RPSDULQJHTXDWLRQVDQGZHJHW

Vh
Vl =
2
or Vh = 2Vl
+HQFHWKHKRRSVWUHVVLVWZLFHRIWKHORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVDQGERWKVWUHVVHVDFWDWULJKWDQJOHWRHDFK
RWKHU
7KH WZR VWUHVVHV DUH SULQFLSDO VWUHVVHV EHFDXVH WKHLU SODQHV FRQWDLQ QR VKHDU VWUHVV 8QGHU WKDW
FRQGLWLRQWKHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLV
σh σl
WPD[ =
2
pr pr
−
t 2t = pr
=
2 4t
pd
=
8t
7
KHUHDUHWZRW\SHVRIMRLQWVLQWKLQF\OLQGULFDOVKHOOVRQHLVFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOMRLQWDQGDQRWKHULV
ORQJLWXGLQDOMRLQW
,I Kh (I¿FLHQF\RIWKHFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOMRLQW
Kl (I¿FLHQF\RIWKHORQJLWXGLQDOMRLQW
pd pr
7KHQ Vh =
2t ηl t ηl
pd pr
and Vl =
4t ηh 2t ηh
KH SUHVVXUH p XVHG LQ GLIIHUHQW HTXDWLRQV LV WKH JDXJH SUHVVXUH7KH IROORZLQJ UHODWLRQ H[LVWV
7
EHWZHHQJDXJHSUHVVXUHDQGDEVROXWHSUHVVXUH
*DXJHSUHVVXUH$WPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUH $EVROXWHSUHVVXUH
7KHGHVLJQRIDWKLQF\OLQGULFDOVKHOOLVEDVHGRQKRRSVWUHVVVhEHFDXVHLWLVWKHPD[LPXPVWUHVV
SURGXFHGLQWKHVKHOO,IVw is the allowable stress, then
Vh d Vw
pr
dVw
t
pr
or t !
Vw
12.3 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN FOR A THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELL

'XHWRFKDQJHLQYROXPHRIDWKLQF\OLQGULFDOVKHOODVDUHVXOWRIWKHWZRVWUHVVHVWKHYROXPHWULF
VWUDLQLVSURGXFHGLQLW
Let l /HQJWKRIWKHVKHOO
r ,QVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHVKHOO
t 7KLFNQHVVRIWKHVKHOO
v 3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLR
p )OXLGSUHVVXUHLQVLGHWKHVKHOO
E 0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\RIWKHVKHOOPDWHULDO
7KHFLUFXPIHUHQWLDORUKRRSVWUDLQSURGXFHGLVJLYHQDV
Vh V
h = v l
E E
pd pd
= v
2tE 4tE
pd ⎛⎜ v ⎞⎟ pd
= ⎜1 − ⎟ =
2tE ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 4tE
7
KHFKDQJHLQGLDPHWHULVFRQQHFWHGZLWKWKHKRRSVWUDLQDQGLVJLYHQDV
dd) = h × d
7KHORQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQLVJLYHQDV
V V
l = l v h
E E
pd pd pd ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞ pd
= v = ⎜⎜ − v⎟⎟⎟ = ±v
4tE 2tE 2tE ⎝ 2 ⎠ 4tE
7KHFKDQJHLQOHQJWKLVFRQQHFWHGZLWKWKHORQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQDQGLVJLYHQDV
dl = l × l
7KHFKDQJHLQYROXPHRIWKHVKHOORFFXUVGXHWRFKDQJHLQLWVOHQJWKDQGUDGLXV7KHLQLWLDOYROXPH
RIWKHVKHOOLV
π 2
V = d q l
4
7
KHFKDQJHGYROXPHLV
π
VdV = [d + d]2îldl)

where dV &KDQJHLQYROXPH
+HQFHWKHFKDQJHLQYROXPHdV is
π π 2
VdV) – V = ld ⋅ d ( d ) + d ⋅ dl QHJOHFWLQJVPDOOHUTXDQWLWLHV
2 4
Change in volume
Volumetric strain =
Initial volume
π π
ld ⋅ d ( d ) + d 2 ⋅ dl
d (d ) dl
or V = 2 4 =2
π 2 d l
d l
4
1RZWKHKRRSVWUDLQLVGH¿QHGDV
Change in circumference
h =
Initial circumference
Changed circumference Initial circumference
=
π[d + d ( d )] − πd d ( d )
= =
πd d
VLQJHTXDWLRQLQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
8
V = 2hl
dl
where l =
l
1RZXVLQJHTXDWLRQVDQGLQHTXDWLRQZHJHW
pd pd
V = 2 × (2 − v) + (1 − 2v)
4tE 4tE
pd pd
= [4 − 2v + 1 − 2v] = (5 − 4v)
4tE 4tE
7KLVLVWKHUHTXLUHGH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHYROXPHWULFVWUDLQIRUDWKLQF\OLQGULFDOVKHOO
12.4 WIRE WOUND THIN CYLINDERS

7RVWUHQJWKHQDWKLQF\OLQGHUDJDLQVWLWVEXUVWLQJEHFDXVHRIKLJKÀXLGSUHVVXUHVWHHOZLUHVDUHZRXQG
DURXQGLW)LJ7KHVHZLUHVDUHXQGHUWHQVLRQEHFDXVHRIWKHLUVWUHWFKLQJEXWWKH\FRPSUHVV
WKHF\OLQGHUSURGXFLQJDQHJDWLYHi.eFRPSUHVVLYHFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOVWUHVVZKLFKKHOSVWRUHGXFHWKH
FKDQFHRIEXUVWLQJ7KHUHVXOWDQWVWUHVVLQWKHF\OLQGHULVWKHGLIIHUHQFHRIWKHFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOVWUHVV
SURGXFHGGXHWRÀXLGSUHVVXUHDQGFRPSUHVVLYHVWUHVVEHFDXVHRIZLUHZRXQG%XWWKHFLUFXPIHUHQWLDO
VWUDLQVSURGXFHGLQWKHF\OLQGHUDQGZLUHDUHWKHVDPH
Fig. 12.2
Example 12.1
:DWHULVUXQQLQJWKURXJKDFDVWLURQSLSHRIGLDPHWHUPPDW03D&DOFXODWHWKHWKLFNQHVVRI
WKHSLSHLIWKHPD[LPXPSHUPLVVLEOHVWUHVVLV03D
Solution: *LYHQ
,QVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHSLSH d = 750 mm
3UHVVXUHRIZDWHU p 03D î3D
0D[LPXPVWUHVV Vh 03D î3D
6LQFHKRRSVWUHVVLVWKHPD[LPXPVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHSLSHKHQFHXVLQJHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
pd
Vh =
2t
pd
or t =
2Vh
⎛ 750 ⎞⎟ 1
= 10 × 10 × ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟× m
⎝1000 ⎟⎠ 2 ×120 ×106
P
PP Ans.
Example 12.2
$VWHHOVWRUDJHWDQNRIZDOOWKLFNQHVVPPGLDPHWHUPDQGKHLJKWPLVILOOHGZLWKZDWHU
to a certain height h$VVXPLQJDIDFWRURIVDIHW\RIDQGXOWLPDWHVWUHQJWKRIVWHHOLQWHQVLRQ
WREH03DILQGWKHYDOXHRIh
Solution: *LYHQ
7KLFNQHVVRIWKHWDQN t = 5 mm
'LDPHWHURIWKHWDQN d =8m
+HLJKWRIWKHWDQN h = 25 m
8OWLPDWHVWUHQJWKRIVWHHOVu 03D î3D
)DFWRURIVDIHW\ n
8VLQJHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
pd
Vh = = Vu
2t
p× 8
RU î =
2 × (5 ×10−3 )
6ROYLQJIRUp, we get
p 3D
7KLVLVWKHPD[LPXPSUHVVXUH
7KHVDIHSUHVVXUHLV
p 487500
ps = = 3D
n 3.5
Now ps = Ugh
îîh UIRUZDWHU NJP)
2QVROYLQJZHJHW h P Ans.
Example 12.3
$ WKLQ F\OLQGHU RI LQVLGH GLDPHWHU PP LV PDGH RI PP WKLFN SODWH 7KH HI¿FLHQFLHV RI WKH
ORQJLWXGLQDO DQG FLUFXPIHUHQWLDO MRLQWV DUH DQG UHVSHFWLYHO\ )LQG WKH ODUJHVW DOORZDEOH
JDXJHSUHVVXUHLIWKHWHQVLOHVWUHVVRIWKHSODWHLVOLPLWHGWR03D
Solution: *LYHQ
,QVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHF\OLQGHU d PP
7KLFNQHVVRIWKHF\OLQGHU t = 5 mm
(I¿FLHQF\RIWKHFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOMRLQW Kh
(I¿FLHQF\RIWKHORQJLWXGLQDOMRLQW Kl
7KHFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOVWUHVVLVJLYHQE\
pd
Vh = XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
2t ηl
pq 450
90 =
2 q 5q 0.65
or p 03D
7KHORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVLVJLYHQDV
pd
Vl = XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
t ηh
pq 450
90 =
4 q 5q 0.35
or p 03D
+HQFHWKHODUJHVWDOORZDEOHJDXJHSUHVVXUHLV03DORZHVWRIWKHWZRYDOXHV Ans.

Note:,IZHWDNHp 03DWKHQWKHYDOXHRIVhZLOOH[FHHGWKHWHQVLOHVWUHVVLQWKHSODWHDV
VKRZQEHORZ
1.4 q 450
Vh = 03DZKLFKLVJUHDWHUWKDQ03D
2 q 5q 0.65
Example 12.4
$WKLQF\OLQGHURIOHQJWKPDQGLQVLGHGLDPHWHUPPLVPDGHRIPPWKLFNVWHHOSODWHDQG
LVFORVHGDWERWKHQGV,WLVVXEMHFWHGWRDQLQWHUQDOÀXLGSUHVVXUHRI03D)LQGWKHIROORZLQJ
SDUDPHWHUV
a) the change in length
b WKH¿QDOOHQJWK
c) the change in diameter
d WKH¿QDOGLDPHWHU
e WKHFKDQJHLQYROXPH
f WKH¿QDOYROXPH
g WKHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHF\OLQGHU
7DNH E *3DDQGv
Solution: *LYHQ
/HQJWKRIWKHF\OLQGHU l P
,QVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHF\OLQGHU d = 500 mm = 500 × 10± m
7KLFNQHVVRIWKHSODWH t = 5 mm = 5 × 10± m
)OXLGSUHVVXUH p 03D î3D
0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\ E *3D î93D
3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLR v
7KHKRRSVWUHVVLVJLYHQDV
pd
Vh =
2t
1.5 ×106 × 500 ×10−3
= 3D î73D
2 × 5 ×10−3
V
Vl = h
2
7.5 q107
= î73D
2
7KHKRRSVWUDLQLVJLYHQDV
Vh V
h = v l
E E
7.5 ×107 0.25 × 3.75 ×107
= − î±
210 ×109 210 ×109
Vl V
l = v h
E E
3.75 ×107 0.25 × 7.5 ×107
= − î–5
210 ×109 210 ×109
a &KDQJHLQOHQJWKRIWKHF\OLQGHULV
dl = l × l
î–5îîPP PP Ans.
'XH WR ÀXLG SUHVVXUH OHQJWK RI WKH F\OLQGHU LQFUHDVHV KHQFH DERYH FKDQJH LV LQFUHDVH LQ
OHQJWK
b )LQDOOHQJWKRIWKHF\OLQGHU
lf = ldl
î PP Ans.
c &KDQJHLQGLDPHWHURIWKHF\OLQGHU
dd) = h × d
î±îPP PP Ans.
7KH GLDPHWHU RI WKH F\OLQGHU LQFUHDVHV RQ DFFRXQW RI ÀXLG SUHVVXUH KHQFH WKH FKDQJH LQ
GLDPHWHULVEDVLFDOO\LQFUHDVHLQGLDPHWHU
d )LQDOGLDPHWHURIWKHF\OLQGHU
df = ddd)
PP
PP Ans.
e 7KHYROXPHWULFVWUDLQLVJLYHQDV
V = 2hl XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
–5
îî î î±
±
9ROXPHRIWKHF\OLQGHULV
π 2
V = d ×l
4
π
= 5002îî mm î8 mm

+HQFHWKHFKDQJHLQYROXPHRIWKHF\OLQGHULV
dV = V × V
× 10± ×× 108 mm PP Ans.

7KHFKDQJHLQYROXPHLVLQFUHDVHLQYROXPHRIWKHF\OLQGHU
f)LQDOYROXPHRIWKHF\OLQGHULV
Vf = VdV
× 108PP × 108 mm Ans.

g7KHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHF\OLQGHULVJLYHQDV
V h Vl
WPD[ =
2
7.5 ×107 − 3.75 ×107 1

= × 6 03D 03D Ans.
2 10
Example 12.5
,IWKHHI¿FLHQFLHVRIWKHORQJLWXGLQDODQGFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOMRLQWVLQ([DPSOHDUHDQG
UHVSHFWLYHO\¿QGDOOWKHHQOLVWHGSDUDPHWHUV
Solution: *LYHQ
(I¿FLHQF\RIWKHFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOMRLQWKh
(I¿FLHQF\RIWKHORQJLWXGLQDOMRLQW Kl
7KHFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOVWUHVVLVJLYHVDV
pd
Vh =
2t ηl
1.5× 500 ×10−3

= 03D
2 × 5×10−3 × 0.7
pd
Vl =
t ηh
1.5× 500 ×10−3
= 03D
4 × 5×10−3 × 0.5
&LUFXPIHUHQWLDOVWUDLQLV
Vh V
h = v l
E E
107.14 ×106 0.25× 75×106

= − î±
210 ×109 210 ×109
Longitudinal strain is
Vl V
l = v h
E E
75×106 0.25×107.14 ×106
= − î±
210 ×109 210 ×109
a&KDQJHLQOHQJWK dl =l × l
î±îî mm
PP,QFUHDVH Ans.
b) Final length, lf = ldl
îPP
PP Ans.
c &KDQJHLQGLDPHWHUdd) = h × d
î± × 500 mm
PP,QFUHDVH
d) Final diameter, df = ddd)
PP
PP Ans.
e )RUFKDQJHLQYROXPH
Volumetric strain, V = 2hl
= 2 ×× 10±× 10±

× 10±
9ROXPHRIWKHF\OLQGHU V × 108 mm
+HQFHWKHFKDQJHLQYROXPH dV = V × V
× 10± ×× 108 mm
PP Ans.
f)LQDOYROXPH Vf = VdV
× 108PP
× 108 mm Ans.
V h Vl
g0D[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVV WPD[ =
2
107.14 75
= 03D Ans.
2
Example 12.6
$ FRPSUHVVHG DLUWDQN RI RXWVLGH GLDPHWHU PP LV RI P OHQJWK DQG LWV ZDOO WKLFNQHVV LV
PP)LJ,WLVZHOGHGDORQJDKHOL[IRUPLQJDQDQJOHRIZLWKWKHWUDQVYHUVHSODQHDQGLV
VXEMHFWHGWRDSUHVVXUHRI03D)LQGWKHIROORZLQJ
aWKHQRUPDOVWUHVVSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHZHOG
bWKHVKHDUVWUHVVSDUDOOHOWRWKHZHOG
Fig. 12.3
Solution: *LYHQ
/HQJWKRIWKHF\OLQGHU l P
:DOOWKLFNQHVV t PP
Outside diameter, d0 PP
$QJOHRIKHOL[ D
$LUSUHVVXUH p 03D î3D
,QVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHWDQNLV
d = d0 – 2t
±îPP PP
7KHFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOVWUHVVLVJLYHQDV
pd
Vh =
2t
3.5 × 444 ×10−3
= 03D
2 × 3×10−3
V
Vl = h
2
259
= 03D
2
The average stress is given as

V h Vl
Vav =
2
259 129.5
= = 194.25 MPa
2
Vh and Vl are the principal stresses. We draw the Mohr’s circle taking these two stresses (Fig. 12.4).
Scale : 2 cm on x-axis = 64.75 MPa
Radius of Mohr’s circle, R = 64.75 MPa
Fig. 12.4
(a) The normal stress perpendicular to the weld is given as

VW = Vav – R cos 2D
= 194.25 – 64.75 cos (2 × 20º) = 144.65 MPa Ans.
(b) The shear stress parallel to the weld is given as
WW = R sin 2D
= 64.75 sin (2 × 20º) = 41.62 MPa Ans.
Example 12.7
A thin cylinder of 300 mm inside diameter contains water at 1.5 MPa. Find the thickness of the cylinder,
if the circumferential and longitudinal stresses are limited to 30 MPa and 20 MPa respectively.
Solution: Given,
Diameter of the cylinder, d = 300 mm
Circumferential stress, Vh = 30 MPa = 30 × 106 Pa
Longitudinal stress, Vl = 20 MPa = 20 × 106 Pa
Pressure of water, p = 1.5 MPa = 1.5 × 106 Pa
The circumferential stress is given as

pd
Vh =
2t
1.5 ×106 × 300 ×10−3
30 × 106 =
2×t
or t = 7.5 mm
The longitudinal stress is given as

pd
Vl =
4t
1.5 ×106 × 300 ×10−3

20 × 106 =
4×t
or t = 5.62 mm
Hence, the thickness of the cylinder is 7.5 mm (highest of the two values). Ans.
Example 12.8
A cast iron thin cylinder of inside diameter 250 mm and thickness 10 mm is closely wound by a
single layer of steel wire of diameter 5 mm under a tension of 60 MPa. Find the stresses induced in
the cylinder and the steel wire, if water under a pressure of 4 MPa is admitted in the cylinder.
Take ECI = 105 MPa, ES = 2 × 105 MPa and v = 0.25.
Solution: Given,
Inside diameter of the cylinder, d = 250 mm
Thickness of the cylinder, t = 10 mm
Diameter of the steel wire, dw = 5 mm
Tensile stress in the steel wire, Vw = 60 MPa = 60 × 106 Pa
Pressure of water in the cylinder, p = 4 MPa = 4 × 106 Pa
When there is no water in the cylinder

The compressive force induced in the cylinder is equal to the tensile force in the steel wire. Consider
1 m length of the cylinder.
The compressive force developed in the cylinder is
2 × Vh × t × 1
where Vh = Compressive circumferential stress in the cylinder
The tensile force exerted by wire per unit length is

π 2
2× d × Vw × n
4 w
where n 1XPEHURIWXUQVRIZLUHSHUXQLWOHQJWK

1
=
dw
(TXDWLQJWKHWZRIRUFHVIRUHTXLOLEULXPDQGVXEVWLWXWLQJWKHYDOXHRInZHKDYH
π 1
2Vh × t = 2 × × dw2 × Vw ×
dw
πd w
Vh = ¸ σw
t
π× 5×10−3
= 03D
4 ×10 ×10−3
7KLVLVWKHYDOXHRIFRPSUHVVLYHVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHF\OLQGHUGXHWRZLUHZRXQG
When water is admitted in the cylinder

'XHWRÀXLGSUHVVXUHLQVLGHWKHF\OLQGHUIXUWKHUKRRSVWUHVVLVGHYHORSHGDQGWKHWHQVLOHVWUHVVLQWKH
ZLUHLVDOVRLQFUHDVHG7KHUHVXOWDQWKRRSVWUHVVLVWKHVXPRIWKHLQLWLDOFRPSUHVVLYHVWUHVVGXHWR
ZLUHZRXQGDQGIXUWKHUWHQVLOHVWUHVVGXHWRLQWHUQDOSUHVVXUH$VDUHVXOWWKHF\OLQGHUFDUULHVPRUH
SUHVVXUH
1RZVXSSRVHWKHZLUHZRXQGF\OLQGHULVVXEMHFWHGWRDÀXLGSUHVVXUHp
Let Vcl /RQGLJXGLQDOVWUHVVGHYHORSHGLQWKHF\OLQGHU
Vch &LUFXPIHUHQWLDOVWUHVVGHYHORSHGLQWKHF\OLQGHU
Vcw 6WUHVVGHYHORSHGLQWKHZLUH
π 2
/RQJLWXGLQDOEXUVWLQJIRUFH p × d = Vcl × Sdt IRUHTXLOLEULXP

pd 4 ×106 × 250 ×10−3
or Vcl = = = 25 × 103D
t 4 ×10 ×10−3
'LDPHWUDOEXUVWLQJIRUFHSHUXQLWOHQJWKLV
p × d × 1 = pd KHUHl = 1 m)
)RUHTXLOLEULXP
%XUVWLQJIRUFHSHUXQLWOHQJWK 7RWDOUHVLVWLQJIRUFHSHUXQLWOHQJWK
π
p × d × 1 = Vch × 2tîVcw × 2 × × dw2 × n

πd ⎛ ⎞⎟
⎜⎜n = 1 ⎟⎟
or pd = Vch × 2t w × Vcw ⎜⎝ ⎟
2 d w⎠
2QVXEVWLWXWLQJGLIIHUHQWYDOXHVZHKDYH
± ±π× 5×10−3
î × 250 × 10 = Vchîî × Vcw
2
10 Vchî±Vcw
Now for compatibility, we have

Circumferential strain in the cylinder = Circumferential strain in the wire
σ′h σ′ σa
−v l = w
ECI ECI Es
On substituting different values, we have

σ′h ×106 0.25× 25×106 σ′w
− =
105 ×106 105 ×106 2 ×105 ×106
or 10Vch – 0.5 × 10–5Vcw = 62.5 ...(2)
Solving equations (1) and (2), we have

Vcw = 127.38 MPa
and Vch = 69.94 MPa
The resultant stress (hoop) in the cylinder is
= Vch – Vh
= (69.94 – 23.56) MPa = 46.38 MPa (Tensile) Ans.
The resultant stress in the wire is
= Vw + Vcw
= (60 + 127.38) MPa = 187.38 MPa (Tensile) Ans.
12.5 STRESSES IN A THIN SPHERICAL SHELL

Refer Fig. 12.5.
Fig. 12.5
Let d = Inside diameter of the shell
t = Thickness of the shell
p = Fluid pressure inside the shell
7KHEXUVWLQJIRUFHLV
π 2
Fb = p × A = p × d A $UHDRIWKHVSKHULFDOVKHOO

7KHUHVLVWLQJIRUFHLQGXFHGLQWKHVKHOOLVGXHWRORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVJLYHQE\
F2 = Vl A = Vl × Sdt
(TXDWLQJWKHWZRIRUFHVZHKDYH
Fb = F2
π 2
p× d = Vl × Sdt

pd
or Vl =
t
%HFDXVHRIWKHV\PPHWU\RIWKHVSKHULFDOVKHOODERXWWKHWZRD[HVZHKDYH
pd
Vh = Vl = V =
t
+HQFHWKHFLUFXPIHUHQWLDODQGORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVHVDUHHTXDODQGWKH\DUHWKHSULQFLSDOVWUHVVHV
V pd
7KHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLQWKHZDOORIWKHVKHOOLVQRW]HURDVH[SHFWHGEXWLVHTXDOWR h
2 8t
ZKLFKLVTXLWHFOHDULI0RKU¶VFLUFOHLVGUDZQ)LJ
Fig. 12.6
(TXDWLRQLVYDOLGIRUDVHDPOHVVVKHOOi.e.DVKHOOFRQWDLQLQJQRMRLQWV,QFDVHRIDQ\MRLQW
ZLWKMRLQWHI¿FLHQF\KZHKDYH
pd
V h = Vl =
t K
12.6 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN FOR A THIN SPHERICAL SHELL

Let d 'LDPHWHURIWKHVKHOO
t 7KLFNQHVVRIWKHVKHOO
v 3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLR
p )OXLGSUHVVXUHLQWKHVKHOO
E 0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\RIWKHVKHOOPDWHULDO
7KHLQLWLDOYROXPHRIWKHVSKHULFDOVKHOOLVJLYHQDV
pd
V =
t K
7
KHLQFUHDVHGYROXPHRIWKHVKHOOLV
π
VdV = [d d ( d )]3
6
where dV ,QFUHDVHLQYROXPHRIWKHVKHOO
dd &KDQJHLQGLDPHWHURIWKHVKHOO
7KHYROXPHWULFVWUDLQLV
Change in volume
V =
Initial volume
(V + dV ) − V dV
= =
V V
π
[{d + d ( d )}3 − d 3 ]
= 6
π 3
d
6
d (d )
= 3 QHJOHFWLQJVPDOOHUYDOXHV
d
h
d (d )
where h = +RRSVWUDLQ
d
KHKRRSVWUDLQLVDOVRH[SUHVVHGDV
7
V V
h = v XVLQJHTXDWLRQDQGUHSODFLQJVh = Vl = V)
E E
pd
= (1 v) XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
4tE
)
URPHTXDWLRQVDQGZHKDYH
dV 3 pd
V = ±v
V 4tE
+HQFHWKHFKDQJHLQFUHDVHLQYROXPHRIWKHVKHOOLV

3 pd
dV = ±v) × V
4tE
πpd 4
= RQVXEVWLWXWLQJV
8tE
Example 12.9
$ WKLQ VSKHULFDO VKHOO RI GLDPHWHU PP LV VXEMHFWHG WR DQ LQWHUQDO SUHVVXUH RI 03D )LQG
WKLFNQHVVRIWKHVKHOOLIWKHPD[LPXPVWUHVVLQWKHVKHOOLVOLPLWHGWR03D&RQVLGHUWKHMRLQW
HI¿FLHQF\WREH
Solution: *LYHQ
'LDPHWHURIWKHVKHOO d = 500 mm
3UHVVXUHLQWKHVKHOO p 03D î3D
0D[LPXPVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHVKHOOVh 03D î3D
-RLQWHI¿FLHQF\ K
)URPHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
pd
Vh =
t K
2 ×106 × 500 ×10−3
î =
4 × t × 0.8
6ROYLQJIRUt, we get
t î±P PP Ans.
Example 12.10
$WKLQVSKHULFDOVKHOORIGLDPHWHUPDQGWKLFNQHVVPPLV¿OOHGZLWKZDWHUDWf&DQGDWPRVSKHULF
SUHVVXUH:KDWSUHVVXUHZLOOEHGHYHORSHGLIî 5 mmRIPRUHZDWHULVSXPSHGLQWRWKHVKHOO"
$OVR¿QGWKHVWUHVVGHYHORSHGLQWKHVKHOOPDWHULDO7DNHE *3DDQGv
Solution: *LYHQ
'LDPHWHURIWKHVKHOO d =1m
7KLFNQHVVRIWKHVKHOO t = 5 mm
0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\ E *3D î9 N/m2
3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLR v
7KHLQFUHDVHGYROXPHRIWKHVKHOOFDQDFFRPPRGDWHWKHH[WUDDPRXQWRIZDWHUSXPSHGLQWRLW
8VLQJHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
πpd 4
dV = (1 v )
8tE
π× p ×14 × (1 − 0.25)
2 × 105 × 10–9 =
8× 5×10−3 × 200 ×109
6ROYLQJIRUp, we get
p î5 N/m2 03D Ans.
8VLQJHTXDWLRQZHKDYH

pd
Vh = Vl =
t
6.79 ×105 ×1
= N/m2
4 × 5 ×10−3
î7N/m2 03D Ans.
Example 12.11
$WKLQVSKHULFDOVKHOORIGLDPHWHUPKDVZDOOWKLFNQHVVRIPP)LQGFKDQJHLQGLDPHWHUDQG
FKDQJHLQYROXPHRIWKHVKHOOLIZDWHUDWDSUHVVXUHRI03DLVDGPLWWHGLQWRLW7DNHE *3D
and v
Solution: *LYHQ
'LDPHWHURIWKHVKHOO d P
:DOOWKLFNQHVV t = 10 mm
3UHVVXUHRIZDWHU p 03D î3D
0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\ E *3D î9*3D
3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLR v
7KHKRRSVWUDLQLQDQ\GLUHFWLRQLVJLYHQDV
pd
h = (1 v) XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
4tE
2 ×106 ×1.5 × (1 − 0.3)
=
4 ×10 ×10−3 × 200 ×109
d (d )
$OVR h =
d
where dd &KDQJHLQGLDPHWHU,QFUHDVH
or dd) = h × d
îîPP PP Ans.
Volumetric strain is
V h XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
î
dV
$OVR V =
V
where V 9ROXPHRIWKHVKHOO
π 3 π
= d = q(1.5)3 P
6 6
+HQFH dV = V × V
îî9 mm
PP Ans.
Example 12.12
$EURQ]HVSKHULFDOVKHOORIZDOOWKLFNQHVVPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDÀXLGSUHVVXUHRI03D7KH
PD[LPXPVWUHVVLQWKHVKHOOPDWHULDOLVOLPLWHGWR03D)LQGWKHGLDPHWHURIWKHVKHOOLIWKHMRLQW
HI¿FLHQF\RIWKHVKHOOLV
Solution: *LYHQ
:DOOWKLFNQHVVRIWKHVKHOO t = 10 mm
)OXLGSUHVVXUH p 03D î3D
0D[LPXPVWUHVVLQWKHVKHOO Vh = Vl 03D î3D
-RLQWHI¿FLHQF\ K
8VLQJHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
pd
Vh = Vl =
t K
1.5 ×106 × d
RU î =
4 ×10 ×10−3 × 0.7
6ROYLQJIRUd, we get
d P Ans.
12.7 CYLINDRICAL SHELL WITH HEMISPHERICAL ENDS

5HIHU)LJ
Fig. 12.7
Let p )OXLGSUHVVXUH
t1 7KLFNQHVVRIWKHF\OLQGULFDOSDUW
t2 7KLFNQHVVRIWKHKHPLVSKHULFDOHQGV
d ,QVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHF\OLQGULFDOSDUW
v 3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRIRUWKHVKHOOPDWHULDO
For cylinder part

pd
+RRSVWUHVV Vh =
2t1
pd
Longitudinal stress, Vl =
4t1
pd
+RRSVWUDLQ h = (2 v)
4t1 E
For hemispherical ends
pd
+RRSVWUHVV Vh =
4t2
+RRSVWUDLQ
pd
h = (1 v)
4t2 E
)
RUQRGLVWRUWLRQFRQGLWLRQDWWKHMXQFWLRQRIWKHWZRSDUWVWKHWZRKRRSVWUDLQVDUHHTXDO
pd pd
(2 v) = (1 v)
4t1 E 4t2 E
t1 2v
or =
t2 1 v
XWWKHULJKWKDQGVLGHUDWLRLVDOZD\VJUHDWHUWKDQRQHIRUWKHVDPHVKHOOPDWHULDOKHQFH t1 is
%
always greater than t2
)RUHTXDOKRRSVWUHVVWREHSURGXFHGLQWZRSDUWVZHKDYH
pd pd
=
2t1 4t2
t1
or
t2
Example 12.13
$WKLQF\OLQGULFDOVKHOORIGLDPHWHUPPDQGZDOOWKLFNQHVVPPKDVKHPLVSKHULFDOHQGV
)LQGWKHWKLFNQHVVRIWKHKHPLVSKHULFDOHQGVFRQVLGHULQJaQRGLVWRUWLRQRFFXUVDWWKHMXQFWLRQ
DQGbHTXDOKRRSVWUHVVHVDUHSURGXFHGLQWZRSDUWV7DNHE *3DDQG v
Solution: *LYHQ
'LDPHWHURIWKHF\OLQGULFDOSDUW d PP
7KLFNQHVVRIWKHF\OLQGULFDOSDUW t1 = 10 mm
0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\ E *3D î93D
3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLR v
Let t2 7KLFNQHVVRIWKHKHPLVSKHULFDOHQGV
a )RUQRGLVWRUWLRQFRQGLWLRQDWWKHMXQFWLRQRIWZRSDUWVZHKDYH
t1 2v
= XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
t2 1 v
10 2 0.25
or =
t2 1 0.25
6ROYLQJIRUt2, we get
t2 PP Ans.
b )RUHTXDOKRRSVWUHVVEHLQJSURGXFHGLQWZRSDUWVZHKDYH
t1
XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
t2
t1 10
or t2 = = 5 mm Ans.
2 2
12.8 STRESSES IN THICK CYLINDERS (LAME’S THEORY)
7KHGLDPHWHUWKLFNQHVVUDWLRIRUWKLQVKHOOVF\OLQGHUVRUVSKHUHVLVODUJHi.e.WKLFNQHVVLVYHU\VPDOO
DVFRPSDUHGWRGLDPHWHUDQGKHQFHYDULDWLRQRIKRRSVWUHVVDORQJWKHWKLFNQHVVLVQHJOLJLEOHLQRWKHU
ZRUGVLWLVFRQVWDQWRYHUWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHWKLQVKHOOV%XWLQFDVHRIWKLFNVKHOOVWKLFNQHVVKDV
VLJQL¿FDQWYDOXHZUWGLDPHWHUDQGWKHYDULDWLRQRIKRRSVWUHVVLVQRWXQLIRUP%XWWKHORQJLWXGLQDO
VWUDLQLVFRQVWDQWDWDOOWKHSRLQWVLUUHVSHFWLYHRIWKHUDGLXVRIWKHF\OLQGHU
7KHIROOZLQJDVVXPSWLRQVDUHPDGHLQWKHDQDO\VLVRIWKLFNF\OLQGHUV
z 7KHPDWHULDORIWKHF\OLQGHULVKRPRJHQHRXVDQGLVRWURSLF
z+RRNH¶VODZLVREH\HGWKDWLVWKHPDWHULDOLVVWUHVVHGZLWKLQWKHHODVWLFOLPLW
z 0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\LQWHQVLRQDQGFRPSUHVVLRQDUHVDPH
z 3ODQHVHFWLRQVSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHD[LVRIWKHF\OLQGHUUHPDLQSODQHHYHQDIWHUWKHDSSOLFDWLRQ
RILQWHUQDOÀXLGSUHVVXUH
&RQVLGHUDWKLFNF\OLQGHU)LJZLWKWKHIROORZLQJSDUDPHWHUV
l /HQJWKRIWKHF\OLQGHU
R1 ,QVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHF\OLQGHU
R2 2XWVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHF\OLQGHU
p1 ,QQHUUDGLDOSUHVVXUH
p2 2XWHUUDGLDOSUHVVXUH
1RZ FRQVLGHU DQ DQQXODU ULQJ RI UDGLXV r DQG WKLFNQHVV dr LQ WKH WUDQVYHUVH VHFWLRQ RI WKH
F\OLQGHU
Fig. 12.8
Let Vr ,QVLGHUDGLDOVWUHVVSUHVVXUHRQWKHULQJ
VrdVr 2XWVLGHUDGLDOVWUHVVSUHVVXUHRQWKHULQJ

Vh &LUFXPIHUHQWLDORUKRRSVWUHVVRQWKHULQJ
Vl 8QLIRUPORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVV
6WUHVVHGVr and VhDUHSURGXFHGGXHWRUDGLDOSUHVVXUHp1 acting at the radius R1RIWKHF\OLQGHU2Q
WKHLQQHUVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHUi.eDWUDGLXVR1, radial stress VrLVHTXDOWRWKHÀXLGSUHVVXUHDQGRQ
WKHRXWHUVXUIDFHRQO\DWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHDFWV
&LUFXPIHUHQWLDO DQG ORQJLWXGLQDO VWUHVVHV DUH SRVLWLYH ZKHQ WKH\ DUH WHQVLOH LQ QDWXUH DQG DUH
QHJDWLYHZKHQFRPSUHVVLYH&RPSUHVVLYHUDGLDOVWUHVVLVDVVXPHGSRVLWLYHDQGWHQVLOHUDGLDOVWUHVV
QHJDWLYH
σl σ σ
l = +v r −v h
E E E
1
= [σl v (σ h σ r )]
E
LQFHVl , v and E are constants, hence
6
Vh–Vr &RQVWDQW
,I Vh = 2A
where ALVDQRWKHUFRQVWDQW
7KHQ Vh = 2AVr
7KHORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVLVH[SUHVVHGDV
p1 × πR12 p1R12
Vl = =
π( R22 − R12 ) R22 − R12
1RZOHWXVFRQVLGHUWKHHTXLOLEULXPRIWKHDQQXODUULQJ9DULRXVVWUHVVHVDFWLQJRQLWDUHVKRZQ
LQ)LJb)RUHTXLOLEULXPRIWKHULQJWKHDOJHEUDLFVXPRIWKHIRUFHVLQDQ\GLUHFWLRQPXVWEH
]HUR7KHDQDO\VLVRIULQJLVVLPLODUWRDWKLQF\OLQGHU
7KHEXUVWLQJIRUFHLV
Vr 2rl± VrdVrrdr) l
= – 2Vr dr l – 2dVr r l QHJOHFWLQJVPDOOHUWHUPV
7KHUHVLVWLQJIRUFHLV
2Vhldr
)RUHTXLOLEULXPRIWKHULQJ
%XUVWLQJIRUFH 5HVLVWLQJIRUFH
– 2Vr drl – 2dVr rl = 2Vh l dr
– Vr dr – dVr r = Vh dr
d Vr
or Vh = – Vr – r
dr
XEVWLWXWLQJHTXDWLRQLQ(TXDWLRQZHKDYH
6
d Vr
–Vr – r = 2AVr
dr
d Vr
–r = 2AVr AVr)
dr
dr d Vr
2 =–
r A Vr
,QWHJUDWLQJERWKVLGHVZHKDYH
dr d Vr
2 ¨ = ∫
r A + Vr
2 loge r = – logeAVrORJe B
where loge BLVWKHFRQVWDQWRILQWHJUDWLRQ
loge r2 = – logeAVrORJe B
⎛B⎞
logeAVr) = loge B – loge r2 = loge ⎜⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟
⎝r ⎠
B
AVr = 2
r
B
or Vr = 2 – A
r
6XEVWLWXWLQJHTXDWLRQLQHTXDWLRQZHJHW

B
Vh = 2 A
r
7KHHTXDWLRQVDQGDUHNQRZQDVLame’s equationsDQGDUHXVHGWR¿QGRXWKRRS
DQGUDGLDOVWUHVVHV7KHFRQVWDQWV A and BDUHFDOOHG/DPH¶VFRQVWDQWVWREHGHWHUPLQHGE\XVLQJ
VXLWDEOHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQV
12.8.1 General Case (when Internal and External Pressures both are acting)
$W r = R 1, V r = p 1
when r = R 2, V r = p 2
8VLQJWKHVHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVZHKDYH
B
p1 = 2 – A XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
R1
B
and p2 = –A
R22
B B ⎡ R2 − R2 ⎤
1RZ p1 – p2) = − = B ⎢ 2 1 ⎥
R12 2 ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
R2 ⎢⎣ R1 R2 ⎥⎦
R12 R22
or B = ( p1 p2 )
R22 R12
p1 R12 p2 R22
and A =
R22 R12
6XEVWLWXWLQJYDOXHVRIA and BLQHTXDWLRQVDQGZHKDYH
1 R12 R22 p1 R12 p2 R22
Vr = ( p1 p2 ) –
r 2 R22 R1 2
R22 R12
R12 R22 ( p1 p2 ) p1 R12 p2 R22
=
r2 R22 R12 R22 R12
R12 R22 ( p1 − p2 ) p1 R12 − p2 R22
and Vh = +
r2 R22 − R12 R22 − R12
12.8.2 When only Internal Pressure is acting
$W r = R 1, V r = p 1
when r = R2, Vr = p2 DQGRXWHUVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHULVVXEMHFWHGWRDWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHRQO\
8VLQJHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
B B
p1 = – A and 0 = –A
R12 R22
Solving these two equations, we get

R12 R22
B = p1
R22 R12
R12
and A = p1
R22 R12
Substituting values of A and B in equations (12.42) and (12.43), we have
1 R12 R22 R12
Vr = p1 p1
r2 R22 R12 R22 R12
p1 R12 ⎡⎢ R22 ⎤
= − 1⎥ ...(12.46)
R22 − R12 ⎢⎢⎣ r 2 ⎥
⎥⎦
p1 R12 ⎢⎡ R22 ⎤
and Vh = + 1⎥ ...(12.47)
R22 − R12 ⎢⎢⎣ r 2 ⎥
⎥⎦
It has been observed that Vr and Vh are maximum at inner surface of the cylinder i,e., at r = R.
or Vr = p1 ...(12.48)
max
It is compressive in nature and is taken to be positive.
Fig. 12.9
R22 + R12
and Vhmax = p1 ...(12.49)
R22 − R12
It is tensile in nature and is taken to be positive.
7KHYDOXHVRIVr and VhDWRXWHUVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHUieDWr = R2DUHJLYHQDV

Vr
R12
and Vh = 2p1 2 p1 7HQVLOH
R22 R12
KHYDULDWLRQSDUDEROLFRIVh and VrDFURVVWKLFNQHVVRIWKHF\OLQGHULVVKRZQLQ)LJ
7
12.8.3 When only External Pressure is acting

$Wr = R1, Vr = 0
when r = R2, Vr = p2
8VLQJWKHVHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVLQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH

B
0 = –A
R12
B
and p2 = –A
R22
6ROYLQJWKHVHHTXDWLRQVZHJHW
R12 R22
B = – p2
R22 R12
R22
and A = – p2
R22 R12
XEVWLWXWLQJYDOXHVRIA and BLQHTXDWLRQVDQGZHKDYH
6
⎛ 2 2 ⎞
R22
⎜⎜− p R1 R2 ⎟⎟
Vr = ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ p2 2
⎜⎝ R2 − R12 ⎟⎠ R2 R12
p2 R22 ⎛⎜ R12 ⎞
=– ⎜ − 1⎟⎟⎟
2⎜ 2

R2 − R1 ⎜⎝ r
2 ⎟⎠
p2 R22 ⎛⎜ R12 ⎞
and Vh = – 2⎜
⎜ 2 + 1⎟⎟⎟
R2 − R1 ⎜⎝ r
2 ⎟⎠
7KHKRRSVWUHVVVhLVPD[LPXPDWWKHLQQHUVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHUWKDWLVDWr = R1JLYHQDV
R22
VhPD[ = – 2 p2
R22 R12
1
HJDWLYHVLQJVLJQL¿HVLWVFRPSUHVVLYHQDWXUH7KHYDOXHRIVhDWRXWHUVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHUWKDW
is, at r = R2LVJLYHQE\
R 2 + R12
Vh = − p2 22
R2 − R12
The radial stress Vr is maximum at the outer surface of the cylinder i.e., at r = R2, given by
Vr = p2 (Compressive) ...(12.56)
max
The minimum radial stress occurs at the inner surface of the cylinder i.e., at r = R1, given by
Vr =0 ...(12.57)
min
The distribution (parabolic) of Vh and Vr across thickness of the cylinder is shown in Fig. 12.10.
Fig. 12.10
12.8.4 When a Solid Circular Shaft is subjected to External Pressure

Shaft is considered as a thick cylinder with no inner hole. In this case, r 1 = 0 and p1 = 0. To avoid
WKHLQ¿QLWHYDOXHVRIVWUHVVHVVr and Vh, constant B has to be zero. Hence, from equations (12.42) and
(12.43), we have
Vr = – A ...(12.58)
Vh = A ...(12.59)
12.9 LONGITUDINAL STRESS

The longitudinal stress is zero, when the cylinder is open at both ends as in the case of a gun barrel.
The same situation can be visualized in a piston-cylinder arrangement where equal pressure acts on
both sides of the piston. However, when the cylinder is closed at its both ends and is subjected to
pressures p1 and p2, being internal and external respectively, then longitudinal stress V l is induced,
which is given by considering horizontal equilibrium of the forces acting on the cylinder as
p1πR12 p2 πR22 = σl π ( R2 R1 )
2 2
p1 R12 p2 R22
or Vl =
R22 R12
,WLVFRQVWDQWDFURVVWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHF\OLQGHUDQGLVHTXDOWRA
,IQRWRUTXHDFWVRQWKHF\OLQGHUWKHWKUHHVWUHVVHVQDPHO\Vr, Vh and VlEHFRPHSULQFLSDOVWUHVVHV
with VhKDVWKHPD[LPXPYDOXHDQGVrKDVWKHOHDVWYDOXHVhWHQVLOHLVJUHDWHUWKDQVlWHQVLOHDQG
VrLVFRPSUHVVLYHLQQDWXUH7KHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLVJLYHQDV
V (Vr ) V Vr
WPD[ = h = h
2 2
6XEVWLWXWLQJYDOXHVRIVh and VrIURPHTXDWLRQVDQGZHKDYH
⎛B ⎞
⎜⎜ + A + B − A⎟⎟
⎜⎝ r 2 r 2 ⎟⎠ B
WPD[ = = 2
2 r
WPD[ occurs at r = R1 i.e.DWLQQHUVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHUDQGLVUHIHUUHGWRDVabsolute maximum
shear stressJLYHQE\
B
WPD[ <
absolute R12
,WDFWVRQDSODQHLQFOLQHGDWWRWKHORQJLWXGLQDOD[LV
Example 12.14
$WKLFNF\OLQGHURILQVLGHGLDPHWHUPPDQGRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRLQWHUQDODQG
H[WHUQDOSUHVVXUHVRI03DDQG03DUHVSHFWLYHO\)LQGWKHKRRSVWUHVVDWLQWHUQDODQGH[WHUQDO
VXUIDFHVRIWKHF\OLQGHUDQGWKHKRRSDQGUDGLDOVWUHVVHVDWPHDQUDGLXV$OVRVNHWFKWKHYDULDWLRQRI
WKHUDGLDODQGKRRSVWUHVVHVDFURVVWKHWKLFNQHVVRIWKHF\OLQGHU
Solution: *LYHQ
200
,QVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHF\OLQGHU R1 = = 100 mm
2
300
2XWVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHF\OLQGHU R2 = = 150 mm
2
,QWHUQDOSUHVVXUH p1 03D
([WHUQDOSUHVVXUH p2 03D
7KH/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVXQGHUWKHJLYHQFRQGLWLRQVDUH
B
p1 = –A
R12
B
or 50 = –A
(100 ×10−3 ) 2
B
and p2 = –A
R22
B
or 15 = –A
(150 ×10−3 ) 2

B
and A
7KHKRRSVWUHVVDWWKHLQWHUQDOVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHULVJLYHQE\
B
Vhr R = 2 A XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
2
R1
0.63
= 03D Ans.
(100 ×10−3 )2
7KHKRRSVWUHVVDWWKHH[WHUQDOVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHULVJLYHQDV
0.63
Vh = 03D Ans.
r = 150 mm (150 ×10−3 ) 2
100 150
7KHKRRSVWUHVVDWWKHPHDQUDGLXVieDWr = PPLVJLYHQE\
2
0.63
Vh = 03D Ans.
r = 125 mm (125 ×10−3 ) 2
7KHUDGLDOVWUHVVDWWKHPHDQUDGLXVLVJLYHQDV
0.63
Vr = ± 03D Ans.
r = 125 mm (125 ×10−3 ) 2
7KHVWUHVVYDULDWLRQGLDJUDPLVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 12.11
Example 12.15
$WKLFNF\OLQGHURILQVLGHGLDPHWHUPPDQGRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRERWKLQWHUQDO
DQGH[WHUQDOSUHVVXUHV)LQGWKHH[WHUQDOSUHVVXUHLIWKHLQWHUQDOSUHVVXUHLV03DDVVXPLQJWKDW
WKHWHQVLOHKRRSVWUHVVDWLQWHUQDOVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHULV03D
Solution: *LYHQ
300
2
450
2
+RRSVWUHVVDWR1, Vh 03D
B
Vh = A XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
r2
B
RU A
(150 ×10−3 ) 2
7KHUDGLDOVWUHVVLVJLYHQDV
B
Vr = – A XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
r2
B
or 15 = – A DWr = R1, Vr = p1)
(150 ×10−3 ) 2
B
and A = 10
7KHH[WHUQDOSUHVVXUHLVJLYHQDV
B
p2 = – A DWr = R2, Vr = p2)
R22
0.5625
= ± 03D Ans.
( 225×10−3 )2
Example 12.16
$WKLFNF\OLQGHURILQVLGHGLDPHWHUPPLVUHTXLUHGWRZLWKVWDQGDQLQWHUQDOSUHVVXUHRI03D
)LQGWKHWKLFNQHVVRIWKHF\OLQGHUDVVXPLQJWKDWWKHPD[LPXPSHUPLVVLEOHWHQVLOHVWUHVVLVQRWWR
H[FHHG03D
Solution: *LYHQ
250
2
+RRSVWUHVV Vh d03D
8VLQJ/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVZHKDYH
B
Vr = 2 – A
R1
B
and Vh = A
R12
7KHDERYHHTXDWLRQVDUHREWDLQHGE\SXWWLQJr = R1LQHTXDWLRQVDQG
B
+HUH –A
(125 ×10−3 ) 2
B
and 75 = A
(125 ×10−3 ) 2
B
and A
$WWKHRXWHUVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHUWKHUDGLDOVWUHVVVrLV]HUR
B
8VLQJ Vr = –A
r2
0.70
or 0 = – r = R2)
R22
2QVROYLQJZHJHW
R2 P PP
+HQFHWKHWKLFNQHVVRIWKHF\OLQGHULVJLYHQDV
t = R2 – R1
± PP Ans.
Example 12.17
$WKLFNVWHHOF\OLQGHURILQVLGHGLDPHWHUPPDQGRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRLQWHUQDO
DQG H[WHUQDO SUHVVXUHV RI 03D DQG 03D UHVSHFWLYHO\ )LQG WKH PD[LPXP GLUHFW DQG VKHDU
VWUHVVHVLQWKHF\OLQGHU
Solution: *LYHQ
150
2
300
2
([WHUQDOSUHVVXUH p2 03D
8VLQJ/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
B
Vr = –A
r2
B
–A
(75 ×10−3 ) 2
B
and 20 = –A
(150 ×10−3 ) 2
B
and A ±
7KHPD[LPXPKRRSVWUHVVGLUHFWVWUHVVRFFXUVDWLQWHUQDOVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHUWKDWLVDWr = R1
B
Vh = 2 A
PD[ R1
0.3
= – 03D Ans.
(75 ×10−3 ) 2
7KHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLVJLYHQDV
Vh Vr
WPD[ = XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
2
46.67 60
= Vh = VhPD[ and Vr = VrPD[ = p1)
2
03D Ans.
Example 12.18
$WKLFNF\OLQGHURILQVLGHGLDPHWHUPPFDQZLWKVWDQGDQLQWHUQDOSUHVVXUHRI03D)LQGWKH
WKLFNQHVVRIWKHF\OLQGHULIWKHPD[LPXPWHQVLOHDQGPD[LPLPVKHDUVWUHVVHVDUHOLPLWHGWR03D
DQG03DUHVSHFWLYHO\
Solution: *LYHQ
100
2
0D[LPXPWHQVLOHKRRSVWUHVV VhPD[ 03D
0D[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVV WPD[ 03D
)URP/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
B
Vr = –A
r2
B
or 70 = 2
– A Vr = p1 and r = R1)
(50 ×10−3)
Let R2EHRXWVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHF\OLQGHU
B
0 = 2 –A Vr = 0 at r = R2)
R2
6ROYLQJWKHVHWZRHTXDWLRQVZHJHW
0.175R22
B =
R22 0.0025
0.175
and A =
R22 0.0025
B
Vh = A
r2
6XEVWLWXWLQJYDOXHVRIA and BLQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
1 0.175R22 0.175
Vh = +
r 2
R22 − 0.0025 R22 − 0.0025
⎡ R2
0.175 ⎤
= 2 ⎢ 2 + 1⎥
R2 − 0.0025 ⎢⎢⎣ r 2 ⎥
⎥⎦
VhLVPD[LPXPDW r = R1
⎡ 0.175 R22 ⎤
+HQFH Vh = 2 ⎢ + 1⎥
R2 − 0.0025 ⎢⎢⎣ (50 ×10 )−3 2 ⎥
⎥⎦
⎡ 0.175 R22 ⎤
= 70 × ⎢ + 1⎥
R22 − 0.0025 ⎢⎢⎣ (50 ×10−3 ) 2 ⎥
⎥⎦
%XW VhPD[ 03D*LYHQ
100 R22 + 0.0025

or = 2
70 R2 − 0.0025
2QVROYLQJZHJHW R2 = 119 mm
On the basis of maximum shear stress

Vh Vr
WPD[ =
2
1 ⎛⎜ R22 + 0.0025 ⎞⎟
= ×⎜⎜70 2 + 70⎟⎟
2 ⎜⎝ R2 − 0.0025 ⎟⎠
70 ⎛⎜ R22 + 0.0025 ⎞⎟⎟

= ×⎜ + 1⎟
2 ⎜⎜⎝ R22 − 0.0025 ⎟⎠
%XW WPD[ 03D

70 ⎛⎜ R22 + 0.0025 ⎞⎟⎟
80 = ×⎜ + 1⎟
2 ⎜⎜⎝ R22 − 0.0025 ⎟⎠
ROYLQJIRUR2, we get
6
R2 PP
6HOHFWWKHELJJHURIWKHWZRYDOXHVRIR2+HQFHR2 PP
7KHWKLFNQHVVRIWKHF\OLQGHULVJLYHQDV
t = R2 – R1
± PP Ans.
12.10 STRAINS IN THICK CYLINDERS

7KHKRRSVWUDLQLVFRQQHFWHGZLWKWKHFKDQJHLQGLDPHWHURIWKHF\OLQGHUDQGLVJLYHQDV
Change in circumference
h =
Original circumference
π[d + d ( d )] − πd d ( d )
= =
πd d
V V V
$OVR h = h + v r − v l
E E E
1
=[VhvVr – Vl@
E
$VVXPLQJWKDWWKHF\OLQGHULVFORVHGDWERWKRILWVHQGVDQGLVVXEMHFWHGWRLQWHUQDODQGH[WHUQDO
SUHVVXUHVERWKWKHHTXDWLRQFKDQJHVWR
⎡⎧⎪ R 2 R 2 ( p − p ) p R 2 − p R 2 ⎫
⎪ ⎧
⎪ R12 R22 ( p1 − p2 )
2 2⎪
h = ⎢⎢⎪⎨ 1 2 2 12 2
+ 1 1
⎬ + v ⎪
⎨
⎢⎣⎪⎪⎩ r R2 − R12 R22 − R12 ⎪⎪
⎭
⎪
⎪
⎩ r
2
R22 − R12
p1 R12 − p2 R22 ⎫⎤
p1 R12 − p2 R22 ⎪
− − ⎪
⎬⎥⎥
R22 − R12 R2 − R1 ⎪
2 2
⎭⎥⎦
⎪
XVLQJHTXDWLRQVDQG

⎫
(1 + v) ⎪⎧⎪ R12 R22 ( p1 − p2 ) ⎪ ⎫
⎧ p R2 − p R2 ⎪
(1 + 2v) ⎪
⎨ 2 ⎪
⎬ ⎪
⎨
1 1 2 2⎪
⎬
=
E ⎪⎪⎩ r R2 − R1 ⎪
2 2
⎪
⎭ E ⎪ ⎩ R2 − R1 ⎪
⎪
2 2 ⎪
⎭
7KHUDGLDOVWUDLQLVJLYHQDV
1
r = [Vr v(Vh Vl )]
E
On substituting Vr, Vh and V l , we have

1 ⎡⎪⎧ R 2 R 2 ( p − p ) p R 2 − p R 2 ⎪
⎫ ⎧ R2 R2 ( p − p )
⎪
⎢⎪⎨ 1 2 1 2 2⎪ ⎪
r = ⎢⎪ r 2 R 2 − R 2
2
− 1 1
⎬ + v ⎨ 2
1 2 1 2
E ⎢⎣⎪⎩ R2 − R1 ⎪
2 2 ⎪ ⎪
⎪ R2 − R12
2
2 1 ⎭ ⎩ r
p1 R12 − p2 R22 p1 R12 − p2 R22 ⎫

⎪ ⎤
+ + ⎪
⎬ ⎥
R22 − R12 R22 − R12 ⎪ ⎥
⎪⎦⎥
⎭
(1 + v) ⎧⎪⎪ R12 R22 ( p1 − p2 ) ⎫

⎪
⎪ (1 − 2v) ⎪
⎪ 2 2⎪
⎫
⎧ p R2 − p R2 ⎪
= ⎨ 2 ⎬ – ⎨
1 1
⎬ ...(12.67)
E ⎪⎪⎩ r R2 − R1 ⎪
2 2
⎪
⎭ E ⎪ ⎩ R2 − R1 ⎪
⎪
2 2 ⎪
⎭
KHYROXPHWULFVWUDLQLVGH¿QHGDV
7
Change in volume dV
V = =
Original volume V
Volume of cylinder, V = Sr2l = f (r, l)
where l = Length of the cylinder
r = Radius of the cylinder
dV ∂V
dV = dr + dl
dr ∂l
= 2πrl dr πr 2 dl
2 ⎛ dr dl ⎞ ⎛ dr dl ⎞
= πr l ⎜⎜⎜2 + ⎟⎟⎟ = V ⎜⎜⎜2 + ⎟⎟⎟
⎝ r l ⎠ ⎝ r l⎠
dV dr dl
or = 2
V r l
⎪⎧ 2dr ⎪ ⎫ dl
V = 2 ⎨ ⎬+
⎪⎪⎩ 2r ⎪⎪
⎭ l
d (d ) dl
V = 2 (d = 2r and 2dr = 2d (d))
d l
= 2h + l ...(12.68)
The longitudinal strain l is also expressed as
1
l = [Vl + v(Vr − Vh )] ...(12.69)
E
Example 12.19
Find the ratio of thickness to internal diameter for a tube subjected to internal pressure, when the
UDWLRRISUHVVXUHWRPD[LPXPKRRSVWUHVVLV$OVR¿QGWKHFKDQJHLQWKLFNQHVVRIWKHWXEHZKHQ
its internal diameter is 250 mm and the internal pressure is 100 MPa.
Take E = 2 × 105 MPa and v = 0.3.
Solution: Let
t 7KLFNQHVVRIWKHWXEH
p1 ,QWHUQDOSUHVVXUH
03D*LYHQ
R1 ,QVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHWXEH
PP*LYHQ
R2 2XWVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHWXEH
Vh +RRSVWUHVV
p1
*LYHQ
Vhmax
p 100
Vhmax = 1 03D DWLQVLGHUDGLXV
0.4 0.4
VLQJHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
8
R 2 + R12
Vhmax = p1 22
R2 − R12
Vhmax R22 + R12
=
p1 R22 − R12
R22 + R12

R22 − R12
or R2 R1 î PP
Now R2 – R1 = t
±R1 = t
t

R1
t t
or = Ans.
2 R1 D1
7KHORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVVlLVJLYHQDV
p1 R12
Vl = XVLQJHTXDWLRQDQGSXWWLQJp2 = 0)
R22 R12
100 × (125 ×10−3 ) 2
= 2 × 100 × 03D7HQVLOH
(190 ×10−3 )2 − (125 ×10−3 )2
7
KHKRRSVWUDLQDWWKHLQQHUVXUIDFHLVJLYHQDV
1
h = [Vh + v(Vr − Vl )] XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
E
1
= >±@ Vh = VhPD[ and Vr = p1)
2 q105

,QFUHDVHLQLQVLGHUDGLXV îR1
î PP
1RZWKHKRRSVWUHVVDWWKHRXWVLGHUDGLXVLV
R2
Vh = 2p1 2 1 2 XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
R2 R1
(125 ×10−3 ) 2
= 2 × 100 × 03D7HQVLOH
(190 ×10−3 ) 2 − (125 ×10−3 ) 2
7KHKRRSVWUDLQDWWKHRXWHUVXUIDFHLVJLYHQDV
1
= (Vh vVl ) XVLQJHTXDWLRQDQGSXWWLQJVr = p2 = 0)
E
1
= ±î
2 q105
,QFUHDVHLQRXWVLGHUDGLXV îR2
î PP
+HQFHWKHFKDQJHLQWKLFNQHVVLVJLYHQDV
±PP
PP'HFUHDVH Ans.
Example 12.20
$WXEHRILQVLGHGLDPHWHUPPDQGRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUPPLVPPORQJDQGLVFORVHGDWRQHHQG
$ÀXLGXQGHUDSUHVVXUHRI03DLVIRUFHGLQWRLWWKURXJKWKHRWKHUHQGZKHQLWLVDOUHDG\IXOORI
ÀXLG)LQGWKHYROXPHRIH[FHVVÀXLGIRUFHGLQWRWKHWXEH
7DNHE = 5 × 1003Dv DQGKÀXLG 03D
Solution: *LYHQ
5
,QVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHWXEH R1 = PP
2
10
2XWVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHWXEH R2 = PP
2
/HQJWKRIWKHWXEH l PP
,QWHUQDOÀXLGSUHVVXUH p1 03D
R22 + R12
Vh = VhPD[ = p1 XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
R22 − R12
52 2.52
= 20 03D
52 2.52
+
RRSVWUDLQLV
1
h = Vhvp1)
E
XVLQJHTXDWLRQDQGSXWWLQJVr = p1 and Vl = 0)
1
= î
5 q104
Longitudinal strain is
1
l = ±vVhvp1)
E
1
= ±îî ±
5 q104
ROXPHWULFVWUDLQRIWKHWXEHLV
9
vtube
= 2h + l XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
î±
9ROXPHWULFVWUDLQRIZDWHULV
p1
vwater =
K
20
=
1000
+HQFHWKHWRWDOYROXPHWULFVWUDLQLVJLYHQDV
vtotal = vtube vwater

7KHYROXPHRIÀXLGLQWKHWXEHLVREWDLQHGDV
V = S R12 × l
= Sî2î PP
+HQFHWKHYROXPHRIWKHH[FHVVÀXLGIRUFHGLQWRWKHWXEHLVJLYHQDV
dV = V × vtotal
î PP Ans.
12.11 COMPOUND CYLINDERS

,QFDVHDWKLFNF\OLQGHULVVXEMHFWHGWRLQWHUQDOÀXLGSUHVVXUHKRRSVWUHVVLVIRXQGWREHPD[LPXP
DW LQVLGH VXUIDFH RI WKH F\OLQGHU DQG PLQLPXP DW LWV RXWVLGH VXUIDFH +HQFH WKH FDSDFLW\ RI WKH
F\OLQGHU WR ZLWKVWDQG WKH LQWHUQDO SUHVVXUH LV GHSHQGHQW RQ PD[LPXP KRRS VWUHVV ZKLFK VKRXOG
QRW H[FHHG WKH SHUPLVVLEOH WHQVLOH VWUHVV IRU LWV PDWHULDO 7KH SXUSRVH RI WKH FRPSRXQG F\OLQGHU
LVWRUHGXFHWKHVWUHVVHVRQLWVLQVLGHUDGLXVDQGKHQFHWRLQFUHDVHWKHSUHVVXUHEHDULQJFDSDFLW\,W
LVDFKLHYHGE\SODFLQJRQHF\OLQGHURYHUDQRWKHUDQGERWKF\OLQGHUVDUHVKULQN¿WWHG,QLWLDOO\WKH
LQVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHRXWHUF\OLQGHULVOHVVWKDQWKHRXWVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHLQQHUF\OLQGHU:KHQ
KHDWHGGXHWRH[SDQVLRQWKHLQQHUGLDPHWHURIWKHRXWHUF\OLQGHUH[SDQGVDQG¿WVZHOORQWKHRXW
VLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHLQQHUF\OLQGHU'XHWRLQWHUQDOÀXLGSUHVVXUHKRRSVWUHVVHVDUHSURGXFHG7KH
KRRSVWUHVVLQWKHLQQHUF\OLQGHULVWHQVLOHZKLOHGXHWRVKULQN¿WWLQJWKHKRRSVWUHVVLVFRPSUHVVLYH
7KHUHVXOWDQWKRRSVWUHVVDWWKHLQQHUUDGLXVLVWKXVWKHDOJHEUDLFVXPRIWKHWZRKRRSVWUHVVHVDQG
LVOHVVWKDQWKHKRRSVWUHVVSURGXFHGGXHWRLQWHUQDOÀXLGSUHVVXUHDORQHDVLQFDVHRIDVLQJOHWKLFN
F\OLQGHU
12.11.1 Stress due to Shrinkage

&RQVLGHUDFRPSRXQGF\OLQGHU)LJ
Fig. 12.12
Let psEHWKHUDGLDOSUHVVXUHDFWLQJDWWKHMXQFWLRQRIWZRF\OLQGHUVi.eRQWKHRXWHUVXUIDFHRIWKH
LQQHUF\OLQGHUDQGRQWKHLQQHUVXUIDFHRIWKHRXWHUF\OLQGHUGXHWRVKULQNDJH
B
+RRSVWUHVV Vh = 2 A
r
B
Radial stress, Vr = 2 – A
r
For outer cylinder
$W r = R 2, V r = 0
and at r = R , V r = p s
7KH/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVRQXVLQJERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVEHFRPH
B
0 = 2 –A
R2
B
and ps = 2 – A
R3
R22 R32
B = ps
R22 R32
R32
and A = ps
R R32 2
2
6XEVWLWXWLQJYDOXHVRIA and BLQWKH/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVZHKDYH

R22 R32 ps R32
Vh = + p
r 2 R22 − R32 R22 − R32
s
ps R32 ⎡ R22 ⎤
= 2 2 ⎢ 2
+ 1⎥
R2 − R3 ⎣ r ⎦
ps R32 ⎡ R22 ⎤
and Vr = ⎢ 2 − 1⎥
R22 − R32 ⎣r ⎦
+RRSVWUHVVDWr = R is
ps R32 ⎡ R22 ⎤
σhr = R = ⎢ 2 + 1⎥
R22 − R32 ⎣ R3 ⎦
= ps R22 + R32
2 2

R2 − R3
+RRSVWUHVVDWr = R2 is
R32
σhr = R2 = 2p
R22 R32 s
For inner cylinder
$W r = R 1, V r = 0
and at r = R , V r = p s
7KH/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVRQXVLQJERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVEHFRPH
B
0 = 2 –A
R1
B
and ps = 2 – A
R3
R12 R32
B = – ps
R32 R12
R32
and A = – ps
R32 R12

R12 R32 ps R32
Vh = p s
r 2 R32 R12 R32 R12
R32 ⎛ R12 ⎞
= – ps 2 ⎜ 2
+ 1⎟
R3 − R1 ⎝ r
2
⎠
R 2
⎛ R ⎞
2
and Vr = ps 2 3 2 ⎜1 − 12 ⎟

R3 − R1 ⎝ r ⎠
R32
σhr = R1 = – 2 ps
R32 R12
R32 + R12
σhr = R = – ps
R32 − R12
Fig. 12.13 Hoop stress distribution due to shrinkage in a compound cylinder.
7KHKRRSVWUHVVGLVWULEXWLRQGXHWRVKULQNDJHLVVKRZQLQ)LJ7KHYDULDWLRQLVSDUDEROLFLQ
QDWXUH
12.11.2 Stresses due to Fluid Pressure

7KHLQQHUDQGRXWHUF\OLQGHUVDUHFRPELQHGWRJHWKHUDQGDUHFRQVLGHUHGDVDVLQJOHWKLFNF\OLQGHU
/HWLWEHVXEMHFWHGWRDQLQWHUQDOIOXLGSUHVVXUHp i
$W r = R 1, V r = p i
and at r = R 2, V r = 0
7KH/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVRQVXEVWLWXWLQJERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVEHFRPH
B
pi = 2 A
R1
B
0 = –A
R22
R12 R22
B = pi
R22 R12
R12
and A = pi
R22 R12

R12 R22 pi R12
Vh = + p
r 2 R22 − R12 R22 − R12
i
pi R12 ⎛ R22 ⎞
= 2 ⎜ 2
+ 1⎟
R2 − R1 ⎝ r
2
⎠
pi R12 ⎛ R22 ⎞
and Vr = R 2 − R 2 ⎜ r 2 − 1 ⎟
2 1 ⎝ ⎠
Fig. 12.14 +RRSVWUHVVGLVWULEXWLRQGXHWRÀXLGSUHVVXUHLQDFRPSRXQGF\OLQGHU

σ h r = R1 R22 + R12
+RRSVWUHVVDWr = R1 is = pi
R22 − R12
σhr = R = pi R12 ⎛ R22 ⎞
2 ⎜
+ 1⎟
R2 − R1 ⎝ R3
2 2
⎠
R12
σhr = R 2 = 2 p
i
R22 R12
7KHKRRSVWUHVVGLVWULEXWLRQGXHWRÀXLGSUHVVXUHLVVKRZQLQ)LJ
12.11.3 Resultant Stresses
7KHUHVXOWDQWKRRSVWUHVVLVWKHDOJHEUDLFVXPRIWKHKRRSVWUHVVHVGXHWRVKULQNDJHDQGLQWHUQDOÀXLG
SUHVVXUH
For outer cylinder
σhr = R3 resultant = σhr = R due to pi σh due to ps
r = R
pi R12 ⎛ R22 ⎞ R22 + R32

= ⎜ + 1 ⎟ + p
R22 − R12 ⎝ R32 R22 − R32
s
⎠
σhr = R2 resultant = σ
hr = R 2 due to pi σ hr = R2 due to ps
R12 R32
= 2pi + 2 p
R22 − R12 R22 − R32
s
For inner cylinder

+RRSVWUHVVDWr = R1, is
σhr = R resultant = σhr = R1 due to p σh due to p
1 i r = R1 s
R22 + R12 ⎛ R32 ⎞

= pi + ⎜ − 2 p ⎟
R22 − R12 ⎝ R32 − R12 ⎠
s
R22 + R12 ⎛ R32 ⎞

= pi + ⎜ − 2 p ⎟
R22 − R12 ⎝ R32 − R12 ⎠
s
σhr = R3 resultant = σh due to p σhr = R due to p

r = R i s
pi R12 ⎛ R22 ⎞ ⎛ R32 + R12 ⎞

= ⎜ + 1 +
⎟ ⎜ − p ⎟
R22 − R12 ⎝ R32 R32 − R12 ⎠
s
⎠ ⎝
pi R12 ⎛ R22 ⎞ R32 + R12
= 2 ⎜ + 1 ⎟ − p
R2 − R12 ⎝ R32 R32 − R12
s
⎠
Fir. 12.15 Resultant hoop stress distribution in a compound cylinder.
7KHUHVXOWDQWKRRSVWUHVVGLVWULEXWLRQLVVKRZQLQ)LJ
12.11.4 Shrinkage Allowance

7R PDNH D VWURQJ ¿W DW WKH FRPPRQ VXUIDFH RI WKH WZR F\OLQGHUV LQ D FRPSRXQG F\OLQGHU LQVLGH
GLDPHWHURIWKHRXWHUF\OLQGHULVNHSWOHVVWKDQRXWVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHLQQHUF\OLQGHU'XULQJKHDWLQJ
RUVWUHVVHGFRQGLWLRQRXWHUF\OLQGHUH[SDQGVDQG¿WVZHOORQLQQHUF\OLQGHURQFRROLQJ6KULQNDJH
DOORZDQFH LV GH¿QHG DV WKH GLIIHUHQFH RI LQVLGH GLDPHWHU RI RXWHU F\OLQGHU DQG RXWVLH GLDPHWHU RI
LQQHUF\OLQGHU
5HIHU)LJ
Let R &RPPRQUDGLXVRIWKHWZRF\OLQGHUVRIWKHFRPSRXQGF\OLQGHU
dR2 'LIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHLQVLGHUDGLXVRIRXWHUF\OLQGHUDQGR,WLVSRVLWLYH
GLIIHUHQFH
dR 'LIIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKH RXWVLGH UDGLXV RI LQQHU F\OLQGHU DQG R ,W LV
QHJDWLYHGLIIHUHQFH
dR 'LIIHUHQFHLQWKHUDGLLRIWKHWZRF\OLQGHUVDWWKHFRPPRQVXUIDFHEHIRUH
VKULQNDJH
6KULQNDJHDOORZDQFH
= dRc2 dRc
E1 0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\IRUWKHLQQHUF\OLQGHU
E2 0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\IRUWKHRXWHUF\OLQGHU
v1 3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRIRUWKHLQQHUF\OLQGHU
v2 = Poisson’s ratio for the outer cylinder
Fig. 12.16 Shrinkage allowance.
Hoop strain at R3 in inner cylinder is given by

dR ′3 1
= E [σ hr = R3 − v1 σ rr = R3 ]
R3 1
1 ⎡ R32 + R12 ⎤
= −
⎢ s 2
p + v1 ps ⎥ (using equation (12.77) and Vr = – p s)
E1 ⎣ R3 − R1 2
⎦ r = R3
⎡ R32 + R12
ps ⎤
=– ⎢ 2 − v1 ⎥ ...(12.87)
⎣ R3 − R1
2
E1 ⎦
1HJDWLYHVLJQVLJQL¿HVLWVFRPSUHVVLYHQDWXUH7KHKRRSVWUDLQDWR3 in outer cylinder is given by
dR ′2 1
= [σ h − v2 σrr = R3 ]
R3 E2 r = R3
1 ⎡ R22 + R32 ⎤
= ⎢ ps 2 + v2 ps ⎥ (using equation (12.72) and Vr = – p s)
E2 ⎣ R2 − R3 2
⎦ r = R3
ps ⎡ R22 + R32 ⎤
= ⎢ 2 + v2 ⎥ 7HQVLOH
⎣ R2 − R3
2
E2 ⎦
dR ′2 dR ′3 ps ⎡ R22 + R32 ⎤ ps ⎡ R32 + R12 ⎤
Now + = ⎢ 2 + v ⎥+ ⎢ 2 − v1 ⎥
E2 ⎣ R2 − R3 ⎦ E1 ⎣ R3 − R1
2 2 2
R3 R3 ⎦
dR ′2 dR ′3 .
,WJLYHVWKHDOJHEUDLFVXPRI and
R3 R3
ps R3 ⎡ R22 + R32 ⎤ p R ⎡ R32 + R12 ⎤
or dR2 + dR3 = ⎢ 2 + v2 ⎥ + s 3 ⎢ 2 − v1 ⎥
⎣ R2 − R3 ⎣ R3 − R1
2 2
E2 ⎦ E1 ⎦
⎡ ⎧⎪ 1 ⎛ R 2 + R32 ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ 1 ⎛ R32 + R12 ⎞ ⎫⎪⎤

or dR3 = ps R3 ⎢ ⎨ ⎜ 22 + v2 ⎟ ⎬ + ⎨ ⎜ 2 − v1 ⎟ ⎬⎥ ...(12.89)
⎢⎣ ⎩⎪ E2 ⎝ R2 − R3 ⎝ R3 − R1
2 2
⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪ E1 ⎠ ⎭⎪⎥⎦
:KHQWKHWZRF\OLQGHUVDUHPDGHRIWKHVDPHPDWHULDOi.eE1 = E2 = E and v1 = v2 = v6XEVWLWXWLQJ

WKHVHYDOXHVLQHTXDWLRQWKHH[SUHVVLRQIRUVKULQNDJHDOORZDQFHEHFRPHV
ps R3 ⎛ R22 + R32 R32 + R12 ⎞
dR = ⎜ + ⎟
E ⎝ R22 − R32 R32 − R12 ⎠
Example 12.21
$VWHHOKRRSRILQVLGHGLDPHWHUPPDQGRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUPPLVVKUXQNRQDKROORZVWHHO
F\OLQGHURILQVLGHGLDPHWHUPP7KHSUHVVXUHRIVKULQNDJHLV03D)RUDQLQWHUQDOÀXLGSUHVVXUH
RI03D¿QGWKHIROORZLQJSDUDPHWHUV
a WKHPD[LPXPKRRSVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHF\OLQGHU
b WKHPD[LPXPKRRSVWUHVVLQWKHKRRS
c WKHUDGLDOSUHVVXUHEHWZHHQWKHF\OLQGHUDQGWKHKRRS
,QVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHVWHHOF\OLQGHUR1 = 70 PP
2
120
,QVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHVWHHOKRRS R = PP
2
180
2XWVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHVWHHOKRRS R2 = = 90 mm
2
6KULQNDJHSUHVVXUH ps 03D
Fig. 12.17
,QWHUQDOÀXLGSUHVVXUH pi 03D
Stresses due to shrinkage
For hoop
B
Vr = – A XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
r2
$W r = R PPVr = ps 03D
and at r = R2 = 90 mm, Vr = 0
2QXVLQJERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVZHKDYH
B
–A
(60 × 10−3 ) 2
B
and 0 = –A
(90 × 10−3 ) 2
B
and A
+HQFHKRRSVWUHVVDWr = R PPLQWKHKRRSLV

B
Vh = A
r2
0.1944
= + 24 03D7HQVLOH
(60 × 10−3 )2
For cylinder
$W r = R PPVr = ps 03D
and at r = R1 PPVr = 0
)URPHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
B
–A
(60 × 10−3 ) 2
B
and 0 = –A
(35 × 10−3 ) 2
B = –
and A = –
+HQFHKRRSVWUHVVDW r = R1 PPLQWKHF\OLQGHULV
B
Vh = A
r2
0.0557
= − − 45.47
(35 × 10−3 ) 2
= –03D 03D &RPSUHVVLYH
6WUHVVHVGXHWRÀXLGSUHVVXUH
$W r = R1 PPVr = pi 03D
and at r = R2 = 90 mm, Vr = 0
8VLQJHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
B
80 = –A
(35 × 10−3 ) 2
B
and 0 = −A
(90 × 10−3 )2
B
and A
+RRSVWUHVVDWr = R1 PPLV
B
Vh = A
r2
0.115
= − + 14.2 03D7HQVLOH
(35 × 10−3 )2
+RRSVWUHVVDWr = R PPLV
0.115
Vh = − + 14.2 03D7HQVLOH
(60 × 10−3 )2
Radial stress at r = R PPLV
B
Vr = –A
r2
0.115
= − 14.2 03D
(60 × 10−3 )2
a 0D[LPXPKRRSVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHF\OLQGHULV

±03D
03D7HQVLOH Ans.
b 0D[LPXPKRRSVWUHVVLQWKHKRRSLV

03D
03D Ans.
c 5DGLDOSUHVVXUHEHWZHHQWKHF\OLQGHUDQGKRRSLV
ps
03D 03D Ans.
Example 12.22
$ VWHHO F\OLQGHU RI RXWVLGH GLDPHWHU PP LV VKUXQN ¿WWHG RQ DQRWKHU VWHHO F\OLQGHU RI LQVLGH
GLDPHWHUPPDQGRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUPP,IWKHPD[LPXPWHQVLOHVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQWKHRXWHU
F\OLQGHULV03D¿QGWKHIROORZLQJSDUDPHWHUV
a) the radial stress between the cylinders,
b WKHKRRSVWUHVVHVDWWKHLQVLGHDQGRXWVLGHUDGLXVRIERWKF\OLQGHUV
c WKHVKULQNDJHDOORZDQFHDWWKHFRPPRQVXUIDFH
d) draw the stress distribution diagram
7DNHE = 2 10503DDQGv
Fig. 12.18
200
2XWVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHRXWHUF\OLQGHU R2 = = 100 mm
2
170
2XWVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHLQQHUF\OLQGHU R = = 85 mm
2
110
,QVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHLQQHUF\OLQGHU R1 = = 55 mm
2
0D[LPXPKRRSVWUHVVDW r = R, VhPD[ 03D
Outer cylinder
B
Vh = A
r2
B
and Vr = 2 – A
r
$W r = R = 85 mm, Vh = Vh 03D
PD[
and at r = R2 = 100 mm, Vr = 0
2QXVLQJERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVZHKDYH
B
90 = A
(85 × 10−3 ) 2
B
and 0 = –A
(100 × 10−3 )2
B
and A
a 7KHUDGLDOVWUHVVEHWZHHQWKHWZRF\OLQGHUVLVJLYHQE\
B
Vr = –A
r = R R32
0.377
= − 37.7 03D Ans.
(85 × 10−3 ) 2
7KHSRVLWLYHVLJQVLJQL¿HVLWVFRPSUHVVLYHQDWXUH
b 7KHKRRSVWUHVVDWWKHr = R2 PPLVJLYHQE\
B
Vh = 2 A
r = R2 R2
0.377
= + 37.7
(100 × 10−3 )2
03D7HQVLOH Ans.
7KHKRRSVWUDLQDWWKHLQQHUVXUIDFHRIWKHRXWHUF\OLQGHULVJLYHQE\
1
°h = Vh v Vr R XVLQJHTXDWLRQDQGSXWWLQJVl = 0)
E PD[ r=
1
=
2 u 105
,QFUHDVHLQLQVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHRXWHUF\OLQGHULV
PP PP
Inner cylinder
$W r = R = 85 mm, Vr 03D
and at r = R1 = 55 mm, Vr = 0
2QXVLQJERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVWKH/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVDUH
B
–A
(85 × 10−3 ) 2
B
and 0 = –A
(55 × 10−3 ) 2
B = –
and A = –
+HQFHWKHKRRSVWUHVVDWr = R1 PPLVJLYHQE\
B
σhr =R1 = A
R12
− 0.0753
= − 24.9
(55 × 10−3 )2
= –03D Ans.
7KHQHJDWLYHVLJQVLJQL¿HVLWVFRPSUHVVLYHQDWXUH7KHKRRSVWUHVVDWr = R PPLVJLYHQE\

σhr =R = B2 A
R3
− 0.0753
= − 24.9
(85 × 10−3 )2
= –03D Ans.
7KHQHJDWLYHVLJQVLJQL¿HVLWVFRPSUHVVLYHQDWXUH
7KHKRRSVWUDLQDWWKHRXWHUVXUIDFHRIWKHLQQHUF\OLQGHULVJLYHQE\
1
°h = (σhr = R3 + vσrr = R3 )
E
1
= u 5 ±
2 10
= –
7KHQHJDWLYHVLJQLQGLFDWHVWKDWGLDPHWHULVGHFUHDVHG7KHGHFUHDVHLQRXWVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKH
inner cylinder is
PP PP
7KHVKULQNDJHDOORZDQFHDWWKHFRPPRQVXUIDFHLV
(1) (2)
2
0.08 0.026
= PP Ans
2
7KHVWUHVVGLVWULEXWLRQDFURVVFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHF\OLQGHULVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 12.19 Hoop stress distribution diagram.
Example 12.23
$EURQ]HF\OLQGHURIRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUPPDQGLQVLGHGLDPHWHUPPLVIRUFHGRQWRDVWHHO
F\OLQGHURIRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUPPDQGLQVLGHGLDPHWHUPP)LQGWKHPD[LPXPUHVXOWLQJVWUHVVHV
LQERWKF\OLQGHUV7DNHEb = 10503DEs = 2 10503DDQGvb = vs
130
2XWVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHRXWHUEURQ]HF\OLQGHU R2 = PP
2
50
,QVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHLQQHUVWHHOF\OLQGHU R1 = = 25 mm
2
90
2XWVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHLQQHUF\OLQGHU R = PP
2
Let psEHWKHUDGLDOSUHVVXUHDWWKHMXQFWLRQRIWKHWZRF\OLQGHUV
Outer cylinder
$W r = R PPVr = ps
and at r = R2 PPVr = 0
8VLQJWKHVHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVWKH/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVEHFRPH
B
ps = – A
(45 × 10−3 ) 2
B
and 0 = –A
(65 × 10−3 ) 2
Fig. 12.20
B ps
and A ps
7KHKRRSVWUHVVDWr = R PPLVJLYHQDV
σhr = R B
= A
(45 × 10−3 ) 2
0.00388 ps
= ps ps7HQVLOH
(45 × 10−3 )2
+RRSVWUDLQDWr = R is
1
°h = [σh + vb σrr = R3 ]
Eb r = R3
1
= [σh + vb ps ] DWr = R, Vr = ps)
Eb r = R3
1
= >psps@ 10–5 ps
105
,QFUHDVHLQLQVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHEURQ]HF\OLQGHULV
= °h 90
10–5 ps 90
10± psPP
Inner cylinder
$W r = R PPVr = ps
and at r = R1 = 25 mm, Vr = 0
7KH/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVRQVXEVWLWXWLQJWKHVHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVEHFRPH
B
ps = –A
(45 × 10−3 ) 2
B
and 0 = –A
(25 × 10−3 ) 2
B = –ps
and A = –ps
7KHKRRSVWUHVVDWr = R1 PPLVPD[LPXPJLYHQE\
B
Vh = 2 A
PD[ R1
− 0.0009 ps
= –ps = –ps
(25 × 10−3 )2
7KHKRRSVWUHVVDWr = R PPLV
σhr = R − 0.0009 ps
= –ps = –ps
(45 × 10−3 )2
7KHKRRSVWUDLQDWr = RLVJLYHQDV
1
°h = [σ h + vs σrr = R3 ]
Es r = R3
1
= [σ h + vs ps ] Vr = ps)
Es r = R3
1
= –
5 >±psps] = 10
±
ps
2 u 10
7KHQHJDWLYHVLJQVLJQL¿HVGHFUHDVHLQGLDPHWHU7KHGHFUHDVHLQRXWVLGHGLDPHWHURIVWHHOF\OLQGHULV
°h 90
10± ps 10± psPP
7KHGLIIHUHQFHLQGLDPHWHUVLVJLYHQDV

10± ps 10± ps) mm
PP*LYHQ
+HQFH ps 03D
7KHPD[LPXPUHVXOWLQJKRRSVWUHVVRFFXUVDWr = R PPLQWKHEURQ]HF\OLQGHUJLYHQE\

ps

03D7HQVLOH Ans.
7KHPD[LPXPKRRSVWUHVVRFFXUVDWr = R1 PPLQWKHVWHHOF\OLQGHUJLYHQE\

±ps
= –
= –03D Ans.
Example 12.24
$VWHHOURGRIGLDPHWHUPPLVIRUFHGLQWRDEURQ]HFDVLQJRIRXWVLGHGLDPHWHUPPSURGXFLQJD
WHQVLOHKRRSVWUHVVRI03DDWWKHRXWVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHFDVLQJ)LQGWKHIROORZLQJSDUDPHWHUV
a WKHUDGLDOSUHVVXUHEHWZHHQWKHURGDQGFDVLQJ
b WKHVKULQNDJHDOORZDQFH
c WKHULVHLQWHPSHUDWXUHZKLFKZRXOGMXVWHOLPLQDWHWKHIRUFH¿W
7DNH Es = 2 10503Dvs Ds 10–5/&
Eb = 1 10503Dvb Db 10–5/&
Fig. 12.21
50
5DGLXVRIWKHVWHHOURG R1 = = 25 mm
2
90
,QVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHFDVLQJ R1 = 25 mm
2
B
2XWVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHFDVLQJ R2 = 2 PP
r
Bronze casing
B
Vh = 2 A
r
B
and Vr = 2 – A
r
$W r PPVh 03D
and at r PPVr = 0
8VLQJWKHVHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVLQWKH/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVZHKDYH
B
A
(45 × 10−3 ) 2
B
and 0 = –A
(45 × 10−3 ) 2
B
and A = 15
a 7KHUDGLDOSUHVVXUHEHWZHHQURGDQGFDVLQJLVJLYHQDV
25rr 25 mm = B
–A
(25 × 10−3 ) 2
0.03
= − 15
(25 × 10−3 )2
03D&RPSUHVVLYH Ans.
7KHKRRSVWUHVVDWr PPLVJLYHQDV
25rr B
= A
(25 × 10−3 ) 2
25 mm
0.03
= + 15 03D
(25 × 10−3 )2
7KHKRRSVWUDLQDWWKHLQVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHFDVLQJLVJLYHQDV
1
°h = [σ h + vb . σrr = 25 mm ]
Eb r = 25 mm
1
= >@ 10±
1 u 105
7KHLQFUHDVHLQLQVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHFDVLQJLV
°h 10± PP
Steel rod
7KHKRRSVWUHVVDWr PPLVJLYHQDV
Vh = − σrr = 25 = –03D
+RRSVWUDLQLV
1
°h = [σh + vs σrr = 25 mm ]
Es
1
= >±@ ± 10±
2 u 105
7KHQHJDWLYHVLJQVLJQL¿HVGHFUHDVHLQGLDPHWHURIWKHURG7KHGHFUHDVHLQGLDPHWHULV
°h 50
10±î PP
b 7KHGLIIHUHQFHLQGLDPHWHUDWWKHFRPPRQVXUIDFHLVJLYHQE\WKHVXPRIDQG
PP
0.04265
+HQFHVKULQNDJHDOORZDQFH PP Ans.
2
c) Let 'TEHWKHULVHLQWHPSHUDWXUH
50 Db – Ds) 'T
50 10–5± 10–5 ) 'T
6ROYLQJZHJHW
'T = 122& Ans.
12.12 STRESSES IN A THICK SPHERICAL SHELL

&RQVLGHUDWKLFNVSKHULFDOVKHOORILQVLGHUDGLXVR1 and outside radius R2EHLQJVXEMHFWHGWRDQLQWHUQDO
ÀXLGSUHVVXUHp)LJ
Fig. 12.22 A thick spherical shell.

7RPDNHWKHDQDO\VLVRIWKHVSKHULFDOVKHOODQHOHPHQWDU\VKHOORIUDGLXV rDQGWKLFNQHVV dr is
FRQVLGHUHG,WVXEWHQGVDQDQJOHdTDWWKHFHQWUHRIWKHVSKHULFDOVKHOO
/HWGXHWRÀXLGSUHVVXUHWKHUDGLXVRIWKHHOHPHQWDU\VKHOOrFKDQJHVWRru) and dr changes to
drdu
7KHKRRSVWUDLQLQWKHHOHPHQWDU\VKHOOLVJLYHQE\
2π (r + u ) − 2πr u
°h = =
2πr r
7KHUDGLDOVWUDLQLQWKHHOHPHQWDU\VKHOOLVJLYHQE\
(dr + du ) − dr
°r =
dr
du d
= = r °h RQVXEVWLWXWLQJu)
dr dr
d∈
= °h r h
dr
Let Vh +RRSVWUHVVDWUDGLXVr
Vr = Radial stress at radius r
VrdVr 5DGLDOVWUHVVDWUDGLXVrdr)
%XUVWLQJIRUFHDFWLQJRQWKHHOHPHQWDU\VKHOOLV
Sr2Vr – Srdr)2VrdVr)
= – SrVr drr dVr QHJOHFWLQJVPDOOHUWHUPV
5HVLVWLQJIRUFHLV
VhSr dr
)RUHTXLOLEULXP
%XUVWLQJIRUFH 5HVLVWLQJIRUFH
– SrVr drrdVr) = VhSrdr
– 2Vr dr – r dVr = 2Vhdr
r dσ
or Vh = −σ r − . r
2 dr
2QGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQZUWrZHKDYH
d Vh dσ 1 ⎛ dσ d 2 σr ⎞
=– r − ⎜ r +r. ⎟
dr dr 2 ⎝ dr dr 2 ⎠
7KHUH DUH WKUHH SULQFLSDO VWUHVVHV DW DQ\ SRLQW DW D GLVWDQFH r IURP WKH FHQWUH RI WKH VSKHULFDO
VKHOO
7KHVHDUH
z Radial stress, VrFRPSUHVVLYH
z +RRSVWUHVVVhWHQVLOH
z +RRSVWUHVVVhWHQVLOHDFWLQJDWULJKWDQJOH
5DGLDOVWUDLQDWWKHSRLQWLV
σr σ σ 1
°r = –−v h −v h =– VrvVh
E E E E
7KHQHJDWLYHVLJQVLJQL¿HVLWVFRPSUHVVLYHQDWXUH7KHKRRSVWUDLQDWWKHSRLQWLV
σr σ σ
°h = −v h −v h
E E E
1
=
>±v)VhvVr@7HQVLOH
E
6XEVWLWXWLQJ°r and °hLQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
1 1 d ⎡ σh σ ⎤
– VrvVh) = >±v)VhVr@ r ⎢(1 − v) +v r ⎥
E E dr ⎣ E E⎦
d σh d σr
v) Vrv) Vhr±v)+ rv =0
dr dr
d Vh
Now, substituting Vh and LQWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQDQGVLPSOLI\LQJZHKDYH
dr
d 2 σr d σr
r 2
+4 =0
dr dr
d Vr
6XEVWLWXWLQJ = RLQWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQUHVXOWVLQ
dr
dR
r R = 0
dr
dR dr
or =0
R r
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHKDYH
loge R ±ORJe rORJe C1
where C1LVWKHFRQVWDQWRILQWHJUDWLRQ
loge R = – loge rORJe C1
loge RORJe r = loge C1
logeRr) = loge C1
Rr = C1
C1
R =
r4
d Vr C
or = 41
dr r
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHKDYH
C1
Vr = – C2
3r 3
where C2LVDQRWKHUFRQVWDQWRILQWHJUDWLRQ
d Vr
6XEVWLWXWLQJVr and LQHTXDWLRQRIVhZHKDYH
dr
C r C1
Vh = 13 C2
3r 2 r4
C1 C
= 3
C2 13
3r 2r
C1
=– – C2
6r 3
8VLQJC1 ±B and C2 = – A, we get
2B
Vr = – A
r3
B
and Vh = A
r
7KHKRRSVWUHVVLVPD[LPXPDWr = R1 and the radial stress zero at r = R2
$ERYHHTXDWLRQVDUHNQRZQDV/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVIRUWKLFNVSKHULFDOVKHOOV&RQVWDQWVA and B are
GHWHUPLQHGE\XVLQJVXLWDEOHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQV
Example 12.25
$WKLFNVSKHULFDOVKHOORILQVLGHGLDPHWHUPPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDQLQWHUQDOÀXLGSUHVVXUHRI03D
)LQGWKHWKLFNQHVVRIWKHVKHOOLIWKHPD[LPXPSHUPLVVLEOHWHQVLOHVWUHVVLQWKHVKHOOLV03D
Solution: *LYHQ
,QVLGHUDGLXVRIWKHVSKHULFDOVKHOO R1 = 200 = 100 mm
2
,QWHUQDOÀXLGSUHVVXUH p 03D
0D[LPXPWHQVLOHKRRSVWUHVV Vh 03D
PD[
8VLQJ/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVIRUWKHWKLFNVSKHULFDOVKHOOZHKDYH
B
Vh = A
r
2B
Vr = –A
r3
$W r = R1 = 100 mm, Vr 03D
and at r = R1 = 100 mm, Vh = VhPD[ 03D
2QXVLQJERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVWKH/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVEHFRPH
B
180 = A
(100 × 10−3 )3
2B
and 80 = –A
(100 × 10−3 )3
B
and A
Now at r = R 2, V r = 0
2 u 0.0866
0 = ±
R23
2QVROYLQJZHJHW R2 PP
2XWVLGHGLDPHWHURIWKHVKHOO PP

+HQFHWKHWKLFNQHVVRIWKHVKHOOLVJLYHQDV
t = R2 – R1
±PP
PP Ans.
1. :KDWDUHSUHVVXUHYHVVHOV"1DPHDIHZSUHVVXUHYHVVHOV
2. +RZGRWKLQZDOOHGSUHVVXUHYHVVHOVGLIIHUIURPWKLFNZDOOHGSUHVVXUHYHVVHOV"
3. :KDWLVKRRSVWUHVV":K\LVLWVRQDPHG"
4. :KDWLVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQKRRSVWUHVVDQGORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVIRUDWKLQF\OLQGULFDOVKHOO"
5. :K\DUHVWHHOZLUHVZRXQGHGRQDWKLQF\OLQGHU"
6. :KDWLV/DPH¶VWKHRU\")RUZKLFKW\SHRISUHVVXUHYHVVHOVLWLVXVHG"
7. :K\DUHF\OLQGHUVFRPSRXQGHG"
8. :K\LVVKULQNDJHDOORZDQFHSURYLGHGLQDFRPSRXQGF\OLQGHU"+RZLVLWGH¿QHG"
9. :KDWDUHWKHLPSRUWDQWDVVXPSWLRQVIRUWKH/DPH¶VWKHRU\"
1. )RUDWKLQZDOOHGVKHOOWKHGLDPHWHUWKLFNQHVVUDWLRLV
a OHVVWKDQ b JUHDWHUWKDQ c HTXDOWR d HTXDOWR
2. )RUDWKLFNZDOOHGVKHOOWKHGLDPHWHUWKLFNQHVVUDWLRLV
a OHVVWKDQ b JUHDWHUWKDQ c HTXDOWR d HTXDOWR
3. 7KLQDQGWKLFNZDOOHGSUHVVXUHYHVVHOVDUHVXEMHFWHGWRWZRW\SHVRIVWUHVVHV7KH\DUH
a EHQGLQJVWUHVVDQGVKHDUVWUHVV b WHQVLOHVWUHVVDQGFRPSUHVVLYHVWUHVV
c KRRSVWUHVVDQGORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVV d KRRSVWUHVVDQGEHQGLQJVWUHVV
4. 7KHKRRSVWUHVVLVDOVRNQRZQDV
a ORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVV b FLUFXPIHUHQWLDOVWUHVV
cEHQGLQJVWUHVV d FRPSUHVVLYHVWUHVV
5. )RUDWKLQF\OLQGULFDOVKHOORIGLDPHWHUdDQGWKLFNQHVVtEHLQJVXEMHFWHGWRDÀXLGSUHVVXUHp,
KRRSVWUHVVLVJLYHQE\
pd pd pd pd
a) b) c) d)
t 8t 2t t
6. ,QWKHDERYHTXHVWLRQWKHORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVLVJLYHQE\
pd pd pd pd
a) b) c) d)
t 8t 2t t
7. )RUDWKLQF\OLQGULFDOVKHOOORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVLVHTXDOWR
a KRRSVWUHVV b WZRWLPHVWKHKRRSVWUHVV
c WKUHHWLPHVWKHKRRSVWUHVV d RQHKDOIRIKRRSVWUHVV
8. 7KHKRRSVWUHVVLVFRQVLGHUHGDV
a FRPSUHVVLYHVWUHVV b) bending stress
c PLQRUSULQFLSDOVWUHVV d PDMRUSULQFLSDOVWUHVV
9. 7KHKRRSVWUHVVDQGWKHORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVDFWDWWKHIROORZLQJDQJOHWRHDFKRWKHU
a b c) 90 d) 180
10. 7KH GLIIHUHQFH RI WKH KRRS VWUHVV DQG WKH ORQJLWXGLQDO VWUHVV IRU D WKLQ F\OLQGULFDO VKHOO RI
diameter dDQGWKLFNQHVVtEHLQJVXEMHFWHGWRDSUHVVXUHp, is
pd pd pd
a) b) c) pd d)
t 16t 8t t
11.7KHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLQ4XHVWLRQ1RLV
pd pd pd pd
a) b) c) d)
t 16t 8t t
12. :KLFKLVWKHFRUUHFWUHODWLRQVKLS"
a *DXJHSUHVVXUH±$WPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUH $EVROXWHSUHVVXUH
b *DXJHSUHVVXUH$EVROXWHSUHVVXUH $WPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUH
c *DXJHSUHVVXUH$WPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUH $EVROXWHSUHVVXUH
d *DXJHSUHVVXUH9DFFXPSUHVVXUH $EVROXWHSUHVVXUH
13.7KHKRRSVWUDLQIRUDWKLQF\OLQGULFDOVKHOORIGLDPHWHUdWKLFNQHVVt3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRv) and
EHLQJVXEMHFWHGWRDSUHVVXUHp) is
pd pd pd pd
a) (1 v) b) (1 2v) c) (2 v) d) (1 v)
4tE 4tE 4tE 4tE
14. ,Q4XHVWLRQ1RWKHORQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQLV
pd pd pd pd
a) (1 v) b) (1 2v) c) (2 v) d) (1 v)
4tE 4tE 4tE 4tE
15. )RUWKH4XHVWLRQ1RWKHYROXPHWULFVWUDLQLV
pd pd pd pd
a) (5 3v) b) (5 4v) c) (5 4v) d) (5 4v)
4tE 3tE 4tE 4tE
16. )RUDWKLQVSKHULFDOVKHOOWKH
a KRRSVWUHVVLVWZRWLPHVWKHORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVV
b ORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVLVWZRWLPHVWKHKRRSVWUHVV
c KRRSVWUHVVLVHTXDOWRRQHKDOIRIWKHORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVV
d KRRSDQGORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVHVDUHHTXDO
17.7KHH[SUHVVLRQIRUYROXPHWULFVWUDLQIRUDWKLQVSKHULFDOVKHOORIGLDPHWHUdWKLFNQHVVt) and
3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRvDQGEHLQJVXEMHFWHGWRDSUHVVXUHp) is
pd pd 3 pd 3 pd
a) (1 v) b) (5 4v) c) (1 v) d) (1 v)
4tE 4tE 4tE 4tE
18. ,Q4XHVWLRQ1RWKHKRRSVWUHVVLV
pd pd pd pd
a) b) c) d)
2t t 8t t
19.)RUDWKLQF\OLQGULFDOVKHOOZLWKKHPLVSKHULFDOHQGVWKHUDWLRRIWKLFNQHVVHVRIWKHF\OLQGULFDO
SDUWDQGKHPLVSKHULFDOHQGVEHLQJVXEMHFWHGWRHTXDOKRRSVWUHVVLV
a b c d
20.,Q4XHVWLRQ1RLIQRGLVWRUWLRQRFFXUVDWWKHMXQFWLRQRIWKHWZRSDUWVWKHUDWLRRIWKLFNQHVVHV
IRUD3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLRvLVJLYHQDV
1 v 2v 2v 1 1+ v
a) b) c) d)
2v 1 v 1 v 2−v
21. 7KHXQLWRIWKHFRQVWDQWALQWKH/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQLV
a QHZWRQ b QHZWRQPHWUH c QHZWRQVHF d SDVFDO
22. 7KHXQLWRIWKHFRQVWDQWBLQWKH/DPH¶VHTXDWLRQLV
a QHZWRQ b QHZWRQPHWUH
c QHZWRQVHF d SDVFDO
23./DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVDUHXVHGWR¿QGWKH
a EHQGLQJDQGKRRSVWUHVVHV b KRRSDQGUDGLDOVWUHVVHV
c KRRSDQGORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVHV d D[LDODQGEHQGLQJVWUHVVHV
24. /DPH¶VHTXDWLRQVDUHDSSOLFDEOHLQFDVHRI
a WKLQZDOOHGSUHVVXUHYHVVHOV
b WKLFNZDOOHGSUHVVXUHYHVVHOV
c ERWKWKLQDQGWKLFNZDOOHGSUHVVXUHYHVVHOV
d PHPEHUVRIHOOLSWLFDOVHFWLRQ
25. ,QFDVHRIRQO\LQWHUQDOSUHVVXUHDFWLQJLQWKHF\OLQGHUWKHPD[LPXPUDGLDOVWUHVVLVHTXDOWR
a RQHKDOIRILQWHUQDOSUHVVXUH b WZRWKLUGRILQWHUQDOSUHVVXUH
c LQWHUQDOSUHVVXUH d RQHWKLUGRILQWHUQDOSUHVVXUH
26. ,Q4XHVWLRQ1RPD[LPXPUDGLDOVWUHVVRFFXUVDWWKH
a LQWHUQDOVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHU b H[WHUQDOVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHU
c FHQWUHRIWKHF\OLQGHU d QRQHRIWKHVH
27. 7KHPLQLPXPUDGLDOVWUHVVRFFXUVDWWKHIROORZLQJORFDWLRQRIDWKLFNF\OLQGHUZKHQVXEMHFWHG
WRLQWHUQDOSUHVVXUHRQO\
a LQWHUQDOVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHU b H[WHUQDOVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHU
c FHQWUHRIWKHF\OLQGHU d QRQHRIWKHVH
28.7KHKRRSVWUHVVYDULDWLRQLQDWKLFNF\OLQGHULVVKRZQE\DDQ
a VWUDLJKWOLQH b SDUDEROD
c HOOLSVH d K\SHUEROD
29.7KHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLQFDVHRIDWKLFNF\OLQGHULV
σ + σr σh − σr σ + σl σ h − σl
a) h b) c) h d)
2 2 2 2
where Vh +RRSVWUHVV
Vr = Radial stress
Vl /RQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVV
30.7KHUHODWLRQVKLSDPRQJYROXPHWULFVWUDLQKRRSVWUDLQDQGORQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQLV
a +RRSVWUDLQ 9ROXPHWULFVWUDLQ/RQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQ
b) Volumetric strain = 2 +RRSVWUDLQ/RQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQ
c) Longitudinal strain = 2 +RRSVWUDLQ9ROXPHWULFVWUDLQ
d /RQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQ +RRSVWUDLQ9ROXPHWULFVWUDLQ
31. ,QDWKLFNF\OLQGHUWKHUDGLDOVWUHVVDWRXWHUVXUIDFHLVXVXDOO\
a PRUHWKDQ]HUR b OHVVWKDQ]HUR c ]HUR d QRWGH¿QHG
32. ,QDWKLFNF\OLQGHUWKHUDGLDOVWUHVVDWLQQHUVXUIDFHLV
a LQGHSHQGHQWRIÀXLGSUHVVXUH b PRUHWKDQÀXLGSUHVVXUH
c OHVVWKDQÀXLGSUHVVXUH d HTXDOWRÀXLGSUHVVXUH
33. 7KHF\OLQGHUVDUHFRPSRXQGHGWR
LQFUHDVHWKHVWUHQJWKRIWKHF\OLQGHU
LQFUHDVHWKHSUHVVXUHEHDULQJFDSDFLW\RIWKHF\OLQGHU
PDNHWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRIKRRSVWUHVVXQLIRUP
2IWKHVH
a DORQHLVWUXH b DORQHLVWUXH c DQGDUHWUXH d DQGDUHWUXH
ANSWERS
1. b) 2. a) 3. c) 4. b) 5. c) 6. d) 7. d) 8. d) 9. c)
10. a) 11. c) 12. c) 13. c) 14. b) 15. c) 16. d) 17. c) 18. d)
19. c) 20. b) 21. d) 22. a) 23. b) 24. b) 25. c) 26. a) 27. b)
28. b) 29. a) 30. b) 31. c) 32. d) 33. b

EXERCISES
1. $ERLOHULVPDGHRIPPWKLFNSODWHKDYLQJDOORZDEOHWHQVLOHVWUHVVRI03D,WLVVXEMHFWHG
WRDÀXLGSUHVVXUHRI03D&RQVLGHULQJORQJLWXGLQDODQGFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOMRLQWHI¿FLHQFLHVWR
EHDQGUHVSHFWLYHO\¿QGWKHPD[LPXPGLDPHWHURIWKHVKHOO
Ans. PP
2. $WKLQF\OLQGHURILQVLGHGLDPHWHUPPLVPDGHRIPPWKLFNSODWH7KHHI¿FLHQFLHVRIWKH
ORQJLWXGLQDODQGFLUFXPIHUHQWLDOMRLQWVDUHDQGUHVSHFWLYHO\)LQGWKHODUJHVWDOORZDEOH
JDXJHSUHVVXUHLIWKHWHQVLOHVWUHVVRIWKHSODWHLVQRWWRH[FHHG03D
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13
Plane Trusses
James Clerk Maxwell, born on 13 June 1831, was a famous Scottish

mathematician and physicist. He is widely acknowledged as the nineteenth
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His contributions are ranked with Newton’s laws of motion and Einstein’s
theory of relativity as the most fundamental contributions to physics. He
formulated important physical and mathematical theories; one which
is widely known is Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory that describes
electricity, magnetism and optics. He developed the kinetic theory of
gases with Clausius and is credited for Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution,
a statistical means to describe the behaviour of the gases in motion. He
is also known for his Maxwell diagram used in strength of materials as
James Clerk Maxwell
a graphical means to analyse the rigidity of members in a truss, which is
(1831-1879) widely used in bridges and power and communication towers. He also
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_13
13.1 INTRODUCTION
A structure consists of a truss or a frame. Trusses lend strength to structures. A truss consists of
VWUDLJKWPHPEHUVEDUVZKLFKDUHMRLQHGWRJHWKHUHLWKHUE\ZHOGLQJRUULYHWLQJ%XWIRUFDOFXODWLRQ
SXUSRVHVWKHMRLQWVDUHVXSSRVHGWREHKLQJHGRUSLQMRLQWHG,WLVFRPPRQO\XVHGWRVXSSRUWURRIV
of long span in buildings, bridges or a railway platform. The members of the truss which are steel
PHPEHUV OLNH EDUV DQJOHV FKDQQHO HWF DUH VXEMHFWHG WR WHQVLRQ RU FRPSUHVVLRQ IRUFHV /RDG LV
DSSOLHGDWWKHMRLQWVRIWUXVVZKLFKJHQHUDWHVIRUFHVLQWKHPHPEHUV
A truss consisting of members which lie in a plane and are loaded in the same plane is called
plane truss+HQFHDSODQHWUXVVLVDWZRGLPHQVLRQDOVWUXFWXUH,WLVFRPPRQO\YLVLEOHRQWKHVLGHV
of bridges or on the roofs of the workshops. A space truss is made of non-coplanar members, and its
examples include shear legs, a TV tower, mobile phone tower or transmission line tower.
Frames and machines are structures containing multiforce members, that is, the members are acted
upon by three or more forces, unlike a truss where each member is a two-force member. Frames are
designed to support loads and are usually stationary and fully constrained structures. Machines or
mechanisms are designed to transmit and modify forces and may or may not be stationary but contain
moving parts having motion relative to each other.
13.2 TYPES OF TRUSSES

7UXVVHVFDQEHEURDGO\FODVVL¿HGLQWRWZRJURXSV
z Rigid truss z Non-rigid truss
A rigid or perfect truss is one which does not collapse and remains in equilibrium under the action
RIH[WHUQDOIRUFHVDFWLQJDWWKHMRLQWV
For a truss to be rigid, the following condition must exist.
m = 2j – 3 ...(13.1)
where m = Number of members
j 1XPEHURIMRLQWV
1RQULJLGRULPSHUIHFWWUXVVGRHVQRWREH\HTXDWLRQ,WKDVOHVVQXPEHURIPHPEHUVWKDQWKH
requirement or has surplus member. Accordingly it is said to be an under-rigid or over-rigid truss.
Rigid and non-rigid trusses are shown in Fig. 13.1.
For Fig. 13.1 (a)
j =3
and m = 2j – 3 = 2 3 – 3 = 3
Fig. 13.1
Plane Trusses 567
Hence, the truss is rigid.

For Fig. 13.1 (b)
j= 4
and m = 2 ± ,GHDO
But the truss has only four members, hence it is an under-rigid truss.
For Fig. 13.1 (c)
j= 4
and m = 2 ± ,GHDO
But the truss has six members making it an over-rigid truss (redundant). Some of the standard
types of trusses are shown in Fig. 13.2.
Fig. 13.2 Common types of trusses.
Of the two supports provided in a truss, one is a hinged support and the other a roller support.
There are two reactions for the hinged support, vertical and horizontal. For roller support, there is
only one normal reaction. Roller support can accomodate small changes in length of the members.
13.3 FORCES IN THE TRUSS

Each member of a truss is a two-force member, meaning thereby each member is acted upon by only
two forces, one at each end. These forces have the same magnitude, same line of action-along
the axis of the beam but have opposite sense. The force is only applied at the joints. The weights
of the members are also assumed to be applied at the joints, half of the weight of each member being
applied to each of the two joints the member connects.
The members in tension or compression are shown in Fig. 13.3. In Fig. 13.3 (a), the forces tend
to pull the member apart, and the member is in tension, while in Fig. 13.3 (b), the forces tend to
compress the member, and the member is in compression. The reaction (R) of the members are shown
LQWKHVDPH¿JXUH+HQFHWKHPHPEHULQWHQVLRQZLOOSXOOWKHMRLQWDQGWKHPHPEHULQFRPSUHVVLRQ
will push the joint. Tension forces are assigned positive value and compression forces negative.
Fig. 13.3 Forces in a truss member.
13.4 ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES

The usual assumptions made in the analysis of trusses are:
z The weights of the members are negligible in comparison to the applied loads.
z The joints behave as smooth pins.
z All the loads are applied at the joints only.
z The weight of every member is divided equally on the connecting joints, for the purpose of
considering their weights in the analysis.
Under these assumptions, each member of the truss is an axially loaded bar.
The internal forces in the members of the truss are obtained by the method of joints or the method
of sections.
13.4.1 Analysis of Trusses by Method of Joints

This method is based on the equilibrium of forces at the joints. During the analysis, a joint is separated
from the entire truss and its equilibrium is considered with the help of its free-body diagram. Since
the entire truss is in equilibrium, each joint must also be in equilibrium. The equations of equilibrium,
6 Fx = 0 and 6 Fy DUHDSSOLHGIRUHYHU\MRLQW+HQFHRQO\WZRHTXDWLRQVDUHDYDLODEOHIRUHDFK
joint.
The reactions at the supports are determined by considering the entire truss as a free body and
using the equations of equilibrium of a rigid body. The method is illustrated through the following
examples.
Plane Trusses 569
Example 13.1
,Q)LJa loaded warren truss is shown. Each triangle is an equilateral one having 5 m side. Find
the forces in all the members of the truss.
Fig. 13.4
Solution: D and EDUHWKHXSSHUMRLQWVDQGA, C and BWKHORZHUMRLQWVRIWKHWUXVV7ZRYHUWLFDO

ORDGVRIN1DQGN1DUHDFWLQJDWMRLQWVD and E respectively.
Using 6 MA = 0, we have
5 ⎛ 5⎞
RB (5 + 5) = 25 + 50 ⎜⎝ 5 + ⎟⎠
2 2
875
=
2
or RB = 43.75 kN ()
and RA + RB = 25 + 50 = 75 kN
or RA = 75 – RB
= 31.25 kN ()
Forces in members AD and AC

&RQVLGHUMRLQWA. Assume a tension force in the desired member. The tension force is directed away
IURPWKHMRLQWXQGHUFRQVLGHUDWLRQ)LJ
Using 6 Fy = 0, we have
31.25 + FAD sin 60° = 0

31.25
or FAD = – = – 36.08 kN = 36.08 kN (C)
sin 60°
Because of compressive force in the member ADMRLQWA is pushed by it and hence for equilibrium
LWPXVWDOVRSXVKWKHMRLQWD.
Using 6Fx = 0, we have

FAC + FAD cos 60° = 0
or FAC = – FAD cos 60° = – (– 36.08) cos 60° = 18.04 kN (T)
Fig. 13.5
Forces in members DE and DC

&RQVLGHUMRLQWD6KRZDOOWKHIRUFHVDFWLQJRQWKHMRLQW)LJ
Using 6Fy = 0, we have
25 + FDC cos 30° – FAD cos 30° = 0
25 + 0.866 FDC – 31.24 = 0
or FDC = 7.21 kN (T)
Fig. 13.6

FAD sin 30° + FDE + FDC sin 30° = 0
or 18.04 + FDE + 3.605 = 0
FDE = – 21.641 kN = 21.641 kN (C)
Forces in members EC and EB

&RQVLGHUMRLQW E)RUFHVDFWLQJRQWKHMRLQWDUHVKRZQLQ)LJ7KHIRUFH FDESXVKHVMRLQWE
because it is compressive in nature.
Plane Trusses 571

FEC sin 60° + FEB sin 60° + 50 = 0
or 0.866FEC + 0.866FEB + 50 = 0 ...(1)
Fig. 13.7
FDE + FEB cos 60° – FEC cos 60° = 0
or 21.645 + 0.5 FEB – 0.5 FEC = 0 ...(2)

FEB = – 50.51 kN = 50.51 kN (C)
and FEC = – 7.22 kN = 7.22 kN (C)
Force in member CB
&RQVLGHUMRLQWC (Fig. 13.8).
Fig. 13.8
FCB – FAC – FDC cos 60° – FEC cos 60° = 0

FCB – 18.04 – 7.21 cos 60° – 7.22 cos 60° = 0
or FCB = 25.25 kN (T)
The complete result is shown in Fig.13.9.
Fig. 13.9
Example 13.2
Find the forces in all the members of the loaded truss shown in Fig. 13.10. D and F are the middle
points of AE and BE respectively.
Fig. 13.10
Solution: The ²CAE can be calculated by considering ' ACE.
tan T = 3 = 1
3
or T = 45°
Plane Trusses 573

RB (3 + 3) – 2 1.5 – 3 1.5 = 0
or RB = 1.25 kN ()
The vertical component of reaction at A is
VA = 3 – RB
= 3 – 1.25
= 1.75 kN ()
The horizontal component of reaction at A is

HA = 2 kN ()
Hence, the reaction at A is
RA = VA2 H A2
= (1.75) 2 + (2) 2
= 2.65 kN
Direction of RA
Refer Fig. 13.11.
Fig. 13.11
VA
tan D = = 1.75
HA 2.00
or D = 41.18°

&RQVLGHUMRLQWA)RUFHVDFWLQJRQWKHMRLQWDUHVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 13.12

FAD sin 45° + VA = 0
0.707 FAD + 1.75 = 0
or FAD = – 2.47 kN = 2.47 kN (C)

FAC + FAD cos 45° – HA = 0
FAC – 2.47 0.707 – 2 = 0
or FAC = 3.74 kN (T)
Forces in members DE and DC

&RQVLGHUMRLQWD. Refer Fig. 13.13.
Fig. 13.13
3 – FDE sin 45° + FDC sin 45° – FAD sin 45° = 0
3 – 0.707FDE + 0.707 FDC – 2.47 0.707 = 0
1.25 – 0.707FDE + 0.707FDC = 0 ...(1)

FAD cos 45° + FDC cos 45° + FDE cos 45° = 0
2.47 0.707 + 0.707FDC + 0.707 FDE = 0
1.75 + 0.707FDC + 0.707FDE = 0 ...(2)
Plane Trusses 575

FDC = – 2.12 kN = 2.12 kN (C)
and FDE = – 0.35 kN = 0.35 kN (C)
Forces in members BF and BC

&RQVLGHUMRLQWB. Refer Fig. 13.14.
FBC + FBF cos 45° = 0
FBC + 0.707 FBF = 0 ...(3)
Fig. 13.14
RB + FBF sin 45° = 0
1.25 + 0.707 FBF = 0
FBF = – 1.76 kN = 1.76 kN (C)
Substituting FBF in equation (3), we have
FBC = – 0.707 FBF
= – 0.707 (– 1.76) = 1.24 kN (T)
Forces in members FE and FC
&RQVLGHUMRLQW)5HIHU)LJ
Fig. 13.15

2 – FFC cos 45° – FFE cos 45° – FBF cos 45° = 0
2
– FFC – FFE – FBF = 0
cos 45°
2.82 – FFC – FFE – 1.76 = 0
1.06 – FFC – FFE = 0 ...(4)
FFE sin 45° + FBF sin 45° – FFC sin 45° = 0
FFE + FBF – FFC = 0
FFE – FFC + 1.76 = 0 ...(5)
FFE = – 0.35 kN = 0.35 kN (C)
and FFC = 1.41 kN (T)
Force in member EC
&RQVLGHUMRLQWE. Refer Fig. 13.16.
Fig. 13.16
– FEC + FDE sin 45° + FFE sin 45° = 0
– FEC + 0.35 0.707 + 0.35 0.707 = 0
or FEC = 2 0.35 0.707 = 0.49 kN (T)
The complete result is shown in Fig. 13.17.
Fig. 13.17
Plane Trusses 577
Example 13.3
Find the forces in each member of the loaded truss shown in Fig. 13.18. All the forces are acting
normal to BD.
Fig. 13.18
Solution: Support reactions at A and B
Using 6MB = 0, we have
RA 7 = 20 3 + 10 (3 + 3) = 120
or RA = 17.14 kN ()
Resolving forces in the horizontal and vertical direction, we have
HB = Horizontal component of the reaction at B
= (10 + 20 + 10) cos 60° = 20 kN ()
VB = Vertical component of the reaction at B
= (10 + 20 + 10) sin 60° – RA = 17.5 kN ()
Hence, the reaction at B is
RB = (20) 2 (17.5) 2 = 26.57 kN
Direction of RB
/HWRB makes an angle T with the horizontal as shown in Fig. 13.19.
Fig. 13.19
VB
tan T = = 0.875
HB
Hence, T = 41.18°
&RQVLGHUMRLQWA)RUFHVDFWLQJRQWKHMRLQWDUHVKRZQLQ)LJ
RA + FAD sin 60° = 0
17.14 + 0.866 FAD = 0
or FAD = – 19.79 kN = 19.79 kN (C)
Fig. 13.20
Using 6 Fx = 0, we have
FAC + FAD cos 60° = 0
FAC – 19.79 cos 60° = 0
or FAC = 9.89 kN (T)
Forces in members DC and DE
Fig. 13.21
FAD cos 60° + FDC cos 60° + FDE cos 30° – 10 cos 60° = 0
19.79 0.5 + 0.5 FDC + 0.866 FDE – 5 = 0
0.5 FDC + 0.866 FDE + 4.895 = 0 ...(1)

FAD sin 60° – FDC sin 60° – FDE sin 30° – 10 sin 60° = 0
19.79 0.866 – 0.866 FDC – 0.5 FDE – 8.66 = 0
0.866 FDC + 0.5 FDE – 8.478 = 0 ...(2)
Plane Trusses 579

FDE = – 16.95 kN = 16.95 kN (C)
and FDC = 19.56 kN (T)
Forces in members BE and BC

Fig. 13.22

FBC + FBE cos 30° + 10 cos 60° = 0
FBC + 0.866 FBE + 5 – HB = 0
FBC + 0.866 FBE + 5 – 20 = 0
FBC + 0.866 FBE – 15 = 0 ...(1)
FBE sin 30° – 10 sin 60° + VB = 0
0.5 FBE – 8.66 + 17.5 = 0
0.5 FBE + 8.84 = 0
or FBE = – 17.68 kN = 17.68 kN (C)
FBC = 15 – 0.866 FBE
= 15 – 0.866 (– 17.68) = 30.31 kN (T)
Force in member EC
Fig. 13.23
FEC + 20 = 0 (along the direction of 20 kN)

or FEC = – 20 kN = 20 kN (C)
Fig. 13.24
Example 13.4
Find the forces in all the members of the loaded truss shown
in Fig. 13.25.
Solution: /HW ADB = T
tan T = 4 m = 0.667
6m
Hence, T = 33.7º
Fig. 13.25
Plane Trusses 581
Forces in members CD and DE

Fig. 13.26
FCD + FDE cos 33.7º = 0 …(1)
FDE sin 33.7º + 20 = 0
20
FDE = – = – 36.04 kN
sin 33.7°
= 36.04 kN (C)
Substituting FDE in equation (1), we have
FCD = – FDE cos 33.7º
= – (– 36.04) cos 33.7º
= 29.98 kN (T)
Forces in members AC and CE
&RQVLGHUMRLQWC. Refer Fig. 13.27.
Fig. 13.27
FAC = FCD
= 29.98 kN (T)
FCE + 20 = 0
or FCE = – 20 kN
= 20 kN (C)
Forces in members AE and BE
Fig. 13.28
FAE sin T + FBE cos T + FDE cos T = 0
FAE sin 33.7º + FBE cos 33.7º = – FDE cos 33.7º
= – (36.04) × cos 33.7º
= – 29.98
or 0.554 FAE + 0.832 FBE = – 29.98 …(1)
FDE sin T + FCE + FBE sin T = FAE cos T
36.04 sin 33.7º + 20 + FBE sin 33.7º = FAE cos 33.7º
19.99 + 20 + 0.554 FBE = 0.832 FAE
39.99 + 0.554 FBE = 0.832 FAE
or 0.832 FAE – 0.554 FBE = 39.99 … (2)
FBE = – 47.13 kN
= 47.13 kN (C)
FAE = 16.66 kN (T)
Plane Trusses 583
Fig. 13.29
Example 13.5
Find the forces in all the members of the loaded truss shown in Fig. 13.30.
Fig. 13.30
Solution: ,Q'CDE
1m
tan T = = 0.5
2m
Hence, T = tan–1 (0.5) = 26.56º

Using ¦Fx = 0, we have
FCD + FDE cos T = 0 ... (1)
Using ¦Fy = 0, we have
Fig. 13.31
FDE sin T + 25 = 0
25 25
or FDE = – =–
sin θ sin 26.56°
= – 55.91 kN = 55.91 kN (C)
FCD = – FDE cos T
= – (– 55.91) cos 26.56º
= 50 kN (T)
Forces in members CE and BE
Fig. 13.32

FBE + FDE cos T = 0
FBE = – FDE cos T
= – 55.91 cos 26.56º
= – 50 kN = 50 kN (C)
FCE = FDE sin T
= 55.91 sin 26.56º
= 24.99 kN (T)
Forces in members AC and BC
&RQVLGHUMRLQWC. Refer Fig. 13.33.
Fig. 13.33
Plane Trusses 585

FBC cos T + FAC cos T = FCD
FBC cos 26.56º + FAC cos 26.56º = 50
or 0.894 (FBC + FAC) = 50
or FBC + FAC = 55.92 …(1)
FBC sin T + FCE = FAC sin T
(FBC – FAC) sin T = – FCE
(FBC – FAC) sin 26.56º = – 24.99
FBC – FAC = – 55.89
or FAC – FBC = 55.89 …(2)
FAC = 55.905 kN (T)
and FBC = 0.015 kN = 0 kN
Fig. 13.34
Example 13.6
Fig. 13.35
Solution: Reactions at A are VA and HA , and reaction at D is RD.

Using ¦MA = 0, we have
RD × (3 + 3 + 3) = 10 × 3 + 5 × (3 + 3)
RD × 9 = 30 + 30
or RD = 6.67 kN
Now 10 + 5 = RD + VA
or VA = 15 – RD
= 15 – 6.67 = 8.33 kN
and HA = 0
,Q' CDE
4m
tan T = = 1.33
3m
Hence, T = tan–1 (1.33) = 53.06º

FDE + FCD cos T = 0
FDE + FCD cos 53.06º = 0 Fig. 13.36
or FDE + 0.6 FCD = 0 …(1)
FCD sin T + RD = 0
RD 6.67
FCD = – =–
sin T sin 53.06D
= – 8.345 kN
= 8.345 kN (C)
Using equation (1), we get
FDE = – 0.6 FCD
= – 0.6 × (– 8.345)
= 5 kN (T)
Forces in members CE and FE

FFE = FDE
= 5 kN (T) Fig. 13.37
Plane Trusses 587

FCE = 5 kN (T)
Forces in members BC and CF

&RQVLGHUMRLQW&5HIHU)LJ
FCF cos T + FBC + FCD cos T = 0
FCF cos 53.06º + FBC + FCD cos 53.06º = 0
0.6 FCF + FBC + 0.6 FCD = 0
Fig. 13.38
0.6 FCF + FBC + 0.6 × 8.345 = 0
0.6 FCF + FBC + 5 = 0
or 0.6 FCF + FBC = – 5 ... (1)
FCE + FCF sin T = FCD sin T
5 + FCF sin 53.06º = FCD sin 53.06º
5 + 0.799 FCF = 8.345 × 0.799
5 + 0.799 FCF = 6.66
or FCF = 2.07 kN (T)
Using equation (1), we get
FBC = – 5 – 0.6 FCF
= – 5 – 0.6 × 2.07
= – 6.24 kN
= 6.24 kN (C)
Forces in members AB and BF
FAB + FBC = 0
FAB = – FBC
= – 6.24 kN
= 6.24 kN (C)
Fig. 13.39
FBF = 0 kN
Force in member AF
&RQVLGHUMRLQWA, Refer Fig. 13.40.
HA + FAF cos T = FAB
0 + FAF cos 53.06º = 6.24
Hence, FAF = 10.38 kN (T)
The complete solution is shown in Fig. 13.41. Fig. 13.40
Fig. 13.41
Example 13.7
Solution:
AB
,Q'ABD tan 30° =
AD
2.5 m
or AD = = 4.33 m
tan 30°
Fig. 13.42
Plane Trusses 589
Support reactions at A and D

RA + HD = 0
and VD = 20 kN + 10 kN = 30 kN
Taking moments of the forces about A, we have
– 10 × (2.5 + 5) – 20 × 5 + HD × 4.33 = 0
or HD = 40.41 kN
and RA = – 40.41 kN
The reaction RA is acting opposite to the selected direction.
Forces in members AB and AD
&RQVLGHUMRLQW A. Refer Fig. 13.43.
FAB = 40.41 kN (T)
and FAD = 0
Fig. 13.43 Fig. 13.44
Forces in members DB and DE

&RQVLGHUMRLQW D. Refer Fig. 13.44.
VD + FDB sin 60° = 0
VD 30
Hence, FDB = − =−
sin 60° 0.866
= – 34.64 kN
= 34.64 kN (C)
HD + FDE + FDB cos 60° = 0
40.41 + FDE + 0.5 × (– 34.64) = 0
or 40.41 + FDE – 17.32 = 0
Hence, FDE = – 23.09 kN
= 23.09 kN (C)
Forces in members BC and BE

ConsLGHUMRLQW B. Refer Fig. 13.45.
FBE sin 60° = FDB sin 60°
Hence, FBE = FDB = 34.64 kN (T)
FBC + FBE cos 60° + FDB cos 60° = FAB Fig. 13.45
FBC + 34.64 × cos 60° + 34.64 × cos 60° = 40.41 kN

Hence, FBC = 5.77 kN (T)
Force in member EC
&RQVLGHUMRLQW E. Refer Fig. 13.46.
Fig. 13.46

FEC cos 60° + FDE – FBE cos 60° = 0
or 0.5 FEC + 23.09 – 0.5 × 34.64 = 0
Hence, FEC = – 11.55 kN
= 11.55 kN (C)
Plane Trusses 591
Fig. 13.47
Example 13.8
Find the forces in all the members of the loaded simply-supported truss shown in Fig. 13.48.
Solution:
Support reactions at A and C
/HW HA and VA be the reactions at A, and RC be the reaction at C.
Fig. 13.48
VA + RC = 20 ... (1)
and HA + 15 = 0
Hence, HA = – 15 kN = 15 kN (m)
The actual direction of HA is opposite to the selected one.
Taking moments of forces about A, we have

Rc × 10 = 20 × 5 + 15 × 5
= 100 + 75
= 175
Hence, Rc = 17.5 kN (n)
From equation (1) VA = 20 – Rc = (20 – 17.5) kN = 2.5 kN (n)
Forces in members AD and AB
&RQVLGHUMRLQW A. Refer Fig. 13.49.
FAB = HA = 15 kN (T)
and FAD + VA = 0
or FAD = – VA
= – 2.5 kN
= 2.5 kN (C)
Fig. 13.49 Fig. 13.50
Forces in members DE and DB

&RQVLGHUMRLQW D. Refer Fig. 13.50.
FAD = FDB sin 45°
FAD
Hence, FDB = = 3.53 kN (T)
sin 45°
FDE + FDB cos 45° = 0
or FDE = – 3.53 × cos 45°
= – 2.5 kN
= 2.5 kN (C)
Forces in members BE and BC
&RQVLGHUMRLQW B. Refer Fig. 13.51.
Plane Trusses 593
Fig. 13.51 Fig. 13.52

FBC = FDB cos 45° + FAB
= 3.53 × cos 45° + 15 = 17.5 kN (T)
FBE + FDB sin 45° =0
Hence, FBE = – 3.53 × sin 45° = – 2.5 kN = 2.5 kN (C)
Forces in members EF and EC
&RQVLGHUMRLQW E. Refer Fig. 13.52.
FEC sin 45° + 20 = FBE
or FEC sin 45° = FBE – 20
= 2.5 – 20 = – 17.5
Hence, FEC = – 24.75 kN = 24.75 kN (C)
FEF + FDE + FEC cos 45° = 0
or FEF = – FDE – FEC cos 45°
= – 2.5 – (–24.75) × cos 45°
= 15 kN (T)
Force in member FC
&RQVLGHUMRLQW F. Refer Fig. 13.53.
FFC = 0
Fig. 13.53
Fig. 13.54
Example 13.9
'HWHUPLQH WKH IRUFHV LQ HDFK PHPEHU RI WKH WUXVV VKRZQ LQ )LJ FRQVLGHULQJ HDFK PHPEHU
weighs 50 N.
Fig. 13.55
Solution: The truss is supported at points A and B. There is only one reaction at A which is RA, and
two reactions at B include HB (in the horizontal direction) and VBLQWKHYHUWLFDOGLUHFWLRQ:HLJKWV
RIHYHU\PHPEHULQWKHWUXVVDUHHTXDOO\GLYLGHGRQWKHFRQQHFWLQJMRLQWVDQGDFWRQO\LQWKHYHUWL-
FDOGLUHFWLRQDWWKHFRQFHUQHGMRLQWV:HZLOOXVHWKHPHWKRGRIMRLQWVWRGHWHUPLQHWKHIRUFHVLQWKH
members.
Force consideration due to weight forces of members at various joints

:HLJKWVRIDOOWKHPHPEHUVRIWKHWUXVVDUHHTXDOWR1
WAB = WBC = WCD = WAD = WAC = 50N
Plane Trusses 595
Joint A
Three members AB, AC and ADDUHFRQQHFWHGWRWKHMRLQWA)RXUIRUFHVDUHDFWLQJDWMRLQWA. They
are:
z the horizontal reaction at A, that is, RA
WAB 50
z the one-half of weight of member AB, that is, = = 25 N
2 2
WAC 50
z the one-half of weight of member AC, that is, = = 25N
2 2
WAD 50
z the one-half of weight of member AD, that is, = = 25N
2 2
7KHIRUFHVDWMRLQWA are shown in Fig. 13.56. The total force due to weights of the three members
acting in the vertically downward direction is (25 + 25 + 25) N, that is, 75 N.
Fig. 13.56
Weight forces at A.
Joint B
Two members AB and BCDUHFRQQHFWHGWRWKHMRLQWB)RXUIRUFHVDUHDFWLQJDWMRLQWB. They are:
z the horizontal reaction at B, that is, HB VB
z the vertical reaction at B, that is, VB

HB B
WAB 50
z the one-half of weight of member AB, that is, = = 25N
2 2
WBC 50 WBC
z the one-half of weight of member BC, that is, = = 25N
2 2 2
7KHIRUFHVDWMRLQWB are shown in Fig. 13.57. The total force due to weights of
the two members acting in the vertically downward direction is (25 + 25)N, that
is, 50 N. WAB
2
Fig. 13.57
Weight forces at B.
Joint C
Three members BC, AC and CD are connected to the joint C. The forces at the
joint C are because of the weights of the members. They are:
WBC 50
z the one-half of weight of member BC, that is, = = 25N
2 2
WAC 50
z the one-half of weight of member AC, that is, = = 25N
2 2
WCD 50
z the one-half of weight of member CD, that is, = = 25N
2 2
The forces at joint C are shown in Fig. 13.58. The total force due to
weights of the three members acting in the vertically downward direction is
(25 + 25 + 25) N, that is, 75 N.
Fig. 13.58
Weight forces at C
Joint D
Two members AD and CD are connected to the joint D. Three forces are acting at joint D. They are:
z the externally applied load of 600 N
WAD 50
z the one-half of weight of member AD, that is, = = 25N
2 2
WCD 50
z the one-half of weight of member CD, that is, = = 25N
2 2
The forces at joint D are shown in Fig. 13.59. The total force due to
weights of the two members acting in the vertically downward direction is
(25 + 25) N, that is, 50 N.
There is no force acting in the horizontal direction at any joint because of the
weight of any member.

RA × 1 = Moment of weight forces at C + Fig. 13.59
Moment of weight forces at D + Weight forces at D.
Moment of the force 600N

⎛W W W ⎞ ⎛W W ⎞
= ⎜ BC + AC + CD ⎟ × 1 + ⎜ CD + AD ⎟ × 1 + 600 × 1
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
= (25 + 25 + 25) × 1 + (25 + 25) × 1 + 600 × 1
= 75 + 50 + 600 = 725 N
or RA = 725 N (o)
Plane Trusses 597
Forces due to one-half weights of the members AB, AC and ADDFWLQJDWMRLQWA and forces due to
one-half weights of the members AB and BCDFWLQJDWMRLQWB have the same line of action along AB
in the downward direction, hence moments of all these forces are not considered.
Also RA + HB = 0
or HB = – RA = – 725 N
= 725 N (m)
Now
:HLJKWIRUFHVDWA:HLJKWIRUFHVDWB:HLJKWIRUFHVDWC:HLJKWIRUFHVDWD + VB + 600 = 0
⎛ WAB WAC WAD ⎞ ⎛ WAB WBC ⎞ ⎛ WBC WAC WCD ⎞ ⎛ WCD WAD ⎞
⎜⎝ + + ⎟ +⎜ + ⎟ +⎜ + + ⎟ +⎜ + ⎟ + VB + 600 = 0
2 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
(25 + 25 + 25) + (25 + 25) + (25 + 25 + 25) + (25 + 25) + VB + 600 = 0
75 + 50 + 75 + 50 + VB + 600 = 0
or 850 + VB = 0
Hence, VB = –1 1Ĺ
Forces in members AD and CD

WAD
&RQVLGHUMRLQWD. Refer Fig. 13.60. The one-half of weights of the members AD and CD, that is,
W 2
and CD are assumed to act at D in the vertically downward direction.
2
Fig. 13.60
Using 6Fx = 0
FAD = 0
Using 6Fy = 0
FCD = 600 + 25 + 25 = 650 N (T)
Forces in members BC and AC
CRQVLGHUMRLQWC. Refer Fig. 13.61. The one-half of weights of the members BC, AC and CD, that is,
WBC , WAC W
and CD are assumed to act at C in the downward direction.
2 2 2
Fig. 13.61
Using 6Fx = 0
FBC + FAC cos45º = 0 ... (1)
Using 6Fy = 0
FCD + FAC sin 45º + 25 + 25 + 25 = 0
FCD + FAC sin 45º + 75 = 0 ... (2)
FAC sin 45º = – (FCD + 75)
= – (650 + 75) N = – 725 N
725
Hence, FAC = − N = – 1025.3 N
sin 45º
= 1025.3 N (C)
FBC = – FAC cos 45º
= – (–1025.3) cos 45º = 725 N (T)
Force in member AB
7R¿QGWKHIRUFHLQWKHPHPEHUAB, that is, FABWKHMRLQWARUWKHMRLQWBFDQEHFRQVLGHUHG:HDUH
calculating FABXVLQJERWKMRLQWV
Plane Trusses 599
WAB ,
When joint A is considered, the one-half of weights of three members AB, AC and AD, that is
2
WAC W
and AD are assumed to act at A in the vertical direction as shown in Fig. 13.62.
2 2
Fig. 13.62
FAB = FAC sin 45º + 25 + 25 + 25 = (1025.3) sin 45º + 75 = 800 N (T)
WAB
When joint B is considered, the one-half of weights of two members AB and BC, that is, and
2
WBC
are assumed to act at B in the vertical direction as shown in Fig. 13.63.
2
Fig. 13.63

FAB + 25 + 25 = VB = 850
FAB + 50 = 850
Hence, FAB = (850 – 50) N = 800 N (T) (for check)
Fig. 13.64
13.4.2 Analysis of Trusses by Method of Sections

This method is based on dividing the entire truss into two parts by a section line. The section must
pass through the members in which forces are required to be determined. The equilibrium of the part
either to the left or to the right of the section is considered by treating it as a free body. A vertical
or inclined section can be chosen. A horizontal section is usually avoided because it will cut many
members of unknown forces. The section should be chosen in such a way that the members cut
by the section are as less as possible and have maximum three unknowns. The method of joints is
most effective when forces in all the members of a truss are required to be determined. Calculation
of forces in various members can’t be made independently. The method of sections can be used to
¿QGRXWIRUFHVLQRQHRUWZRGHVLUHGPHPEHUVDQGLVLQGHSHQGHQWRIFDOFXODWLRQRIIRUFHVLQRWKHU
members. The method is illustrated by the suitable examples.
Example 13.10
Find the forces in the members BF and AF of the loaded truss shown in Fig. 13.65.
RB 5 = 3 2.5 + 5 3 = 7.5 + 15 = 22.5
or RB = 4.5 kN ()
Now VA + 3 = RB
Plane Trusses 601
or VA = RB – 3 = 4.5 – 3 = 1.5 kN ()

and HA = 5 kN ()
Forces in the desired members are initially assumed to be tension, that is, positive.
Fig. 13.65
Force in member BF
Take a section XX which cuts the desired member BF and consider the equilibrium of the part
right to the section. Select E as centre of moment. Forces in the members EC, EB and EF, and
3 kN are passing through E and hence their moments about that point are zero. The only unknown
force left is F BF. F BF LV LQLWLDOO\ FRQVLGHUHG WHQVLRQ WKDW LV GLUHFWHG DZD\ IURP WKH MRLQW B.
Moment of the force in member BC about the point ELVQRWFRQVLGHUHG:K\"7DNLQJPRPHQWV
of the forces about E, we have
FBF 3 = RB 2.5
RB u 2.5 4.5 u 2.5
or FBF = =
3 3
= 3.75 kN (T) Ans.
Force in member AF
Take another section YY which cuts the member AF and consider the equilibrium of the part left to
the section. Again E is considered as centre of moment. Moment of the force in member AD about
the point ELVQRWFRQVLGHUHG:K\"7KHPRPHQWHTXDWLRQLV
FAF 3 + VA 2.5 = HA 3
H A × 3 − VA × 2.5
or FAF =
3
5 × 3 − 1.5 × 2.5
= = 3.75 kN (T) Ans.
3
(Forces 3 kN and 5 kN are passing through E, hence their moments are not considered.)
Example 13.11
Find the forces in the members EF, DF and CD of the loaded cantilever truss shown in Fig. 13.66.
Fig. 13.66
Solution: Consider a section XX which cuts the members CD, EF and DF in which forces are
desired (Fig. 13.67). Consider equilibrium of the part right to the section.
Fig. 13.67
Force in member CD
The perpendicular distance between EF and CD is 1.25 tan 60 = 2.165 m.
Taking moments of the forces about F, we have
FCD 2.165 + 25 2.5 = 0
or FCD = – 28.86 kN
= 28.86 kN (C) Ans.
Plane Trusses 603
Forces in members EF and DF are passing through F and hence their moments about that point
are zero.
Force in member EF
Taking moments of the forces about D, we have
FEF 2.165 – 25 1.25 = 0
or FEF = 14.43 kN (T) Ans.
Force in member DF
The perpendicular distance of point E from FD is
2.5 sin 60° = 2.165 m
Taking moments of the forces about E, we have
FDF 2.165 + FCD 2.165 = 0
FDF 2.165 + (–28.86) 2.165 = 0
or FDF = 28.86 kN (T) Ans.
Forces 25 kN and FEF are passing through E, hence their moments about that point are zero.
Example 13.12
Find the forces in the members CD and DE of the loaded truss shown in Fig. 13.68.
Fig. 13.68
Solution:
RB × (3 + 3 + 3 + 3) = 10 × 3 + 15 × 3 + 10 × (3 + 3) + 20 × (3 + 3 + 3) + 10 × (3 + 3 + 3)
= (30 + 45 + 60 + 180 + 90) kN = 405 kN
or RB = 33.75 kN (n)
Now RA + RB = (15 + 10 + 10 + 20 + 10) kN = 65 kN
or RA = 65 – RB = (65 – 33.75) kN = 31.25 kN (n)
Force in member DE
Consider a section XX , which cuts both members CD and DE. To determine force in member DE,
choose C as the centre of moment. Moments of the forces in the members AC and CD about that point
are zero and the only unknown force left is the force in the member DE. Considering equilibrium of
the part left to the section, the equation of moment can be written as
RA × 3 = FDE × 5
RA u 3 31.25 u 3
or FDE = = kN
5 5
= 18.75 kN (T) Ans.
Force in member CD
To determine FCD, choose A as the centre of moment. Forces in members DE and AC and reaction RA
are passing through the point A, hence their moments about that point are zero. Again considering the
same section and the left part of the section, the moment equation is
FCD × 3 = 10 × 3
or FCD = 10 kN (T) Ans.
Example 13.13
Find the forces in the members IJ, JE and DE of the loaded truss shown in Fig. 13.69.
Fig. 13.69
Solution:
Support reactions at A and G
VG × (3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3) = 10 × 3 + 10 × (3 + 3) + 15 × (3 + 3 + 3)
= (30 + 60 + 135) kN = 225 kN
Plane Trusses 605
225
or VG = = 12.5 kN (n)
18
Now RA + VG = (10 + 10 + 15) kN = 35 kN
or RA = 35 – RG = (35 – 12.5) kN = 22.5 kN (n)
Geometrical calculations
3
,Q'DGJ tan T =
9
Hence, T = 18.43°
x
,Q'EGP sin T = 1
6
or x1 = 6 sin 18.43° = 1.897 m
IE
,Q'EGI tan T =
6
or IE = 6 tan 18.43° = 2 m
x2
,Q'OEI sin 45° =
IE
or x2 = 2 × sin 45° = 1.414 m
Force in member DE
Consider a section XX , which cuts the members IJ, JE and DE. Choose J as the centre of moment,
and consider the equilibrium of the part right to the section. Moments of the forces in the members
IJ and JE about J are zero, since the forces are passing through that point. Hence, the moment
equation is
FDE × 3 = RG × 9
12.5 u 9
or FDE = = 37.5 kN (T) Ans.
3
Force in member IJ
This time choose E as the centre of moment, and consider the part right to the section. Forces in
the member DE and JE have no contribution in the equation of moment. The moment equation is
FI J × x1 + RG × 6 = 0
12.5 u 6
or FI J = kN = 39.53 kN (C) Ans.
1.897
Force in member JE
Choose I as the centre of moment, and consider the part right to the section. Force in member IJ
has no contribution in the moment equation, given by
FJE × x2 + FDE × IE = RG × 6
FJE × 1.414 + 37.5 × 2 = 12.5 × 6
or FJE = 0 Ans.
Example 13.14
Find the forces in the members CE, CD and BD of the loaded truss shown in Fig. 13.70.
Fig. 13.70
Solution:
Support reactions at C and E
Using 6MC = 0, we have
VE × 3 = 5 × 3
or VE = 5 kN (p)
Now RC = 5 + VE = (5 + 5) kN = 10 kN (n)
Geometrical calculations
,Q'ADE tan T = 3
6
Hence, T = 26.56°
On comparing 's ABC and ADE, we have
BC AC
=
DE AE
AC u DE 3u 3
or BC = = = 1.5 m
AE 6
,Q'CDE CD = 32 32 = 4.24 m
,Q'ACF ACF = 90° – T = (90 – 26.56)° = 63.44°

x1
and sin T =
AC
Plane Trusses 607
or x1 = AC sin T
= 3 × sin 26.56°
= 1.34 m
x2
In 'BCG sin 45° =
BC
or x2 = BC sin 45°
= 1.5 × sin 45°
= 1.06 m
Force in member CE
Consider a section XX , which cuts all the desired members. Choose D as the centre of moment and
consider right part of the section. The moment equation is
FCE × 3 = VE × 0 (VE is passing through D)
or FCE = 0 kN Ans.
Force in member CD
Choose B as the centre of moment. The equation of moment is
FCE × BC + FCD × x2 + RE × 3 = 0
0 + FCD × 1.06 + 5 × 3 = 0 ( FCE = 0)
15
or FCD = –
1.06
= – 14.15 kN
= 14.15 kN (C) Ans.
Force in member BD
Choose C as the centre of moment. The equation of moment is
FBD × x1 = VE × 3
3VE 3u 5
or FBD = = kN
x1 1.34
= 11.2 kN (T) Ans.

Example 13.15
Fig. 13.71
Solution:
Support reactions at A and D
VA + RD = 10 kN ... (1)
RD × (0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5) = 10 × (0.5 + 0.5)
Hence, RD = 6.66 kN (n)
VA = (10 – 6.66) kN
= 3.34 kN (n)
(DFKMRLQWFRQVLVWVRIWKUHHXQNQRZQPHPEHUVKHQFHPHWKRGRIMRLQWVFDQQRWEHXVHGDWWKHVWDUW
0HWKRGRIVHFWLRQVLVXVHG¿UVWWR¿QGIRUFHVLQRQHRIWKUHHPHPEHUVFRQQHFWHGWRHYHU\MRLQWVRWKDW
HDFKMRLQWQRZFRQVLVWVRIWZRXQNQRZQPHPEHUVRQO\DQGWKHPHWKRGRIMRLQWVEHFRPHVDSSOLFDEOH
henceforth.
Take a section XX that cuts members AB, EF and CD, and consider the equilibrium of the right
SDUWRIWKHWUXVV'LUHFWLRQRIIRUFHVLQXQNQRZQPHPEHUVDUHLQLWLDOO\DVVXPHGWREHWHQVLRQWKDWLV
GLUHFWHGDZD\IURPWKHMRLQWVZKHUHPHPEHUVDUHFRQQHFWHG7DNHA as the centre of moment.
FEF × 0.75 = 10 × (0.5 + 0.5) + FCD × (0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5)
Plane Trusses 609
FAB passes through A, hence does not appear in the equation of moment.
or 0.75 FEF = 10 + 1.5 FCD
or FEF – 2 FCD = 13.33 ...(1)
Now, take B as the centre of moment, and consider the equilibrium of the right part of the truss.
FEF × 0.75 + 10 × (0.5 + 0.5) + FCD × (0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5) = 0
All the moments are in the clockwise direction.

or 0.75 FEF + 1.5 FCD = – 10
or FEF + 2 FCD = – 13.33 ...(2)
FEF = 0
From equation (1), we get
FCD = – 6.66 kN
= 6.66 kN (C)
Now, take D as the centre of moment, and consider the equilibrium of the right part of the truss.
Using 6MD = 0, we have
FAB × (0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5) + 10 × 0.5 + FEF × 0.75 = 0
All the moments are in the anti-clockwise direction.
or 1.5 FAB + 5 + 0 × 0.75 = 0 (as FEF = 0)
or 1.5 FAB + 5 = 0
Hence, FAB = – 3.33 kN
= 3.33 kN (C)
Now, take another section Y Y that cuts members AD, DE and CD, and consider the equilibrium of
the right part of the truss. Take E as the centre of moment.
Using 6ME = 0, we have
FAD × 0.75 = RD ×( 0.5 + 0.5) + FCD × (0.5 + 0.5)
FDE passes through E, hence does not appear in the equation of moment.
or 0.75 FAD = 6.66 × 1 + (– 6.66) × 1
= 6.66 – 6.66
=0
Hence, FAD = 0
Force in member AE
&RQVLGHUMRLQWA. Refer Fig. 13.72.
0.75 m
tan T =
0.5 m
Hence, T °
FAE cos TFAD = 0
FAE cos ° + 0 = 0 (as FAD = 0)
Hence, FAE
Force in member DE Fig. 13.72
0.75 m
tan D
(0.5 + 0.5) m
Hence, D °
FDE cos DFAD = 0

or FDE cos ° = 0 (as FAD = 0)
Hence, FDE
Forces in members BF and CF
&RQVLGHUMRLQWF. Refer Fig. 13.74.
0.75 m
tan I =
0.5 m Fig. 13.73
Hence, I = °
0.75 m
and tan J
(0.5 + 0.5) m
Hence, J = °
Fig. 13.74
Plane Trusses 611

FBF cos JFEF = FCF cos I
or FBF cos ° = FCF cos ° (as FEF = 0)
0.8 FBF = 0.554 FCF
or FBF = 0.693 FCF ...(3)
FBF sin JFCF sin I
or FBF sin ° FCF sin ° = 10
0.6 FBF + 0.83 FCF = 10
0.6 × 0.693 FCF + 0.83 FCF = 10 (using equation (3))
0.415 FCF + 0.83 FCF = 10
or 1.245 FCF = 10
Hence, FCF = 8.03 kN (T)
From equation (3), we get
FBF = 0.693 × 8.03
= 5.56 kN (T)
Force in member BC
Fig. 13.75

FBC FBF cos ° = 0
or FBC + 5.56 × cos 36.8° = 0
Hence, FBC = – 4.45 kN
= 4.45 kN (C)
The complete result is tabulated below.

S.No. Member Force in Member (kN) Nature of Force
1. AB 3.33 Compression
2. AD 0 —
3. AE 0 —
4. BC 4.45 Compression
5. EF 0 —
6. CF 8.03 Tension
7. CD 6.66 Compression
8. DE 0 —
9. BF 5.56 Tension
13.5 ZERO-FORCE MEMBERS

A member having no or zero force is called a zero force member. There are two important statements
ZKLFK WUHPHQGRXVO\ KHOS WR ¿QG ]HURIRUFH PHPEHUV LQ D WUXVV ZLWKRXW PDNLQJ DQ\ FDOFXODWLRQV
These statements are:
z )RUDQRQORDGHGMRLQWMRLQWKDYLQJQRH[WHUQDOORDGDQGQRVXSSRUWUHDFWLRQLQDWUXVVFRQVLVWLQJ
of three members, if two members are collinear, the third member will be a zero-force member.
z )RUDQRQORDGHGMRLQWLQDWUXVVFRQVLVWLQJRIWZRPHPEHUVLIERWKPHPEHUVDUHQRQFROOLQHDU
then both members will be zero-force members.
$QH[DPSOHLVVKRZQLQ)LJZKLFKLOOXVWUDWHVWKHXVHRIWKHVHVWDWHPHQWVWR¿QGRXW]HUR
force members.
,Q )LJ B, D, E, F, H and I are non-loaded
MRLQWV -RLQW I consists of three members AI, BI and
HI. Of these, AI and HI are collinear members, hence
DFFRUGLQJ WR ¿UVW VWDWHPHQW BI must be a zero-force
PHPEHU6LPLODUO\MRLQW H consists of three members
HI, HG and HB of which HI and HG are collinear
members, hence HBPXVWEHD]HURIRUFHPHPEHU,Q
the absence of zero-force members BI and HBMRLQWB
consists of three members, namely AB, BC and BG. Out Fig. 13.76
of these, AB and BC are collinear members, and hence
BG must be a zero-force member. Joint D consists of two non-collinear members CD and DE. These
are zero-force members according to second statement. Joint E consists of two non-collinear
members CE and EF, assuming DE to be missing on account of its zero force nature. Therefore,
CE and EFPXVWEH]HURIRUFHPHPEHUV$JDLQMRLQWF consists of two members GF and CF and
both of them are non-collinear, assuming EF to be missing; therefore GF and CF must be zero-force
members.
Plane Trusses 613
:KDWLVPHDQWE\DSODQHWUXVV"+RZGRHVDSODQHWUXVVGLIIHUIURPDVSDFHWUXVV"
2. Give a few examples of plane and space trusses.
+RZGRHVDIUDPHGLIIHUIURPDWUXVV"
:KDWLVWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQULJLGDQGQRQULJLGWUXVV"
:K\LVHYHU\PHPEHURIDWUXVVLVFDOOHGDWZRIRUFHPHPEHU"
:K\LVWKHVHOIZHLJKWRIDPHPEHUXVXDOO\QRWFRQVLGHUHGLQWKHDQDO\VLVRIDWUXVV"
:KLFKPHWKRGLVFRQVLGHUHGPRVWVXLWDEOHIRU¿QGLQJIRUFHVLQDIHZPHPEHUVRIDWUXVV"
:KDWDUHWKHGHPHULWVRIPHWKRGRIMRLQWV"
:KDWDUH]HURIRUFHPHPEHUV":K\DUHWKH\XVHG"
1. /RDGLVDSSOLHGLQDWUXVV
(a DWWKHMRLQW b) on the member
(c DWMRLQWDQGPHPEHUERWK d DWWKHMRLQWDVZHOODVRQWKHPHPEHU
2. :K\LVWUXVVFDOOHGDWZRIRUFHPHPEHU"%HFDXVH
(a) two forces are applied on the members
(b WKHPHPEHUFDQHLWKHUEHVXEMHFWHGWRWHQVLRQRUFRPSUHVVLRQ
(c) the member is under shear force and normal force
(d) none of these.
3. For a truss to be rigid, the condition is
(a) 2j = m – 3 (b) j = 2 m + 3 (c) m = 2j – 3 (d) m = 2j + 3.
where m = Number of members
j 1XPEHURIMRLQWV
4. ,IDWUXVVKDVPRUHPHPEHUVWKDQUHTXLUHGWRPDNHLWULJLGWKHWUXVVLVFDOOHG
(a) under-rigid (b) over-rigid (c) rigid (d) non-rigid.
5. 7KHPHWKRGRIMRLQWVLVXVHGWRFDOFXODWHWKH
(a) forces in all the members (b) forces in few members
(c) forces at the supports (d) bending moments in members.
6. Tension force in a member is assumed to be positive, if it is
(a SXVKLQJWKHMRLQW b SXOOLQJWKHMRLQW
(c) bending the member (d) pushing the member.
7. The method of sections is useful, when

(a) forces in every member is required
(b) force in few members are required
(c) forces in few members as well as on the supports are required
(d) none of these.
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b).
Plane Trusses 615
EXERCISES
1. 'HWHUPLQHWKHIRUFHVLQHDFKPHPEHURIWKHORDGHGWUXVVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 13.77
(Ans. FAB = 3.6 kN (C), FAC = 3.9 kN (T), FBC = 4.5 kN (C)).
2. 'HWHUPLQHWKHIRUFHVLQDOOWKHPHPEHUVRIWKHORDGHGWUXVVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 13.78
(Ans. FAD = 20 kN (T)
FAE = 26 kN (C)
FDE =0
FAB = 26 kN (T)
FBE = 10 kN (T)
FBC = 34.7 kN (T)
FBF = 10.41 kN (C)
FEF = 24 kN (C)
FCF = 6.67 kN (T)).
3. 'HWHUPLQHWKH]HURIRUFHPHPEHUVLQWKHORDGHGWUXVVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 13.79
(Ans. AE, DE, BD, CD).
4. 'HWHUPLQHWKHIRUFHVLQHDFKPHPEHURIWKHWUXVVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 13.80
(Ans. VA = 600 N (n), HC = 600 N (m), VC = 200 N (p), FAB = 750 N (C), FAD = 450 N (T),
FBD = 250 N (T), FCD = 200 N (C), FBC = 600 N (C)).
5. Members AB and BC can support a maximum compressive force of 800 N, and members AD, DC
and BDFDQVXSSRUWDPD[LPXPWHQVLOHIRUFHRI1,Iy = 10 m, determine the greatest load
P the truss shown in Fig. 13.81 can support.
Fig. 13.81 (Ans. 849 N).

Plane Trusses 617
6. 'HWHUPLQHWKHIRUFHLQHDFKPHPEHURIWKHORDGHGWUXVVFRQVLVWLQJRIWKUHHHTXLODWHUDOWULDQJOHV
as shown in Fig. 13.82.
Fig. 13.82
(Ans. FAB = 15.59 kN (C), FAE = 8.66 kN(T),
FBC = 15.01 kN (C), FBD = 5.19 kN (C),
FBE = 4.04 kN (C), FCD = 7.50 kN(T),
FDE = 6.35 kN (T)).
7. 'HWHUPLQHWKHIRUFHVLQWKHPHPEHUVKC, KJ, CJ and JI of the loaded truss shown in Fig.13.83.
Fig. 13.83
(Ans. FKC = 2.69 kN (T)

FKJ = 1.78 kN (C)
FCJ = 0.79 kN (C)
FJI = 0.59 kN (C)).
8. 'HWHUPLQHWKHIRUFHVLQWKHPHPEHUVHG, GC and CD of the loaded truss shown in Fig. 13.84.
Fig. 13.84
(Ans. FHG = 1.29 kN (C)

FGC = 1.25 kN (T)
FCD = 1.125 kN (T)).
9. Find the forces in the members BC, BE and FE of the loaded cantilever truss shown in
Fig. 13.85.
Fig. 13.85
(Ans. FBC = 17.32 kN (T)

FBE = 0
FFE = 20 kN (C)).
Plane Trusses 619
10. 'HWHUPLne the force in member BF of the loaded truss shown in Fig. 13.86.
Fig. 13.86
(Ans. FBF = 2.66 kN (C)).
11. 'HWHUPLQHWKHIRUFHVLQWKHPHPEHUVAB and GH of the loaded truss shown in Fig. 13.87.
Fig. 13.87
(Ans. FAB = 53.33 kN (T) , FGH = 66.67 kN (C)).

Plane Trusses 620
12. 'HWHUPLQHWKHIRUFHVLQWKHPHPEHUVBC and CD of the simply supported truss shown in Fig. 13.88.
Fig. 13.88
(Ans. FBC = 14.14 kN (T) , FCD = 10 kN (C)).
13. 'HWHUPLQHWKHIRUFHVLQHDFKPHPEHURIWKHWUXVVVKRZQLQ)LJWDNLQJLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQ
their weights of 50 N each.
Fig. 13.89
(Ans. VA Ļ 1HA ĺ RD Ĺ 1

FAB = 0, FBC = 1485 N (T),
FCD = 1050 N (C), FDE = 1050 N (C),
FAE = 975 N (C), FBD = 2200 N (C),
FBE = 1485 N (T)).

14
Combined Loadings
William John Macquorn Rankine, born on 5 July 1820, was a Scottish

civil engineer, physicist and mathematician. He is widely known for his
contributions in both civil and mechanical engineering. Rankine was a
founding contributor in thermodynamics, and developed the Rankine
cycle, which gives the analysis of an ideal heat engine used in most
of the power plants. He worked on the properties of steam, gases and
vapours, and established relationship between saturated vapour pressure
and temperature. He also established relationship between temperature,
pressure and density of gas, and found expressions for the latent heat
of evaporation of the liquid. In 1859, he proposed the Rankine scale
of temperature, an absolute or thermodynamic scale whose degree
William John is equal to a Fahrenheit degree. He served as the regius professor of
Macquorn Rankine civil engineering and mechanics at the University of Glasgow between
(1820-1872) 1855 and 1872. The Rankine method of earth pressure analysis in soil
mechanics is named after him, which relates to the stabilization of
retaining walls. He is also known for Rankine-Hugoniot equation, which governs the behavior of shock
ZDYHVQRUPDOWRWKHRQFRPLQJÀRZ+HKDVEHHQGHVFULEHGDVWKHµIDWKHURIHQJLQHHULQJVFLHQFH¶LQ
recognition of his achievements.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_14
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Structural members subjected to single type of loading are discussed in the previous chapters. For
example, chapter 1 deals with an axially loaded bar under tension or compression, which produces
normal stresses of tensile or compressive nature on the cross-section of the bar. The stress is constant
at every section of a prismatic bar. Similarly, chapter 5 discusses the effect of pure bending in
beams in which bending stresses of tensile and compressive nature are produced at the section of the
beam. And chapter 7 discusses the torsional effect on the circular shaft in which the cross-section of
the shaft is subjected to shear stress, which varies linearly from zero at the axis of the shaft to the
maximum value at its surface. In all these cases, stresses produced in the members remain within
WKHHODVWLFOLPLWRIWKHPDWHULDOGH¿QHGE\WKH+RRNH¶VODZIRUZKLFKVWUHVVLVSURSRUWLRQDOWRVWUDLQ
However, in many engineering applications, members are subjected to more than one type of
loading, thus forming the case of combined loadings. For example, a shaft in torsion may also be
subjected to bending due to weights of the pulley, couplings, self-weight of the shaft and belt tension.
Also a shaft experiences an axial load in addition to the twisting moment because of external axial
loads, or due to the weight of the components attached to the shaft or due to thermal loading produced
by the temperature change during service. Similarly, a beam may be subjected to the simultaneous
action of bending moments and axial forces as shown in Fig. 14.1, where a cantilever beam AB
is supported by a pin at A and the cable CD. The beam carries a vertical force P at its free end B,
Fig. 14.1 A cantilever beam supported by a cable.
which causes bending and the cable produces axial force in the beam. The stress analysis of a member
XQGHU FRPELQHG ORDGLQJV LQYROYHV ¿QGLQJ RI VWUHVVHV GXH WR HDFK ORDG DFWLQJ VHSDUDWHO\ DQG WKHQ
VXSHULPSRVLQJWKHPWKDWLVDGGLQJWKHPDOJHEUDLFDOO\XVLQJWKHSULQFLSOHRIVXSHUSRVLWLRQWR¿QG
the resultant stresses caused by all the loadings acting simultaneously. In all these cases, the objective
is to identify the stress elements in the members which are associated with high stress levels due to
various loadings. Further principal stresses and maximum shear stresses are found by using the stress
WUDQVIRUPDWLRQUHODWLRQVXVXDOO\LQWKHIRUPRI0RKU¶VFLUFOH$JDLQWKH+RRNH¶VODZLVYDOLGDQGWKH
deformations produced are considered small.
14.2 COMBINED BENDING AND AXIAL LOADS

Many structural and machine members are subjected to combined loadings of axial forces and bending
moments. Both loads produce normal stresses along the longitudinal direction of the members. The
VWUHVVHVDUHFDOFXODWHGVHSDUDWHO\GXHWRHDFKORDGDQGWKHQDGGHGDOJHEUDLFDOO\WR¿QGWKHFRPELQHG
stresses using the principle of superposition. Crane, timber beam and hacksaw are a few examples
which involve combined stresses caused by axial force and bending moment.
Combined Loadings 623
Consider a simple beam loaded with a uniform load and an axial force P as shown in Fig. 14.2.
The stress analysis is carried out by considering two points A and B on the cross-section of the
beam. The point A lies on the bottom side and point B lies on the top side of the beam.
Fig. 14.2
Normal Stress due to Axial Force P

The axial force P produces direct tensile stress at the cross-section of the beam, given by
P
Vd = ... (14.1)
A
where A is the cross-sectional area of the beam. The direct stress is uniform across the cross-section
of the beam.
Bending Stress due to Uniform Load w

The uniform load produces bending moment M, which in turn, produces normal stresses at points A
and BZKLFKDUHFDOFXODWHGE\XVLQJÀH[XUHIRUPXODJLYHQEHORZ
σb M E
= =
y I R
which gives
M. M
Vb = y = ... (14.2)
I S
where M = Bending moment due to uniform load

I 0RPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHEHDP¶VFURVVVHFWLRQDERXWWKHQHXWUDOD[LV
π 4
= d for a solid circular section
64
d = Diameter of the cross-section
y = Distance from the neutral axis
S = Section modulus of the cross-section
I
=
y
The bending moment M is maximum at the midspan (l/2) of the beam and and its value is equal to
wl 2 .
It produces tensile normal stress at A and compressive normal stress at B.
8
Resultant normal stresses

The resultant normal stresses due to combined loadings are calculated using the principle of
superposition as follows:
Normal stress at point A is
VA = Normal tensile stress due to axial force P + Tensile bending stress due to uniform load w
P M
= + ... (14.3)
A S
Normal stress at point B is
VB = Normal tensile stress due to axial force P + Compressive bending stress due to uniform load w
P ⎛ M⎞
= +⎜− ⎟
A ⎝ S ⎠
P M
= − ... (14.4)
A S
Example 14.1
A 4 m long simple steel beam having a symmetrical I-section is subjected to a uniform load
of instensity 150 kN/m over its entire span and an axial tensile force of 600 kN as shown in
Fig. 14.3. Determine the normal stresses at points A and B, and plot the normal stress variation
between A and B.
Fig. 14.3
Solution: Given,
Uniform load, w = 150 kN/m = 150 × 103 N/m
Axial load, P = 600 kN = 600 × 103 N
Length of the beam, l = 4 m
400
Distance from the neutral axis, y = mm = 200 × 10–3 m
2
The total area of cross-section of the beam is
A = (250 × 40) + (320 × 40) + (250 × 40)
= 3.28 × 104 mm2
= 3.28 × 104 × 10–6 m2
= 3.28 × 10–2 m2
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHEHDP¶VFURVVVHFWLRQLVFDOFXODWHGDV
I = I of rectangle 250 mm × 400 mm
– 2× (I of rectangle 105 mm × 320 mm)
⎡1 1 ⎤
= ⎢ × 250 × 4003 − 2 × × 105 × 3203 ⎥ × 10−12 m4
⎣12 12 ⎦
= 7.598 × 10–4 m4
The beam is subjected to combined loadings of an axial tensile force and the bending moment
caused due to uniform load. Axial force produces direct normal stress (tensile stress), which remains
constant throughout the beam. The uniform load on the beam produces maximum bending moment
at the centre of the beam.
The maximum bending moment due to uniform load is given as
wl 2
M =
8
150 × 103 × 42
=
8
= 3 × 105 N.m
It is the positive bending moment, which causes tension at point A and compression at point B.
The bending stress is found as
M
Vb = ⋅y
I
3 × 105 × ( 200 × 10−3 ) 1
= −4
× 6 MPa
7.598 × 10 10
= 78.97 MPa Ans.

It is of equal magnitude at both points A and B, but is tensile at A and compressive at B.

The direct stress due to axial load is
P 600 × 103 1
Vd = = −2
× 6 MPa
A 3.28 × 10 10
= 18.29 MPa Ans.
The direct stress is tensile and is always positive.

The normal stress due to combined loadings at A is
VA = Vd + Vb
= (18.29 + 78.97) MPa
= 97.26 MPa Ans.
Hence, the tensile stress occurs at point A.

The normal stress due to combined loadings at point B is
VB = Vd – Vb
= (18.29 – 78.97) MPa
= – 60.68 MPa Ans.
Hence, the compressive stress occurs at point B.

The distributions of axial, bending and combined stresses across the cross-section of the beam are
shown in Fig. 14.4. It is important to note that when the beam is subjected only to bending stresses,
the neutral axis (NA) passes through the centroid of the cross-section. Further, when the beam is
subjected to combined stresses due to both axial force and bending moment, the line of zero stress
shifts upward.
Fig. 14.4 Stress distribution across the cross-section.

14.3 COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION OF CIRCULAR SHAFTS

Let us consider a solid circular shaft of diameter d and length l be subjected to combined loadings of
torsion and bending as shown in Fig. 14.5. The shaft is loaded by a twisting moment (torque) and a
bending force P at its free end. These loads produce a bending moment M, a vertical shear force V
and a twisting moment T at every cross-section of the shaft (Fig. 14.6), which in turn, individually
produces stresses over the section.
Fig. 14.5 A solid circular shaft under combined bending and torsion.
Fig. 14.6 Three loads (M, T and P) acting on the cross-section of the shaft at ‘a’.
To start the stress analysis, we consider two points A and B on the cross-section of the shaft at a
distance ‘a’ from its free end as shown in Fig. 14.5. Point A is on the top of the shaft and point B on
the left side at the neutral axis.
Effect of twisting moment T

The torsional shear stress W1 produced due to twisting moment T is given as
Tr 2T 16T
W1 = = 3 = (using torsion formula) ... (14.5)
J πr πd 3
where r = Radius of the shaft
J = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft cross-section
πr 4 π 4
= = d
2 32
d = Diameter of the shaft = 2r
Since the torsional shear stress acts on the surface of the shaft, hence it acts at both points A and
B. The shear stress acts in the horizontal direction (xz-plane) at point A and in the vertical direction
at point B as B is located on the side of the shaft.
Effect of bending moment M

The bending moment M caused due to load P produces a bending tensile stress at point A, given by
Mr 4M 32M
VA = = = (using bending formula) ... (14.6)
I πr 3 πd 3
where I = Moment of inertia of the shaft cross-section about the neutral axis (the z-axis).
However, no bending stress is produced at point B by the bending moment M as point B is located
on the neutral axis.
Effect of vertical shear force V

The vertical shear force arising from the bending force P produces no shear stress at point A as it is
located at the top surface of the shaft, but produces the shear stress at point B, given by
4V 4V 16V
W2 = = 2 = (using equation (5.32)) ....(14.7)
3 A 3πr 3πd 2
where A = Cross-sectional area of the shaft
= Sr2
πd 2
=
4
Representation of stresses
All the stresses produced by M, and V are shown in Fig. 14.7.
Fig. 14.7 Stresses acting at points A and B.

Stress elements at points A and B

The stresses VA and W1 acting at point A are shown in Fig. 14.8 (a) on a stress element A, which has
been cut out from the top surface of the shaft at point A, and the corresponding plane stress condition
is shown in Fig. 14.8 (b). For the purpose of calculating the principal stresses and the maximum shear
stress, the x and y axes are drawn through the element, where x-axis is parallel to the longitudinal
axis of the shaft and y-axis is horizontal. Hence, it is a case of plane stress condition in which
Vx = VA , Vy = 0 and Wxy = – W1.
Fig. 14.8
Similarly, another element at point B, which has been cut out from the left side of the shaft at point
B is shown in Fig. 14.9 (a). Only shear stress is acting on this element, which has the largest value
of (W1+ W2). Hence, the point B is in a state of pure shear. The plane stress system for the element B
is shown in Fig. 14.9 (b).
Hence, Vx = Vy = 0 and Wxy = – (W1 + W2)
Fig. 14.9
Principal stresses and maximum shear stress due to combined loadings

The maximum and minimum normal stresses at point A are the maximum and minimum principal
stresses respectively, given as
V1 = Maximum principal stress
2
σx ⎛σ ⎞
= + ⎜ x ⎟ + τ 2xy
2 ⎝ 2⎠
2
σA ⎛σ ⎞
= + ⎜ A ⎟ + τ12 (Vx = VA and Wxy = W1)
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
On substituting the values of VA and W1 in the above equation, we have

2 2
1 32M ⎛ 1 32M ⎞ ⎛ 16T ⎞
V1 = × + ⎜ × 3 ⎟
+⎜ 3 ⎟
2 πd 3
⎝ 2 πd ⎠ ⎝ πd ⎠
2 2
16M ⎛ 16M ⎞ ⎛ 16T ⎞
= + ⎜ 3 ⎟
+⎜ 3 ⎟
πd 3
⎝ πd ⎠ ⎝ πd ⎠
16 ⎡
= M + M 2 + T 2 ⎤⎥ ... (14.8)
πd 3 ⎣⎢ ⎦
32 ⎡ M + M 2 + T 2 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
πd 3 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
32M e
=
πd 3
1⎡
where Me = M + M 2 +T2 ⎤
2 ⎣ ⎦
(TXLYDOHQWEHQGLQJPRPHQWGH¿QHGDVWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWZKLFK
acting alone, will produce the same maximum direct stress as
produce d by the combined bending moment and torque acting together.
and V2 = Minimum principal stress
2
σ ⎛σ ⎞ 2
= x − ⎜ x ⎟ + τ xy
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
σA ⎛σ ⎞
= − ⎜ A ⎟ + τ12
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
16 ⎡
= 3 ⎣
M − M 2 +T2 ⎤ ... (14.9)
πd ⎦
The maximum shear stress is calculated as

σ1 − σ 2
Wmax =
2
2
⎛ σx ⎞ 2 ⎛ σA ⎞
2
= ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + τ xy = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + τ1
2
2 2
On substituting the values of VA and W1 in the above equation, we have
16
Wmax = M2 +T2 ... (14.10)
πd 3
16Te
=
πd 3
where Te = M 2 + T 2
(TXLYDOHQW WRUTXH GH¿QHG DV WKH WRUTXH ZKLFK DFWLQJ DORQH ZLOO SURGXFH WKH VDPH
maximum shear stress as produced by the combined bending moment and torque acting
together.
If T be the angle of inclination of the principal plane with the transverse section of the shaft, measured
in the anticlockwise direction, then
τ1 2τ T
tan 2T = = 1 = (on substituting VA and W1)
⎛ σA ⎞ σA M
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2
These maximum stresses, both principal and shear, can be compared with their design values to
ensure the safety criteria of the shaft.
Critical points in the shaft

The normal stresses due to bending are maximum where maximum bending moment occurs. It means
that the normal stresses are maximum, when element A is located at the support end of the shaft,
where the bending moment M has its maximum value. Hence, points on the top and bottom of the
shaft at its support end are the critical points. Another critical point is B itself, where the shear stress
is maximum given by the sum of W1 and W2, but the bending stress Vx is zero. The value of the shear
stress does not change, if point B is moved anywhere along the shaft in the longitudinal direction.
Example 14.2
A hollow shaft of inside diameter equal to one-half of the outside diameter is subjected to a torque
of 35 kN¹m and a bending moment of 20 kN¹m. If the maximum shear stress is limited to 70 MPa,
¿QGWKHGLDPHWHURIVKDIW
Solution: Given,
Torque, T = 35kN¹m
Bending moment, M = 20 kN¹m
Let
Outside diameter of the shaft = do
do
Inside diameter of the shaft = di = (Given)
2
Using equation (14.10), the maximum shear stress for a hollow shaft can be expressed as
16d o
Wmax = M2 +T2
π(d o4 − di4 )
16 × 2di
70 106 = (20 × 103 )2 + (35 × 103 )2
π[(2di ) − 4
di4 )]
Solving for di, we get
di = 73.12 mm Ans.
and do = 2di = 146.24 mm Ans.
Example 14.3
An engine has an overhung crankshaft and its stroke is 300 mm. The centre-line of the crank-pin and
the connecting rod is 200 mm distant from the centre of the supporting bearing. A thrust of 40 kN
acts on the crank-pin at right angles to the crank. Determine the diameter of the shaft, if the stresses
in tension and shear are not to exceed 70 MPa and 40 MPa respectively.
Solution: Given,
Maximum stress in tension,V = 70 MPa = 70 × 106 Pa
Maximum shear stress, Wmax = 40 MPa = 40 × 106 Pa
The bending moment at the bearing is given by
40 u 103 u 200
M = N.m = 8000 N.m
103
The torque at the bearing is given as
40 u 103 u 150
T = N.m = 6000 N.m
103
The equivalent bending moment is
1 2 2
Me = [ M M T ]
2
1
= [8000 (8000) 2 (6000) 2 ] = 9000 N.m
2
The equivalent torque is Te = M 2 + T 2 = (8000) 2 + (6000) 2
= 10000 N.m
Let d be the diameter of the shaft.
Diameter on the basis of equivalent bending moment

32 M e
Since V =
πd 3
32 × 9000
or 70 × 106 =
πd 3
Solving for d, we get d = 0.109 m = 109 mm
Diameter on the basis of equivalent torque
16Te
Since Wmax =
πd 3
16 × 10000
or 40 × 106 =
πd 3
Solving for d, we get d = 0.108 m = 108 mm
Selecting bigger of the two values, we have
d = 109 mm Ans.
Example 14.4
A shaft transmits 740 kW at 750 rpm. The maximum torque on the shaft exceeds its mean value
E\7KHVKDIWLVVXSSRUWHGLQPDLQEHDULQJVPHWUHVDSDUWDQGFDUULHVDWLWVPLGGOHDÀ\ZKHHO
ZHLJKLQJN1'XHWRÀXLGSUHVVXUHRQWKHSLVWRQWKHVKDIWLVDOVRVXEMHFWHGDWWKHSRLQWZKHUH
WKHÀ\ZKHHOLVORFDWHGWRDEHQGLQJPRPHQWZKLFKPD\EHWDNHQDVQXPHULFDOO\HTXDOWRRIWKH
mean twisting moment.
If the maximum allowable stresses for the material of the shaft in tension and shear are 65 MPa
and 40 MPa respectively, calculate the diameters of the shaft based on these values.
Solution: Given,
Power transmitted by the shaft, P = 740 kW
Rotational speed of the shaft, N = 750 rpm
Maximum stress in tension, V = 65 MPa = 65 × 106 Pa
Length of the shaft, l = 3m
Central load on the shaft, W = 50 kN = 50 × 103 N
The power transmitted by the shaft is given as
πNTav
P = kW
30, 000
π × 750 × Tav
740 =
30, 000
which gives Tav = 9421.97 N.m

The maximum torque is T = 1.8 × Tav = 1.8 × 9421.97 = 16959.5 N.m
The maximum bending moment due to central load W occurs at the centre of the shaft, given by
Wl 50 × 103 × 3
Mw = = = 37500 N.m
4 4
7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWGXHWRÀXLGSUHVVXUHLV
Mf = 0.8 × Tav = 0.8 × 9421.97
= 7537.57 N.m
The total bending moment acting on the shaft is
M = Mw + Mf
= 37500 + 7537.57
= 45037.57 N.m
The equivalent bending moment is given as
1
Me = [M M 2 T 2 ]
2
1
= [45037.57 (45037.57) 2 (16959.5) 2 ]
2
= 46581.24 N.m
The equivalent torque is given as
Te = M 2 + T 2 = (45037.57) 2 + (16959.5) 2
= 48124.91 N.m
Diameter on the basis of Me
32 M e
Since V =
πd 3
where d = Diameter of the shaft
32 × 46581.24
or 65 × 106 =
πd 3
Solving for d, we get d = 0.194 m = 194 mm Ans.
Diameter on the basis of Te
16Te
Since Wmax =
πd 3
16 × 48124.91
or 40 × 106 =
πd 3
Solving for d, we get d = 0.183 m = 183 mm Ans.
Example 14.5
An overhanging pulley of diameter 1 m and weighing 1 kN transmits 45 HP at 140 rpm, the sides of
the belt being vertical. The ratio of tensions is 2 : 1, and the maximum tensile and shear stresses are
limited to 120 MPa and 60 MPa respectively. Find the diameter of the shaft. The centre of the pulley is
0.35 m from the nearest bearing.
Solution: Given,
Power to be transmitted, P = 45 HP
Radius of the pulley, r = 0.5 m
Weight of the pulley, W = 1 kN = 1000 N
T2
Ratio of the two tensions, = 2
T1
Maximum tensile stress, V = 120 MPa = 120 × 106 Pa
2πNT
The power to be transmitted is P =
4500
2π × 140 × T
45 =
4500
or T = 230.2 kgf.m
= 2258.32 N.m (1 kgf = 9.81 N)
Now T = (T2 – T1) × r
⎛ T ⎞
= T2 ⎜1 − 1 ⎟ × r
⎝ T2 ⎠
2258.32 = T2 ⎛⎜1 − ⎞⎟ × 0.5

1
or
⎝ 2⎠
Hence, T2 = 9033.28 N
T2 9033.28
and T1 = = 4516.64 N
2 2
The resultant force on the pulley is
R = T1 + T2 + W
= 4516.64 + 9033.28 + 1000
= 14549.92 N
The maximum bending moment is
M = R × 0.35
= 14549.92 × 0.35 N.m
= 5092.47 N.m
Diameter on the basis of equivalent bending moment

The equivalent bending moment is
M M2 T2
Me =
2
5092.47 (5092.47) 2 (2258.32)2
=
2
= 5331.61 N.m
Let d be the diameter of the shaft.
32 M e
Now V =
πd 3
32 × 5331.61
or 120 × 106 =
πd 3
Solving for d, we get d = 0.0768 m = 76.8 mm
Diameter on the basis of equivalent torque
The equivalent torque is Te = M2 T2
= (5092.47) 2 (2258.32) 2
= 5570.75 N.m
16Te
Now Wmax =
πd 3
16 × 5570.75
or 60 × 106 =
πd 3
Solving for d, we get d = 0.0779 m = 77.9 mm
Of the two diameters, we choose the bigger diameter.
Hence, d = 77.9 mm Ans.
Example 14.6
$À\ZKHHOZHLJKLQJN1LVPRXQWHGRQDVKDIWPPLQGLDPHWHUDQGPLGZD\EHWZHHQEHDULQJV
600 mm apart, in which the shaft may be assumed to be directionally free. If the shaft is transmitting
29.6 kW at 360 rpm, calculate the principal stresses and the maximum shearing stresses in the shaft
DWWKHHQGVRIDYHUWLFDODQGDKRUL]RQWDOGLDPHWHULQDSODQHFORVHWRWKDWRIWKHÀ\ZKHHO
Solution: Given,
:HLJKWRIWKHÀ\ZKHHO W = 6 kN = 6 × 103 N
Diameter of the shaft, d = 80 mm
Distance between the bearings, l = 600 mm
Power to be transmitted, P = 29.6 kW
Rotational speed of the shaft, N = 360 rpm
6LQFHWKHÀ\ZKHHOLVFHQWUDOO\PRXQWHGRQWKHVKDIWWKHVLWXDWLRQLVVLPLODUWRWKHFDVHZKHQD
concentrated load is placed centrally on a simply supported beam. The maximum bending moment
in this case is given as
Wl 6 × 103 × 600
M = = N.m = 900 N.m
4 4 × 103
The maximum shear force is given as
W 6 × 103
V = = = 3000 N
2 2
The torque can be calculated using power equation.
πNT
P = kW
30, 000
π × 360 × T
or 29.6 =
30, 000
Solving for T, we get T = 785.16 N.m
Calculation of stresses in the shaft at the ends of the vertical diameter
The stress due to bending is
32M 32 × 900 1
V = = −3 3
× MPa = 17.9 MPa
πd 3
π × (80 × 10 ) 106
16T 16 × 785.16 1
The stress due to torque is W = = −3 3
× MPa = 7.81 MPa
πd 3
π × (80 × 10 ) 106
The shear stress due to shear force V is zero.
Hence, the principal stresses are given by
1 1
V1, 2 = [σ ± σ2 + 4τ2 ] = [17.9 ± (17.9)2 + 4 × (7.81)2 ]
2 2
= 20.83 MPa and – 2.93 MPa
The major principal stress is V1 = 20.83 MPa (Tensile) Ans.
The minor principal stress is V2 = 2.93 MPa (Compressive) Ans.
σ1 − σ2 20.83 − (−2.93)
The maximum shear stress is Wmax = =
2 2
= 11.88 MPa Ans.
Calculation of stresses in the shaft at the ends of the horizontal diameter
The shear stress due to torque remain the same.
W = 7.81 MPa
The shear stress due to shear force V is given using equation (5.32) as
4 V 4 3000 1
Wc = × = × × 6 MPa
3 A 3 π
× (80 × 10−3 )2 10
4
= 0.795 MPa
The stress due to bending is zero, because the distance of outermost layer from the neutral axis is
zero.
Hence, the maximum shear stress is given as
Wmax = W + Wc = 7.81 + 0.795 = 8.605 MPa Ans.
And the principal stresses are given as
V1,2 = ± Wmax = ± 8.605 MPa
V1 = 8.605 MPa (Tensile)
and V2 = 8.605 MPa (Compressive) Ans.
14.4 COMBINED TORSION AND AXIAL LOADS

Let us consider a solid circular shaft be subjected to the combined effects of torsion and axial load
as shown in Fig. 14.10. The shaft of diameter d and length l is loaded by a twisting moment T and
an axial load P. The state of stress in the shaft is a combination of the shear stress W produced by
the twisting moment T and the axial normal stress V produced due to axial load P. As the surface of
the shaft is the location of the most critically stressed part, hence we consider stress element on the
surface at point A.
Fig. 14.10

The twisting moment T produces torsional shear stress W on the cross-section of the shaft, which
varies linearly with the distance from the centre of the shaft and is maximum at the surface. The shear
stress is given as
16
W= (using torsion formula) ... (14.11)
πd 3
The shear stress acts in the vertical direction as point A is on the side surface of the shaft.
Effect of axial load P

The axial load P produces direct tensile stress Vd at A, which is constant across the cross-section of
the shaft and is given as
P 4P
Vd = = ...(14.12)
A πd 2
where A = Cross-sectional area of the shaft

π 2
= d
4
d = Diameter of the shaft
Stress element at point A

The stresses VA and W acting at point A are shown in Fig. 14.11 (a) on a stress element, which has been
cut out from the side of the shaft at point A. The x and y axes are drawn through the element, where
x-axis is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the shaft and y-axis is perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis. Hence, it is a case of plane stress condition in which Vx = VA, Vy = 0 and Wxy = – W as shown in
Fig. 14.11(b).
Fig. 14.11
Combined stress and Mohr’s circle

The maximum shear stress due to combined loadings in the shaft is obtained as
2
⎛ σd ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +τ
2
Wmax = R = ...(14.13)
⎝ 2 ⎠
7KH0RKU¶VFLUFOHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHFRPELQHGORDGLQJVLVVKRZQLQ)LJZKHUHR is the
radius of the circle, which represents the maximum shear stress.
Fig. 14.12 Mohr’s circle for combined torsion and axial loads.
Example 14.7
A 50 mm diameter shaft is subjected to an axial compressive load of 280 N and a twisting moment
of 400 N.m. Find the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress due to the combined effect.
Solution: Given,
Diameter of the shaft, d = 50 mm = 50 × 10–3 m
Axial load, P = 280 N
Twisting moment, T = 400 N.m
The axial load P produces direct compressive stress Vd , which is distributed uniformly over the
cross-section of the shaft, and is given as
P P
Vd = – =– (A is the cross-sectional area)
A ⎛ π 2⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠
4
280
= – = – 0.142 MPa
π
× (50 × 10−3 ) 2
4
= 0.142 MPa (Compressive)
The twisting moment T produces shear stress across the section of the shaft, given as
16T
W= (using torsion formula)
πd 3
16 × 400
= = 16.3 MPa
π × (50 × 10−3 )3
Calculation of principal stresses

The maximum principal stress V1 is given as
σd σ d2 + 4τ 2
V1 = +
2 2
− 0.142 ( − 0.142) 2 + 4 × (16.3) 2
= +
2 2
The minimum principal stress V2 is given as
σd σ2d + 4π2
V2 = −
2 2
− 0.142 ( − 0.142) 2 + 4 × (16.3) 2
= − = – 16.37 MPa
2 2
Calculation of maximum shear stress
The maximum shear stress Wmax is calculated as
σ1 − σ2
Wmax =
2
16.23 − (−16.37)
= = 16.3 MPa Ans.
2
14.5 COMBINED BENDING, TORSION AND DIRECT THRUST

Marine propeller shafts are usually subjected to direct thrust in addition to torsion and bending
moment. The direct thrust is produced because of the compressive reaction of the water on the
propeller as the craft is pushed forward. The bending moment is caused due to the self-weight of
the shaft between bearings and the torque comes from the rotation of the shaft which is needed to
produce the required power. The shaft at its every cross-section experiences these loads, which
produce stresses separately.
Fig. 14.13 A solid circular shaft under combined bending, torsion and direct thrust.
Let us consider a solid circular shaft of diameter d and length l being subjected to a twisting moment
(torque) T, a bending moment M and an axial thrust P exerted at the end as shown in Fig. 14.13.
For stress analysis consideration, we select two points A and B on the cross-section of the shaft
DVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH3RLQWA is on the top surface of the shaft and point B on the left side at the
neutral axis.
Effect of direct thrust

The axial thrust Pc acts along the longitudinal axis (x-axis) of the shaft and produces a direct
compressive stress V d , which is uniform across the cross-section of the shaft, and is given by
equation (14.12) as
P′ 4P′
Vd = =
A πd 2
where A is the cross-sectional area of the shaft. The direct stress has the same value at both points A
and B.

The torsional shear stressW1 produced due to twisting moment T is given by equation (14.5) as
16T
W1 =
πd 3
The shear stresses are produced at both points A and B as they are positioned on the surface of the
shaft. The shear stress at A acts in the horizontal plane (xz-plane) and at B in the vertical direction.
Effect of bending moment M

The bending moment M produces tensile or compressive bending stress, given by
Mr 4M 32M
Vb = = 3 = (using bending formula) ... (14.14)
I πr πd 3
where the symbols have their usual meanings. The maximum bending stress is produced at point A
as it is farthest from the neutral axis, and there is no bending stress produced at point B because of
its position at the neutral axis.
Effect of vertical shear force V

The vertical shear force V arises from the self-weight of the shaft, which produces no shear stress at
point A because of its location at the top surface of the shaft. The shear stress produced by V at point
B is given by equation (14.7) as
4V 4V 16V
W2 = = 2 = (A = Cross-sectional area of the shaft)
3 A 3πr 3πd 2
π 2
= Sr2 = d
4
Superimposition of normal stresses

The direct stress due to thrust is superimposed over the direct stress due to bending to obtain their
combined effects taking due accounts of their positive or negative signs.
Representation of stresses
All the stresses acting at points A and B are shown in Fig. 14.14. The bending stress Vb may be tensile
or compressive. Here it is assumed to be compressive.
Fig. 14.14
Stress elements at points A and B

The stress element at A lies in the horizontal plane and is shown in Fig. 14.15 (a). The corresponding
plane stress condition is shown in Fig. 14.15 (b). Here Vx = – (V + Vb), Vy = 0 and Wxy = – W1.
Fig. 14.15
The stress element at B lies in the vertical plane and is shown in Fig. 14.16 (a). The corresponding
plane stress condition is shown in Fig. 14.16 (b). Here Vx = – Vd , Vy = 0 and Wxy = – (W1 + W2).
Fig. 14.16
Critical points in the shaft

Point A which experiences higher stresses due to the combined effect of bending and thrust is
the most critical point in the shaft. It means that point A or any other point just below point A on
the bottom surface of the shaft can be critical points. Point B is not as critical as point A because it
is subjected to only direct stress due to thrust, and has a smaller value compared to other stresses.
Principal stresses and maximum shear stress due to combined effect
At point A
The maximum and minimum normal stresses at point A are the maximum and minimum principal
stresses respectively, given as
σx 1
= + σ 2x + 4τ 2xy
2 2
− (σb + σ d ) 1 2
= + {− (σb + σ d )} + 4τ1
2
2 2
On substituting the values of Vb , Vd and W1, we have
⎛ 32 M 4 P ′ d ⎞
−⎜ + ⎟
⎝ πd 3 πd 3 ⎠ 1 ⎛ 32 M 4 P ′ d ⎞
2 2
⎛ 16T ⎞
V1 = + ⎜ + ⎟ + 4 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
2 2 ⎝ πd 3 πd 3 ⎠ πd
4 P ′ 4 P ′d
where Vd = =
πd 2 πd 3
1 1
or V1 = – (32 M + 4 P ′ d ) + (32 M + 4 P ′ d ) 2 + 4(16T ) 2
2 πd 3
2 πd 3
⎡ 1 ⎤ 1
= − ⎢ 3 (16 M + 2 P ′ d )⎥ + 3 (8M + P ′d ) + (16T )
2 2
... (14.15)
⎣ πd ⎦ πd
⎡ 1 ⎤ 1
= − ⎢ πd 3 (16 M + 2 P ′d ) ⎥ − πd 3 (8M + P ′d ) + (16T )
2 2
... (14.16)
⎣ ⎦
Now the maximum shear stress at point A is calculated as
σ1 − σ2
Wmax =
2
1
= πd 3 (8M + P ′d ) + (16T )
2 2
... (14.17)
At point B
The maximum and minimum principal stresses at point B are given as
σx 1 2
= + σ x + 4τ 2xy
2 2
σd 1 2
= − + ( −σ d ) 2 + 4 {− (τ1 + τ 2 )}
2 2
On substituting the values of Vd , W1 and W2 , we have
2 2
1 ⎛ 4 P ′d ⎞ 1 ⎛ 4 P ′d ⎞ ⎛ 16T 16Vd ⎞
V1 = − × ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + 4⎜ 3 + ⎟
2 ⎝ πd ⎠ 2 ⎝ πd ⎠
3 3 ⎝ πd 3πd 3 ⎠
⎛ 4 P ′ 4 P ′d 16V 16Vd ⎞
⎜⎝ as σ d = = and τ 2 = = ⎟
πd 2
πd 3
3πd 2 3πd 3 ⎠
2
2 P ′d 2 ⎛ Vd ⎞
= − + 3 ( P ′d )2 + 4 ⎜ T + ⎟ ...(14.18)
πd 3
πd ⎝ 3⎠

2
2 P ′d 2 ⎛ Vd ⎞
= − − ( P ′d )2 + 4 ⎜ T + ⎟ ... (14.19)
πd 3 πd 3 ⎝ 3⎠
Now the maximum shear stress at point B is calculated as
σ − σ2
Wmax = 1
2
2
2 ⎛ Vd ⎞
= ( P ′d ) 2 + 4 ⎜ T + ⎟ ... (14.20)
πd 3
⎝ 3⎠
Example 14.8
A propeller shaft of diameter 150 mm is subjected to a bending moment of 15 kN¹m and an end thrust
of 110 kN. It transmits 1500 kW of power at 200 rpm. Find the following parameters:
(a) the principal stresses and
(b) the maximum shear stress.
Solution: Given,
Diameter of the shaft d = 150 mm
End thrust, Pc = 110 kN
Power being transmitted, P = 1500 kW
2πNT
The power transmitted is P =
60 × 1000
P × 60 × 1000 1500 × 60 × 1000
which gives T = = = 71619.72 N¹m
2πN 2π × 200
The shear stress due to torsion is given as
16T 16 × 71619.72
W = 3 = N/m2 = 108 MPa
πd π × (150 × 10−3 )3
The net direct stress due to the combined effect of bending moment and thrust is
32 M 4 P ′
Vb – Vd = ± −
πd 3 π d 2
32 × 15 × 103 4 × 110 × 103

= ± − = 45.27 MPa – 6.22 MPa
π × (150 × 10−3 )3 π × (150 × 10−3 ) 2
For tension side of the shaft
Vdc = (+ 45.27 – 6.22) MPa = 39.05 MPa

σ 1
V1, 2 = d ′ ± σ d2 ′ + 4τ 2 ... (1)
2 2
39.05 1
= ± (39.05)2 + 4 × (108)2
2 2
= 19.52 ± 109.75 = 129.27 MPa, – 90.23 MPa Ans.
Hence, V1 = 129.27 MPa, V2 = – 90.23 MPa

σ1 − σ2 129.27 (90.23)
Wmax = = = 109.75 MPa Ans.
t 2 2
For compression side of the shaft

Vdc = (– 45.27 – 6.22) MPa = – 51.49 MPa
51.49 1
V1, 2 = – ± (− 51.49) 2 + 4 × (108) 2 (using equation (1))
2 2
= – 25.74 111.02 = 85.28 MPa, – 136.76 MPa Ans.
Hence, V1 = 85.28 MPa, V2 = – 136.76 MPa

σ1 − σ2 85.28 ( 136.76)
Wmaxc = = = 111.02 MPa Ans.
2 2
Example 14.9
A solid shaft of diameter 180 mm transmits 2000 kW of power at 300 rpm and is subjected to
a bending moment of 20 kN¹m. Calculate the maximum permissible end thrust on the shaft, if
maximum shear stress is limited to 75 MPa.
Solution: Given,
Diameter of the the shaft, d = 180 mm
Power being transmitted, P = 2000 kW
The power to be transmitted is given by
2πNT
P =
60 × 1000
P × 60 × 1000
or T =
2πN
2000 × 60 × 1000
= N¹m = 63662 N¹m
2π × 300
The shear stress is given as
16T 16 × 63662
W = 3 = N/m2 = 55.6 MPa
πd π × (180 × 10−3 )3

1
Wmax = σ2d + 4τ2
2
1
75 106 = σ2d + 4 × (55.6 × 106 ) 2
2
Solving for Vd , we get
Vd = 108 Pa = 100 MPa
32M 32 × 20 × 103
Vb = = N/m2 = 35 MPa
πd 3 π × (180 × 10−3 )3
The stress due to end thrust is
Vb – Vd = (35 – 100) MPa
= – 65 MPa = 65 MPa (Compressive)

Hence, the end thrust is
π
Pc = 65 106 (180 10–3)2 = 1.65 106 N Ans
4
14.6 OTHER CASES OF COMBINED LOADINGS
Some more general cases of combined loadings are considered here, in which members may be
VXEMHFWHG WR YDULRXV RWKHU W\SHV RI VWUHVVHV RWKHU WKDQ GLVFXVVHG EHIRUH7KH PHWKRGV IRU ¿QGLQJ
the combined effect of all these stresses are similar. Examples under this category include eccentric
loading, masonry dams, chimney and retaining walls.
14.6.1 Eccentric Loading on One Axis (Single Eccentricity)

Eccentric loading is a special case of combined bending and axial loads. For example, the
eccentric load on a short column produces bending moment as well as direct compressive load. In
Fig. 14.17 (a), a short column of cross-sectional area A and length l is subjected to an axial load P,
which passes through the centroid G of the cross-section. The compressive normal stress produced
in this case is equal to (P/A), which is distributed uniformly over the cross-section of the column.
(a) Axial load without eccentricity (e = 0) (b) Axial load with eccentricity ‘e’
Fig. 14.17
In many examples of engineering applications, the applied load does not pass through the centroid
of the section. This case is shown in Fig. 14.17 (b), where the axial load P is applied at any point
that lies on one of the centroidal axes of the cross-section, producing an eccentricity e from another
centroidal axis. The direct stresses produced in this case are not distributed uniformly over the
cross-section. At the same time, considerable bending effect is produced. In order to evaluate its
effect, the eccentric load is replaced by an axial direct load P and a bending moment M about
the axis, which equals to (P × e) as shown in Fig. 14.18. Hence, when a member is subjected
Fig. 14.18 Equivalence of eccentric loading.

to an eccentric load, it is equivalent to a member which is subjected to the combined loadings of

axial load and bending. The axial load produces direct compressive stress Vd which remains uniform
throughout the section and equals to (P/A), where A is the cross-sectional area of the column. The
bending moment MFDQEHGHWHUPLQHGIURPWKHÀH[XUHIRUPXODDVJLYHQEHORZ
σb M
=
x Iy
M M
which gives Vb = =
⎛ Iy ⎞ S
⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠
where Vb = Bending stress

S = Section modulus of the cross-section
Iy = Moment of inertia of the cross-section about y-axis
x = Distance from the neutral axis
Consider two points A and B at the base of the column as shown in Fig. 14.18. The bending
moment M produces bending stresses, namely the maximum tensile stress at point A and the
maximum compressive stress at point B. The normal stresses at points A and can be determined by
superimposing the direct and the bending stresses using the principle of superposition as given below.
The maximum normal stress at A is given as
P M
VA = – Vd + Vb = − + ... (14.21)
A S
P Pe
or VA = − + (substituting M = Pe) ... (14.22)
A S
The maximum normal stress at B is given as
P M P Pe
VB = − − = − −
A S A S
⎛P Pe ⎞
or VB = − ⎜⎝ + ⎟⎠ ... (14.23)
A S
It is important to note that the normal stress at B is always compressive, while the normal
stress at A may be compressive, tensile or zero depending upon the eccentricity of the load.
Equation (14.23) gives the maximum compressive stress at B. If a material is required to resist
only compression as in case of concrete, which is very weak in resisting tension, a condition
of maximum eccentricity is obtained. This condition ensures that no tensile stress is developed
anywhere in the members, and can be obtained by equating equation (14.22) to zero and solving
for e.
Now let us consider a rectangular cross-section of the member having width b and depth d as
shown in Fig. 14.19.
Fig. 14.19
The bending takes place about y-axis. The cross-sectional area A and the section modulus S are
obtained as
A = bd
1 3
Iy db
db 2
S = = 12 =
x ⎛b⎞ 6
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2
Substituting the values of A and S in equations (14.22) and (14.23), we have
P Pe P⎛ 6e ⎞
VA = – + = ⎜ −1 + ⎟ ... (14.24)
bd ⎛ db ⎞2
bd ⎝ b ⎠
⎜⎝ 6 ⎟⎠
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
P Pe ⎥
and VB = – ⎢ +
⎢ bd ⎛ db2 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎝ 6 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
P ⎛ 6e ⎞
= – ⎜1 + ⎟ ... (14.25)
bd ⎝ b ⎠
For maximum eccentricity condition, put VA = 0 in equation (14.24). It gives
b
e = ... (14.26)
6
This is the maximum eccentricity which ensures that the member is subjected to no tensile stress.
Example 14.10
A short piller of cross-section 500 mm × 400 mm shown in Fig. 14.20 is subjected to a compressive
force of 75 kN with an eccentricity of 60 mm. Determine the maximum and minimum normal stresses
induced in the cross-section.
Fig. 14.20
Solution: Given,
Compressive load on the pillar, P = 75 kN
Eccentricity of the load, e = 60 mm
Width of the cross-section, b = 500 mm
Depth of the cross-section, d = 400 mm
The area A of the cross-section is found as
A= b×d
= 500 mm × 400 mm = 2 × 105 mm2
The bending takes place about the y-axis, hence the moment of inertia I of the cross-section about
the y-axis is given as
1
Iy = × 400 × (500)3 mm4 = 4.16 × 109 mm4
12
Iy
Section modulus, S=
⎛ b⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2
4.16 × 109
= = 1.67 × 107 mm3
⎛ 500 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟
2 ⎠
The bending moment M is given as
M= P×e
= 75 × 103 × 60 N.mm
= 4.5 × 106 N.mm
The direct stress due to compressive load P is
P
Vd = –
A
75 × 103
= – N/mm2
2 × 105
= – 0.375 N/mm2
= 0.375 N/mm2 (Compressive)

M 4.5 × 106
Vb = = N/mm2
S 1.67 × 107
= 0.270 N/mm2
The bending stress is tensile on the face AD and compressive on the face BC.
The maximum stress on the face AD is given as
VAD = – Vd + Vb
= (– 0.375 + 0.270) N/mm2
= – 0.105 N/mm2 Ans.
The maximum stress on the face BC is given as

VBC = – Vd – Vb
= (– 0.375 – 0.270) N/mm2
= – 0.645 N/mm2 Ans.
Hence, both faces AD and BC are subjected to compressive stress.
14.6.2 Eccentric Loading on Two Axes (Double Eccentricity)

Single eccentricity is produced when the load is applied at any point on one of the centroidal axes
of the section, but away from other centroidal axis. On the other hand, when the load is applied in
such a manner that it does not lie on either of the centroidal axes, and is away from both axes, then
it produces double eccentricity, that is, eccentricity is produced on both axes as shown in Fig. 14.21.
Fig. 14.21 Double eccentricity on a section.
In order to evaluate the effect of double eccentricity, the eccentric load P is replaced by an equivalent
centroidal force and moments of the eccentric load about both centroidal axes. The equivalent centroidal
force is P and its bending moments about the axes are Mx and My. Using the principle of superposition,
WKHQRUPDOVWUHVVHVGXHWRD[LDOORDGDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQWVDUHDGGHGDOJHEUDLFDOO\WR¿QGWKHFRPELQHG
normal stress. For any point A (x, y) on the section, the equation of the combined normal stress V is given as
V = – Vd ± Vb
P Mx My
=– ± ± ... (14.27 (a))
A Sx Sy
P Pe y Pex
= – ± ±
A ⎛ Ix ⎞ ⎛ I y ⎞
⎜⎝ y ⎟⎠ ⎜ x ⎟
⎝ ⎠
P P y e y P x ex
Hence, V = − ± ± ... (14.27 (b))
A Ix Iy
where Vd = Direct stress due to axial load which is always compressive

Vb = Bending stress along the two centroidal axes
A = Cross-sectional area of the section
Mx = Bending moment about the x-axis
= Pey
My = Bending moment about the y-axis
= Pex
Sx = Section modulus along the x-axis

Sy = Section modulus along the y-axis
Ix = Moment of interta of the section about the x-axis
Iy = Moment of interta of the section about the y-axis
ex = Eccentricity on the x-axis
ey = Eccentricity on the y-axis
Example 14.11
A load of 5 kN is acting at one of the corner points D of a rectangular section ABCD as shown in
Fig. 14.22 (a). Determine the normal stresses at all the corner points.
(a) Load with double eccentricity (b) Equivalent load P and moments Mx and My
Fig. 14.22
Solution: Given,
Eccentric load, P = 5 kN
Width of the cross-section, b = 40 mm
= 40 × 10–3 m
Depth of the cross-section, d = 60 mm
= 60 × 10–3 m
40
Eccentricity on x-axis, ex = = 20 mm
2
= 20 × 10–3 m
60
Eccentricity on y-axis, ey = = 30 mm
2
= 30 × 10–3 m
The eccentric load is converted into an axial compressive force P and bending moments Mx and
My as shown in Fig. 14.22 (b).
The bending moments Mx and My are given as
Mx = P × ey
= 5 × 30 × 10–3 = 0.15 kN.m
My = P × ex
= 5 × 20 × 10–3 = 0.1 kN.m
The cross-sectional area A is given as
A= b×d
= (40 × 10–3) × (60 × 10–3) = 2.4 × 10–3 m2
The moments of inertia of the cross-section about x and y axes are given as
× (40 × 10−3 ) × ( 60 × 10−3 ) = 7.2 × 10–7 m4

1 3
Ix =
12
1
Iy = × (60 × 10−3 ) × ( 40 × 10−3 )3 = 3.2 × 10–7 m4
12
The section moduli of the cross-section about x and y axes are given as
Ix
Sx =
y
7.2 × 10−7
= = 2.4 × 10–5 m3
30 × 10−3
Iy
Sy =
x
3.2 × 10−7
= = 1.6 × 10–5 m3
20 × 10−3
Now the normal stresses at the corner points A, B, C and D of the cross-section are obtained using
equation (14.27 (a)) as given below:
P Mx My
VA = − + −
A Sx Sy
5 0.15 0.1
= − −3
+ −5
−
2.4 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10−5
= (– 2083.34 + 6250 – 6250) kN/m2

= – 2083.34 kN/m2
= 2083.34 kN/m2 (Compressive) Ans.
The direct compressive stress (P/A) is uniform across the cross-section.
P Mx My
VB = – + +
A Sx Sy
= (– 2083. 34 + 6250 + 6250) kN/m2
= 10416.66 kN/m2 (Tensile) Ans.
P Mx My
VC = − − +
A Sx Sy
= (– 2083.34 – 6250 + 6250) kN/m2 = – 2083.34 kN/m2

P Mx My
VD = − − −
A Sx Iy
= (– 2083.34 – 6250 – 6250) kN/m2 = – 14583.34 kN/m2
14.6.3 Biaxial Bending

The biaxial bending involves bending of a member along two axes. It occurs when the applied load
is inclined at an angle with the vertical plane of symmetry (xy-plane) as shown in Fig. 14.23.
Fig. 14.23
A point load P is applied at the free end of the member at an angle T with the y-axis of symmetry. To
¿QGWKHHIIHFWRIWKHORDGLWLVUHVROYHGLQWRWZRFRPSRQHQWVPy and Pz along y and z axes respectively,
which also happen to be the axes of symmetry of the section of the member. Both P y and Pz contribute
in the bending of the member by producing bending moments about the two axes. The load P y bends
the member about the horizontal axis (x-axis) and the load Pz bends the member about the vertical
axis (y-axis). The bending stresses are produced by the bending moment components along the
longitudinal direction. Using the principle of superposition, these stresses are added algebraically
WR¿QGWKHFRPELQHGEHQGLQJVWUHVV,WLVLOOXVWUDWHGLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH
Example 14.12
A 4 m long simple beam having cross-section 200 mm × 250 mm carries a central point load of
15 kN and is supported at the ends in the tilted position as shown in Fig. 14.24. Determine the
maximum bending stresses produced in the beam.
Fig. 14.24
Solution: Given,
Point load, W = 15 kN
Angle of tilt of the beam, T = 30°
Calculation of Moments of Inertia

The moment of inertia of the cross-section of the beam about the z-axis is found as
1
Iz = × bd 3
12
1
= × 200 × (250)3
12
= 2.6 × 108 mm4
= 2.6 × 108 × 10–12 m4

= 2.6 × 10–4 m4
The moment of inertia of the cross-section about the y-axis is given as
1
Iy = × db3
12
1
= × 250 × (200)3
12
= 1.67 × 108 mm4
= 1.67 × 108 × 10–12 m4
= 1.67 × 10–4 m4
Calculation of section modulus

The section modulus of the cross-section along z and y axes are given as
Iz
Sz =
y
2.6 × 10−4
= = 2.08 × 10–3 m3
⎛ 250 × 10−3 ⎞
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
Iy
Sy =
z
1.67 × 10−4
= = 1.67 × 10–3 m3
⎛ 200 × 10−3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Load and bending moment components

The point load W is resolved into components Wy and Wz along y and z axes respectively as
Wy = W cos 30°
= 15 × cos 30°
= 13 kN
Wz = W sin 30°
= 15 × sin 30°
= 7.5 kN
Wl ,
Since the maximum bending moment due to point load W is which occurs at the midspan of
4
the beam, hence the bending moment components M y and Mz about the axes are given as
Wz l
My =
4
7.5 × 4
=
4
= 7.5 kN.m
My produces tension on the face AD and compression on the face BC of the beam.
Wy l 13 × 4
Mz = =
4 4
= 13 kN.m
Mz produces tension in the layer CD and compression in the layer AB of the beam.
Calculation of bending stresses

The maximum bending stress due to bending about the z-axis is given as
Mz
V1 =
Sz
13 × 103 1
= −3
× 6 MPa
2.08 × 10 10
= 6.25 MPa
The maximum bending stress due to bending about the y-axis is given as
My
V2 = I
y
7.5 × 103 1
= −3
× 6 MPa
1.67 × 10 10
= 4.5 MPa
Now the bending stresses at the corner points A, B, C and D of the cross-section of the beam at the
midspan are found using the principle of superposition as
VA = – V1 + V2
= (– 6.25 + 4.5) MPa
= – 1.75 MPa
VB = – V1 – V2
= (– 6.25 – 4.5) MPa
= – 10.75 MPa
VC = + V1 – V2
= (+ 6.25 – 4.5) MPa
= + 1.75 MPa (Tensile)
VD = + V1 + V2
= (+ 6.25 + 4.5) MPa
= + 10.75 MPa (Tensile)
Hence,
Maximum tensile bending stress = VD = 10.75 MPa Ans.
Maximum compressive bending stress = VB = 10.75 MPa Ans.
14.6.4 Loading on a Chimney

$PDVRQU\FKLPQH\LVXVXDOO\DYHUWLFDOF\OLQGULFDOVWUXFWXUHZKLFKLVXVHGWRHMHFWÀXHJDVHVRU
smoke to the atmosphere. It has a hollow circular, square or rectangular cross-section. The chimney
forms a case of combined bending and axial loads. It is subjected to horizontal wind pressure which
causes bending and its self-weight produces direct stress. The normal stresses due to bending and
direct loads are superimposed by using the principle of superposition taking due accounts of positive
RUQHJDWLYHVLJQVRIWKHVWUHVVHVWR¿QGWKHLUFRPELQHGHIIHFW
The common cross-sections of a chimney are shown in Fig. 14.25.
(a) A circular section (b) A square section (c) A rectangular section
Fig. 14.25
Let us consider a cylindrical chimney of height H, outer diameter D and inner diameter d, being
subjected to a wind pressure p as shown in Fig. 14.26. The wind pressure acts horizontally on
the chimney and its intensity depends on the shape of the exposed projected area and height of
the chimney. It tends to bend the chimney, and the maximum bending moment is produced at the base
of the chimney, which forms the most critical point.
Fig. 14.26 A cylindrical chimney.
The force P produced by the wind pressure is found as

P = p × Ap × C ...(14.28)
n
where p = Wind pressure = K.y
K = A constant
y = Height component
n = A positive exponent
Ap = Projected area
C &RHI¿FLHQWRIZLQGSUHVVXUHRUVKDSHIDFWRUWKDWYDULHVEHWZHHQDQG
IRUFLUFXODUVHFWLRQ
IRUVTXDUHRUUHFWDQJXODUVHFWLRQ
7KHZLQGIRUFHLVDVVXPHGWRDFWDWRQHKDOIRIWKHKHLJKWRIWKHFKLPQH\
The maximum bending moment due to the wind force PRFFXUVDWWKHEDVHRIWKHFKLPQH\VLPLODU
WRDFDQWLOHYHUEHDPORDGHGZLWKDSRLQWORDGDWWKHIUHHHQGJLYHQDV
H
M =P× ...(14.29)
2
7KHPD[LPXPEHQGLQJVWUHVVXVLQJÀH[XUHIRUPXODFDQEHH[SUHVVHGDV
⎛ D⎞
M ×⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
Vb =
Iy
where Iy = Moment of inertia of the cross-section of the chimney about the centroidal
axis (the y-axis)
π
= ( D4 − d 4 )
64
On substituting M and Iy in the equation of bending stress, we get
16 PHD
Vb = ...(14.30)
π ( D4 − d 4 )
Effect of self-weight
The self-weight W of the chimney acts through its centre of gravity (G). It produces direct stress,
which is uniformly distributed across the cross-section of the chimney, and is always compressive,
given as
W 4W
Vd = = ...(14.31)
A π ( D 2
− d2)
where Vd = Direct compressive stress
A = Cross-sectional area of the chimney
π
= ( D2 − d 2 )
4
The self-weight of the chimney can be found as
π
W = ρ × (D − d ) × H × g
2 2
...(14.32)
4
where U = Density of the masonry material
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2
WLVXVXDOO\H[SUHVVHGDVXQLWZHLJKWVSHFL¿FZHLJKWJ) in kN/m3 or N/m3.
Example 14.13
A 25 m high masonry cylindrical chimney having outside diameter 2.5 m and inside diameter 1.25 m
is subjected to a horizontal wind pressure that varies as y 2/3, where y is the height above the ground.
If the unit weight of masonry is 22.4 kN/m3WKHFRHI¿FLHQWRIZLQGSUHVVXUHLVDQGWKHSUHVVXUH
at a height of 30 m is 1.5 kN/m2, determine the maximum and minimum stresses induced at the base
of the chimney.
Solution: Given,
Height of the chimney, H = 25 m
Outside diameter of the chimney, D = 2.5 m
Inside diameter of the chimney, d = 1.25 m
Shape factor, C
Unit weight of masonay Jm = 22.4 kN/m3
The cross-sectional area A of the chimney is found as

π 2
A= (D − d 2 )
4
π
= ⎡( 2.5)2 − (1.25)2 ⎤ = 3.68 m2
4⎣ ⎦
The moment of inertia of the cross-section of the chimney about the centroidal axis is determined
as
π π
Ix = Iy = (D4 − d 4 ) = ⎡( 2.5) 4 − (1.25) 4 ⎤⎦ = 1.8 m4
64 64 ⎣
Calculation of direct stress

The weight of the chimney W is given as
W = Unit weight of masonry × Volume of the chimney
= Jm × A × H
= 22.4 × 3.68 × 25 kN = 2060.8 kN
The direct stress V d due to the weight of the chimney is

compressive, given as
W 2060.8
Vd = – = −
A 3.68
= – 560 kPa
= 560 kPa (Compressive)

Calculation of bending stress
The wind pressure can be expressed as
p = K.y2/3
1.5 = K. (30) 2/3
which gives
K = 0.155
Hence, p = 0.155 y2/3
Now consider a chimney element of thickness dy at a height y Fig. 14.27

from the base of the chimney as shown in Fig. 14.27. Two points
A and B are considered at the base of the chimney.
The force exerted on the element by the wind pressure p can be expressed as
dP = p × Ap × C
= 0.155 y2/3 × 2.5 × dy × 0.6 (as Ap = D × dy)
= 0.2325 y2/3 dy
The moment of the force on the element about the base of the chimney is
dM = 0.2325 y2/3 dy × y
= 0.2325 y5/3 dy
Hence, the total moment of the wind pressure about the base is given as
25 25 25
∫ dM = ∫ 0.2325 y ∫
5/ 3
M= dy = 0.2325 y 5 / 3dy
0 0 0
25
⎡ ⎤ ⎛ ⎞
25
⎢ y 5 / 3+1 ⎥ ⎜y ⎟
8/3
0.2325 × 3
= 0.2325 ⎢ ⎥ = 0.2325 ⎜ ⎟ = × 258 / 3
⎢ ⎛ 5 + 1⎞ ⎥ ⎜⎝
8
⎟
8
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ 3 ⎠0
0
= 465.9 kN.m
Now the bending stress Vb is determined as
M ⎛ D⎞ 465.9 ⎛ 2.5 ⎞
Vb = ×⎜ ⎟ = ×⎜ ⎟ = 323.54 kPa
Iy ⎝ 2 ⎠ 1.8 ⎝ 2 ⎠
The tensile bending stress is produced at A and compressive bending stress at B.
Hence,
The maximum normal stress at B is
Vmax = VB = – Vd – Vb
= (– 560 – 323. 54) kPa = – 883.54 kPa
= 883.54 kPa (Compressive) Ans.
The minimum normal stress at A is
Vmin = VA = – Vd + Vb = (– 560 + 323.54) kPa
= – 236.46 kPa = 236.46 kPa (Compressive) Ans.
14.6.5 Loading on a Dam

A dam is a vertical engineering structure, which is constructed across a river to retain water for the
purpose of irrigation or electricity generation. It is usually of rectangular or trapezoidal section, and
is made of earth, masonry or cement concrete.
Loading on a dam is another case of combined bending and axial loads. It is subjected to water
pressure and its self-weight.
Let us consider a trapezoidal dam of unit length having cross-section ABCD as shown in Fig. 14.28
with the following details.
Fig. 14.28 A trapezoidal dam subjected to water pressure of height h.

Let H = Height of the dam
l = Length of the dam = 1 m (assumed)
a = Top width of the dam
b = Base width of the dam
h = Height or depth of water retained by the dam
Jw 6SHFL¿FZHLJKWRUXQLWZHLJKWRIZDWHU
= Uw g = 9800 N/m3
Uw = Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2
Jm 6SHFL¿FZHLJKWRUXQLWZHLJKWRIWKHGDPPDWHULDO
= Um g
Um = Density of the dam material
P = Water pressure
Weight consideration
The weight of the dam acts in the downward direction through its centre of gravity G. The distance
of the C.G. from the vertical face AD of the dam is x , given as
x = a + ab + b
2 2
(see Table 3.1)...(14.33)

3 ( a + b)
The weight per metre length of the dam is given as

W 6SHFL¿FZHLJKWRIWKHGDPPDWHULDO× Volume of the dam
1
= γ m × × ( a + b) × H × 1 (l = 1 m)
2
γ ( a + b) H
= m ... (14.34)
2
The weight of the dam produces direct stress Vd at the base, and is given as
W W W
Vd = − = − =– ... (14.35)
b×l b ×1 b
The stress is uniformly distributed across the base, and is always compressive.
Pressure consideration
Water exerts horizontal pressure on the dam. The pressure is zero at the free surface of water and
increases linearly with increase in depth to become maximum at the base of the dam. The total water
pressure P acts in the horizontal direction at one-third height of water (h/3) from the base of the dam,
because of the triangular pressure distribution, and is given as
P = Area of the triangular pressure distribution
1 γ wh 2
= 2 × γ wh × h = 2
...(14.36)
In the above equation, the base of the pressure triangle is the water pressure at the base, which
is Uwgh = Jwh. P causes sliding of the dam. To balance it, the maximum frictional resistance PW is
setup at the base of the dam, where PLVWKHFRHI¿FLHQWRIIULFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHGDPPDWHULDODQGHDUWK
Similarly, P also produces an overturning moment, which can overturn the dam about the point B,
called toe. The weight of the dam W provides a restoring moment about B.
Combined effect
The weight W, which constitutes the stabilizing moment, can be transferred to act at points O, using
the principle of transmissibility so that both forces W and P are acting at O, and their resultant force
R cuts the base of the dam at point E.
Let EF = x = Distance between the line of action of W and E

h
W×x= P×
3
Ph
which gives x= ... (14.37)
3W
The vertical component of R, that is, the weight W, while acting at E forms a case of eccentric
loading on the base along with producing a direct compressive stress Vd at the base of the dam as
given by equation (14.35). The eccentric loading produces bending moment, which in turn, produces
bending stress at the base.
The bending moment M about the centre of the base, that is, point H is given as
M = We ...(14.38)
The bending stress Vb produced on the base on 1 m length is given as
M.
Vb = y (using bending formula)
I
b
We ×
2
= 1
× 1 × b3
12
6We
= ...(14.39)
b2
The bending stress is tensile at A and compressive at B.
Hence,
The maximum normal stress produced at B is
Vmax = – Vd – Vb ...(14.40)
W 6We
= – − 2
b b
W ⎛ 6e ⎞
= – ⎜⎝1 + ⎟⎠ ...(14.41)
b b
The minimum normal stress produced at A is
Vmin = – Vd + Vb ...(14.42)
W 6We
+ 2 = –
W ⎛ 6e ⎞
= –
b b ⎜⎝1 − ⎟⎠ ...(14.43)
b b
The normal stress at B is always compressive, whereas the normal stress at A may be tensile or
compressive both. The development of tensile normal stress at A is not desirable as the dam material
cannot resist tension. At the same time, the maximum normal stress at B must be less than the
permissible value of the compressive stress of the dam material, otherwise the dam will be crushed.
Eccentricity
The eccentricity e is expressed as
⎛ b⎞
e = ( x + x) − ⎜ ⎟ ... (14.44)
⎝ 2⎠
In case ( x + x ) is greater than ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ , the eccentricity is given by equation (14.44), and when ( x + x )
b
⎝ 2⎠
is less than ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ , then the eccentricity can be given as
b
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ b⎞
e = ⎜ ⎟ − ( x + x) ...(14.45)
⎝ 2⎠
For no tension to develop at point A on the base of the dam, equation (14.43) is equated to zero,
which gives
b
e= ...(14.46)
6
b
Hence, for the dam to be safer in tension, e ≤ .
6
Safety check for the dam
A dam is tested for four parameters, namely the maximum compressive stress at base, no tension
FRQGLWLRQDWEDVHVOLGLQJDQGRYHUWXUQLQJ7KHIROORZLQJFRQGLWLRQVVKRXOGEHIXO¿OOHG
z The maximum compressive stress Vmax developed at the base of the dam, as given by equation
(14.40), must be less than the permissible compressive stress of the dam material to prevent
crushing of the dam.
z Eccentricity e ≤ b to ensure that no tension is developed at the base of the dam.
6
μW
z Factor of safety (n) against sliding = ≥ 1.5 , wherHLVWKHFRHI¿FLHQWRIIULFWLRQEHWZHHQ
P
dam material and earth.
Resisting moment W (b − x )
z Factor of safety (n) against overturning = = ≥2
Overturning moment ⎛ h⎞
P×⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
Example 14.14
A masonry dam of trapezoidal section has a top width of 2.5 m, base width of 5 m and a height of
12 m. It retains water to a depth of 10 m. Determine the maximum and the minimum stress induced
DWWKHEDVH7KHVSHFL¿FZHLJKWRIPDVRQU\LVN1P3DQGWKHVSHFL¿FZHLJKWRIZDWHULVN1P3.
Fig. 14.29
Given,
Height of the dam, H = 12 m
Top width of the dam, a = 2.5 m
Base width of the dam, b =5m
Height of water retained, h = 10 m
6SHFL¿FZHLJKWRIZDWHU Jw = 10 kN/m3 = 10 × 103 N/m3
6SHFL¿FZHLJKWRIPDVRQU\ Jm = 20 kN/m3 = 20 × 103 N/m3
Let us consider 1 m length of the dam.
The cross-sectional area of the dam is
1
A = × ( a + b) × H
2
1
= × ( 2.5 + 5) × 12 = 45 m2
2
The moment of inertia of the base section per metre length of the dam is given as
1 1
I = × 1 × b3 = × 1× 53 = 10.42 m4
12 12
The weight per metre length of the dam is

γ m ( a + b) H 20 × ( 2.5 + 5) × 12
W = = = 900 kN
2 2
The distance x at which the weight W acts, is given as
x = a + ab + b
2 2

3 ( a + b)
( 2.5)2 + ( 2.5 × 5) + (5)2
= = 1.944 m
3 ( 2.5 + 5)
The horizontal water pressure P per metre length is obtained using equation (14.36) as
γ w h2 10 × (10) 2
P = = = 500 kN
2 2
h 10
P acts at = = 3.34 m from the base.
3 3
W × x = P × 3.34
P × 3.34 500 × 3.34

x= = = 1.855 m
W 900
Now ( x + x ) = 1.944 + 1.855 = 3.8 m

b 5
and = = 2.5 m
2 2
The eccentricity e is given as
b
e = ( x + x ) − = 3.8 – 2.5 m = 1.3 m
2
The bending moment M is given as
M = We (using equation (14.38))
= 900 × 1.3 = 1170 kN.m
6We
Vb = (using equation (14.39))
b2
6 × 900 × 1.3
= = 280.8 kN/m2 = 280.8 kPa
52
The direct stress due to weight W is
W
Vd = − (using equation (14.35))
b
900
= − = – 180 kN/m2 = 180 kPa (Compressive)
5
Hence,
The maximum normal stress at B is
Vmax = – (Vd + Vb) (using equation (14.40))
= – (180 + 280.8) kPa = – 460.8 kPa
= 460.8 kPa (Compressive) Ans.
The minimum normal stress at A is
Vmin = – Vd + Vb (using equation (14.42))
= (– 180 + 280.8) kPa
= 100.8 kPa (Tensile) Ans.
14.6.6 Loading on Retaining Walls

Retaining walls are the engineering structures which are used to retain earth, soil, sand etc. and
sustain their lateral pressures. Basement walls and dams are the examples of retaining walls. Loading
on retaining walls is a case of combined bending and axial loads. The walls are subjected to active
soil pressure that acts horizontally. The design analysis of the retaining walls involves ensuring their
VWDELOLW\DJDLQVWVOLGLQJDQGRYHUWXUQLQJURWDWLRQDQG¿QGLQJWKHPD[LPXPVRLOSUHVVXUHGHYHORSHG
at their base. The trapezoidal section is the most commonly used cross-section for the retaining walls.
A trapezoidal retaining wall is shown in Fig. 14.30 showing all the relevant parameters.
Fig. 14.30 A trapezoidal retaining wall.
The stress analysis of a retaining wall is similar to that of a dam. We have seen in case of a dam
that water retained exerts horizontal pressure on the dam, but here it is soil which the wall retains,
and exerts lateral active pressure on the vertical face of the retaining wall in the horizontal direction.
It is equivalent to a single horizontal force that acts as a resultant, and is called lateral thrust.
Considering 1 m length of the retaining wall, the total lateral thrust P DFFRUGLQJ WR 5DQNLQH¶V
theory, is given as
γ s h 2 1 − sin φ
P= ⋅ ...(14.47)
2 1 + sin φ
where h = Height of the soil retained
= Height of the retaining wall (H)
Js 6SHFL¿FZHLJKWRUXQLWZHLJKWRIWKHVRLOUHWDLQHG
I = Angle of repose of soil
The soil pressure distribution diagram is triangular, hence the thrust P acts at one-third height of
the pressure diagram, and has the tendency to rotate the wall about the point B, called toe. Resistance
to this rotation is offered by the weight of the wall itself and by the weight of the soil above the base.
The distances x and x are found by using equations (14.33) and (14.37) respectively. Equations
(14.35) and (14.39) are used to determine direct and bending stresses respectively. The maximum
and minimum pressure intensities at the base of the wall are determined by using equations (14.40)
or (14.41) and equations (14.42) or (14.43) respectively.
Example 14.15
A masonry retaining wall of trapezoidal section is 9 m high, 2 m wide at top and 4 m wide at the
bottom. The vertical face of the wall retains soil of unit weight of 12 kN/m 3 to a full height. Determine
the maximum and minimum pressure intensities at the base of the wall. The unit weight of masonry
is 20 kN/m3 and the angle of repose of soil is 30°.
Solution : Refer Fig. 14.31.
Given,
Height of the retaining wall, H =9m
Height of the soil retained, h =H=9m
Top width of the retaining wall, a =2m
Base width of the retaining wall, b = 4 m,
Unit weight of masnory, Jm = 20 kN/m3
Unit weight of soil, Js = 12 kN/m3
Angle of repose of soil, I = 30°
Let us consider 1 m length of the retaining wall. The weight of the retaining wall is given as
1
W = γ m × × ( a + b) × H × 1
2
1
= 20 × × (2 + 4) × 9 = 540 kN
2
Fig. 14.31
The weight of the retaining wall acts at its centre of gravity G. The distance of the C.G. from the
vertical face AD of the wall is x , given as
x = a + ab + b = 2 + 2 × 4 + 4 = 1.56 m
2 2 2 2
3 ( a + b) 3 ( 2 + 4)
The lateral pressure of the soil exerted on the vertical face AD is
γ s H 2 1 − sin φ
P= ⋅
2 1 + sin φ
12 × 92 1 − sin 30°
= × = 162 kN
2 1 + sin 30°
The lateral pressure P and weight W produce a resultant force R, which cuts the base at point E as

H
W×x= P×
3
P×H
or x=
3W
162 × 9
= = 0.9 m
3 × 540
b 4
H is the midpoint of the base, that is, AH = BH = = =2m
2 2
Now ( x + x) = (1.56 + 0.9) m = 2.46 m
b
e= ( x + x) −
2
= (2.46 – 2) m = 0.46 m
Point A on the base of the retaining wall experiences tension because of eccentric loading by the
weight of the wall and point B experiences compression.
Hence,
The maximum pressure intensity produced at B is
W ⎛ 6e ⎞
Vmax = − ⎜1 + ⎟ (using equation (14.41))
b⎝ b ⎠
540 ⎛ 6 × 0.46 ⎞
= − ⎜1 + ⎟ = – 228.15 kN/m
2
4 ⎝ 4 ⎠
The minimum pressure intensity produced at A is

W ⎛ 6e ⎞
Vmin = − ⎜1 − ⎟ (using equation (14.43))
b⎝ b ⎠
540 ⎛ 6 × 0.46 ⎞
= − ⎜1 − ⎟ = – 41.85 kN/m
2
4 ⎝ 4 ⎠
Example 14.16
Determine the base width of a masonry trapezoidal retaining wall of 8 m height and 2 m top width to
retain earth upto the top. Weight of soil and masonry are 18 kN/m3 and 22 kN/m3 respectively. Angle
RIUHSRVHRIVRLOLV$VVXPHWRSRIWKHHDUWKLVKRUL]RQWDODQGEDFN¿OOLVYHUWLFDO$OVRFDOFXODWH
the maximum base pressure at the known base width.
Fig. 14.32
*LYHQ
+HLJKWRIWKHUHWDLQLQJZDOO H = 8m
+HLJKWRIWKHVRLOUHWDLQHG h = H=8m
7RSZLGWKRIWKHUHWDLQLQJZDOO a = 2 m
8QLWZHLJKWRIVRLO Js = 18 kN/m3
8QLWZHLJKWRIPDVRQU\ Jm = 22 kN/m3
$QJOHRIUHSRVHRIVRLO I = 30°
Let b be the base width which ensures no tension at the base of the retaining wall. Consider 1 m length
of the retaining wall.
The total thrust exerted by soil, which acts horizontally on the vertical face AD of the wall is
γ s H 2 1 − sin φ
P= ⋅
2 1 + sin φ
18 × 82 1 − sin 30°
= × = 192 kN
2 1 + sin 30°
The weight of the retaining wall W is given as
1
W = γ m × 2 × ( a + b) × H × 1
1
= 22 × × ( 2 + b) × 8 × 1 = 88 (2 + b) kN
2
The distance x is calculated as
a 2 + ab + b2
x= –
3 ( a + b)
2 2 + 2b + b 2 4 + 2b + b 2
= – =
3 ( 2 + b) 3 ( 2 + b)

H
W×x= P×
3
PH
which gives x=
3W
192 × 8 5.82
= =
3 × 88 (2 + b) ( 2 + b)
4 + 2b + b 2 5.82
Now ( x + x) = +
3 ( 2 + b) ( 2 + b)
4 + 2b + b2 + (3 × 5.82) 21.46 + 2b + b2
= =
3 ( 2 + b) 3 ( 2 + b)
b 21.46 + 2b + b2 b
e = ( x + x) − = −
2 3 ( 2 + b) 2
For no tension to develop at the base of the retaining wall, we have

b
e = (using equation (14.46))
6
21.46 + 2b + b2 b b
− =
3 ( 2 + b) 2 6
21.46 + 2b + b2 b b 2b
= + =
3 ( 2 + b) 6 2 3
64.38 + 6b + 3b2 = 12b + 6b2

6b2 – 3b2 + 12b – 6b – 64.38 = 0
3b2 + 6b – 64.38 = 0
− 6 ± (6) 2 − 4 × 3 × ( −64.38)
which gives b = 2×3
− 6 ± 28.43
=
6
= 3.74 m or – 5.74 m
Negative value of b does not carry any meaning, therefore it is neglected.
Accept b = 3.74 m
Hence, the base width of the retaining wall is b = 3.74 m Ans.
Now the maximum compressive pressure at the base of the wall is given as
W ⎛ 6e ⎞
Vmax = ⎜1 + ⎟ (using equation (14.41))
b⎝ b ⎠
88 ( 2 + b) ⎡ 6e ⎤
=
b ⎢⎣1 + b ⎥⎦
88 ( 2 + 3.74) ⎡ 6 × 3.74 ⎤ ⎛ b⎞
⎜⎝ e = ⎟⎠
=
3.74 ⎢⎣1 + 3.74 × 6 ⎥⎦ 6
= 270.11 kN/m2 Ans.
Example 14.17
A 5 m high masonry retaining wall has top width of 1 m and base width of 3 m. Upto what height
a soil weighing 15 kN/m3 can be retained by the wall so that the maximum pressure at the base is
1.2 times the minimum pressure at the base. The weight of masonry is 20 kN/m3 and the angle of
repose of soil is 30°.
Solution:
Refer Fig. 14.33.
Fig. 14.33
Given,
Base width of the retaining wall, b =3m
Unit weight of masonry, Jm = 20 kN/m3
Let h be the height of soil retained against the vertical face AD of the retaining wall and consider
1 m length of the wall.
The distance x from the face AD, where the centre of gravity of the weight of the retaining wall
acts, is given as
a 2 + ab + b2
x= (using equation (14.33))
3 ( a + b)
12 + 1 × 3 + 32 1+ 3 + 9
= = = 1.083 m
3 (1 + 3) 3× 4
The total thrust due to pressure of soil of height h exerted on the face AD is given as
γ s h 2 1 − sin φ
P= ⋅
2 1 + sin φ
15h 2 1 − sin 30°

= × = 2.5 h2
2 1 + sin 30°
The weight of the retaining wall is
1
W = γ m × × ( a + b) × H × 1
2
1 1
= 20 × 2 × (1 + 3) × 5 × 1 = 20 × × 4 × 5 = 200 kN
2
Using ¦ME = 0, we have
h
W × x = P×
3
Ph
x= ...(1)
3W
On substituting P and W in equation (1), we get
2.5h 2 × h 2.5h3
= =
3 × 200 600
The eccentricity e is calculated as

b
e = ( x + x) −
2
2.5h3 3
= 1.083 + −
600 2
2.5h 3
= − 0.417 ...(2)
600
The maximum pressure (ignoring sign) exerted at the base of the retaining wall is
W ⎛ 6e ⎞
Vmax = ⎜⎝1 + ⎟⎠ (using equation (14.41))
b b
The minimum pressure (ignoring sign) exerted at the base of the retaining wall is
W ⎛ 6e ⎞
Vmin = ⎜1 − ⎟⎠ (using equation (14.43))
b⎝ b
Given, Vmax = 1.2 Vmin
W ⎛ 6e ⎞ W ⎛ 6e ⎞
or ⎜⎝1 + ⎟⎠ = 1.2 × ⎜⎝1 − ⎟⎠
b b b b
6e 7.2e
1+ = 1.2 −
b b
6e 7.2e
+ = 1.2 – 1
b b
(6 + 7.2)e
= 0.2
b
13.2e
= 0.2
b
13.2 e = 0.2 × b
= 0.2 × 3= 0.6 (on substituting b)
which gives
e = 0.0454 m
On substituting the value of e in equation (2), we have
2.5 h 3
0.0454 = − 0.417
600
2.5h3
or = 0.0454 + 0.417 = 0.4624
600
0.4624 × 600
h3 = = 110.976
2.5
which gives
h = 4.8 m
Hence, the height of soil filled up, h = 4.8 m Ans.
Example 14.18
A masonry retaining wall of trapezoidal section has a height of 4.5 m. Its top width is 0.6 m and base
width is 2.4 m. The vertical face of the wall retains soil of unit weight of 12 kN/m3 to a full height.
Angle of repose of soil is 30°. If no tension in the wall is to be permitted, check the safety of the wall
at the base. If unsafe, calculate the height upto which the wall at the top with a width of 0.6 m should
be raised so that no tension develops at the base. Unit weight of masonry is 20 kN/m 3.
Fig. 14.34
Given,
Height of the retaining wall, H = 4.5 m
Height of the soil retained, h = H = 4.5 m
Top width of the retaining wall, a = 0.6 m
Base width of the retaining wall, b = 2.4 m
Angle of repose of soil, I = 30°.
Consider 1 m length of the retaining wall.
The total thrust P exerted by soil on the vertical face AD of the wall is given as
ys H 2 1 − sin φ
P= ⋅
2 1 + sin φ
12 × 4.52 1 − sin 30°

= × = 40.5 kN
2 1 + sin 30°
The weight of the retaining wall W is given as
1
W = γ m × 2 × ( a + b) × H × 1
1
= 20 × × (0.6 + 2.4) × 4.5 × 1 = 135 kN
2
The distance x is calculated as
x = a + ab + b
2 2
3 ( a + b)
(0.6) 2 + (0.6 × 2.4) + (2.4) 2

= = 0.84 m
3 × (0.6 + 2.4)

H
W × x = P×
3
PH 40.5 × 4.5
which gives x= = = 0.45 m
3W 3 × 135

b
e = ( x + x) −
2
2.4
= (0.84 + 0.45) − = 0.09 m
2
Safety check
For no tension to develop at the base of the retaining wall, we have
b 2.4
e= = = 0.4 m
6 6
Since 0.09 m < 0.4 m, hence the wall is safe in tension at the base of the wall. Ans.
Example 14.19
A 6 m high masonry retaining wall of top width 1 m and base width 3 m retains earth level with the
top on its vertical back. Safe bearing capacity of soil is 18 t/m27KHFRHI¿FLHQWRIIULFWLRQEHWZHHQ
wall and earth = 0.6, unit weight of soil is 1920 kgf/m3 and unit weight of masonry is 2500 kgf/m3.
Angle of repose of soil is 30°. Examine the stability of the wall.
Solution:
Refer Fig. 14.35.
Given,
Height of the soil retained, h =H=6m
&RHI¿FLHQWRIIULFWLRQEHWZHHQZDOODQGHDUWK

Unit weight of soil, Js = 1920 kgf/m3
Unit weight of masonry, Jm = 2500 kgf/m3
Fig. 14.35
Considering 1 m length of the retaining wall, the total lateral thrust P acting on the vertical face of
WKHZDOODFFRUGLQJWR5DQNLQH¶VWKHRU\LVJLYHQDV
ys h 2 1 − sin φ
P= ⋅
2 1 + sin φ
1920 × 62 1 − sin 30°

= × = 11520 kgf
2 1 + sin 30°
The weight of the retaining wall is given as
1
W = γ m × 2 × ( a + b) × H × 1
1
= 2500 × × (1 + 3) × 6 × 1 = 30,000 kgf
2
The weight of the retaining wall acts at its centre of gravity G ZKLFK LV GH¿QHG E\ WKH GLVWDQFH
x , given as
x = a + ab + b = 1 + 1 × 3 + 3
2 2 2 2
3 ( a + b) 3 (1 + 3)
1+ 3 + 9
= = 1.083 m
3× 4

h
W × x = P× 3
Ph
which gives x=
3W
11520 × 6
= = 0.768 m
3 × 30, 000
The eccentricity e is calculated as

b
e = ( x + x) −
2
3
= 1.083 + 0.768 − = 0.351 m
2
Safety check against crushing
The maximum compressive stress developed at the base of the wall is given as
W ⎛ 6e ⎞
Vmax = ⎜1 + ⎟ (using equation (14.41))
b⎝ b ⎠
30, 000 ⎛ 6 × 0.351 ⎞

⎜1 +
= 2
⎟ = 17020 kgf/m
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
The bearing capacity of soil is 18 t/m2 = 18,000 kgf/m2.
Since the maximum compressive stress developed at the base is less than the bearing capacity of
soil, hence the retaining wall is safe against crushing.
Safety check against sliding

The maximum frictional resistance setup at the base of the retaining wall is
μW = 0.6 × 30,000 = 18,000 kgf
Maximum frictional resistance (μW )
The factor of safety (n) =
P
18, 000
= 11520 = 1.5625
Since n > 1.5, hence the retaining wall is safe against sliding.
Safety check against overturning

The resisting moment = W (b − x )
= 30,000 × (3 – 1.083) = 57510 kgf.m
h
The overturning moment = P×
3
6
= 11520 × = 23040 kgf.m
3
Resisting moment
The factor of safety (n) =
Overturing moment
57510
= = 2.496
23040
Since n > 2, hence the retaining wall is safe against overturning.
Safety check against no tension at base
For no tension to develop at the base of the wall, we have
b 3
e = = = 0.5 m
6 6
The calculated value of e = 0.351 m, which is less than 0.5 m. Hence, the wall is safe against no
tension at the base.
Example 14.20
A masonry retaining wall of trapezoidal section and with a vertical face is 8 m high. Its top width is
1 m and bottom width is 4 m. The weight of masonry is 20 kN/m3 and that of soil is 15 kN/m3. The
angle of repose of soil is 30°. If the wall retains earth to its full height against the vertical face,
determine the stresses developed at the base. What is the additional height up to which soil can be
UHWDLQHGVRWKDWQRWHQVLRQLVGHYHORSHGDWWKHEDVH"1HJOHFWVRLORQWKHWRSRIWKHZDOO
Solution:
Refer Fig. 14.36.
Given,
Height of the retaining wall, =8m
Initial height of soil retained = h = H = 8 m
Fig. 14.36
Considering 1 m length of the retaining wall, the total thrust P acting on the vertical face of the
retaining wall is given as
γ s h 2 1 − sin φ 15 × 82 1 − sin 30°
P= ⋅ = × = 160 kN
2 1 + sin φ 2 1 + sin 30°
The weight of the retaining wall is given as

1
W = γm × × ( a + b) × H × 1
2
1
= 20 × × (1 + 4) × 8 × 1 = 400 kN
2
a 2 + ab + b2 12 + 1 × 4 + 42
The distance x= = = 1.4 m
3 ( a + b) 3 (1 + 4)
h
W × x = P×
3
Ph 160 × 8
which gives x= = = 1.067 m
3W 3 × 400
The eccentricity e is found as
b 4
e = ( x + x) − = 1.4 + 1.067 − = 0.467 m
2 2
b 4
Now = 6 = 0.667 m
6
Since e = 0.467 m < 0.667 m, hence the wall develops no tension at the base.
The maximum compressive stress developed at the base of the wall is given as
W ⎛ 6e ⎞
Vmax = ⎜⎝1 + ⎟⎠ (using equation (14.41))
b b
400 ⎛ 6 × 0.467 ⎞
= ⎜1 + ⎟
4 ⎝ 4 ⎠
= 170.05 kN/m2 Ans.
The minimum stress developed at the base of the wall is given as

W ⎛ 6e ⎞
Vmin = − ⎜1 − ⎟ (using equation (14.43))
b⎝ b ⎠
400 ⎛ 6 × 0.467 ⎞
= − ⎜1 − ⎟ = – 29.95 kN/m
2
4 ⎝ 4 ⎠
Let hc be the additional height of the soil retained so as to develop no tension at the base of the wall.
Now the total height of the soil retained = (h + h c)
The new total thrust Pc is now given as
γ s ( h + h ′ )2 . 1 − sin φ
Pc =
2 1 + sin φ
15 × (8 + h ′ )2 1 − sin 30°
= × = 2.5 (8 + hc)2
2 1 + sin 30°
⎛ h + h' ⎞ ⎛ 8 + h' ⎞
Pc acts at ⎜⎝ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ from the base of the wall.
3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
The weight of the wall corresponding to its new height (H + hc) is given as
1
Wc = ym ×× ( a + b) × ( H + h' ) × 1
2
1
= 20 × × (1 + 4) × (8 + h' ) × 1 = 50 ( 8 + hc)
2
( h + h' )
W c × x1 = P' × (for additional height of soil)
3
P' (8 + h' )
which gives x1 =
3W'
2.5 (8 + h' )2 × (8 + h' )

=
3 × 50 (8 + h' )
= 0.0167 (8 + hc)2 (on substituting Pc and Wc)
Now the eccentricity e is given as

b
e = ( x + x1 ) −
2
4
= 1.4 + 0.0167 (8 + hc) 2 − (as x = 1.4 m will remain same)
2
= 0.0167 (8 + hc)2 – 0.6
For no tension at the base of the wall, we have

b
e=
6
0.0167 (8 + hc) 2 – 0.6 = 0.667
0.667 + 0.6
(8 + hc) 2 = = 75.87
0.0167
Solving, we get
hc = 0.71 m
Hence, the additional height of the soil retained in order to have no tension at the base of the wall
is 0.71 m. Ans.
1. :KDWLVPHDQWE\FRPELQHGORDGLQJV"
2. :KDWLVWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWZLVWLQJPRPHQWDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQW"
3. Give a few examples where a member is subjected to combined bending and axial load.
4. Give a few examples where a member is subjected to combined bending and torsion.
5. :KDWDUHVLQJOHDQGGRXEOHHFFHQWULFLW\"
6. :KDWDUHWKHXVXDOFURVVVHFWLRQVRIDGDP":KDWLVWKHSXUSRVHRIFRQVWUXFWLQJDGDP"
7. :KDWDUHUHWDLQLQJZDOOV"*LYHDIHZH[DPSOHVRIUHWDLQLQJZDOOV
1. The eccentric load on a column can produce

(a) direct tensile stress
(b) direct compressive stress
(c) direct compressive stress and bending moment both
(d) direct compressive stress and shear stress both.
2. Consider the following statements about eccentric loading:
1. It is a special case of combined bending and axial loads.
2. Eccentricity occurs when the load line deviates from the axis of the member.
3. For no tension to develop at the base of a column, the value of the maximum eccentricity
equals to one-sixth of the width of the section.
4. An eccentric load can be suitably replaced by a centric load and a moment.
Of these statements:
(a) 1 and 2 are true (b) 2 and 4 are true
(c) 2, 3 and 4 are true (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are true.
3. The maximum value of the eccentricity which ensures that no tension is developed at the base
of a column, when subjected to an eccentric load, is equal to
(a) one-third of the width (b) one-half of the width
(c) one-sixth the width (d) one-fourth of the width.
4. A chimney is subjected to combined
(a) bending and torsion loads (b) bending and axial loads
(c) torsion and axial loads (d) bending, torsion and direct thrust.
5. A marine propeller shaft is subjected to combined
(a) bending and torsion loads (b) bending and axial loads
(c) torsion and axial loads (d) bending, torsion and direct thrust.
6. The horizontal water pressure at the base of a dam of height H is (Jw VSHFL¿FZHLJKWRIZDWHU
h = height of water column)
γ wh γ h
(a) (b) Jwh (c) w (d) JwH.
2 3
7. A dam is designed for
(a) maximum crushing stress (b) maximum bending stress
(c) maximum shear stress (d) maximum eccentricity.
8. Consider the following statements:

1. A retaining wall is used to sustain lateral pressures of soil or earth.
2. A retaining wall is subjected to both active and passive pressures.
3. Active and passive pressures act in opposite directions.
4. Active pressure tends to slide away the retaining wall from the retained earth.
(a) 1 and 2 are true
(b) 1, 3 and 4 are true
(c) 1, 2 and 3 are true
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are true.
9. The Rankine’s earth pressure acting on a retaining wall is (J = Unit weight of the earth,
H = Height of the retaining wall, h +HLJKWRIVRLO¿OOHGXSI = Angle of repose of soil)
γh 1 − sin φ γ H 2 1 − sin φ
(a) ⋅ (b) ⋅
2 1 + sin φ 2 1 + sin φ
γ h 2 1 − sin φ γ h 2 1 − sin φ .
(c) ⋅ (d) ⋅
2 1 + sin φ 3 1 + sin φ
10. The horizontal thrust on the vertical face of the retaining wall acts at a height of (h = height of
the retaining wall)
h h
(a) above the base (b) above the base
2 3
h 2
(c) above the base (d) h above the base.
4 3
11. 7KH FRHI¿FLHQW RI DFWLYH HDUWK SUHVVXUH XVHG LQ WKH 5DQNLQH¶V WKHRU\ RI UHWDLQLQJ ZDOO LV
(I = Angle of repose of soil)
1 − sin φ 1 + sin φ 1 − cos φ 1 − sin φ .
(a) (b) (c) 1 + cos φ (d)
1 + cos φ 1 − cos φ 1 + sin φ
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b)
9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (d)
EXERCISES
1. A solid steel shaft of 100 mm diameter is subjected to a torque of 19.62 kN.m and a bending
moment of 0.981 kN.m. Determine the maximum and minimum principal stresses and the
maximum shear stress induced in the shaft. (Ans. 161.9 MPa (T), 61.7 MPa (C), 111.8 MPa).
2. A solid shaft of 50 mm diameter transmits 50 kW at 1000 rpm. The shaft is subjected to an end
thrust of 50 kN and a bending moment M. If the maximum compressive stress in the shaft is not
WRH[FHHG03D¿QGWKHPD[LPXPYDOXHRIM. (Ans. 0.98 kN.m).
3. $VROLGVKDIWRIGLDPHWHUµd¶LVVXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOWKUXVWP and an axial torque T. Show that the
value of the principal stresses at any point on the surface of the shaft can be expressed as:
2P ⎡ 64T 2 ⎤
V1, 2 = ⎢1 ± 1 + 2 2 ⎥
πd 2 ⎢⎣ P d ⎥⎦
4. A solid circular shaft of diameter 50 mm is subjected to a twisting moment of 50 kN.m and a

bending moment of 100 kN.m. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress.
(Ans. 8.63 kN/mm2 (T), 0.481 kN/mm2 (C), 4.56 kN/mm2).
5. A solid rectangular column 200 mm wide and 150 mm thick carries a vertical load of 10 kN at an
eccentricity of 50 mm in a plane bisecting the thickness. Determine the maximum and minimum
stresses developed in the section. (Ans. 0.833 MPa (C), 0.161 MPa (T)).
6. A 20 m high cylindrical chimney having outside diameter 4 m and inside diameter 2.5m is
subjected to a wind pressure of 1.8 kPa. If the unit weight of masonry is 22 kN/m3 and the
FRHI¿FLHQWRIZLQGSUHVVXUHLVGHWHUPLQHWKHPD[LPXPDQGPLQLPXPVWUHVVHVLQGXFHGDWWKH
base of the chimney. (Ans. Vmax = 629.15 kPa (C), Vmin = 250.6 kPa (C).
7. A 6 m high masonry retaining wall, trapezoidal in section, is 1 m wide at top. Its earth retaining
face is vertical and smooth. The retained earth having unit weight of 1500 kgf/m3 and angle of
shearing resistance of 30° is level with the top of the wall. Assuming unit weight of masonry as
2100 kgf/m3, calculate the minimum bottom width of the wall so that no tension is induced at the
base. Also, calculate the maximum base pressure at this width. (Ans. 2.63 m, 17390.9 kgf/m2).

15
Unsymmetrical Bending
and Shear Centre
Augustin-Louis Cauchy, born on 21 August 1789, was a great French

mathematician who worked under Lagrange, Laplace, Fourier and
Poisson. He became a professor at the Ecole at the age of 27 and a
PHPEHU RI WKH $FDGHP\ RI 6FLHQFHV +H ZDV D SUROL¿F ZULWHU ZKR
ZURWHDSSUR[LPDWHO\HLJKWKXQGUHGUHVHDUFKDUWLFOHVDQG¿YHWH[WERRNV
His major works in pure mathematics were in group theory, number
theory, series, integration, differential equation and analytical functions.
+HLQWURGXFHGWKHFRQFHSWRIVWUHVVDVZHNQRZLWWRGD\GHYHORSHGWKH
equations of theory of elasticity and introduced the notion of principal
stresses and principal strains.
Augustin-Louis Cauchy
(1789-1857)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_15
15.1 SYMMETRICAL BENDING AND SIMPLE BENDING THEORY

The theories of pure bending of beams are restricted to beams having a plane of symmetry through
their longitudinal axis and loads applied act in that plane. Bending takes place about an axis (called
neutral axis), which is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry. It is assumed that beams are made of
linearly elastic materials, which implies that neutral axis of the beam’s cross-section passes through
its centroid. A beam of this kind showing the related terminology is shown in Fig. 15.1.
Fig. 15.1 A symmetrical beam with point loads acting in the plane of symmetry.
The plane of symmetry is xy-plane. The applied point loads W1 and W2 lie in the plane of symmetry
(also called the plane of bending) and are pendicular to the axis of the beam (the x-axis), which lies
VRPHZKHUHLQWKHSODQHRIV\PPHWU\7KHEHDPGHÀHFWVRQO\LQWKHy direction. The y-axis (the axis
of symmetry) and the z-axis (the neutral axis of beam’s cross-section which is perpendicular to the
y-axis) are the two principal axes of beam’s cross-section, which are also the centrodial axes, as the
centroid of the section passes through them. The second moments of area of a cross-section, about its
principal axes are found to have maximum and minimum values, while the product second moment
of area ( ³ xydA) is found to be zero. Hence, principal axes are the axes about which the product second
moment of area is zero. Simple bending can then be taken as bending which takes place about a
principal axis and moments are applied in a plane parallel to one such axis. Under these conditions,
the normal bending stresses acting on the cross-sections vary linearly with the distance from the
QHXWUDOD[LVDQGDUHFDOFXODWHGIURPWKHÀH[XUHIRUPXODJLYHQE\HTXDWLRQ
15.2 UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING

The unsymmetrical or asymmetrical bending of beams occurs when their cross-sections are not
symmetric about any axis or when the beams are symmetric about one or two axes, but they are
subjected to skew loading, that is, when the loads do not lie in a plane of symmetry.
Some cross-sections of beams having one and two axes of symmetry and subjected to skew
loading are shown in Fig. 15.2, where y and z are the two principal axes, G is the centroid of the
cross-section, and Mb is the applied moment about the b-axis produced due to skew loading. In
general, moments are applied about a convenient axis in the cross-section and the plane containing
the applied moment may not then be parallel to a principal axis. Beams in unsymmetric bending
generally are subjected to bending moments acting about both principal axes of the cross-section. With
Unsymmetrical Bending and Shear Centre 695
Fig. 15.2 Some singly and doubly symmetric sections with skew loading in which (c) and (d) are singly
symmetric sections (a) and (b) are doubly symmetric sections and (e) is in a symmetric section.
unsymmetrical sections (for example angle sections, Z-sections etc.), the principal axes are not easily
recognised. Because Mb is the moment about some axis b which is inclined to the principal axis y
and zWKHÀH[XUHIRUPXODLVQRWGLUHFWO\DSSOLFDEOH+HQFHMbLVUHVROYHGLQWRLWVWZRFRPSRQHQWV
about the principal axes as My and Mz, where My acts in a horizontal plane and bends the member
in that plane, whereas MzDFWVLQDYHUWLFDOSODQHDQGEHQGVWKHPHPEHULQWKDWSODQH%HQGLQJLV
now assumed to take place simultaneously about the two principal axes, and the bending stresses are
REWDLQHGIURPWKHÀH[XUHIRUPXODIRUHDFKPRPHQWFRPSRQHQWDFWLQJVHSDUDWHO\7KHWRWDOVWUHVVHV
FDQEHREWDLQHGE\VXSHULPSRVLQJWKHVHSDUDWHVWUHVVHVJLYHQE\
Vx = Bending stress produced by My + Bending stress produced by Mz
M yz Mz y
= + ...(15.1)
Iy Iz
where
My and Mz = Bending moments about the principal axes y and zUHVSHFWLYHO\
Iy and Iz 6HFRQGPRPHQWVRIDUHDDERXWUHVSHFWLYHSULQFLSDOD[HVy and z
y and z = Perpendicular distances from the two principal axes
,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRQRWHWKDWRIWKHWZREHQGLQJVWUHVVHVLQHTXDWLRQRQHFDQEHSRVLWLYHRU

QHJDWLYHGHSHQGLQJXSRQLWVWHQVLOHRUFRPSUHVVLYHQDWXUH
15.3 DOUBLY SYMMETRIC BEAMS WITH SKEW OR INCLINED LOADS

7KHVLPSOHVWFDVHRIXQV\PPHWULFDOEHQGLQJLQYROYHVVNHZORDGLQJRIDGRXEO\V\PPHWULFEHDP
)LJVKRZVDGRXEO\V\PPHWULFUHFWDQJXODUFURVVVHFWLRQHGFDQWLOHYHUEHDPVXEMHFWHGWRDQ
inclined uniform load wSHUXQLWOHQJWKRYHULWVIXOOVSDQ
Fig. 15.3 A doubly symmetric cantilever beam with an inclined uniform load over its full span.
Another Fig. 15.4 shows a doubly symmetric cantilever beam subjected to an included point load W
at its free end that acts at an angle T to the positive y-axis.
Fig. 15.4 A doubly symmetric cantilever beam with an inclined load at its free end.
Now consider the cross-section of the beam and resolve the inclined load W, and hence the bending
moment M caused by the load W into its two components about each of the principal axes of the cross-
section, one acting in each plane of symmetry (Fig. 15.5). The y-axis and z-axis are the principal axes
of inertia and T is the angle between M and the z-axis.
Fig. 15.5 Cross-section of the beam subjected to bending moments My and Mz.
On resolving the load W into its two components along y and z directions, we get
Wy = W cos T (along positive y direction)...(15.2)
and Wz = W sin T (along negative z direction)...(15.3)
Similarly, on resolving the bending moment M into its two components My and Mz acting on a cross-
section located at a distance xIURPWKH¿[HGVXSSRUWZHJHW
My = Wz (l – x) = (W sin T) (l – x) = M sin T (along positive y direction)...(15.4)
and Mz = Wy (l – x) = (W cos T) (l – x) = M cos T (along positive z direction)...(15.5)
where l is the length of the beam.

Initially, since MLVLQFOLQHGWRWKHSULQFLSDOD[HVy and zWKHÀH[XUHIRUPXODLVQRWGLUHFWO\DSSOLFDEOH
However, if M is resolved into its components My and Mz that act in the planes of symmetry of the
EHDPWKHÀH[XUHIRUPXODFDQEHDSSOLHGWRHDFKPRPHQWFRPSRQHQWVHSDUDWHO\WR¿QGWKHLQGLYLGXDO
EHQGLQJVWUHVVSURGXFHGE\HDFKPRPHQWFRPSRQHQWDQGWKH¿QDOQRUPDOVWUHVVHVDUHREWDLQHGE\
VXSHULPSRVLQJWKHVWUHVVHVREWDLQHGIURPWKHÀH[XUDOIRUPXODIRUHDFKRIWKHVHSDUDWHD[HVRIWKH
cross-section as shown in Fig. 15.6.
Fig. 15.6 Normal stress distribution caused by unsymmetrical bending.
Position of the neutral axis

/HWXVFRQVLGHUDSRLQWP having coordinates y and z in the cross-section of the beam as shown in
Fig. 15.7.
Fig. 15.7 Location of the neutral axis.

7KH SRVLWLYH EHQGLQJ PRPHQW My produces tension at P DQG WKH SRVLWLYH EHQGLQJ PRPHQW Mz
produces compression. The total normal bending stress at PLVJLYHQDV
M yz Mz y
Vx = − ...(15.6)
Iy Iz
where Iy and Iz are the second moments of area of the beam’s cross-sectional area with respect to y
and zD[HVUHVSHFWLYHO\
In general, the neutral axis (NA) for unsymmetrical bending is not necessarily parallel to the
bending moment M (Fig. 15.8). As the neutral axis of the cross-section is a line, where the bending
stress is zero, its equation can be obtained by equating the bending stress Vx WR]HURJLYHQDV
M yz Mz y
− = 0 ...(15.7)
Iy Iz
ZKLFKJLYHV
y M yIz
= ...(15.8)
z MzIy
Fig. 15.8
Equation (15.7) represents a straight line. Hence, the neutral axis (NA) is an inclined line that
passes through the centroid G of the cross-section. The angle Ebetween the neutral axis and the z-axis
LVFDOOHGVORSHDQJOHRIWKHQHXWUDOD[LVGH¿QHGDV
y M yIz
tan E = z = (using equation (15.8)...(15.9))
MzIy
where y/z is called slope of the neutral axis. Depending upon the magnitudes and directions of the
bending moments, the angle EPD\YDU\IURP±WR
Iz
Also tan E tan θ
Iy
My
where tan T = (using equations (15.4) and (15.5))
Mz
It shows that the resultant bending moment M is at the angle T from the z-axis. Consequently the
resultant bending moment is perpendicular to the longitudinal plane containing the load W.
Equation (15.10) shows that unless we have symmetrical bending (T = 0° or 90°), the neutral axis
will be parallel to the bending moment M, only if Iy = Iz. As the bending stress is proportional to the
distance from the neutral axis, the maximum bending stress occurs at the point, which is farthest
IURPWKHQHXWUDOD[LV+HQFHORFDWLQJWKHQHXWUDOD[LVKHOSVLQ¿QGLQJWKHORFDWLRQRIWKHPD[LPXP
bending stress on a cross-section.
Relationship between neutral axis and inclination of applied load

From equation (15.10), it is clear that angle E is generally not equal to angle T, which implies that the
neutral axis (NA) is not perpendicular to the longitudinal plane carrying the applied load.
The angles E and T may be equal in the following cases:
z When the load lies in the xy-plane (T = 0° or 180°) implying that the z-axis is the neutral axis.
z When the load lies in the xz-plane (T = ± 90°) implying that the y-axis is the neutral axis.
z When the principal moments of inertia are equal implying that Iy = Iz.
In the last case, all the axes through the centroid are the principal axes, and have the same moment
of inertia. The plane of loading irrespective of its direction, is always a principal plane, and the
neutral axis is always perpendicular to it. The cross-sections for which this condition is valid include
square and circular sections.
Example 15.1
A 1.2 m long wooden cantilever beam with rectangular cross-section 50 mm × 80 mm is subjected
to a moment of 150 N.m in a plane forming an angle of 30° with the vertical as shown in Fig. 15.9.
Determine (a) the maximum stress in the beam and (b) the angle that the neutral surface makes with
the horizontal plane.
Fig. 15.9
Solution:
Given,
Length of the beam, l = 1.2 m
Moment applied, M = 150 N.m
(a) Maximum stress in the beam

The moment MRI1PLVUHVROYHGLQWRLWVFRPSRQHQWVMy and Mz along y and z directions
UHVSHFWLYHO\ZKLFKDUHWKHSULQFLSDOFHQWURLGDOD[HV)LJ7KHPRPHQWFRPSRQHQWMy acts in
a horizontal plane and the moment component MzLQDYHUWLFDOSODQH
Fig. 15.10 Resolution of the applied moment into My and Mz.

The moment components My and Mz are calculated as
My VLQ 1P
Mz FRV 1P
The moments of inertia of the beam’s cross-sectional area about y and zD[HVDUHJLYHQDV
1
Iy = × 80 × 503 × 10−12 m4 î–7 m4
12
1
and Iz = × 50 × 803 × 10−12 m4 î–6 m4
12
The largest tensile stress due to MzRFFXUVDORQJ&'JLYHQDV
Mz .
V1 = y
Iz
129.9 × 40 × 10−3 1
= −6
× 6 MPa = 2.44 MPa
2.13 × 10 10
The largest tensile stress due to My occurs along ADJLYHQDV
My
V2 = ⋅z
Iy
75 × 25 × 10−3 1
= × 6 MPa
8.33 × 10−7 10
= 2.25 MPa
Now the largest tensile stress due to combined loading occurs at D, and its value is given as
Vmax = V1 + V2
= (2.44 + 2.25) MPa
= 4.69 MPa
The largest compressive stress has the same value equal to the largest tensile stress, and occurs at B.
Ans.
(b) Angle made by the neutral surface with horizontal plane
Fig. 15.11 Location of the neutral axis.
Let Ebe the angle made by the neutral axis with the horizontal plane, that is, the z-axis as shown
in Fig. 15.11. It is given as
I
tan E = I tan θ
z
y
2.13 × 10−6
= × tan 30° = 1.476
8.33 × 10−7
Hence, E = 55.8° Ans.
Example 15.2
An I-section beam shown in Fig. 15.12 carries a bending moment of 35 kN.m inclined at 17° to the
z-axis. Determine the following parameters using the data given below.
(a) the angle between the neutral axis and the z-axis and
(b) the largest bending stress acting on the section.
Take Iz = 71.1 × 106 mm4, Iy = 7.03 × 106 mm4
Sz = 534 × 103 mm3, Sy = 95.1 × 103 mm3.
Solution:
*LYHQ
Bending moment, M = 35 kN.m
Angle between M and z-axis, T
Fig. 15.12 Fig. 15.13
(a) The angle E between the neutral axis (NA) and the z-axis is calculated as
Iz
tan E = tan θ (using equation (15.10))
Iy
71.1× 106
= × tan 17°
7.03 × 106
= 3.09
Hence, E Ans.
(b 7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWRIN1PLVUHVROYHGLQWRLWVFRPSRQHQWVSDUDOOHOWRWKHSULQFLSDOD[HVy
and z )LJDQGDUHJLYHQDV
Mz = – MFRV DORQJQHJDWLYH]D[LV
= –îFRV
= – 33.47 kN.m
My = – MVLQ DORQJQHJDWLYHy-axis)
= –îVLQ
= – 10.23 kN.m
The points A and B as shown in Fig. 15.13 are farthest from the neutral axis, where the largest
bending stress occurs. It is to be noted that both components of the bending moment cause tension at
A and compression at B+HQFHWKHODUJHVWEHQGLQJVWUHVVSURGXFHGRQWKHVHFWLRQLVJLYHQDV
|My | | Mz |
Vmax = VA = |VB| = ⋅z+ ⋅y (using equation (15.6))
| Iy | | Iz |
|My | | Mz |
= +
( I y / z) ( I z / y)
| M y | | Mz |
= +
Sy Sz
⎡ 10.23 × 103 33.47 × 103 ⎤

= ⎢ + Pa
⎣ 95.1 × 10 × 10
3 −9
534 × 103 × 10−9 ⎥⎦
î6 Pa
= 170.25 MPa Ans.
Example 15.3
$FKDQQHOVHFWLRQVKRZQLQ)LJLVVXEMHFWHGWRDEHQGLQJPRPHQWRIN1PDWDQDQJOH
to the zD[LV&DOFXODWHWKHPD[LPXPWHQVLOHDQGFRPSUHVVLYHEHQGLQJVWUHVVHVDWWKHVHFWLRQRIWKH
EHDP$OVR¿QGWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKHQHXWUDOD[LV
Fig. 15.14
The properties of the section are as follows:

Izz î–5 m4, Iyy î–6 m4
z = 22.3 mm, y = 120 mm
Solution: Given,
Bending moment, M = 3 kN.m
Angle between M and the z-axis, T = 15°
The z and y axes are the principal centroidal axes, as the centroid G of the section passes through
them. The bending moment M is resolved into the components Mz and My along the z-axis and the
y-axis respectively as shown in Fig. 15.15.
Mz = M cos T = 3 × cos 15° = 2.897 kN.m
My = M sin T = 3 × sin 15° = 0.776 kN.m
The stresses produced by the bending moment M are maximum at the points, which are located
farthest from the neutral axis, for example, points A and BDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH
Fig. 15.15
The maximum bending stress at A is given as

M y z1 M z . y1
VA = − (using equation (15.6))
I yy I zz
M y [ − (85 − z )] Mz y
= −
I yy I zz
0.776 × [ − (85 − 22.3)] × 10−3 2.897 × 120 × 10−3

= − kN/m2
2.48 × 10−6 3.6 × 10−5
= (– 19619.03 – 9656.67) kN/m2 = – 29275.7 kN/m2
= – 29.27 MN/m2 = – 29.27 MPa
Hence, the maximum compressive bending stress is produced at point A.

The maximum bending stress at B is given as
M y z2 M z y2
Vb = − (using equation (15.6))
I yy I zz
My z M z (− y )
= −
I yy I zz
0.776 × 22.3 × 10−3 2.897 × ( −120 × 10−3 )

= − kN/m2
2.48 × 10−6 3.6 × 10−5
= (6977.74 + 9656.66) kN/m2
= 16634.4 kN/m2 = 16.63 MN/m2
Hence, the maximum tensile bending stress is produced at point B.
Location of the neutral axis (NA)
The angle E made by the neutral axis (NA) with the zD[LVLVGH¿QHGDV
I zz
tan E = tan θ (using equation (15.10))
I yy
3.6 × 10−5 m 4
= × tan 15° = 3.889
2.48 × 10−6 m 4
Hence, E = 75.58° Ans.
Example 15.4
A T-shaped 5 m long cantilever beam shown in Fig. 15.16 is subjected to a transverse load W at its
free end. The beam material yields according to the Tresca’s yield criterion, when the maximum shear
stress reaches 180 MPa. Determine the maximum load W carried by the beam.
Fig. 15.16
Solution:
Given,
Length of the beam, l =5m
Maximum shear stress, Wmax = 180 MPa
The y and z axes are the principal cerntroidal axes, as the centroid G of the section passes through
them. The applied load W produces bending moment M,ZKLFKLVPD[LPXPQHJDWLYHDWWKH¿[HG
end of the beam. It is resolved into components My and Mz along the y and z axes respectively as
Fig. 15.17
When the load W is resolved, we get

Wy = W cos T (along negative y direction)
Wz = W sin T (along negative z direction)
When the bending moment M is resolved, we get
My = M sin T (along negative y direction)
= W.l
z
= – W sin T × l
= – W sin 30° × l (as T = 30°)
1
= –−W × × 5 = – 2.5 W (on substituting l)
2
Mz = M cos T (along positive z direction)
= – Wy. l
= – W cos Tul
= – W cos 30° × l
3
= – W× × l = – 4.33 W (on substituting l)
2
Both My and Mz are negative, as the bending moment is negative for a cantilever beam.
Position of the centroid G

The TVHFWLRQLVDVVXPHGWRFRQVLVWRIWZRSDUWVDQGDQGWKHLUDUHDVRIFURVVVHFWLRQDUHJLYHQDV
a1 î PP2
a2 ±î PP2
Total area of the T-section, A = a1 + a2
= (6000 + 5000) mm2 = 11000 mm2

Since the section is symmetrical about the y-axis, hence
z= 0
and y = a1 y1 + a2 y2 = a1 y1 + a2 y2
a1 + a2 A
6000 × 265 + 5000 × 125

= = 201.36 mm
11000
Hence, the centroid G of the section is located on the y-axis at a distance of 201.36 mm from the
lower part of the web.
Izz = Izz + Izz

1 2
⎡1 2⎤
= ⎢ × 200 × 30 + 6000 × ( 265 − 201.36) ⎥
3
⎣ 12 ⎦
⎡1 2⎤
+ ⎢12 × 20 × 250 + 5000 × ( 201.36 − 125) ⎥
3
⎣ ⎦
î7 mm4
î7î–12 m4 î–5 m4

and Iyy = I yy1 + I yy2
1 1
= × 30 × 2003 + × 250 × 203
12 12
î7 mm4 î7î–12 m4
î–5 m4
Ixy = 0, as the beam is symmetrical about one of the two axes, here it is the y-axis.
The critical points in the cross-section include the positions located at points A, B and C as shown
in Fig. 15.17. These are the locations where normal stresses due to bending moment are maximum
because of their farthest positions from the neutral axis.
Calculation of bending stresses

The maximum bending stress at A is given as
M y . z1 Mz . y1
VA = − ((z1, y1) is the coordinate of point A)
I yy I zz
( − 2.5W ) × 100 × 10−3 ( − 4.33W ) × ( 280 − 201.36) × 10−3

= −
2.016 × 10−5 7.99 × 10−5
(z1 = 100 mm, y = (280 – y ) mm)
= – 12.4 × 103 W + 4.26 × 103 W = – 8.14 × 103 W

The maximum bending stress at B is given as
M y . z2 M z . y2
VB = − ((z2, y2) is the coordinate of point B)
I yy I zz
( − 2.5W ) × ( −100 × 10−3 ) ( − 4.33W ) × ( 280 − 201.36) × 10−3

= −
2.016 × 10−5 7.99 × 10−5
(z2 = – 100 mm, y2 = 280 – y )
= 12.4 × 103 W + 4 .26 × 103 W = 16.66 × 103 W
The maximum bending stress at C is given as
M y . z3 M z . y3
VC = − ((z3, y3) is the coordinate of point C)
I yy I zz
( − 2.5W ) × ( −10 × 10−3 ) ( − 4.33W ) × ( − 201.36) × 10−3

= −
2.016 × 10−5 7.99 × 10−5
(z3 = – 10 mm, y3 = (280 – y )mm)
= 1.241 × 103 W – 10.91 × 103 W
= – 9.67 × 103 W
These stresses are the values of the maximum principal stresses at the three points which are acting
along the longitudinal axis of the beam, that is, the x-axis. The maximum bending stress occurs at B,
and it is tensile in nature. The minimum principal stress at each point is zero.
According to Tresca’s yield criterion, we have
(σ1 ) B − (σ 2 ) B
Wmax =
2
16.66 × 103W
180 × 106 = (as (V2)B = 0)
2
W = 21608.64 N = 21.6 kN Ans.
15.4 PURE BENDING OF UNSYMMETRICAL BEAMS

Unsymmetrical beams are those beams, which have unsymmetrical sections or have no axis of
symmetry. A few examples of unsymmetrical beams include z-section and angle-section beams as
shown in Fig. 15.18. The bending of unsymmetrical sections removes the restriction of at least one
axis of symmetry in the cross-section.
Fig. 15.18 Types of unsymmetrical beams.

Consider that an unsymmetrical beam is subjected to a load, which causes a bending moment M on
the cross-section of the beam. While discussing the effect of this bending moment, we consider two
perpendicular axes y and z, which happen to be the neutral axes of the cross-section through which
the centroid G of the section passes, that is, both y and z axes are the principal centroidal axes of the
cross-section (Fig. 15.19).
Fig. 15.19 Bending of unsymmetrical cross-section.
An element of area dA is now considered at a distance of y from the z-axis and at a distance of from
the yD[LVDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH7KHEHQGLQJPRPHQWM is resolved into its components My and Mz
along the axes y and z respectively as shown in Fig. 15.20.
Fig. 15.20 Bending moment components My and Mz about y and z axes respectively.
While considering z-axis as the neutral axis, that is, one of the principal axes of inertia, the plane of
bending is xySODQHDQGWKHEHDPGHÀHFWVLQWKDWSODQHDQGWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWMz acts in that plane.
On the other hand, when y-axis is the neutral axes, that is, the other principal axis of inertia, the plane
of bending is xzSODQHDQGWKHEHDPGHÀHFWVLQWKDWSODQHDQGWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWMy acts in that
plane. The bending of beam under these two conditions are considered separately. First consider that
the bending takes place about the z-axis as the neutral axis.
Force acting on the element of area dA = Vx dA
Total force acting on the entire cross-section = ∫ σ x dA

where Vx = Normal stress on the area
= (– Ky)Ey
= – Ky Ey
Ky = Curvature (negative) of the bent beam (equals to the reciprocal of the radius of
curvature) in xy-plane
y = Distance from the z-axis
E = Young’s modulus of the beam material
The bending moment of the total force about the z-axis is given as
Mz = – ∫ σ x dAy
∫ y dA
2
= Ky E (on substituting Vx)
= Ky E Iz ...(15.11)
where Iz = Second moment of area of the beam’s cross-section about the z-axis
∫ y dA
2
=
The bending moment of the total force about the y-axis is given as
My = ∫ σ x dA z
= – Ky E ∫ y z dA (on substituting Vx)
= – Ky E Iyz ...(15.12)
where Iyz = Product of inertia of the beam’s cross-section with respect to y and z axes.
= ∫ y z dA
z = Distance from the y-axis
In case of z-axis being the neutral axis, that is, the principal axis, the product of inertia I yz is equal
to zero, and the only bending moment left is Mz , which acts in the xy-plane and is represented by
equation (15.11). Hence, bending of the unsymmetrical beam occurs in a manner analogous to that
of a symmetrical beam.
Now consider that bending takes place about the y-axis as the neutral axis. The normal stress Vx
acting on the area dA is this time different. The new Vx is given as
Vx = (– Kz) E z
= – Kz E z
where Kz = Curvature (negative) of the bent beam in the xz-plane.
Force acting on the cross-section of the beam
= ∫ σ x dA
= − ∫ K z Ez dA (on substituting new Vx)
The bending moment components are now given as
My = ∫ σ x dA z (about the y-axis)

– Kz E ∫ z dA
2
= (on substituting new Vx)
= – Kz E Iy ... (15.13)
where Iy = Second moment of area of the beam’s cross-section about the y-axis.
∫ z dA
2
=
Similarly,
Mz = − ∫ σ x dA y (about the z-axis)
= K z E ∫ y z dA (on substituting new Vx)

= Kz E Iyz ... (15.14)
In case of y-axis being the neutral axis, that is, the principal axis, the product of inertia I yz is
again zero, and the only bending moment left is My, which acts in the xz-plane and is represented by
equation (15.13).
Hence, we conclude that for an unsymmetrical beam under pure bending, the plane in which
the bending moment acts is perpendicular to the neutral surface only if y and z axes are the
principal centroidal axes of the beam’s cross-section, and the bending moment acts in one of
the two principal planes (xy-plane or xz-plane). Therefore, if a bending moment acts in one
of the principal planes, this plane will be the plane of bending and the usual bending theory and
the flexure formula are applicable, which can be used to find the stresses due to the bending
moments M y and M z acting separately, and then they are superimposed to find the stresses
produced by the original bending moment M.
Sign conventions for beam curvature

7KHVLJQFRQYHQWLRQVIRUWKHFXUYDWXUHRIWKHEHDPDUHVKRZQLQ)LJ
(a) Ky in the xy-plane (b) Kz in the xz-plane

Fig. 15.21
Position of the neutral axis (NA)

The bending moment components My and Mz and the neutral axis (NA) are shown in Fig. 15.22. The
bending moment components are expressed as
My = M sin T ...(15.15)
and Mz = M cos T ...(15.16)
where TLVWKHDQJOHEHWZHHQPRPHQWYHFWRUM and the z-axis, and E is the angle made by the neutral
axis with the z-axis.
Fig. 15.22 Bending moment components My and Mz and the neutral axis (NA).
The superposition of the bending stresses produced by My and MzDFWLQJVHSDUDWHO\JLYHVWKHUHVXOWDQW

VWUHVVDWDQ\SRLQWLQWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHEHDPJLYHQDV
M yz Mz y
Vx = − (using equation (15.6))
Iy Iz
= ( M sin θ) z − ( M cos θ) y ...(15.17)

Iy Iz
where y and z are the coordinates of the point under consideration.
To know the position of the neutral axis, set Vx = 0, and simplify.

sin θ cos θ
z− y =0
Iy Iz
sin θ y Iy
ZKLFKJLYHV = tan T = z ⋅
cos θ Iz
Iy
or tan T = tan β
Iz
ZKLFKJLYHV
Iz
tan E = tan θ ...(15.18)
Iy
y
where tan E =
z
Equation (15.18) clearly shows that two angles E and T are not equal, which implies that the neutral
axis is generally not perpendicular to the plane in which bending moment M acts.
15.5 DEFLECTION IN UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING

7KHGHÀHFWLRQVRIXQV\PPHWULFDOEHDPVLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIWKHSULQFLSDOD[HVDUHGHWHUPLQHGXVLQJ
VWDQGDUG GHÀHFWLRQ IRUPXODH ZKLFK DUH DSSOLFDEOH IRU VSHFL¿HG ORDGLQJ FRQGLWLRQV )RU D GRXEO\
V\PPHWULF EHDP ZLWK VNHZ ORDGV WKH GHÀHFWLRQV DUH GHWHUPLQHG IRU HDFK FRPSRQHQW RI WKH ORDG
LQGHSHQGHQWO\DQGWKHQWKHGHÀHFWLRQVDUHVXSHULPSRVHG)RUH[DPSOHWKHGHÀHFWLRQDWWKHIUHHHQG
RIDFDQWLOHYHUEHDPFDUU\LQJDSRLQWORDGDWLWVIUHHHQGLVJLYHQDV
Wl 3
G= ...(15.19)
3EI
ZKHUHWKHV\PEROVKDYHWKHLUXVXDOPHDQLQJV:KHQXVLQJWKLVFRQGLWLRQIRUDVNHZORDGHGFDQWLOHYHU
EHDPDVVKRZQLQ)LJWKHGHÀHFWLRQVDWWKHIUHHHQGRIWKHEHDPLQWKHSRVLWLYHy direction and
QHJDWLYHz direction are expressed as
(W cos θ)l 3
Gy = ...(15.20)
3EI z
(W sin θ)l 3
and Gz = ...(15.21)
3EI y
where W cos T &RPSRQHQWRIWKHORDGLQSRVLWLYHy direction

W sin T &RPSRQHQWRIWKHORDGLQQHJDWLYHz direction
Iy = Moment of inertia of the beam’s cross-sectional area about the principal y-axis
Iz = Moment of inertia of the beam’s cross-sectional area about the principal z-axis
l = Length of the beam
E = Modulus of elasticity of the beam material
7KHWRWDOUHVXOWDQWGHÀHFWLRQGLVWKHQJLYHQE\FRPELQLQJWKHWZRYDOXHVGy and GzYHFWRULDOO\DV
G= δ 2y + δ 2z ...(15.22)
The angle EEHWZHHQWKHUHVXOWDQWGHÀHFWLRQDQGWKHyD[LVLVJLYHQDV
δz I
tan E = = z tan θ ...(15.23)
δy Iy
(TXDWLRQLVWKHVDPHDVHTXDWLRQVDQG+HQFHWKHUHVXOWDQWGHÀHFWLRQOLHV
in a plane that is perpendicular to the neural plane. This condition is shown in Fig. 15.23.
Fig. 15.23 5HVXOWDQWGHÀHFWLRQ
Example 15.5
$PORQJFDQWLOHYHUEHDPKDYLQJUHFWDQJXODUFURVVVHFWLRQPPîPPLVORDGHGDWLWVIUHH
HQGZLWKDSRLQWORDGRIN1DWDQDQJOHWRWKHYHUWLFDODVVKRZQLQ)LJ'HWHUPLQHa) the
position and magnitude of the greatest tensile stress in the cross-section and (bWKHYHUWLFDOGHÀHFWLRQ
at the free end. Take E = 210 GPa.
Fig. 15.24
Solution:
*LYHQ
Load applied, W = 7 kN
Length of the beam, l = 1.5 m
:LGWKRIWKHEHDP b = 60 mm
î9 Pa
Inclination of the load, T
(a) Maximum tensile stress
It is the case of a doubly symmetric beam subjected to skew loading with its cross-section ABCD
and centroid G, and the principal centroidal axes y and z7KHORDGLVUHVROYHGLQWRLWVFRPSRQHQWV
parallel to the two major axis, that is, along the two principal centroidal axes, and then bending theory
LVDSSOLHGVLPXOWDQHRXVO\WRERWKD[HVWR¿QGWKHEHQGLQJVWUHVVRQWKHFURVVVHFWLRQ
The load of 7 kN, resulting moment M and its components My and Mz are shown in Fig. 15.25.
Fig. 15.25 Load and moment acting on the cross-section.
The load components are found as

Wy FRV DORQJQHJDWLYHy direction)
î
= 6.062 kN
and Wz VLQ DORQJSRVLWLYHz direction)
î N1
The moment components are found as

My = M sin T = Wzîl DORQJQHJDWLYHy direction)
î
= 5.25 kN.m
and Mz = M cos T = Wy × l (along negative z direction)

= 6.062 × 1.5
= 9.093 kN.m
The values of My and MzDUHWKHPD[LPXPEHQGLQJPRPHQWVWKDWRFFXUDWWKH¿[HGHQGRIWKH
beam.
The distances from the neutral axis are calculated as
= 30 mm = 30 × 10–3 m
y = 45 mm = 45 × 10–3 m
The moments of inertia of the beam’s cross-section about y and z axes are found as
1
Iy = × 90 × 603 × 10−12 m4
12
= 1.62 × 10–6 m4
1
Iz = × 60 × 903 × 10−12 m4
12
= 3.645 × 10–6 m4
The bending moment Mz produces tensile stress on AB and compressive stress on CD. Both stresses
are equal, and their value is
Mz 9.093 × 45 × 10−3
V1 = ⋅y=
Iz 3.645 × 10−6
= 112259. 26 kN/m2 = 112. 26 MPa
The bending moment My produces tensile stress on BC and compressive stress on AD. Both stresses
are equal, and their value is
My 5. 25 × 30 × 10−3
V2 = ⋅ z =
Iy 1. 62 × 10−6
= 97222. 22 kN/m2 = 97. 22 MPa
Hence, the maximum tensile stress due to combined loading occurs at point B, where the two
tensile stresses add, given by
Maximum tensile stress, Vmax = V1 + V2
= (112.26 + 97. 22) MPa

= 209.48 MPa Ans.
The compressive stress has the same value as tensile stress, and occurs at D.
(b) 9HUWLFDOGHÀHFWLRQ
7KHQHJDWLYHGHÀHFWLRQDWWKHIUHHHQGRIDFDQWLOHYHUEHDPLVJLYHQE\
Wl 3
G= (using equation (15.19))
3EI
,QRXUFDVHWKHYHUWLFDOGHÀHFWLRQGv that occurs along y-axis, is given as
Wy l 3 6.062 × 103 × (1.5)3
Gv = = m
3EI z 3 × 210 × 109 × 3.645 × 10−6
= 8.9 × 10–3 m
= 8.9 mm Ans.
15.6 SHEAR CENTRE

Lateral or transverse loads acting on a beam produce both shear forces and bending moments. The
case of pure bending of beams is discussed in Chapter-5, where beams are subjected to only bending
moments and the shear stress consideration is neglected. Also in the same chapter in section 5.7, case
of shear stress in beams is discussed. The applied loads in the latter case act in a plane of symmetry.
7KHFRQFHSWRIVKHDUFHQWUHDOVRFDOOHGÀH[XUDOFHQWUHLVEDVHGRQWKHHIIHFWRIVKHDUIRUFHRQWKH
cross-section of a beam without producing twisting, thus eliminating the restriction of pure bending.
For pure bending theory to be applicable, the shear force must pass through the shear centre. It is
possible only when the plane of external loading passes through the shear centre, and in that case no
twisting takes place as shown in Fig. 15.26 (a). If the load does not act at the shear centre or acts at
other points, then the bending will be accompanied by twisting, that is, the section of the beam will
get twisted about the shear centre as shown in Fig. 15.26 (b). Because of this reason, the shear centre
LVVRPHWLPHVDOVRFDOOHGFHQWUHRIWZLVW7KHUHIRUHWKHVKHDUFHQWUHLVGH¿QHGDVDSRLQWLQWKHFURVV
section of a beam, where if a lateral load is applied, it will bend the beam without twisting along the
longitudinal axis.
(a) Bending of channel section without twisting, (b) Bending of channel section with twisting,
when the load W acts through the shear centre C. when the load W does not act at C but at G,
the centroid of the section.
Fig. 15.26
The shear centre generally does not coincide with the centroid of the cross-section of a beam, but
like the centroid, it lies on any axis of symmetry of the cross-section. It lies near to the centroid of
the section and thus the section has high torsional rigidity, and so the effect of twisting can be safely
neglected by applying the load at or near the centroid. Fig. 15.27 shows the cross-section of a singly
V\PPHWULFEHDPIRUH[DPSOHDQXQHTXDOÀDQJHI-section beam, which is symmetrical about y-axis.
Both the centroid G and the shear centre C of the cross-section lie on y-axis, which is the axis of
symmetry.
Fig. 15.27 Shear centre for an unequal I-section.
For a section which is symmetrical about two axes, the shear centre coincides with the centroid of
WKHVHFWLRQ)LJVKRZVDGRXEO\V\PPHWULFEHDPIRUH[DPSOHDQHTXDOÀDQJH,VHFWLRQEHDP
which is symmetrical about both y and z axes. Both the shear centre C and the centroid G lie at the
same point, which is the intersection point of the two axes of symmetry.
Fig. 15.28 Shear centre for an equal I-section.
For beams having unsymmetric cross-section or no axis of symmetry, such as the Z-section and
WKHDQJOHVHFWLRQWKHORFDWLRQRIWKHVKHDUFHQWUHLVPRUHGLI¿FXOW
The position of the shear centre is determined by using a term called eccentricity (eZKLFKGH¿QHV
the distance by which the load line positions itself to act at the shear centre of the cross-section.
The shear stress W at any point of the cross-section is obtained by using equation (5.19), given as
VQ V
W= = Ay ...(15.24)
It It
where V= Vertical shear force or the load applied

I= Moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis
t= Thickness of the section
Q= A y = First moment of area about the neutral axis
A= Area of the section above the point, where the shear stress is W
y= Distance of the centroid of the area from the neutral axis
The shear stresses are directed along the median line of the cross-section, parallel to the edges of
the section, and are assumed to be of constant intensity across the thickness t of the section.
15.6.1 Shear Centre for a Channel Section

&RQVLGHUDFKDQQHOVHFWLRQKDYLQJHTXDOÀDQJHVZLWKGLPHQVLRQVDVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Let the section be subjected to a shear force V acting vertically downward and parallel to the web
with an eccentricity e. C is the position of the shear centre. The neutral axis (NA) is the horizontal
axis of symmetry of the section.
$UHDRIWKHWZRHTXDOÀDQJHV Af = bt
⎛ t⎞
Area of the web, Aw = ⎜ h − × ⎟ w ≈ hw (as t is very small)
⎝ ⎠
Fig. 15.29
The total shear force carried by the web must be equal to the applied vertical shear force V, thereby
SURGXFLQJWZRHTXDODQGRSSRVLWHVKHDUIRUFHVLQWKHÀDQJHVVD\f. Considering their equilibrium
and taking moments of the forces about O, we have
h h
V × e = f1 × + f1 × = f × h
2 2
f × h
which gives e=
V
7KHSRVLWLRQRIWKHVKHDUFHQWUHLVGH¿QHGE\e.
An elementary area dA is considered at a distance xIURPWKHULJKWVLGHLQWKHWRSÀDQJH

7KHVKHDUVWUHVVLQWKHWRSÀDQJHLVJLYHQDV
V
W= Ay (using equation (15.24))...(15.26)
It
⎛ h⎞
V h ⎜⎝ A = t x and y = ⎟⎠
= ⋅t x⋅ 2
It 2
Vxh
= ...(15.27)
2I
7KHVKHDUIRUFHLQWKHWRSÀDQJHLVJLYHQDV
f1 = W.dA
b
= ∫ τ . (t dx ) ...(15.28)
0
where dA = t dx = Elementary area at x

b :LGWKRIWKHÀDQJH
b
Vxh
or f1 = ∫
0
2I
tdx (using equation (15.27)
⎛ Vht ⎞
b
= ⎜ ⎟ ∫ xdx
⎝ 2I ⎠ 0
Vhb 2t
= ...(15.29)
4I
$QHTXDOEXWRSSRVLWHVKHDUIRUFHLVSURGXFHGLQWKHERWWRPÀDQJH
⎡1 ⎛ h⎞ ⎤
2
wh 3
Now I= + 2 ⎢ bt 3 + b × t × ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ 2⎠ ⎥
12 ⎣⎢12 ⎦
2
wh 3 1 3 ⎛ h⎞
= + bt + 2bt ⎜ ⎟
12 6 ⎝ 2⎠
2
wh3 ⎛h⎞
= + 2bt ⎜ ⎟
12 ⎝2⎠
The middle term on account of its negligible value in comparison to other terms is neglected.
1 2 ⎡ 1 ⎛ wh ⎞ ⎤
or I = th b ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟⎥
2 ⎣ 6 ⎝ tb ⎠ ⎦
1 2 ⎡ 1 ⎛ Aw ⎞ ⎤
= th b ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(15.30)
2 ⎢⎣ 6 ⎜⎝ Af ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
7KHVKHDUIRUFHHLWKHULQWKHWRSRUERWWRPÀDQJHDIWHUVXEVWLWXWLQJHTXDWLRQLQHTXDWLRQ

is expressed as
Vhb2t
f1 =
1 ⎡ 1⎛ A ⎞⎤
4 × th 2b ⎢1 + ⎜ w ⎟ ⎥
2 ⎢⎣ 6 ⎝ A f ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Vb ⎢ 1 ⎥
= ...(15.31)
2h ⎢ ⎛ ⎞⎥
⎢1 + 1 Aw ⎥
⎢⎣ 6 ⎜⎝ Af ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
)URPHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Vb ⎢ 1 ⎥ h
e= × (on substituting f1 from equation (15.31))
2h ⎢
1 ⎛ Aw ⎞ ⎥ V
⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢ 6 ⎜⎝ Af ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
b⎢ 1 ⎥
= ⎢ ...(15.32)
2 ⎛ ⎞⎥
⎢1 + 1 ⎜ Aw ⎟ ⎥
⎢ 6 ⎜⎝ Af ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
This is the required expression for eccentricity.
Example 15.6
Find the shear centre for the section shown in Fig. 15.29, if b = 150 mm, t = 20 mm, w = 15 mm,
h = 250 mm and V î3 N.
Solution:
Area of the web, Aw = hw

î
= 3750 mm2
$UHDRIWKHÀDQJH Af = bt
î PP2
8VLQJHTXDWLRQZHKDYH

⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
b⎢ 1 ⎥
e= ⎢
2 ⎛ ⎞⎥
⎢1 + 1 ⎜ Aw ⎟ ⎥
⎢ 6 ⎜⎝ Af ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎤
150 ⎢ 1 ⎥
= ⎢ ⎥ = 62 mm Ans.
2 ⎢ 1 ⎛ 3750 ⎞ ⎥
1+
⎢⎣ 6 ⎜⎝ 3000 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
Example 15.7
Find the position of the shear centre of the section shown in Figure 15.30.
Fig. 15.30
Solution:
C is the position of the shear centre, where the shear force VDFWVYHUWLFDOO\GRZQZDUGNA is the
neutral axis.
An elementary area dA is considered at a distance x IURPWKHULJKWVLGHLQWKHWRSÀDQJH
The shear forces in the two parts A and EF are equal but opposite, say f1. The shear forces in the
parts BD and DE are not required to be calculated as they are passing through O, the point about
ZKLFKPRPHQWVRIIRUFHVDUH¿QDOO\FRQVLGHUHG
Now f1 = ∫ τ . dA
l1
= ∫ τ . tdx
0
l1
⎛V ⎞
= ∫ ⎜⎝ It Ay ⎟⎠ ⋅ tdx (using equation (15.24))...(15.33)
0
Here Area, A = x.t
l2
y =
2
l2
I îtîl1îl2VLQ2 + 2 ∫ (t ⋅ dy )( y sin 45°)
2
0
l2
= tl1l 22 + t ∫y
2
dy
0
l23
= tl1l 22 + t
3
tl22
= (3l1 + l2 )
3
On substituting A, y and ILQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
l1
V 3 l2
f1 = ∫ t ⋅ tl22 (3l1 + l2 ) ⋅ xt ⋅ 2
⋅ tdx
0
1 l
3V
2l2 (3l1 + l2 ) ∫0
= xdx
l
3V ⎛ x2 ⎞ 1
=
2l2 (3l1 + l2 ) ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 0
3l12V
=
2 2l2 (3l1 + l2 )
Taking moments of the shear forces about OZHKDYH
Vîe = 2 × f1 × y
l2
2 × f1 ×
2
3l12V l
= 2× × 2
2 2l2 (3l1 + l2 ) 2
3 l12V
=
2 (3l1 + l2 )
3 l12
or e= ...(15.34)
2 (3l1 + l2 )
This is the required expression for eccentricity.

Example 15.8
In Example 15.7, if l1 = 150 mm, l2 = 450 mm and V N1¿QGWKHYDOXHRIe.
Solution:
8VLQJHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
3l12
e=
2 (3l1 + l2 )
3 × 1502
=
2 (3 × 150 + 450)
= 37.5 mm Ans.
15.6.2 Shear Centre for an Equal-leg Angle Section

Consider an equal-leg angle section of uniform thickness as shown in Fig. 15.31. C is the point, where
WKHYHUWLFDOVKHDUIRUFHV acts.
Fig. 15.31
An elementary area dA is considered at a distance xDVVKRZQLQ¿JXUH
dA = t dx
Let VEHWKHYHUWLFDOVKHDUIRUFHDSSOLHGDWWKHSRLQWC. f1 and f2 are the shear forces induced in the
parts PQ and PRUHVSHFWLYHO\7KHVKHDUVWUHVVGHYHORSHGLQWKHVHFWLRQLVW.
Now f1 = ∫ τ . dA
⎛V ⎞
= ∫ ⎜⎝ It Ay ⎟⎠ . dA (using equation (15.24))
l
V ⎡⎧ (l − x ) ⎫ ⎤
= ∫ It ⋅ (l − x )t ⋅ ⎢⎣⎨⎩l − 2 ⎭
⎬ sin 45°⎥ ⋅ tdx
⎦
0
l
Vt (l + x ) 1
= ∫
I 0
(l − x ) ⋅
2
⋅
2
⋅ dx
l
Vt
2 2 I ∫0
= (l 2 − x 2 )dx
l
Vt ⎛ 2 x3 ⎞
= l x −
2 2 I ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 0
Vt ⎛ 3 l 3 ⎞
= l − ⎟
2 2 I ⎜⎝ 3⎠
Vt . 2 3
= l
2 2I 3
Vtl 3
= ... (15.35)
3 2I
The moment of inertia I is calculated as
l
I = 2 ∫ t ⋅ dx ⋅ ( x sin 45°)
2
0
l
x2
= 2 ∫ t ⋅ dx ⋅
0
2
l
= t ∫ x 2 dx
0
l
⎛ x3 ⎞
= t⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠0
tl 3
=
3
Substituting ILQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
Vtl 3 3 V
f1 = × 3=
3 2 tl 2
V
Similarly, f2 = (because of the symmetry of the section)
2
The resultant of f1 and f2 = f12 + f 22
2 2
⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
= V
= Applied vertical shear force at C
Hence, C is the position of the shear centre.
Example 15.9
Find the position of the shear centre of the section of a beam shown in Fig. 15.32.
Fig. 15.32
Solution:
Let V be the applied vertical shear force acting at C. The shear stresses developed in each part of
WKHVHFWLRQDUHVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH7KHVKHDUVWUHVVHVGHYHORSHGLQWKHSDUWVBD and GH are equal
(say f1) and in the parts DE and FG are equal (say f2). f3 is the shear force developed in the part EF.
The respective thicknesses of the part BD (and GH), DE (and FG) and EF are t1, t2 and t3 respectively.
The shear force f1 is expressed as
f1 = ∫ τ dA
l1
V
= ∫ It1 Ay ⋅ t1dy (dA = t1.dy)
0
l1
V ⎛h l1 − y ⎞
= ∫ It1 ⋅ (l1 − y )t1 ⋅ ⎜⎝ 2 + y + 2 ⎠
⎟ ⋅ t1dy
0
l
Vt1 1 ⎛h l − y⎞
=
I 0∫ (l1 − y )⎜ + y + 1
⎝2 2 ⎠
⎟ dy
Vt1 1 ⎛ l1h l1 y y 2 ⎞
l
l12 l1 y hy
I ∫0 ⎜⎝ 2
= + l1 y + − − − y 2
− + ⎟ dy
2 2 2 2 2⎠
l
Vt1 ⎛ l1hy l1 y 2 l12 y l1 y 2 hy 2 y 3 l1 y 2 y 3 ⎞
1
= + + − − − − +
I ⎜⎝ 2 2 2 4 4 3 4 6 ⎟⎠ 0
Vt1 ⎛ l12 h l13 l13 l13 hl12 l13 l13 l13 ⎞

= + + − − − − + ⎟
I ⎜⎝ 2 2 2 4 3 3 4 6⎠
Vt1 ⎛ l12 h l13 ⎞ Vt1l12
= + = (3h + 4l1 )
I ⎜⎝ 4 3 ⎟⎠ 12 I
The shear force f2 is found as
l2
V
f2 = ∫ τ dA = ∫ It2 Ay ⋅ t2dx
0
l2
V ⎡ ⎛h l ⎞ h⎤
= ∫ It2 × ⎢⎣l1. t1 ⎜⎝ 2 + 21 ⎟⎠ + t2 ⋅ x ⋅ 2 ⎥⎦ t2dx
0
V ⎛ l1t1h l12t1 t2 xh ⎞
l2
= ∫ I ⎜⎝ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ dx
0
V ⎛ l1l2t1h l12l2t1 l22t2 h ⎞ V ⎛ l1l2t1h l12l2t1 l22t2 h ⎞

= + + = + +
I ⎜⎝ 2 2 4 ⎟⎠ I ⎜⎝ 2 2 4 ⎟⎠
The shear force component f3 is not required to be calculated as it is passing through the point O,
the centre of moment.
Taking moments of the shear forces about OZHKDYH
h h
Vîe + 2 f1îl2 = f 2 × + f 2 × = f2îh
2 2
or Vîe = f2îh – 2 f1îl2
Vh ⎛ l1l2t1h l12l2t1 l22t2 h ⎞ Vt1l12l2

= + + − (3h + 4l1 ) (on substituting f1 and f2)
I ⎜⎝ 2 2 4 ⎟⎠ 6I
l1l2t1h 2 l22t1h l22t2 h 2 l12l2t1h 2l13l2t1

ZKLFKJLYHV e= + + − −
2I 2I 4I 2I 3I
l1l2t1 ⎛ h 2 2l12 ⎞ t2l22 h 2

= ⎜ − ⎟+
I ⎝ 2 3 ⎠ 4I
The moment of inertia of the section is found as

2
1 ⎛h l ⎞
I = 2× × t1 × l13 + 2 × l1 × t1 × ⎜ + 1 ⎟
12 ⎝2 2⎠
2
1 ⎛h⎞ 1
+ 2 × × l2 × t2 + 2 × l2 × t2 × ⎜ ⎟ + × t3 × h
3 3
12 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 12
On substituting I in the equation of eZH¿QGe in terms of l1, l2, t1, t2, t3 and h.
Example 15.10
In Example 15.9, if l1 = 30 mm, l2 = 90 mm, t1 = 10 mm, t2 = 8 mm, t3 = 5 mm and h PP¿QG
the position of the shear centre.
Solution:
The moment of inertia of the section is found as
2
1 ⎛ 150 30 ⎞
I = 2× × 10 × 303 + 2 × 30 × 10 × ⎜ + ⎟
12 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
2
1 ⎛ 150 ⎞ 1
+ 2× × 90 × 83 + 2 × 90 × 8 × ⎜ ⎟ + × 5 × 150
3
12 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 12
= (45000 + 4860000 + 7680 + 8100000 + 1406250) mm 4
= 14418930 mm4
The eccentricity eLVJLYHQDV

l1l2t1 ⎛ h 2 2l12 ⎞ t2l22 h 2
e= ⎜ − ⎟+
I ⎝ 2 3 ⎠ 4I
30 × 90 × 10 ⎛ 1502 2 × 302 ⎞ 8 × 902 × 1502

= ⎜ − ⎟+
14418930 ⎝ 2 3 ⎠ 4 × 14418930
= 19.94 + 25.28
= 45.22 mm
Hence, the shear centre is located on the neutral axis at a distance of 45.22 mm from the point O
(towards left). Ans.
Example 15.11
Find the position of the shear centre for a section of uniform thickness as shown in Fig. 15.33.
Fig. 15.33 Fig. 15.34
Solution:
The applied vertical shear force is V acting at the shear centre C. The shear forces in the parts BD
and FG are equal (say f1) and in the parts DE and EF are equal (say f2). The uniform thickness of the
section is t.
f1 = ∫ τ dA
l1
V
= ∫ It ⋅ Ay ⋅ tdx
0
(dA = tdx)
l1
V
= ∫ It (tx) y ⋅ tdx
0
(A = tx) ...(1)
x
where y = l2 sin 45° – l1 sin 45° + sin 45°
2
l2 l x
= − 1 +
2 2 2 2
2l2 − 2l1 + x
=
2 2
On substituting y in equation (1), we have
l1
V ⎛ 2l2 − 2l1 + x ⎞
f1 = ∫ It (tx ) ⋅ ⎜⎝ 2 2
⎟⎠ ⋅ tdx
0
l
Vt 1
2 2 I ∫0
= ( 2l2 x − 2l1 x + x 2 )dx
l
Vt ⎛ . x 2 x2 x3 ⎞
1
= 2l2 − 2l1 . + ⎟
2 2 I ⎜⎝ 2 2 3 ⎠0
l
Vt ⎛ 2 x3 ⎞
1
= l2 x − l1 x + ⎟
2
2 2 I ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠0
Vt ⎛ 2 3 l13 ⎞
= ⎜ l2l1 − l1 + ⎟
2 2I ⎝ 3⎠
Vt ⎛ 3l2l12 − 3l13 + l13 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟
2 2I ⎝ 3 ⎠
Vt Vtl12
= (3l2l12 − 2l13 ) = (3l2 − 2l1 )
6 2I 6 2I
The shear force f2 is not required to be determined as it passes through the point O, the centre of
moment.
Consider the top half part of the section as shown in Fig. 15.34.
The moments of inertia of the parts BD and FG DUH¿UVWFDOFXODWHGDERXWWKHD[HVUU (the horizontal
FHQWURLDOD[LVDQGVVWKHYHUWLFDOFHQWURLDOD[LVDV
1
Iuu = × l1 × t 3
12
1
Ivv = × t × l13
12
Now Ixx = Iuu cos2 45° + Ivv sin2 45°
1 1 1 1
= 12 × l1 × t × 2 + 12 × t × l1 × 2
3 3
l1t 3 tl13
= +
24 24
l1t 2 2
= (t + l1 )
24
Now the moment of inertia of the part FGDERXWWKHQHXWUDOD[LVNA) is found as
2
⎛ l ⎞
I1 = Ixx + l1 t ⎜ l2 sin 45° − 1 sin 45° ⎟ XVLQJSDUDOOHOD[HVWKHRUHP
⎝ 2 ⎠
2
l1t 2 2 ⎛ l l ⎞
= (t + l1 ) + l1t ⎜ 2 − 1 ⎟
24 ⎝ 2 2 2⎠
l1t 2 2 l1t
= (t + l1 ) + ( 2l2 − l1 ) 2
24 8
l1t 2 2 l1t 2 2
= (t + l1 ) + (4l2 + l1 − 4l1l2 )
24 8
l1t 3 + l13t + t + 12l1l22 t + 3l13t − 12l12 l2 t

=
24
l1t 3 + 4l13t + 12l1l22t − 12l12l2t
=
24
l1t 2
= (t + 4l12 + 12l22 − 12l1l2 )
24
The moment of inertia of the part BDDERXWWKHQHXWUDOD[LVNA) is also equal to I1.
Similarly, the moments of inertia of the parts DE and EF DUH¿UVWFDOFXODWHGDERXWWKHLUFHQWURLGDO
D[HVUcUc and VcVc as
1
Iuƍuƍ = × l2 × t 3
12
1
Ivƍvƍ= × t × l23
12
Now Ixƍxƍ = Iuƍuƍ cos2 45° + Ivƍvƍ sin2 45°
1 1 1 1
= × l2 × t 3 × + × t × l23 ×
12 2 12 2
l2t 3 tl23
= 24 + 24
l2t 2 2
= (t + l2 )
24
Now the moment of inertia of the part EFDERXWWKHQHXWUDOD[LVNA) is found as
I2 = Ixƍxƍ + l2t ⎛ l2 sin 45° ⎞

2
XVLQJSDUDOOHOD[HVWKHRUHP
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
l2t 2 2 l2t × l22
= (t + l2 ) +
24 8
l2t 3 + tl23 + 3tl23

=
24
l2t 3 + 4tl23
=
24
l2t 2
= (t + 4l22 )
24
The moment of inertia of the part DEDERXWWKHQHXWUDOD[LVNA) is also equal to I2.
1RZWKHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHZKROHVHFWLRQDERXWWKHQHXWUDOD[LVNA) is given as
I = 2I1 + 2I2
l1t 2 l2t 2
= 12 (t + 4l1 + 12l2 − 12l1l2 ) + 12 (t + 4l2 )
2 2 2
... (2)
Taking moments of the shear forces about O, we have

V × e = f1 × l2 + f1 × l2
Vtl12
= 2 f1 × l2 = 2 × (3l2 − 2l1 ) × l2
6 2I
tl12l2
which gives e= (3l2 − 2l1 )
3 2I
After substituting IIURPHTXDWLRQZHFDQ¿QGWKHYDOXHRIe in terms of t1, l1 and l2.
Example 15.12
,Q([DPSOHLIl1 = 30 mm l2 = 45 mm and t PP¿QGWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKHVKHDUFHQWUHRI
the section.
Solution:
The moment of inertia of the section is found is
l1t 2 lt
I= (t + 4l12 + 12l22 − 12l1l2 ) + 2 (t 2 + 4l22 )
12 12
30 × 3 2 45 × 3 2
= (3 + 4 × 302 + 12 × 452 − 12 × 30 × 45) + (3 + 4 × 452 )
12 12
= 87817.5 + 91226.25 = 179043.75 mm4
tl12l2 3 × 302 × 45
e= (3l2 − 2l1 ) = × (3×45 – 2×30) = 12 mm
3 2I 3 2 × 179043.75
+HQFH WKH VKHDU FHQWUH LV ORFDWHG RQ WKH QHXWUDO D[LV DW D GLVWDQFH RI PP IURP WKH SRLQW O
(towards left). Ans.
Example 15.13
Find the shear centre of the section of uniform thickness as shown in Fig. 15.35.
Fig. 15.35
Solution:
The vertical shear force V is applied at the point C, the shear centre, and t is the uniform thickness
of the section. Equal shear forces are developed (say f 1) in the parts BD and GH. Similarly, the parts
DE and FG have equal shear forces (say 2). f3 is the shear force developed in the part EF. e is the
eccentricity and NA LVWKHQHXWUDOD[LV
f1 = ∫ τ dA
l1
V
= ∫ It Ay . tdy (dA = t dy)
0
l1
V ⎛h y⎞
= ∫ It ⋅ yt ⋅ ⎜⎝ 2 − l1 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⋅ tdy (A = yt)
0
Vt ⎛ h y2 ⎞
l1
− + Vt ⎛ hy 2 l1 y 2 y 3 ⎞
= I ⎜2 y l y
2 ⎟⎠
dy = − + ⎟
I ⎜⎝ 4
1
⎝ 2 6 ⎠0
Vt ⎛ hl12 l13 l13 ⎞ Vt ⎛ 3hl12 − 6l13 + 2l13 ⎞

= − + =
I ⎜⎝ 4 2 6 ⎟⎠ I ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟
⎠
Vt ⎛ 3hl12 − 4l13 ⎞
=
I ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟
⎠
Vtl12 ⎛ 3h − 4l1 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
I ⎝ 12 ⎠
f2 = ∫ τ dA
V
= ∫ It Ay ⋅ dA
V ⎡ ⎛h⎞ l1 ⎞ ⎤
l2
⎛h
= ∫ It ⎢⎣ xt ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ + l ⋅ t ⎜⎝ 2 − 2 ⎟⎠⎥⎦ ⋅ tdx
0
1 (A = xt and dA = t dx)
l
Vt 2 ⎛ xh l1h l12 ⎞
l
Vt ⎛ x 2 h l1hx l12 x ⎞
2
I ∫0 ⎜⎝ 2
= + − dx = + −
2 2 ⎟⎠ I ⎜⎝ 4 2 2 ⎟⎠ 0
Vt ⎛ l22 h l1l2 h l12l2 ⎞

= ⎜ + − ⎟
I ⎝ 4 2 2 ⎠
The shear force f3 is not required to be determined as it passes through O, the point about which
moment is calculated.
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHVHFWLRQDERXWWKHQHXWUDOD[LVNA) is obtained as
⎡1 ⎛ h l1 ⎞ ⎤
2
I = 2 ⎢ × t × l1 + l1 × t × ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥
3
⎢⎣12 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡1 ⎛h⎞ ⎤ 1
2
+ 2× ⎢ × l2 × t + l2 × t × ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + × t × h
3 3
⎢⎣ 12 ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
2 12
tl13 l1th 2 2 l13t l2t 3 l2th 2 th3

= 6 + − l1 th + + + +
2 2 6 2 12
2 3 l1th 2 2 l2t 3 l2th 2 th3

= tl1 + − l1 th + + +
3 2 6 2 12
Taking moments of the shear forces about the point O, we have

h
V × e = 2 × f1 × l2 + 2 × f2 ×
2
Vtl12 ⎛ 3h − 4l1 ⎞ Vt ⎛ l22 h l1l2 h l12l2 ⎞ h

= 2× ⎜ ×
⎟ 2 l + 2 × + − ×
I ⎝ 12 ⎠ I ⎜⎝ 4 2 2 ⎟⎠ 2
tl12l2 th ⎛ l 2 h l l h l 2l ⎞
which gives e= (3h − 4l1 ) + ⎜ 2 + 1 2 − 1 2 ⎟
6I I ⎝ 4 2 2 ⎠
Substituting ILQWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQZHFDQ¿QGe in terms of given parameters.

Example 15.14
Find the position of the shear centre of an unequal I-section shown in Fig. 15.36.
Fig. 15.36
Solution:
C is the position of the shear centre, where the vertical shear force V is applied. XXLVWKHD[LVRIV\PPHWU\
of the section, and hence the shear centre lies on it. f1 and f2 are the shear forces developed in the two
ÀDQJHVRIWKHVHFWLRQVRWKDW V = f1 + f2. The shear force developed in the web is not required to be
GHWHUPLQHGDVLWSDVVHVWKURXJKWKHD[LVRIV\PPHWU\
f1 = ∫ τ dA
V
= ∫ It 1
Ay . dA
⎞ ⎧ 1 ⎛ l1 ⎫
l1 / 2
V ⎛ l1 ⎞
= ∫0
⎜⎝ − y ⎟⎠ t1 . ⎨ ⎜⎝ − y ⎟⎠ + y ⎬ ⋅ t1dy
It1 2 ⎩2 2 ⎭
l1 / 2
Vt1 ⎛ l1 ⎞ ⎛ l1 y ⎞
= ∫0
I 2
⎜⎝ − y ⎟⎠ ⋅ ⎜⎝ + ⎟⎠ dy
4 2
l /2
⎛ l12 y 2 ⎞ Vt1 ⎛ l12 y3 ⎞
l1 / 2 1
Vt1
=
I ∫
0
−
⎜⎝ 8 2 ⎟⎠ dy =
I ⎜⎝ 8
y− ⎟
6 ⎠0
Vt1 ⎛ l13 l13 ⎞ Vt1 ⎛ 3l13 − l13 ⎞ Vt1l13

= ⎜ − ⎟ = I ⎜ 48 ⎟ =
I ⎝ 16 48 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ 24 I
Let I1 0RPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHOHIWÀDQJHDERXWWKHXXD[LV
1
= × t1 × l13
12
VI1
Now f1 = (in terms of I1)
2I
Similarly, f2 is found as
Vt2l23
f2 =
24 I
Let I2 0RPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHULJKWÀDQJHDERXWWKHXXD[LV
1
= × t2 × l23
12
VI 2
Now f2 = (in terms of I2)
2I
Taking moments of the shear forces about the point C, we have
f1 × e1 = f2 × e2
VI1 VI 2
× e1 = × e2
2I 2I
I1 e1 = I2 e2
3
e1 I ⎛t ⎞ ⎛l ⎞
or = 2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟×⎜ 2 ⎟ Ans.
e2 I1 ⎝ t1 ⎠ ⎝ l1 ⎠
1. What is meant by unsymmetrical bending? How does it differ from symmetrical bending?
2. 1DPHDIHZFURVVVHFWLRQVZKLFKDUHV\PPHWULFDODERXWRQHD[LVRQO\
3. 1DPHDIHZFURVVVHFWLRQVZKLFKDUHV\PPHWULFDODERXWERWKD[LVRQO\
4. 1DPHDIHZFURVVVHFWLRQVZKLFKDUHQRWV\PPHWULFDODERXWDQ\D[LV
5. +RZLVÀH[XUHIRUPXODDSSOLFDEOHLQFDVHRIXQV\PPHWULFDOEHQGLQJ"
6. What is meant by skew loading?
7. +RZLVWKHGHÀHFWLRQRIDEHDPIRXQGLQXQV\PPHWULFDOEHQGLQJ"
8. :KDWLVPHDQWE\DGRXEO\V\PPHWULFEHDP"*LYHLWVDIHZH[DPSOHV
9. What is shear centre? What does it signify?
10. Why is shear centre also called centre of twist?
1. Principal axes are those axes about which

(a) mass moment of inertia is zero
(b) second moment of area is zero
(c) product of inertia is zero
(d) polar moment of inertia is zero.
2. )RUPHWKRGRIVXSHUSRVLWLRQWREHYDOLGWKHIROORZLQJDVVXPSWLRQVVKRXOGEHYDOLG
7KHPDWHULDOPXVWH[KLELWHODVWLFEHKDYLRXU
7KHPDWHULDOPXVWH[KLELWSODVWLFEHKDYLRXU
3. The material must follow Hooke’s law.
7KHGHIRUPDWLRQSURGXFHGLQWKHPDWHULDOVKRXOGEHYHU\VPDOO
(a) 1 alone is true
(b) 1 and 3 are true
(c) 2 and 3 are true
(d) 1, 3 and 4 are true.
3. :KLFKRIWKHIROORZLQJVWDWHPHQWVLVFRUUHFWDERXWWKHVKHDUFHQWUH"
(a) For a section symmetrical about two axes, the shear centre lies at the centriod of the section.
(b) For a section symmetrical about one axis only, the shear centre lies along the axis of symmetry.
(c /RDGLVSODFHGDWWKHVKHDUFHQWUHWRDYRLGWZLVWLQJRIWKHVHFWLRQ
(d) All of these.
4. :KLFKRIWKHIROORZLQJVHFWLRQVKDVRQO\RQHD[LVRIV\PPHWU\"
(a) Channel section
(b) T-section
(c) Channel and T-section both
(d) I-section.
5. Symmetrical sections such as rectangular and IVHFWLRQVKDYH
(a) only one axis of symmetry
(b) two axes of symmetry
(c) three axes of symmetry
(d) no axis of symmetry.
6. The shear centre of a semi-circular ring of mean radius R is located at

2R
(a) from the centre of the ring
π
3R
(b) from the centre of the ring
π
4R
(c) from the centre of the ring
π
5R
(d) from the centre of the ring.
π
7. The position of the shear centre for a uniform thin-walled narrowly open circular section of
radius RLVGH¿QHGE\e = Eccentricity)
(a) e = R (b) e = 2R
(c) e = 3R (d) e = 4R.
8. For an IVHFWLRQV\PPHWULFDODERXWERWKx and y axes, the shear centre lies at
(a FHQWURLGRIWKHWRSÀDQJH
(b FHQWURLGRIWKHERWWRPÀDQJH
(c FHQWURLGRIWKHZHE
(d) none of these.
9. )RUDFKDQQHOVHFWLRQV\PPHWULFDODERXWWKHx-axis, the shear centre lies at
(a FHQWURLGRIWKHWRSÀDQJH
(b FHQWURLGRIWKHERWWRPÀDQJH
(c FHQWURLGRIWKHZHE
(d) none of these.
10. The shear centre is also known as
(a) centroid (b) centre of twist
(c) centre of moment (d) none of these.
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (c)
9. (c) 10. (b).
EXERCISES
1. $PORQJFDQWLOHYHUEHDPLVFRQVWUXFWHGIURPPPîPPîPPDQJOHDQGDU-
UDQJHGZLWKLWVPPOHJYHUWLFDO,IDYHUWLFDOORDGRIN1LVDSSOLHGDWWKHIUHHHQGSDVVLQJ
WKURXJKWKHVKHDUFHQWUHRIWKHVHFWLRQGHWHUPLQHWKHPD[LPXPWHQVLOHDQGFRPSUHVVLYHEHQG-
ing stresses set up across the section in the beam.
(Ans. 169 MPa (T), 204 MPa (C)).
2. A T-shaped 2 m long simple beam shown in Fig. 15.37 is subjected to a central point load of
N1LQFOLQHGDWWRWKHYHUWLFDODQGSDVVLQJWKURXJKWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHVHFWLRQ'HWHUPLQH
the following parameters:
(a WKHPD[LPXPWHQVLOHDQGFRPSUHVVLYHEHQGLQJVWUHVVHVLQWKHEHDP
(b) the position of the neutral axis and
(c WKHPD[LPXPYHUWLFDOGHÀHFWLRQ
Take E = 200 GPa
Fig. 15.37
(Ans. (a) Vmax (T) at R = 26.57 MPa, Vmax (C) at Q = 38.63 MPa.
(b) E c) mm).
3. A T-shaped 2.5 m long simple beam shown in Fig. 15.38 is subjected to a central point load
W LQFOLQHGDWWRWKHYHUWLFDODQGSDVVLQJWKURXJKWKHFHQWURLGRIWKHVHFWLRQ,IWKHPD[LPXP
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UHVSHFWLYHO\¿QGWKHPD[LPXPORDGW.
Fig. 15.38 (Ans. 5.82 kN).
4. Find the shear centre of the channel section shown in Fig. 15.39.
Fig. 15.39 (Ans. e = 38.21 mm).
5. Find the shear centre of the section shown in Fig. 15.40.
Fig. 15.40 (Ans. e = 25 mm).

6. Find the position of the shear centre of the section of a beam shown in Fig. 15.41.
Fig. 15.41 (Ans. e = 36 mm).
7. Show that the shear centre of a semi-circular ring of mean radius R with uniform thickness is
located at a distance of 4R from the centre of the ring.
π
8. Find the position of the shear centre of the unequal I-section shown in Fig. 15.42.
⎛ e1 ⎞.
⎜⎝ Ans. e2 = 0.281⎟⎠
Fig. 15.42
9. Find the shear centre of the section shown in Fig. 15.43
Fig. 15.43 (Ans. e = 44.75 mm).

10. Find the position of the shear centre at a section of uniform thickness (t = 5 mm) shown in
Fig. 15.44.
(Ans. 8.846 mm).

Fig. 15.44
11. Show that the shear centre of a section in the form of a circular arc of mean radius R and of uni-
form thickness, subtending an angle 2DDWWKHFHQWUHLVJLYHQE\
2R (sin α − α cos α )
e=
(α − sin α cos α )
DQGKHQFH¿QGWKHVKHDUFHQWUHRIDQDUURZO\RSHQFLUFXODUVHFWLRQ (Ans. e = 2R)
12. Find the shear centre of a section in the form of circular arc of mean radius 75 mm and of uniform
WKLFNQHVVPPVXEWHQGLQJDQDQJOHRIDWWKHFHQWUH Ans. e = 83.63 mm).
13. Find the shear centre of the section of a beam shown in Fig. 15.45.
Fig. 15.45
(Ans. 8.55 mm).

16
Fixed Beams
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_16
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dy wlx 2 wl 2 x wx 3
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C = 0
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dx 12
7KLVLVWKHHTXDWLRQRIVORSHIRUWKH¿[HGEHDP
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12 24 24
7KHRWKHUERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQLV
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24
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1 ⎡ wl ⎛ l ⎞ w ⎛l⎞ ⎤
3 2 4
wl 2 ⎛ l ⎞
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EI ⎢⎣ 12 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 24 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 24 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ wl 4 wl 4 wl 4 ⎤
= ⎢ − − ⎥
EI ⎣ 96 96 384 ⎦
wl 4
= ±
384 EI
16.6 FIXED BEAM CARRYING UNIFORMLY VARYING LOAD

Case I When the load varies from w1/unit length at the left end to w2/unit length at the right
HQGRIWKHEHDP
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wXQLWOHQJWKDWBDVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 16.6
$VHFWLRQRIZLGWKdxLVFRQVLGHUHGDWDGLVWDQFH xIURPAZKHUHWKHLQWHQVLW\RIORDGLVwXQLWOHQJWK
Fixing end moments MA and MB

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7KLVFDVHLVVLPLODUWRWKHFDVHLQZKLFKD¿[HGEHDPLVVXEMHFWHGWRDQHFFHQWULFORDGwdxDFWLQJDW
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l
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l
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l
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0
l2
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6LPLODUO\
wa b
MB = − XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
l
( wdx ) × x 2 × (l − x )
l
= −∫
0
l2
w(l − x ) x 2 dx
l
= −∫
0
l2
( w2 − w1 ) x ( w − w1 )(l − x )
where w = w1 + or w2 − 2
l l
&DVH,,:KHQWKHEHDPFDUULHVXQLIRUPO\YDU\LQJORDGRYHUDFHUWDLQSDUWRIWKHEHDP
&RQVLGHUD¿[HGEHDPABRIOHQJWKlZKHUHWKHORDGYDULHVXQLIRUPO\IURPwXQLWOHQJWKDWCWR
wXQLWOHQJWKDWDWKDWLVWKHORDGYDULHVXQLIRUPO\RYHUWKHSDUWCD b±aDVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 16.7
Fixing end moments MA and MB

7KH¿[LQJHQGPRPHQWMAFDQEHH[SUHVVHGDV
x =b
wx (l − x )2 dx
MA = − ∫
x=a
l2

7KH¿[LQJHQGPRPHQWMBFDQEHH[SUHVVHGDV
x =b
w (l − x ) x 2 dx
MB = − ∫
x=a
l2

( w2 − w1 )( x − a ) ( w2 − w1 )(b − x )
where w = w1 + or w2 −
(b − a ) (b − a )
&DVH,,,:KHQWKHORDGYDULHVXQLIRUPO\IURP]HURDWWKHOHIWHQGWRw/unit length at the right
HQGRIWKHEHDP
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Free moment diagram

7RFRQVWUXFWWKHIUHHPRPHQWGLDJUDPWKH¿[HGEHDPLVWUHDWHGWREHDVLPSOHEHDPRIVDPHOHQJWK
lDQGFDUU\LQJWKHVDPHXQLIRUPO\YDU\LQJORDGZKLFKYDULHVIURP]HURDWAWRwXQLWOHQJWKDWB.
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7DNLQJPRPHQWVRIWKHIRUFHVDERXWAZHKDYH
wl 2l
RBc × l = ×
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wl
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6
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wl 1 wx x
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6 2 l 3
wlx wx 3
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6 6l
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Fig. 16.8
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dM x
= 0
dx
d ⎛ wlx wx 3 ⎞
− = 0
dx ⎜⎝ 6 6l ⎟⎠
wl 3wx 2
or − = 0
6 6l
ZKLFKJLYHV
l
x=

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3
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= − =
6 3 18 3 9 3
7KHIUHHPRPHQWGLDJUDPLVVKRZQLQ)LJc
7KHDUHDRIWKHIUHHPRPHQWGLDJUDPFDQEHREWDLQHGDV
l
A = ∫ M dx
0
x
l
⎛ wlx wx 3 ⎞
= ∫ ⎜⎝
0
6
−
6l ⎟⎠
dx XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
l
⎡ wlx 2 wx 4 ⎤ wl 3 wl 4
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=
24
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1 l
A1 ∫0
x = x ⋅ M x dx
1 l ⎛ wlx wx 3 ⎞
=
⎛ wl 3 ⎞ ∫0 ⎜⎝ 6 − 6l ⎟⎠ dx
x
⎜⎝ 24 ⎟⎠
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24 l ⎛ wlx 2 wx 4 ⎞
wl 3 ∫0 ⎜⎝ 6
= − dx
6l ⎟⎠
l
24 ⎡ wlx 3 wx 5 ⎤
= −
wl 3 ⎢⎣ 18 30l ⎥⎦ 0
24 ⎡ wl 4 wl 4 ⎤
= −
wl 3 ⎢⎣ 18 30 ⎥⎦
24 2 wl 4 8l
= × =
wl 3
90 15
/HWMADQGMBEHWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWVDWADQGBUHVSHFWLYHO\7KHDUHDRIWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWGLDJUDP
ZKLFKLVWUDSH]RLGDOLQVKDSHFDQEHIRXQGDV
A = ±$UHDRIWKHWUDSH]RLGDOPRPHQWGLVWULEXWLRQ
1
= − × (M A + M B ) × l
2
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2
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24 2
wl 2
or MA + MB = −
12
7KHFHQWURLGDOGLVWDQFHRIWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPIURPA is
l ( M A + 2M B )
x = × VHH7DEOH
3 (M A + M B )
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8l l (M A + 2 M B )
= ×
15 3 (M A + M B )
l MAMB lMA + MB
MA±MAMB±MB = 0
±MAMB
wl 2
MA = −
30
wl 2
MB = −
20
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)LJd1RZWKHIUHHPRPHQWGLDJUDPDQGWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPDUHVXSHULPSRVHGWRJHW
WKHWRWDOEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPDVVKRZQLQ)LJe
Shear force diagram

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1 l
RA × l±MA± × l × w × + MB = 0
2 3
wl 2 wl 2 wl 2
RA × l − − + = 0
30 6 20
9 wl 2
or RA × l± = 0
60
ZKLFKJLYHV
3wl
RA = (↑ )
20
1RZ RA + RB 7RWDOORDGRQWKHEHDP
wl
=

wl
or RB = − RA

wl 3wl
= −
2 20
7 wl
= (↑ )
20
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7KHYDULDWLRQRIWKHVKHDUIRUFHLVSDUDEROLF
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'HÀHFWLRQRIWKHEHDP
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1 wx x
Mx = RAx±MA± ×x× ×
2 l 3
3wl wl 2 wx 3
= x− −
20 30 6l
dy
EI = M = Mx
dx
3wlx wl 2 wx 3
= − −
20 30 6l
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHKDYH
dy 3wlx 2 wl 2 x wx 4
EI = − − + C1
dx 40 30 24l
$WAZKHUH x =0
dx
=0
dy
C= 0
dy 1 ⎡ 3wlx 2 wl 2 x wx 4 ⎤
= − −
EI ⎢⎣ 40 24l ⎥⎦

dx 30
7KLVLVWKHHTXDWLRQRIVORSHIRUWKH¿[HGEHDP
3wlx 3 wl 2 x 2 wx 5
EIy = − − + C1 x + C2
120 60 120l
7KHRWKHUERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQLV
$WAZKHUH =0
y = 0
C = 0
2QVXEVWLWXWLQJCDQGCLQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
1 ⎡ 3wlx 3 wl 2 x 2 wx 5 ⎤
y = ⎢ − − ⎥
EI ⎣ 120 60 120l ⎦
7KLVLVWKHHTXDWLRQRIGHÀHFWLRQIRUWKH¿[HGEHDP
16.7 FIXED BEAM SUBJECTED TO A COUPLE

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)LJ
5HDFWLRQVDQG¿[LQJHQGPRPHQWVDWA and B
/HWRADQGRBEHWKHYHUWLFDOUHDFWLRQVDQGMADQGMBEHWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWVDWADQGBUHVSHFWLYHO\
&RQVLGHULQJDVHFWLRQ XXDWDGLVWDQFHxIURPAWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWWKHVHFWLRQXVLQJ0DFDXOD\¶V
PHWKRGLVJLYHQDV
Mx = RA x±MA | + x±a
Fig. 16.9
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8VLQJGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQRIÀH[XUHIRUVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHEHDPZHKDYH
dy
EI = M = Mx
dx
= RA x±MA | + Mx±a
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHKDYH
dy x2
EI = A − M A x + C1 + M x±a
R
dx 2
$WAZKHUH x = 0
dy
=0
dx
dy 1 ⎡ RA x 2 ⎤
= ⎢ − M A x + M ( x − a)⎥
dx EI ⎣ 2 ⎦
RA x 3 x2 M ( x − a )2
EIy = − M A + C1 x + C2 +
6 2 2
$WAZKHUH x =0
y =0
8VLQJWKLVERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQLQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
1 ⎡ RA x 3 M A x 2 M ( x − a ) 2 ⎤
y = ⎢ − + ⎥
EI ⎣ 6 2 2 ⎦
1RZXVLQJDQRWKHUERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQZHKDYH
$WBZKHUH x =l
dy
=0
dx
(TXDWLRQRQVXEVWLWXWLQJWKHDERYHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQJLYHV

R Al 2
− M Al + M ( l − a ) = 0
2
R Al 2
or M Al = M ( l − a ) +
2
$JDLQXVLQJERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQZHKDYH
$WBZKHUH x= l
y= 0
(TXDWLRQRQVXEVWLWXWLQJWKHDERYHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQEHFRPHV
R Al 3 M Al 2 M ( l − a ) 2
− + = 0
6 2 2
M Al M ( l − a ) 2 R Al 3
or = +
2 6
6 Ma (l − a )
RA = −
l3
6 Ma (l − a )
= (↓ )
l3
6XEVWLWXWLQJRA LQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
M ( l − a ) R Al
MA = +
l 2
M (l − a ) l ⎛ 6 Ma (l − a ) ⎞
= + × ⎜− ⎟⎠
l 2 ⎝ l3
M (l − a ) 3Ma (l − a )
= −
l l2
Ml (l − a ) − 3Ma (l − a )
=
l2
M (l − a ) (l − 3a )
=
l2
RA × l±MA + M + MB = 0
or MB = ± RAl + MA±M
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⎡ 6 Ma (l − a ) ⎤ M (l − a )(l − 3a )
MB = − ⎢ − ⎥ ×l + −M
⎣ ⎦
3
l l2
6 Ma (l − a ) M (l − a )(l − 3a )
= + −M
l2 l2
M (l − a )
= [6a + l − 3a ] − M
l2
M (l − a )
= (l + 3a ) − M
l2
Ml 2 + 3Mal − Mal − 3a 2 M − Ml 2
=
l2
2 Mal − 3a 2 M
=
l2
Ma ( 2l − 3a )
=
l2
8VLQJNQRZQYDOXHVRIMADQGMBWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPFDQEHGUDZQ7KHVKDSHRIWKH
GLDJUDPZLOOGHSHQGXSRQWKHYDOXHRIMADQGMB .
1RZ RA + RB = 0
or RB = ± RA
⎡ 6 Ma (l − a ) ⎤
= − ⎢− ⎥⎦ XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
⎣ l3
6 Ma (l − a )
= (↑ )
l3
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16.8 SINKING OF A SUPPORT

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FRQVLGHUHGWKDWWKHHQGBVLQNVPRYHVLQWKHGRZQZDUGGLUHFWLRQUHODWLYHWRWKHHQGAE\DQDPRXQW
GDVVKRZQLQ)LJ7KH¿[LQJPRPHQWV MADQGMBDWWKHHQGVDUHHTXDOLQPDJQLWXGHEXW
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DUHWKHUHDFWLRQVDWADQGBUHVSHFWLYHO\RBDFWVGRZQZDUG
Fig. 16.10
RA × l±MA±MB = 0
RA × l±M DVMA = MB = M
2M
or RA = (↑ )
l
1RZRA + RB 7RWDOORDGRQWKHEHDP
or RB = ± RA
M
= −
l
2M
= (↓ )
l
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⎛l⎞
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=
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=
24 EI
R Al 3
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Fig. 16.11
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10 × (3)3
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Solution:
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(15 + 15)
RA = RB = N1Ĺ
2
Fig. 16.12

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C RPLWWLQJWKHQHJDWLYHWHUPVZLWKLQWKHEUDFNHW
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dx EI ⎣⎢ 2 2 2 ⎥⎦
)L[HG%HDPV 777
15 x 3 12 x 2 15( x − 1)3 15( x − 4)3

EIy = − + C1 x + C2 − −
6 2 6 6
$WAZKHUH x= 0
y= 0
1 ⎡ 5x3 5( x − 1)3 5( x − 4)3 ⎤

y= ⎢ − 6x2 − − ⎥
EI ⎢⎣ 2 2 2 ⎥⎦
)RUPD[LPXPFHQWUDOGHÀHFWLRQSXWx PLQHTXDWLRQDQGRPLWWKHODVWWHUPEHFDXVHRILWV

QHJDWLYHYDOXHZLWKLQWKHEUDFNHW
1 ⎡ 5 × ( 2.5)3 5 ⎤
yPD[ = ⎢ − 6 × ( 2.5)2 − × ( 2.5 − 1)3 ⎥
2000 ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
1
=
2000
[39.06 − 37.5 − 8.43]
1
= × 6.87 = ±î±P
2000
= PP
± Ans.
Example 16.3
$¿[HGEHDPRIVSDQPFDUULHVDXQLIRUPO\GLVWULEXWHGORDGRILQWHQVLW\N1PRYHULWVHQWLUH
VSDQ'UDZWKHVKHDUIRUFHDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPVDQGDOVR¿QGWKHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQRI
WKHEHDP7DNHEI N1P.
Solution: *LYHQ
/HQJWKRIWKHEHDP l P
8QLIRUPO\GLVWULEXWHGORDG w N1P
)OH[XUDOULJLGLW\ EI N1P
7KHORDGHG¿[HGEHDPLVVKRZQLQ)LJa
Fig. 16.13
6LQFHWKHORDGLVV\PPHWULFDOO\SODFHGRQWKHEHDPKHQFHLWLVHTXDOO\GLVWULEXWHGRQWKHWZRVXSSRUW
HQGVADQGB.
)L[HG%HDPV 779
wl
RA = RB =

15 × 6
=
2
N1
%RWKUHDFWLRQVDUHDFWLQJYHUWLFDOO\XSZDUG

6KHDUIRUFHDWA is
VA = + RA
N1
6KHDUIRUFHDWC is
wl
VC = R A −

±
= 0
6KHDUIRUFHDWB is
VB = ± RB
= ±N1
Fixing moments at A and B

/HWMADQGMBEHWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWVDWWKHHQGVADQGBRIWKHEHDPUHVSHFWLYHO\
%HFDXVHRIV\PPHWU\RIORDGRQWKHEHDPZHKDYH
wl 2
MA = MB = − XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
12
15 × 62
= ±
12
= ±N1P
8VLQJNQRZQYDOXHVRIMADQGMB WKH¿[LQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPLVFRQVWUXFWHGDQGLVVKRZQLQ
)LJd
The maximum value of the free bending moment at the centre of the simple beam is
wl 2 15 × 62
=
8 8
= 67.5 kN.m
The free moment diagram is shown in Fig. 16.13 (c7KH VXSHUSRVLWLRQ RI WKH ¿[LQJ DQG IUHH
moment diagrams gives the total bending moment diagram as shown in Fig. 16.13 (e).
There are two points of contraflexure of which one occurs at a distance of
0.211 l = 0.211× 6 = 1.266 m from A and another occurs at a distance of 1.266 m from B or at a
distance of 0.789 l = 0.789 × 6 = 4.734 m from A.
'HÀHFWLRQRIWKHEHDP
7KHQHJDWLYHFHQWUDOPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQXVLQJHTXDWLRQLVJLYHQDV
wl 4
ymax =
384 EI
15 × 64
= = 0.01265 m
384 × 4000
= 12.65 mm Ans.
Example 16.4
$¿[HGEHDPRIOHQJWKPFDUULHVDSRLQWORDGRIN1DWWKHPLGVSDQDQGDXQLIRUPO\GLVWULEXWHG
ORDGRIN1PRYHUWKHIXOOVSDQ'UDZWKHVKHDUIRUFHDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPVDQGDOVR¿QG
WKHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHEHDP7DNHEI = 3000 kN.m2.
Solution:
*LYHQ
/HQJWKRIWKHEHDP l = 4 m
3RLQWORDG W = 20 kN
8QLIRUPORDG w = 15 kN/m
)OH[XUDOULJLGLW\ EI = 3000 kN.m2
The loaded beam is shown in Fig. 16.14 (a). The load 20 kN acts at the centre C of the beam.
5HDFWLRQVDWA and B
Let RA and RB be the vertical reactions at A and BUHVSHFWLYHO\$VWKHORDGLVV\PPHWULFDOO\SODFHG
RQWKHEHDPKHQFH
Total load on the beam W + wl
RA = RB = =
2 2
20 + (15 × 4)
= = 40 kN
2
)L[HG%HDPV 781
Fig. 16.14
%RWKUHDFWLRQVDUHDFWLQJYHUWLFDOO\XSZDUG

6KHDUIRUFHDWA is
VA = + RA
N1
6KHDUIRUFHMXVWWRWKHOHIWRIC
= + RA±î
±
N1
6KHDUIRUFHMXVWWRWKHULJKWRIC
= + RA±î±
±±
= ±N1
6KHDUIRUFHDWB is
VB = ± RB
= ±N1
)UHHEHQGLQJPRPHQW
7KHPD[LPXPYDOXHRIWKHIUHHEHQGLQJPRPHQWRFFXUVDWWKHPLGVSDQRIWKHEHDPDQGLVHTXDOWR
WKHVXPRIWKHPD[LPXPIUHHPRPHQWGXHWRSRLQWORDGDQGWKHPD[LPXPIUHHPRPHQWGXHWRXQL
IRUPORDGERWKDFWLQJVHSDUDWHO\
⎛ Wl wl 2 ⎞
%0free = + ⎜ +
8 ⎟⎠

⎝ 4
⎛ 20 × 4 15 × 42 ⎞
= +⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 4 8 ⎠
N1P
7KHIUHHPRPHQWFXUYHLVQRWFRQWLQXRXVWKURXJKRXWEXWLVEURNHQDWWKHPLGVSDQDOWKRXJKLWLV
V\PPHWULFDODERXWWKHPLGVSDQ7KHIUHHPRPHQWGLDJUDPLVVKRZQLQ)LJc
Fixing moments at A and B

/HWMADQGMBEHWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWVDW ADQGBUHVSHFWLYHO\$VWKHORDGLVV\PPHWULFDOO\SODFHG
RQWKHEHDPWKHWZR¿[LQJPRPHQWVDUHHTXDO(DFK¿[LQJHQGPRPHQWLVHTXDOWRWKHVXPRIWKH
¿[LQJPRPHQWGXHWRSRLQWORDGRQO\DQGWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWGXHWRXQLIRUPORDGRQO\
⎛ Wl wl 2 ⎞
MA = MB = − ⎜ +
⎝ 8 12 ⎟⎠
⎛ 20 × 4 15 × 42 ⎞
= −⎜ +
⎝ 8 12 ⎟⎠
= ±
= ±N1P
)L[HG%HDPV 783
8VLQJNQRZQYDOXHVRIMADQGMBWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPFDQEHFRQVWUXFWHGDQGLVVKRZQ
LQ)LJd
1RZWKHVXSHUSRVLWLRQRIWKHIUHHPRPHQWGLDJUDPDQGWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPJLYHVWKHWRWDO
EHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPDVVKRZQLQ)LJ
7KHUH DUH WZR SRLQWV RI FRQWUDÀH[XUH ERWK HTXLGLVWDQW IURP HLWKHU VLGH 7R ¿QG WKH SRLQW RI
FRQWUDÀH[XUHZHFRQVLGHUDVHFWLRQXXDWDGLVWDQFHxIURPADVVKRZQLQ)LJa
8VLQJ0DFDXOD\¶VPHWKRGWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWWKHVHFWLRQLVJLYHQDV
x
Mx = RA x±MA± w × x × − W ( x − 2)
2
15 x 2
= 40 x± − − 20 ( x − 2)
2
= 40 x± − 7.5 x 2 − 20 ( x − 2)
)RUSRLQWRIFRQWUDÀH[XUHMx = 0
40 x±±7.5 x 2 −20 ( x − 2)
6LQFHWKHOHIWSRLQWRIFRQWUDÀH[XUHOLHVLQACIRUZKLFKxKHQFH
40 x±±x 2PLWWLQJWKHQHJDWLYHWHUPZLWKLQWKHEUDFNHWRIHTXDWLRQ
RU x±x
ZKLFKJLYHV
40 ± ( − 40)2 − 4 × 7.5 × 30
x=
2 × 7.5
40 ± 26.46
=
15
PRUP
7KHYDOXHRIx PLVQRWDFFHSWDEOHKHQFHWKHDFFHSWHGYDOXHRIx PIURPHQGA.
+HQFH RQH SRLQW RI FRQWUDÀH[XUH OLHV DW D GLVWDQFH RI P IURP A DQG DQRWKHU SRLQW RI
FRQWUDÀH[XUHOLHVDWDGLVWDQFHRIPIURPBEHFDXVHRIV\PPHWU\RIORDGRQWKHEHDPRUDWD
GLVWDQFHRI±P PIURPA.
'HÀHFWLRQRIWKHEHDP
dy
EI = M = Mx
dx
= 40 x − 30 − 7.5 x 2 − 20 ( x − 2) XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHJHW
dy 40 x 2 7.5 x 3 20( x − 2)2
EI = − 30 x + C1 − −
dx 2 3 2
x±x + C±x_±x±

20 x 3 30 x 2 2.5 x 4 10 ( x − 2)3
EIy = − + C1 x + C2 − −
3 2 4 3
x±x + C x + C±x4_±x±

$WAZKHUH x= 0
dy
DQGy = 0
dx
2QVXEVWLWXWLQJWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVLQHTXDWLRQVDQGDQGRPLWWLQJWKHQHJDWLYHWHUP
ZLWKLQWKHEUDFNHWZHJHW
C = 0
DQG C = 0
(TXDWLRQVDQGRQVXEVWLWXWLQJCDQGCDUHUHGXFHGWR
dy 1 ⎡
= 20 x 2 − 30 x − 2.5 x 3 − 10 ( x − 2)2 ⎤
dx EI ⎣ ⎦
1 ⎡
DQG y= 6.67 x 3 − 15 x 2 − 0.625 x 4 − 3.34 ( x − 2)3 ⎤
EI ⎣ ⎦
(TXDWLRQJLYHVWKHVORSHDQGHTXDWLRQJLYHVWKHGHÀHFWLRQIRUDQ\YDOXHRIx.
7KHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQRFFXUVGRZQZDUGDWWKHFHQWUHRIWKHEHDPIRUZKLFKx P
2QVXEVWLWXWLQJx PLQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
1
yPD[ = ⎡6.67 × 23 − 15 × 22 − 0.625 × 24 ⎤
EI ⎣ ⎦
1
=
EI
[53.36 − 60 − 10]
1 16.64
= ± × 16.64 = ±
EI 3000
= ±î±P ±PP Ans.
)L[HG%HDPV 785
$OWHUQDWLYHPHWKRGWR¿QGWKHGHÀHFWLRQ
$OWHUQDWLYHO\WKHGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHEHDPFDQEHIRXQGE\DGGLQJWKHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQGXHWRSRLQW
ORDGDQGWKHPD[LPXPGHÀHFWLRQGXHWRXQLIRUPORDGDQGLVJLYHQDV
⎡ Wl 3 wl 4 ⎤ ⎡ 20 × 43 15 × 44 ⎤
yPD[ = ± ⎢ + ⎥ = ± ⎢192 × 3000 + 384 × 3000 ⎥
⎣192 EI 384 EI ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
= ±î±î±
= ±î±P ±PP
Example 16.5
$ ¿[HG EHDP RI OHQJWK P FDUULHV D SRLQW ORDG DQG D XQLIRUP ORDG DV VKRZQ LQ )LJ
'HWHUPLQH WKH HQG UHDFWLRQV WKH ¿[LQJ HQG PRPHQWV DQG WKH GHÀHFWLRQ XQGHU WKH ORDG RI N1
7DNHEI N1P.
Fig. 16.15
Solution:
*LYHQ
/HQJWKRIWKHEHDP l P
3RLQWORDG W N1
8QLIRUPORDG w N1P
/HWRADQGRBEHWKHHQGUHDFWLRQVDQGMADQGMBEHWKH¿[LQJHQGPRPHQWVUHVSHFWLYHO\
&RQVLGHUDVHFWLRQXXDWDGLVWDQFHxIURPADVVKRZQLQ)LJ
8VLQJ0DFDXOD\¶VPHWKRGWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWDWWKHVHFWLRQFDQEHH[SUHVVHGDV
( x −1)
Mx = RA x±MA±x±±x±î
2
= RA x±MA±x±±x±
dy
EI = M = Mx
dx
= RA x±MA±x±±x±
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHKDYH
dy x2 25( x − 1) 2 10( x − 1)3
EI = RA × − M A × x + C1 − −
dx 2 2 3
x3 x2 25 10
EIy = RA × − MA × + C1 x + C2 − × ( x − 1)3 − × ( x − 1)4
6 2 6 12
$WAZKHUH x= 0
dy
DQGy = 0
dx
(TXDWLRQRQXVLQJWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQJLYHV
(TXDWLRQRQXVLQJWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQJLYHV
C = RPLWWLQJWKHQHJDWLYHWHUPVZLWKWKHEUDFNHW
(TXDWLRQVDQGRQVXEVWLWXWLQJCDQGCDUHUHGXFHGWR
dy 1 ⎡ x2 25( x − 1) 2 10( x − 1)3 ⎤

= ⎢ A
R − M A x − − ⎥
dx EI ⎢⎣ 2 2 3 ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ x3 x2 25 5 ⎤
y = ⎢ RA − M A − ( x − 1)3 − ( x − 1)4 ⎥
EI ⎣ 6 2 6 6 ⎦
$JDLQXVLQJWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQZHKDYH
$WBZKHUH x P
y =0
)URPHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
1 ⎡ 33 32 25 5 ⎤
0= ⎢ A
R × − M A × − (3 − 1)3 − (3 − 1) 4 ⎥
EI ⎣ 6 2 6 6 ⎦
[4.5RA − 4.5M A − 33.34 − 13.34]

1
=
EI
RU RA± MA
)L[HG%HDPV 787
$JDLQXVLQJWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQZHKDYH
$WBZKHUH x P
dy
= 0
dx
)URPHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
1 ⎡ 32 25 10 ⎤
0= ⎢ A
R × − MA × 3 − × (3 − 1) 2 + × (3 − 1)3 ⎥
EI ⎣ 2 2 3 ⎦
1
= [4.5RA − 3M A − 50 − 26.67]
EI
RU RA±MA
MA N1P Ans.
RA N1n Ans.
1RZ RA + RB î
N1
or RB ±5A
±N1
N1n Ans.
7DNLQJPRPHQWVDERXWAZHKDYH
⎛ 2⎞
MB±RBîî 20 × 2 × ⎜1 + ⎟ − M A = 0
⎝ ⎠ 2
MB±î±
MB±±
MB±
or MB N1P Ans.
MADQGMBDUHDFWXDOO\QHJDWLYHPRPHQWV
'HÀHFWLRQRIWKHEHDP
7KHGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHEHDPXQGHUWKHORDGRIN1DFWLQJDWCFDQEHREWDLQHGE\SXWWLQJx P
LQHTXDWLRQ
1 ⎡ 13 12 ⎤
y= ⎢ 30 .37 × − 20 × ⎥
EI ⎣ 6 2⎦
1
= (5.06 − 10)
EI
1
= ± × 4.94
EI
4.94
= ± = ±î±P
15000
= ±PP Ans.
Example 16.6
$ ¿[HG EHDP AB RI OHQJWK P LV VXEMHFWHG WR D XQLIRUPO\ YDU\LQJ ORDG DV VKRZQ LQ )LJ
'HWHUPLQHWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWVDWADQGBRIWKHEHDP
Fig. 16.16
Solution:
*LYHQ
/HQJWKRIWKHEHDP l P
8QLIRUPORDGDWA w N1P
8QLIRUPORDGDWB w N1P
&RQVLGHUDVHFWLRQRIZLGWKdxRIWKHEHDPDWDGLVWDQFHxIURPAZKHUHWKHLQWHQVLW\RIORDGLVw.
/RDGRQWKHVHFWLRQ wdx
)L[HG%HDPV 789
7KH¿[LQJHQGPRPHQWDWAXVLQJHTXDWLRQLVJLYHQDV
wx (l − x )2 dx
l
MA = − ∫
0
l2
( w2 − w1 ) x
where w = w1 + IURPHTXDWLRQ
l
(30 − 15)x
= 15 + x
5
2QVXEVWLWXWLQJwIURPHTXDWLRQLQHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
(15 + 3x ) x (5 − x ) 2 dx
5
MA = − ∫
0
52
5
3
25 ∫0
= − (5 + x ) x (5 − x ) 2 dx
5
3
= − ∫
25 0
(5 + x ) × x × ( 25 − 10 x + x 2 )dx
5
3
= − ∫
25 0
(5 x + x 2 ) × ( 25 − 10 x + x 2 )dx
5
3
= − ∫ (125 x − 50 x 2 + 5 x 3 + 25 x 2 − 10 x 3 + x 4 )dx
25 0
3 5
25 ∫0
= − (125 x − 25 x 2 − 5 x 3 + x 4 )dx
5
3 ⎡125 x 2 25 x 3 5 x 4 x 5 ⎤
= − ⎢ − − + ⎥
25 ⎣ 2 3 4 5 ⎦0
3 ⎡125 × 52 25 × 53 5 × 54 55 ⎤
= − − − + ⎥
25 ⎢⎣ 2 3 4 5⎦
3
= − (1562.5 − 1041.67 − 781.25 + 625)
25
3
= − (364.58)
25
= ±N1P Ans.
7KH¿[LQJHQGPRPHQWDWBXVLQJHTXDWLRQLVJLYHQDV

lw (l − x ) x 2 dx
MB = ± ∫
0 l2
5 (15 + 3x )(5 − x ) x 2 dx
MB = − ∫
0 52
3 5 3 5
= − ∫
25 0
(5 + x )(5 − x ) x 2 dx = − ∫ ( 25 − x 2 ) x 2 dx
25 0
5
3 5 3 ⎡ 25 x 3 x 5 ⎤
= − ∫0 ( 25 x − x )dx = − ⎢ − ⎥
2 4
25 25 ⎣ 3 5 ⎦0
3 ⎡ 25 × 53 55 ⎤
= − − ⎥
25 ⎢⎣ 3 5⎦
3
= − (1041.67 − 625)
25
3
= − × 416.67
25
= ±N1P Ans.
Example 16.7
$ ¿[HG EHDP AB RI OHQJWK P LV VXEMHFWHG WR D XQLIRUPO\ YDU\LQJ ORDG DV VKRZQ LQ )LJ
'HWHUPLQHWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWVDWADQGB.
Fig. 16.17
)L[HG%HDPV 791
Solution:
*LYHQ
/HQJWKRIWKHEHDP l P
8QLIRUPORDGDWC w N1P
8QLIRUPORDGDWD w N1P
'LVWDQFH a P
'LVWDQFH b P
&RQVLGHUDVHFWLRQRIZLGWKdxRIWKHEHDPDWDGLVWDQFHxIURPAZKHUHWKHLQWHQVLW\RIORDGLVw.
/RDGRQWKHVHFWLRQLVwdx.
7KH¿[LQJPRPHQWDWAXVLQJHTXDWLRQLVJLYHQDV
x =b
wx (l − x )2
MA = − ∫ l 2 dx
x=a

( w2 − w1 )( x − a )
w= w1 + IURPHTXDWLRQ
(b − a)
(40 − 20) × ( x − 1)
= 20 +
(3 − 1)
x±
x
3 (10 x + 10) x ( 4 − x ) 2 dx
MA = − ∫
1 42
10 3
16 ∫1
= − ( x + 1) x ( 4 − x ) 2 dx
5 3 2
= −
8 ∫1
( x + x )( 4 − x )2 dx
5 3 2
8 ∫1
= − ( x + x )(16 − 8 x + x 2 )dx
5 3
8 ∫1
= − (16 x 2 − 8 x 3 + x 4 + 16 x − 8 x 2 + x 3 )dx
5 3
= −
8 ∫1
(16 x + 8 x 2 − 7 x 3 + x 4 )dx
3
5 ⎡16 x 2 8 x 3 7 x 4 x 5 ⎤
= − ⎢ + − + ⎥
8⎣ 2 3 4 5 ⎦1
5 ⎡16 × 32 8 × 33 7 × 34 35 16 × 12 8 × 13 7 × 14 15 ⎤
= − + − + − − − − ⎥
8 ⎢⎣ 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5⎦
5
= − [72 + 72 − 141.75 + 48.6 − 8 − 2.67 + 1.75 − 0.2]
8
5
= − × 41.73
8
= ±N1P Ans.
7KH¿[LQJHQGPRPHQWDWBXVLQJHTXDWLRQLVJLYHQDV
x =b
w (l − x ) x 2 dx
MB = − ∫
x=a
l2

(10 x + 10)(4 − x) x 2 dx
3
MB = − ∫
1
42
10 3
16 ∫1
= − ( x + 1)( 4 − x ) x 2 dx
10 3 3
16 ∫1
= − ( x + x 2 )(4 − x)dx
10 3 3
= −
16 ∫1
(4 x − x 4 + 4 x 2 − x3 ) dx
10 3
16 ∫1
= − ( 4 x 2 + 3x 3 − x 4 )dx
3
10 ⎡ 4 x 3 3x 4 x 5 ⎤
= − + − ⎥
16 ⎢⎣ 3 4 5 ⎦1
10 ⎡ 4 3 3 4 1 5 4 3 3 4 1 5 ⎤
= − × 3 + × 3 − × 3 − ×1 − ×1 + ×1 ⎥
16 ⎢⎣ 3 4 5 3 4 5 ⎦
10
= − [36 + 60.75 − 48.6 − 1.34 − 0.75 + 0.2]
16
10
= − × 46.26
16
±N1P Ans.
)L[HG%HDPV 793
Example 16.8
$ ¿[HG EHDP RI OHQJWK P KDV D UHFWDQJXODU FURVVVHFWLRQ RI PP î PP ,I LWV ULJKW HQG
PRYHVYHUWLFDOO\WKURXJKPP¿QGWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWVDQGWKHUHDFWLRQVDWWKHHQGVRIWKHEHDP
7DNHE *3D
Solution:
*LYHQ
/HQJWKRIWKHEHDP l P
:LGWKRIWKHEHDP b PP
î±P
'HSWKRIWKHEHDP d PP
î±P
'HÀHFWLRQRIVXSSRUW G PP
î±P
0RGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\ E *3D
î Pa
7KHPRPHQWRILQHUWLDRIWKHFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHEHDPLVIRXQGDV
1 3
I= bd
2
1
= × (80 × 10−3 ) × (170 × 10−3 )3
12
î±P4
7KH¿[LQJPRPHQWMAXVLQJHTXDWLRQLVJLYHQDV
6 EI δ
MA =
l2
6 × 210 × 109 × 3.275 × 10−5 × 12 × 10−3

=
72
1P
N1P Ans.
DQG MB = ± MA
= ±N1P Ans.
7KHUHDFWLRQVDWADQGBDUHFDOFXODWHGDV
12 EI δ
RA = XVLQJHTXDWLRQ
l3
12 × 210 × 109 × 3.275 × 10−5 × 12 × 10−3

=
73
1
N1n Ans.
DQG RB = ± RA
= ±N1
N1p Ans.
1. +RZLVD¿[HGEHDPGH¿QHG"
2. +RZLVD¿[HGEHDPGLIIHUHQWIURPDVLPSOHEHDP"
3. +RZGRHVWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPGLIIHUIURPWKHIUHHPRPHQWGLDJUDP"
4. :KDWLVWRWDOEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDP"
5. :KDWLVPHDQWE\VLQNLQJRIDVXSSRUW"
)L[HG%HDPV 795
1. &RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJVWDWHPHQWVDERXWD¿[HGEHDP
7KH¿[LQJPRPHQWVDUHQHJDWLYHPRPHQWV
7KH¿[LQJPRPHQWVDUHGHYHORSHGDWWKHVXSSRUWHQGV
7KHIUHHPRPHQWGLDJUDPFRQVLVWVRISRVLWLYHPRPHQWV
7KHDUHDVRIWKHIUHHPRPHQWGLDJUDPDQGWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPDUHHTXDOLQPDJQLWXGH
EXWRSSRVLWHLQVLJQ
2IWKHVHVWDWHPHQWV
a DQGDUHWUXH b DQGDUHWUXH
c DQGDUHWUXH d DQGDUHWUXH
2. :KLFKRIWKHIROORZLQJVWDWHPHQWVDERXWD¿[HGEHDPLVZURQJ"
a %RWKVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQDWWKHVXSSRUWHQGVDUH]HUR
b 7KHFHQWURLGDOGLVWDQFHRIERWKWKHIUHHDQGWKH¿[LQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPVIURPHLWKHUVXSSRUW
DUHHTXDO
c 7KHIUHHPRPHQWVDUHQHJDWLYHPRPHQWV
d 7KH¿[HGEHDPLVDOVRFDOOHGUHVWUDLQHGEHDP
3. &RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJVWDWHPHQWVDERXWD¿[HGEHDP
,WKDV¿[HGVXSSRUWVRQERWKHQGV
7KHVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQDWWKHVXSSRUWHQGVDUH]HUR
,WLVDVWDWLFDOO\LQGHWHUPLQDWHEHDP
,WLQYROYHVIRXUXQNQRZQUHDFWLRQFRPSRQHQWVLQWKHDEVHQFHRID[LDOIRUFHV
2IWKHVHVWDWHPHQWV
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17
Rotating Rings, Discs and Cylinders
Simeon Denis Poisson, born on 21 June 1781, was a great French

mathematician, geometer and physicist. He worked under two famous
mathematicians Pierre-Simon Laplace and Joseph-Louis Lagrange, and
Sadi Carnot, who is called the father of thermodynamics, was his one of
the famous students. Poisson is most known for applying mathematics to
solve problems in electricity and magnetism, mechanics and other areas
RISK\VLFV+HLVNQRZQIRUKLVZRUNRQGH¿QLWHLQWHJUDOVHOHFWURPDJQHWLF
theory and probability. In his Poisson equation, also known as potential
theory equation, he corrected the Laplace’s second order partial differential
equation for potential. He is also known for Poisson’s ratio, which is
widely used in strength of materials. The Poisson distribution is extremely
Simeon Denis Poisson XVHIXO LQ WKH DQDO\VLV RI SUREOHPV UHODWLQJ WR UDGLRDFWLYLW\ WUDI¿F DQG
(1781-1840) random occurrence of events in time or space. In 1818, he was elected a
fellow of the Royal Society and in 1823, a foreign member of the Royal
Swedish Academy of Sciences. He is among the 72 people whose names
are inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_17
17.1 INTRODUCTION
Components such as turbine shafts and discs while rotating at high speeds are subjected to large
centrifugal forces, which in turn, produce large stresses that are distributed symmetrically about
their axes of rotation. The stress analysis of these components is useful in their safe design so as to
prevent their failure.
17.2 ROTATING RING

The force analysis of a thin rotating ring can also be applied to a thin rotating cylinder or rim-type
À\ZKHHOV
Consider a thin ring or a thin cylinder rotating with a constant angular velocity Z rad/s about its
axis as shown in Fig. 17.1.
Fig. 17.1 A rotating ring.
Let r = Mean radius of the ring (or cylinder)

t = Thickness of the ring (or cylinder)
U = Density of the ring or (cylinder material)
Rotational motion produces centrifugal force on the circumference of the ring or on the walls of
the cylinder, which in turn, produces hoop (or circumferential) stress V h. Since the thickness is very
small, hence there is no variation of the hoop stress along the thickness, that is, the hoop stress may
be assumed to be constant.
Now consider a small element ABCD of the ring or cylinder making an angle dT at the centre as
VKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH
Forces on the element
The following three forces are acting on the element ABCD :
z The centrifugal force caused due to rotation acting radially outward
z The hoop tension force on the face AB caused due to hoop stress V
h
z The hoop tension force on the face CD caused due to hoop stress Vh
Rotating Rings, Discs and Cylinders 801
Centrifugal force
Considering unit length of the circumference of the element, the mass m of the element can be
obtained as
m = Density × Volume of the element
= Density × Area of the element × Unit length
= U × rdT × t × 1
= Urt dT ...(17.1)
The centrifugal force is given as

mV 2
Fc = ...(17.2)
r
= mZ2r ...(17.3)
2 2
= Ur Z t dT (on substituting m)...(17.4)
where V = Linear velocity
= Zr
Hoop tension forces on faces AB and CD

The hoop tension forces act perpendicular to faces AB and CD are equal but opposite in direction; one
is acting in the left direction and another in the right direction. Its magnitude is
Vh × t × 1 = Vh × t (assuming unit length)
Now the hoop forces are resolved into horizontal and vertical components. The vertical components
of the hoop forces acting on faces AB and CD are radially inward and both are equal to
dθ
Vh × t × sin
2
The horizontal component of the hoop force acting on face AB is directed leftward and the
horizontal component on face CD is directed rightward and both are equal to
dθ
Vh × t × cos
2
Equilibrium of the element

The horizontal components of the hoop tension forces on the faces AB and CD are equal but opposite
in direction, hence they cancel each other. Their vertical components are added as they are acting in
the same direction.
&RQVLGHULQJIRUFHVLQWKHYHUWLFDOGLUHFWLRQZH¿QGWKDWWKHFHQWULIXJDOIRUFHFc is balanced by the
sum of the vertical components of the hoop tension forces on the two faces.
dθ dθ
Fc = Vh × t × sin + Vh × t × sin
2 2
dθ
Ur2Z2t dT = 2 × Vh × t × sin (using equation (17.4))
2
dθ dθ dθ
= 2 × Vh × t × (as dT is very small, hence sin )
2 2 2
which gives
Vh = UZ2r2 ...(17.5)
This is the required expression for the hoop stress in a thin rotating ring.
Example 17.1
The thin rim of a 900 mm diameter wheel is made of steel and weighs 7800 kg/m3. Neglecting the
effect of the spokes, how many revolutions per minute may it make, if the hoop stress is not to exceed
03D$OVR¿QGWKHLQFUHDVHLQGLDPHWHURIWKHZKHHO7DNHE = 210 GPa.
Solution: Given,
Diameter of the wheel, d = 900 mm
= 900 × 10–3 m
Density of the rim material, U = 7800 kg/m3
Hoop stress, Vh = 150 MPa
= 150 × 106 Pa
= 210 × 109 Pa
The diameter of the rim is equal to the diameter of the wheel and its radius
d 900 × 10 −3
r = = = 0.45 m
2 2
The hoop stress is given by using equation (17.5) as
Vh = UZ2r2
150 × 106 = 7800 × Z2 × (0.45)2
which gives
Z = 308.167 rad/s
Let N be the number of revolutions per minute, then

2π N
Z =
60
2π N
308.167 =
60
308.167 × 60
which gives N =
2π
= 2942.78 Ans.
Now the hoop strain is given as

σh
h =
E
150 × 106
= = 7.143 × 10–4
210 × 109
Hence, the increase in diameter of the wheel is
Hoop strain × Diameter = 7.143 × 10–4 × 900
= 0.643 mm Ans.
Example 17.2
$ULPW\SHÀ\ZKHHORIPHDQGLDPHWHUPPURWDWHVDWDVSHHGRIUSP,IWKHGHQVLW\RIWKH
material of the wheel is 8000 kg/m3¿QGWKHKRRSVWUHVVGHYHORSHGLQWKHULPGXHWRURWDWLRQ
Solution: Given,
Mean diameter of the wheel, d = 800 mm
Rotational speed, N = 2000 rpm
Density of the wheel material, U = 8000 kg/m3
The mean radius of the wheel is given as
d 800
r= = = 400 mm
2 2
= 400 × 10–3 m
The angular velocity of the wheel is obtained as
2π N
Z =
60
2π × 2000
= = 209.44 rad/s
60
Now the hoop stress is given by equation (17.5) as
Vh = UZ2r2
= 8000 × (209.44)2 × (400 × 10–3)2
= 56.147 × 106 Pa
= 56.147 MPa Ans.
17.3 ROTATING THIN DISC

Consider a thin disc of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 rotating at angular speed Z rad/s about
its axis as shown in Fig. 17.2. The thickness of the disc is negligibly small, so there is no variation
of stress across the thickness, and there is no axial stress (longitudinal stress) in the disc. The two
stresses acting on the disc include hoop and radial.
(a) A rotating disc (b) Forces acting on the element ABCD
Fig. 17.2
Let t = Thickness of the disc

U = Density of the disc material
Now consider an element ABCD of the disc of radial width dr at radius r subtending an angle dș
DWWKHFHQWUHDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH

7KHIROORZLQJ¿YHIRUFHVDUHDFWLQJRQWKHHOHPHQWABCD:
z The centrifugal force caused due to rotation
z The radial force on face AB caused due to radial stress Vr
z The radial force on face CD caused due to radial stress Vr
z The hoop tension force on face AD caused due to hoop stress Vh
z The hoop tension force on face BC caused due to hoop stress Vh
Centrifugal force
7KHYROXPHRIWKHHOHPHQWLV
(rdT) × dr × t
Now the mass of the element is
= U × (rdT) × dr × t
The centrifugal force acting on the element is

Fc = mZ2r
= (U × rdT × dr × t) × Z2 × r
= U r2Z2t dTdr ...(17.6)
Hoop tension forces on faces AD and BC

The hoop tension forces act perpendicular to AD and BC and are equal to Vh × dr × t.
Now the hoop forces are resolved into horizontal and vertical components. The vertical components
of the hoop forces acting on faces AD and BC are radially inward and both are equal to
Vh × dr × t × sin
dθ
2
= Vh × dr × t ×
dθ
2
(for small value of dT, sin dθ
2

dθ
2
)
The horizontal component of the hoop force acting on face AD is directed leftward and the
horizontal component on face BC is directed rightward and both are equal to
Vh × dr × t × cos
dθ
2
= Vh × dr × t ×
dθ
2
(for small value of dT, cos dθ
2

dθ
2
)
Radial forces on faces AB and CD
The radial force on AB is equal to Vr × rdT × t. It acts radially inward.
The radial force on CD acting radially outward is
(Vr + dVr) × (r + dr) × dT × t

The horizontal components of the hoop tension forces on the faces AD and BC are equal but opposite
in direction, hence they cancel each other. Their vertical components are added as they are acting in
the same direction.
Balancing the forces in the radial direction, we have
dθ
Vr × r × dT × t + Vh × dr × t × sin + Vh × dr × t × sin dθ
2 2
= Ur2Z2 tdrdT+ (Vr + dVr) × (r + dr) × dT × t
dθ
Vr × r × dT × t + 2Vh × dr × t × = Ur2Z2 tdrdT+ (Vr + dVr) × (r + dr) × dT × t
2
(for small value of dT, sin dθ2 = dθ2 )

Eliminating dT×t from both sides of the equation, we have

Vr × r + Vh × dr = Ur2Z2 dr+ r Vr + Vr dr + rdVr + drdVr
Eliminating rVr from both sides and neglecting drdVr because of its small value, we have
Vh dr = Ur2Z2 dr+ Vr dr + rdVr
(Vh – Vr) dr = Ur2Z2 dr+ rdVr
Dividing by dr on both sides, we have
d σr
(Vh – Vr) = Ur2Z2+ r ...(17.7)
dr
Strain in the element

Due to rotation, the radius of the disc increases. Let the radius r changes to (r + u) and dr changes
to (dr + du).
Now the hoop strain is given as
Final circumference − Initial circumference
h =
2 π ( r + u ) − 2 πr
=
2 πr
u
= ...(17.8)
r
And the radial strain is given as
Final radial witdh − Initial radial width
r =
Initial radial width
(dr + du ) − dr
=
dr
du
= ...(17.9)
dr
σh σ
Also h = –v r ...(17.10)
E E
σr σ
r = –v h ...(17.11)
E E
On equating equations (17.8) and (17.10), we have
u σ σ
= h –v r
r E E
1
= (Vh – vVr) ...(17.12)
E

du σ σ
= r –v h
dr E E
1
= (Vr – vVh) ...(17.13)
E
From equation (17.12), we get
E × u = r× (Vh – vVr)
Differentiating w.r.t. r, we have
du ⎛ d σh d σr ⎞
E = (Vh – vVr) + ⎜ −v ⎟ ×r
dr ⎝ dr dr ⎠
du 1 ⎡ ⎛ d σh d σr ⎞⎤
or = ⎢ ( σ h − vσ r ) + r ⎜ −v ⎟⎠ ⎥ ...(17.14)
dr E ⎣ ⎝ dr dr ⎦
⎛ d σh d σr ⎞
Vr – vVh = Vh – vVr + r ⎜ −v ⎟
⎝ dr dr ⎠
⎛ d σh d σr ⎞
Vr + vVr = Vh + vVh + r ⎜ −v ⎟
⎝ dr dr ⎠
⎛ d σh d σr ⎞
Vr (1 + v) = Vh (1 + v) + r ⎜ −v ⎟
⎝ dr dr ⎠
⎛ d σh d σr ⎞
or (Vh – Vr) (1 + v) + r ⎜ −v ⎟ =0 ...(17.15)
⎝ dr dr ⎠
On substituting (Vh – Vr) from equation (17.7) in equation (17.15), we have
⎛ 2 2 d σr ⎞ ⎛ d σh d σr ⎞
⎜⎝ ρr ω + r ⎟ (1 + v) + r ⎜ −v ⎟ =0
dr ⎠ ⎝ dr dr ⎠
d σr d σr d σh d σr
Ur2Z2+ vUr2Z2 + r + vr +r – vr =0
dr dr dr dr
Eliminating r from the above equation, we have
d σr d σh
UrZ2 + vUrZ2+ + =0
dr dr
d σr d σh
UrZ2 (1 + v)+ + =0
dr dr
d σr d σh
or + = – UrZ2 (1 + v) ...(17.16)
dr dr
On integration, we have
r2
Vr + Vh = – U × × Z2 (1 + v) + A
2
− ρr 2 ω 2 (1 + v)
= +A ...(17.17)
2
where A is a constant of integration.
Now subtracting equation (17.7) from equation (17.17), we get
− ρr 2 ω 2 (1 + v) d σr
2Vr = + A – Ur2Z2 – r
2 dr
d σr ⎛ 1+ v
= – Ur2Z2 ⎜
⎞
2Vr + r + 1⎟ + A
dr ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 1+ v + 2 ⎞
= – Ur2Z2 ⎜ ⎟⎠ + A
⎝ 2
ρ r 2 ω 2 (3 + v)
=− +A ...(17.18)
2
Multiplying by r on both sides, we have
d σr ρr 3ω 2 (3 + v )
2 × r × Vr + r2 =− +A×r
dr 2
d 2 ρr 3ω 2 (3 + v )
(r × Vr) = − +A×r
dr 2
Integrating both sides, we get
ρω 2 (3 + v ) r 4 r2
r2 × Vr = − × +A× +B
2 4 2
where B is another constant of integration.
Dividing by r2 on both sides, we get
ρω 2 r 2 (3 + v) A B
Vr = − + + 2
8 2 r
A B ρω 2 r 2 (3 + v)
= + 2 − ...(17.19)
2 r 8
This is the required expression for the radial stress. The constants A and B can be determined
by using suitable boundary conditions. Now substituting equation (17.19) in equation (17.17),
we get
A B ρω 2 r 2 (3 + v) ρω 2 r 2 (1 + v )
+ 2 − + Vh = − +A
2 r 8 2
ρω 2 r 2 (3 + v) ρω 2 r 2 (1 + v) A B
Vh = − + A− − 2
8 2 2 r
⎛ 3 + v 1+ v ⎞ A B
= UZ2r2 ⎜ − ⎟⎠ + − 2
⎝ 8 2 2 r
⎛ 3 + v − 4 − 4v ⎞ A B
= UZ2r2 ⎜ ⎟⎠ + − 2
⎝ 8 2 r
( −1 − 3v) A B
= UZ2r2 × + − 2
8 2 r
ρω 2 r 2 A B
= − (1 + 3v) + − 2
8 2 r
A B ρω 2 r 2 (1 + 3v )
= − − ...(17.20)
2 r2 8
This is the required expression for the hoop stress for a rotating thin disc. The constants A and B
can be determined by using suitable boundary conditions.
17.3.1 Hoop and Radial Stresses in a Rotating Solid Disc

For a solid disc, there is no inner radius.
R1 = 0 and R2 = R (say)
B
:KHQWKHYDOXHRIr LVVXEVWLWXWHGLQHTXDWLRQVDQGZH¿QGWKDWWKHWHUP
r2
EHFRPHVLQ¿QLW\EXWWKHVWUHVVHVFDQQRWKDYHLQ¿QLWHYDOXHV+HQFHWRJHW¿QLWHYDOXHRIVWUHVVB = 0.
Equations (17.19) and (17.20) are now transformed to
A ρω 2 r 2 ( 3 + v )
Vr = − ...(17.21)
2 8
A ρω 2 r 2 ( 1 + 3v )
Vh = − ...(17.22)
2 8
The boundary conditions is
At the outer radius, where r = R, the radial stress is
Vr = 0
On substituting the boundary condition in equation (17.21), we get
A ρω 2 R 2 (3 + v)
=
2 8
Now equation (17.21) on substituting the value of

A becomes
2
ρω 2 R 2 (3 + v) ρω 2 r 2 (3 + v )
Vr = –
8 8
ρω (3 + v ) 2 2
= (R – r ) ...(17.23)
8
This is the required expression for the radial stress for a rotating thin solid disc. Equation (17.22)
on substituting the value of

A becomes
2
ρω 2 R 2 (3 + v) ρω 2 r 2 (1 + 3v )
Vh = –
8 8
ρω 2
= [(3 + v)R2 – (1 + 3v)r2] ...(17.24)
8
This is the required expression of the hoop stress for a rotating thin solid disc.
Hoop and radial stresses at the centre

At the centre of the solid disc, where r = 0, both hoop and radial stresses have equal maximum values,
given by
ρω 2 R 2 (3 + v)
Vrmax = Vhmax = ...(17.25)
8
Hoop stress at outer radius

At the outer radius, the radial stress Vr = 0, but the hoop stress is not zero.
The value of the hoop stress at the outer radius is obtained by putting r = R in equation (17.24) as
ρω 2
Vh r = R = [R2 (3 + v) – R2 (1 + 3v)]
8
ρω 2
= (3R2 + vR2 – R2 – 3vR2)
8
ρω 2
= (2R2 – 2vR2)
8
ρω 2
= × 2R2 (1 – v)
8
ρω 2 R 2
= (1 – v) ...(17.26)
4
The variation of the hoop and radial stresses in a rotating solid disc along the radius is shown in
Fig. 17.3.
Fig. 17.3 Distribution of the hoop and radial stresses in a rotating solid disc.
17.3.2 Hoop and Radial Stresses in a Rotating Disc with a Central Hole
:HKDYHVHHQLQFDVHRIDURWDWLQJVROLGGLVFWKHFRQVWDQWRILQWHJUDWLRQB is zero in order to have
¿QLWHYDOXHVRIUDGLDODQGKRRSVWUHVVHV%XWLQFDVHRIDGLVFZLWKDFHQWUDOKROHB is not zero and its
value is obtained using suitable conditions.
The radial stress Vr is zero at both inner and outer radius of the disc.
i.e. at r = R 1, Vr = 0
Also at r = R 2, Vr = 0

A B ρω 2 r 2 (3 + v)
Vr = + 2 −
2 r 8
A B ρω 2 R12 (3 + v)
0 = + 2 − ...(1)
2 R1 8
A B ρω 2 R22 (3 + v)
and 0 = + 2 − ...(2)
2 R2 8
Subtracting equation (2) from equation (1), we have
B B ρω 2 R22 (3 + v) ρω 2 R12 (3 + v)
− + − =0
R12 R22 8 8
B(R22 − R12 ) ρω 2 (3 + v) 2
or + [ R2 − R12 ] = 0
R12 R22 8
Eliminating (R22– R12), we have

B ρω 2 (3 + v)
+ =0
R12 R22 8
It gives
(3 + v )ρω 2 R12 R22
B = − ...(17.27)
8
Now substituting the value of B in equation (1), we get
A 1 ⎪⎧ (3 + v )ρω 2 R12 R22 ⎫ ρω 2 R12 (3 + v )
0 = + 2 ×⎨ ⎬−
2 R1 ⎪⎩ 8 ⎭ 8
A (3 + v ) ρω 2 R22 (3 + v ) ρω 2 R12
= − −
2 8 8
A (3 + v ) ρω 2
= − [ R22 + R12 ]
2 8
It gives
(3 + v ) ρω 2 ( R22 + R12 )
A = ...(17.28)
4
Finally the values of A and B are substituted in equation (17.19) to get the expression for the radial
stress Vr as
1 (3 + v) ρω 2 ( R22 + R12 ) 1 ⎧ (3 + v) ρω 2 R12 R22 ⎫
Vr = × + 2 × ⎨− ⎬
2 4 r ⎩ 8 ⎭
ρω 2 r 2 (3 + v )
–
8
(3 + v ) ρω 2 ( R22 + R12 ) (3 + v ) ρω 2 R12 R22 ρω 2 r 2 (3 + v )
= − −
8 8 r2 8
(3 + v ) ρω 2 ⎡ 2 R12 R22 ⎤
= ⎢ ( R2 + R1 ) −
2
2
− r2 ⎥ ...(17.29)
8 ⎣ r ⎦
This is the required expression for the radial stress for a rotating disc with a central hole.
7R¿QGWKHH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHKRRSVWUHVVWKHYDOXHVRIA and B are substituted in equation (17.20).
A B ρω 2 r 2 (1 + 3v )
Vh = − −
2 r2 8
1 (3 + v) ρω 2 ( R22 + R12 ) 1 ⎧ (3 + v) ρω 2 R12 R22 ⎫ ρω 2 r 2 (1 + 3v )

= × − × ⎨− ⎬−
2 4 r2 ⎩ 8 ⎭ 8
(3 + v) ρω 2 ( R22 + R12 ) (3 + v) ρω 2 R12 R22 ρω 2 r 2 (1 + 3v)

= + −
8 8r2 8
ρω 2 ⎡ (3 + v ) R12 R22 ⎤
= ⎢ ( 3 + v ) ( R2
2
+ R1
2
) + 2
− (1 + 3v ) r 2 ⎥ ...(17.30)
8 ⎣ r ⎦
This is the required expression for the hoop stress for a rotating disc with a central hole.
Maximum hoop stress (Hoop stress at inner radius)

Equation (17.30) suggests that with increase in the value of radius r, the hoop stress Vh decreases and
vice versa. Hence, Vh is maximum when r is minimum, that is, when r approaches to R1. Substituting
r = R1 in equation (17.30), we have
ρω 2 ⎡ (3 + v ) R12 R22 ⎤
Vh = Vh = ⎢ ( 3 + v ) ( R2
2
+ R1
2
) + 2
− R12 (1 + 3v ) ⎥
max r=R
1 8 ⎣ R1 ⎦
ρω 2
= ⎡⎣(3 + v ) ( R22 + R12 ) + (3 + v ) R22 − R12 (1 + 3v ) ⎤⎦
8
ρω 2
= ⎡3R22 + 3R12 + vR22 + vR12 + 3R22 + vR22 − R12 − 3vR12 ⎤⎦
8 ⎣
ρω 2
= ⎡6 R22 + 2vR22 + 2 R12 − 2vR12 ⎤⎦
8 ⎣
ρω 2
= ⎡⎣2 R22 (3 + v ) + 2 R12 (1 − v ) ⎤⎦
8
ρω 2
= ⎡(3 + v ) R22 + (1 − v ) R12 ⎤⎦ ...(17.31)
4 ⎣
This is the required expression for the maximum hoop stress for a rotating disc with a central hole,
which occurs at inner radius of the disc.
:KHQR1 approaches R2 = r, we have from equation (17.31)
ρω 2
Vh = [(3 + v ) r 2 + (1 − v ) r 2 ]
4
ρω 2 ρω 2
= [3r 2 + vr 2 + r 2 − vr 2 ] = × 4r 2
4 4
= UZ2r2
The above expression is same as equation (17.5), which applies to a thin rotating ring or a thin
rotating cylinder.

For hoop stress at outer radius, put r = R2 in equation (17.30).
ρω 2 ⎡ (3 + v ) R12 R22 ⎤
= ⎢(3 + v ) ( R2 + R1 ) + − R22 (1 + 3v ) ⎥
2 2
Vh 2
r = R2 8 ⎣ R2 ⎦
ρω 2
= ⎡(3 + v ) ( R22 + R12 ) + (3 + v ) R12 − R22 (1 + 3v ) ⎤⎦
8 ⎣
ρω 2
= ⎡3R22 + 3R12 + vR22 + vR12 + 3R12 + vR12 − R22 − 3vR22 ⎤
8 ⎣ ⎦
ρω 2
= ⎡2 R22 − 2vR22 + 6 R12 + 2vR12 ⎤⎦
8 ⎣
ρω 2
= ⎡2 R22 (1 − v ) + 2 R12 (3 + v ) ⎤⎦
8 ⎣
ρω 2
= ⎡(1 − v ) R22 + (3 + v ) R12 ⎤⎦ ...(17.32)
4 ⎣
Maximum radial stress
7R¿QGWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKHPD[LPXPUDGLDOVWUHVVZHGLIIHUHQWLDWHHTXDWLRQZLWKUHVSHFWWR
r and equate it to zero.
d σr
=0
dr
d ⎡ (3 + v) ρω 2 ⎧ 2 R12 R22 ⎫⎤
⎢ ⎨ 2
( R + R1
2
) − 2
− r 2 ⎬⎥ = 0
dr ⎣ 8 ⎩ r ⎭⎦
(3 + v) ρω 2 ⎡ ( −2) 2 2 ⎤
8 ⎢⎣0 − r 3 R1 R2 − 2r ⎥⎦ = 0
(3 + v) ρω 2 ⎡ 2 R12 R22 ⎤
⎢ 3
− 2r ⎥ = 0
8 ⎣ r ⎦
which gives
r = R1 R2 ...(17.33)
Substituting the value of r in equation (17.29), we get

(3 + v ) ρω 2 ⎡ 2 R12 R22 ⎤
⎢( R2 + R1 ) − − R1 R2 ⎥
2
Vr =
max 8 ⎣ R1 R2 ⎦
(3 + v ) ρω 2
= ⎡⎣ R22 + R12 − 2 R1 R2 ⎤⎦
8
(3 + v ) ρω 2
= ( R2 − R1 ) 2 ...(17.34)
8
This is the required expression for the maximum radial stress for a rotating disc with a central
hole.
17.3.3 Hoop and Radial Stresses in a Rotating Disc with a Pin Hole at the Centre
In this case, R1 tends to zero. Substituting R1 = 0 and R2 = R in equations (17.31) and (17.34), we get
the expressions for the maximum hoop and radial stresses for a rotating disc with a central pin hole.
(3 + v ) ρω 2 R 2
Vh = ...(17.35)
max 4
(3 + v ) ρω 2 R 2
and Vr = ...(17.36)
max 8
Vh = 2 × Vr ...(17.37)
max max
Also, when we compare equation (17.35) with equation (17.25), we observe that the maximum
hoop stress for a rotating disc with a central pin hole is twice the maximum hoop stress for a rotating
solid disc.
Example 17.3
A steel disc of diameter 800 mm rotates at 2500 rpm. Calculate the hoop and radial stresses developed
at the centre and outer radius of the disc. The Poisson’s ratio is 0.25 and the density of the disc
material is 7800 kg/m3.
Solution: Given,
800
Radius of the disc, R = = 400 mm
2
= 400 × 10–3 m
Rotational speed, N = 2500

Density of the disc material, U = 7800 kg/m3
The angular speed of the disc is given as
2πN
Z =
60
2π × 2500
= = 261.8 rad/s
60
Hoop stress at the centre

From equation (17.25), the hoop stress at the centre of the disc is maximum, and is given as
ρω 2 R 2 (3 + v)
Vh =
max 8
7800 × (261.8) 2 × (400 × 10−3 ) 2 × (3 + 0.25)

=
8
= 34.75 × 106 N/m2
= 34.75 MPa Ans.

From equation (17.26), the hoop stress at the outer radius is given as
ρω 2 R 2 (1 − v )
Vh =
r=R 4
7800 × (261.8) 2 × (400 × 10−3 ) 2 × (1 − 0.25)

=
4
= 16.04 × 106 N/m2
= 16.04 MPa Ans.
Radial stress at the centre

The radial stress at the centre is maximum, and is equal to the hoop stress at the centre.
Vr = Vh = 34.75 MPa Ans.
max max
Radial stress at outer radius

The radial stress at the outer radius of the disc is zero.
Vr =0 Ans.
r=R
Example 17.4
A steel disc of diameter 250 mm has a central hole of diameter 50 mm, and rotates at 5000 rpm.
Calculate the hoop stresses developed at the inner and outer radius of the disc. The Prisson’s ratio is
0.25 and the density of the disc material is 7800 kg/m3.
Solution: Given,
250
Outer radius of the disc, R2 = = 125 mm = 125 × 10–3 m
2
50
Inner radius of the disc, R1 = = 25 mm = 25 × 10–3 m
2
Rotation speed, N = 5000 rpm
The angular speed of the disc is given as

2πN
Z =
60
2π × 5000
= = 523.6 rad/s
60
Hoop stress at inner radius

Substituting the values of U, Z, v, R1 and R2 in equation (17.31), we get the hoop stress at the inner
radius of the disc as
ρω 2
Vh = [(3 + v ) R22 + (1 − v ) R12 ]
r = R1 4
7800 × (523.6) 2
= × [(3 + 0.25) × (125 × 10−3 )2
4
+ (1 − 0.25) × (25 × 10 −3 ) 2 ]
= 27.4 × 106 N/m2
= 27.4 MPa Ans.
This is also the maximum value of the hoop stress, which occurs at the inner radius of the disc.

Substituting the values of U, Z, v, R1 and R2 in equation (17.32), we get the hoop stress at the outer
radius of the disc as
ρω 2
Vh = [(1 − v ) R22 + (3 + v ) R12 ]
r = R2 4
7800 × (523.6) 2
= × [(1 – 0.25) × (125 × 10–3)2 + (3 + 0.25)
4
× (25 × 10–3)2]
= 7.35 × 106 N/m2
= 7.35 MPa Ans.
Example 17.5
A circular saw of thickness 5 mm and diameter 800 mm is secured upon a shaft of diameter
120 mm. The saw material has the density of 8100 kg/m3 and the Prisson’s ratio is 0.3. Calculate the
SHUPLVVLEOHVSHHGRIWKHVDZLIWKHDOORZDEOHKRRSVWUHVVLV03D$OVR¿QGWKHPD[LPXPYDOXH
of the radial stress in the saw.
Solution: Given,
120
Inner radius of the saw, R1 = = 60 mm = 60 × 10–3 m
2
800
Outer radius of the saw, R2 = = 400 mm = 400 × 10–3 m
2
Density of the saw material, U = 8100 kg/m3
Maximum hoop stress, Vh = 250 MPa = 250 × 106 Pa
max
From equation (17.31), the maximum hoop stress is given as

ρω 2
Vh = [(3 + v ) R22 + (1 − v ) R12 ]
max 4
Substituting values of the given parameters in the above equation, we have
8100 × ω 2
250 × 106 = [(3 + 0.3) × ( 400 × 10−3 ) 2 + (1 − 0.3) × (60 × 10−3 ) 2 ]
4
= 2025 Z2 [3.3 × (400×10–3)2 + 0.7 × (60 × 10–3)2]
= 1074.303 Z2
250 × 106
or Z2 =
1074.303
which gives Z = 482.4 rad/s
2πN
Now Z =
60
ω × 60 482.4 × 60
or N = = = 4606.6 rpm Ans.
2π 2π
From equation (17.34), the maximum radial stress is given as
(3 + v ) ρω 2
Vr = ( R2 − R1 ) 2
max 8
(3 + 0.3) × 8100 × (482.4) 2 × {(400 − 60) × 10−3 }2
=
8
= 89.88 × 106 N/m2 = 89.88 MPa Ans.
Example 17.6
A thin disc of diameter 900 mm has a central hole of diameter 100 mm. Calculate the maximum hoop
stress developed in the disc, if the maximum radial stress is 25 MPa. The Poisson’s ratio is 0.25.
Solution: Given,
900
Outer radius of the disc, R2 = = 450 mm
2
= 450 × 10–3 m
100
Inner radius of the disc, R1 = = 50 mm
2
= 50 × 10–3 m
Maximum radial stress, Vr = 25 MPa
max
= 25 × 106 N/m2
From equation (17.34), the maximum radial stress is given as
(3 + v ) ρω 2
Vr = ( R2 − R1 ) 2
max 8
(3 + 0.25) ρω 2
250 × 106 = × {(450 – 50) × 10–3}2
8
= 0.065 UZ2
25 × 106
2
or UZ =
0.065
= 3.84615 × 108 ...(1)
Now the maximum hoop stress, using equation (17.31), is given as
ρω 2
Vh = [(3 + v ) R22 + (1 − v ) R12 ]
max 4
3.84615 × 108
= [(3 + 0.25) × (450 × 10–3)2 + (1 – 0.25)
4
× (50 × 10–3)2]
= 63.46 × 106 N/m2
= 63.46 MPa Ans.
Example 17.7
A steel disc of diameter 300 mm has a central hole of diameter 100 mm and it rotates at 4000 rpm.
Taking Poisson’s ratio as 0.3 and the density of the disc material to be 7800 kg/m 3¿QGWKHIROORZLQJ
parameters :
(a) the hoop stress at the inner and outer radius of the disc
(b) the radius at which the radial stress is maximum and
(c) the maximum radial stress.
Solution: Given,
300
2
100
Inner radius of the disc, R1 = = 50 mm = 50 × 10–3 m
2

The angular speed of the disc is obtained as
2πN
Z =
60
2π × 4000
= = 418.88 rad/s
60
(a) Hoop stress at inner radius

The hoop stress at the inner radius is the maximum value of the hoop stress, and is given by equation
(17.31) as
ρω 2
Vh = Vh = [(3 + v ) R22 + (1 − v ) R12 ]
r = R1 max 4
7800 × (418.88) 2
= × [(3 + 0.3) × (150 × 10–3)2 + (1 – 0.3) × (50 × 10–3)2]
4
= 26 × 106 N/m2
= 26 MPa Ans.

The hoop stress at the outer radius is given by equation (17.32) as
ρω 2
Vh = ⎡(1 − v ) R22 + (3 + v ) R12 ⎤⎦
r = R2 4 ⎣
7800 × (418.88) 2
= × [(1 – 0.3) × (150 × 10–3)2 + (3 + 0.3) × (50 × 10–3)2]
4
= 8.211 × 106 N/m2
= 8.211 MPa Ans.
(b) The radius at which the radial stress is maximum, is given by equation (17.33) as
r = R1 R2
= (50 − 10 −3 ) × (150 × 10 −3 )
= 0.0866 m
= 86.6 mm Ans.
(c) The maximum radial stress is given by equation (17.34) as

(3 + v ) ρω 2
Vr = ( R2 − R1 ) 2
max 8
(3 + 0.3) × 7800 × (418.88)2
= × {(150 – 50) × 10–3}2
8
= 5.645 × 106 N/m2
= 5.645 MPa Ans.
Example 17.8
A circular disc of outside diameter 500 mm has a central hole and rotates at a uniform speed about
an axis through its centre. The diameter of the hole is such that the maximum stress due to rotation
is 85% of that in a thin ring whose mean diameter is also 500 mm. If both disc and ring are made of
the same material and rotate at the same speed, determine (a) the diameter of the central hole and (b)
the speed of rotation, if the allowable stress in the disc is 90 MPa. Take the Poisson’s ratio of 0.3 and
the density of both disc and ring material as 7800 kg/m3.
Solution: Given,
500
Mean radius of the thin ring, r = mm
2
= 250 × 10–3 m
500
Outside radius of the disc, R2 = mm
2
= 250 × 10–3 m
Density of the disc and ring material,
U = 7800 kg/m3
Poisson’s ratio v = 0.3
Maximum hoop stress in the disc,
Vh = 90 MPa
max
= 90 × 106 Pa
Let Vh be the maximum hoop stress in the thin ring.
Given Vh = 0.85 × Vh
max
σ hmax
Hence Vh =
0.85
For thin ring
The hoop stress in the thin ring is given as
Vh = UZ2r2 (using equation (17.5))
σ hmax
= UZ2r2 (on substituting Vh)
0.85
90 × 106
= 7800 × Z2 × (250 × 10–3)2
0.85
90 × 106
Z2 =
7800 × 0.85 × (250 × 10−3 )2
= 217194.6
which gives
Z = 466 rad/s
Now the rotational speed N is given as
60 ω
N =
2π
60 × 466
=
2π
= 4450 rpm Ans.
For hollow disc

The maximum hoop stress is given as
ρω 2
Vh = [(3 + v ) R22 + (1 − v ) R12 ] (using equation (17.31))
max 4
7800 × 217194.6
90 × 106 = × [(3 + 0.3) × (250 × 10–3)2 + (1 – 0.3) R12]
4
= 4.23 × 108 × [3.3 × (250 × 10–3)2 + 0.7 × R12]
90 × 106
= 0.20625 + 0.7 R12
4.23 × 108
0.2128 = 0.20625 + 0.7 R12
0.2128 − 0.20625
R 12 = = 9.36 × 10–3
0.7
which gives
R1 = 0.09674 m
= 96.74 mm
Hence, the diameter of the central hole = 2 × R1
= 2 × 96.74
= 193.5 mm Ans.
Example 17.9
A steel disc of uniform thickness and of diameter 800 mm has a pin hole at the center. Calculate the
maximum hoop stress developed in the disc, if it rotates at 3000 rpm. The Poisson’s ratio is 0.25 and
the density of the disc material is 7800 kg/m3.
Solution: Given,
8 00
2
= 400 × 10–3 m
Density of the disc material, U = 7800 Skg/m3
The angular speed of the disc is found as
2πN
Now Z =
60
2π × 3000
= = 314.16 rad/s
60
From equation (17.35), the maximum hoop stress is given as

(3 + v ) ρω 2 R 2
Vh =
max 4
(3 + 0.25) × 7800 × (314.16)2 × (400 × 10 −3 )2

=
4
= 108 Pa
= 100 MPa Ans.
Example 17.10
A thin uniform steel disc of diameter 500 mm rotates at 2000 rpm. Calculate the maximum
principal stress induced in the disc and also plot the distribution of the hoop stress and the radial
stress along the radius of the disc. Take Poisson’s ratio as 0.3 and the density of the disc material
is equal to 7800 kg/m3.
Solution: Given,
500
2
= 250 × 10–3 m

Poisson’s ratio, v = 0.3.
Density of the disc material, U = 7800 kg/m3.
2πN
Z =
60
2π × 2000
=
60
= 209.44 rad/s
The maximum hoop stress is also the maximum principal stress, which can be obtained by using
equation (17.25) as
ρω 2 R 2 (3 + v)
Vh =
max 8
7800 × (209.44) 2 × (250 × 10 −3 ) 2 × (3 + 0.3)

=
8
= 8.821 × 106 N/m2
= 8.821 MPa Ans.
Distribution of the hoop stress

The hoop stress is given by equation (17.24) as
ρω 2
Vh = [(3 + v) R2 – (1 + 3v) r2]
8
Now we select different values of the radius r and determine the corresponding hoop stresses using
the above equation. The distribution of the stresses is shown in Table 17.1.
Table 17.1 Distribution of the hoop stress
r (mm) 0 50 100 150 200 250
Vh (MPa) 8.821 8.618 8.00 7.00 5.570 3.742
Distribution of the radial stress

The radial stress is given by equation (17.23) as
ρω 2 (3 + v)
Vr = (R2 – r2)
8
The values of the radial stresses corresponding to the selected values of the radius are determined
using the above equation, which are shown in Table 17.2.
Table 17.2 Distribution of the radial stress
r (mm) 0 50 100 150 200 250

Vr (MPa) 8.821 8.468 7.409 5.645 3.175 0
Plotting of the hoop and radial stresses

The values of the radius are plotted on x-axis and the values of the hoop and radial stresses on y-axis.
The resulting curves for the two stresses are shown in Fig. 17.4.
Fig. 17.4
Example 17.11
A steel disc of diameter 400 mm has a central hole of diameter 100 mm and rotates at 8000 rpm.
Taking Poisson’s ratio as 0.3 and the density of the disc material to be 7800 kg/m3, plot the distribution
of the hoop and radial stresses along the radius of the disc.
Solution: Given,
400
2
100
Inner radius of the disc, R1 = = 50 mm
2
= 50 × 10–3 m

2πN
Z =
60
2π × 8000
=
60
= 837.76 rad/s

ρω 2 ⎡ (3 + v ) R12 R22 ⎤
Vh = ⎢ ( 3 + v ) ( R2
2
+ R1 ) 2
+ 2
− (1 + 3v ) r 2 ⎥
8 ⎣ r ⎦
the above equation. The distribution of the stresses is shown in Table 17.3.
r (mm) 50 100 150 200

Vh (MPa) 183.05 105.55 76.75 49.61

(3 + v ) ρω 2 ⎡ 2 R12 R22 ⎤
Vr = ⎢ 2
( R + R1
2
) − 2
− r2 ⎥
8 ⎣ r ⎦
The values of the radial stresses corresponding to the selected values of the radius are determined
using the above equation, which are shown in Table 17.4. The radius at which radial stress is
maximum is R1 R2 = (50 × 10 −3 ) × (200 × 10 −3 ) = 0.1 m = 100 mm.
r (mm) 50 100 150 200

Vr (MPa) 0 50.80 35.13 0

Fig. 17.5
17.4 ROTATING DISC OF UNIFORM STRENGTH

In case of a disc with uniform thickness, the hoop and radial stresses are not uniform and they vary
along the radius of the disc. On the other hand, a disc of uniform strength has equal values of hoop
and radial stresses at every radius. Thickness of such a disc is not uniform and varies along the
axis. Analysis of such a disc is useful in the design of turbine blades rotating at high speeds and are
required to be subjected to constant stress conditions to prevent their premature failure.
Consider a rotating disc of uniform strength which is subjected to equal hoop and radial stresses,
that is, Vh = Vr = V and the stresses do not vary with radius. Now consider an element ABCD of radial
width dr of the disc at a radius r from the axis of rotation making an angle dșDWWKHFHQWHUDVVKRZQ
in Fig. 17.6.
Let t = Thickness of the disc at radius r
t + dt = Thickness of the disc at radius (r + dr)
to = Thickness of the disc at radius r = 0, that is, at the axis of rotation
Z = Angular speed of the disc
V = Equal hoop and radial stresses
U = Density of the disc material
Fig. 17.6

The following forces are acting on the element ABCD :
z The centrifugal force caused due to rotation acting radially outward
z The hoop tension force on the face AB caused due to hoop stress V
z The hoop tension force on the face CD caused due to hoop stress V
z The radial force on the face BD caused due to radial stress V
z The radial force on the face AC caused due to radial stress V
Centrifugal force
The mass m of the element can be obtained as
= U × (rdșîdr × t)
= Urtdșdr ...(17.38)
The centrifugal force is given as
mV 2
Fc =
r
2
= mZ r (as V = Zr)
2
= (Urtdșdr × Z r) (on substituting m)
2 2
= UtZ r dșdr ...(17.39)
Hoop tension forces on faces AB and CD

The hoop tension forces act perpendicular to AB and CD and are equal to Vh × dr × t.
Now the hoop forces are resolved into horizontal and vertical components. The vertical
components of the hoop forces acting on faces AB and CD are radially inward and both are equal to
V × dr × t × sin dθ The horizontal component of the hoop forces acting on face AB is directed leftward
2
and the horizontal component on face CD is directed rightward, and both are equal to
V × dr × t × cos dθ
2
Radial force on face BD
Radial force on BD = V× rdșît, and its acts radially inward.
Radial force on face AC

Radial force on AC = V × (r + dr)dșît + dt), and it acts radially outward.

The horizontal components of the hoop tension forces on the faces AB and CD are equal but opposite
in direction, hence they cancel each other. The vertical components are added as they are acting in
the same direction (radially inward).
Considering forces in the radial direction, we have
dθ dθ
V × rdșît + V × dr × t × sin + V × dr × t × sin = Fc + V × (r + dr) dșît + dt)
2 2
dθ
or V × rdșît + 2V × dr × t × sin = Fc + V × (r + dr) dșît + dt)
2
dθ dθ
Substituting the value of Fc from equation (17.39) in the above equation and equating sin = as
2 2
dșLVYHU\VPDOOZHJHW
dθ
V × rdșît + 2V × dr × t × = UtZ2r2dșdr + VrtdșVrdșdt + VtdrdșVdrdșdt
2
Eliminating dșIURPERWKVLGHVZHJHW
V × r × t + Vtdr = UtZ2r2dr + Vrt + Vrdt + Vtdr + Vdrdt
Now eliminating Vrt and Vtdr from both sides and neglecting (drdt) as being the product of two
VPDOOHUTXDQWLWLHVZH¿QG
0 = UtZ2r2dr + Vrdt
or – Vrdt = UtZ2r2dr
dt ρω 2 rdr
=−
t σ
ρω 2 r 2
loge t = − + log e A ...(17.40)
2σ
where loge A is a constant of integration.
The boundary condition is
when r =0
t = to
Substituting the boundary condition in equation (17.40), we get
loge to = loge A
which gives A = to
Equation (17.40) on substituting A becomes

ρω 2 r 2
loge t = − + log e to
2σ
ρω 2 r 2
loge t – loge to = −
2σ
⎛ t ⎞ ρω 2 r 2
log e ⎜ ⎟ = −
⎝ to ⎠ 2σ
⎛ ρω r 2 2 ⎞
t ⎜−
⎝ 2σ
⎟
⎠
to = e
which gives
⎛ ρω 2 r 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ − 2 σ ⎟⎠
t = to × e ...(17.41)
This is the required expression for the thickness of the disc, which varies according to the given value
of the radius r.
Example 17.12
A turbine rotor is to be designed for uniform strength for a tensile stress of 150 MPa . The rotor runs
at 6000 rpm and its thickness at the centre is 90 mm. If the density of the material of the rotor is
7800 kg/m3, determine the thickness of the rotor at a radius of 400 mm.
Solution: Given,
Uniform stress, V = 150 MPa
= 150 × 106 Pa
Thickness of the rotor at the center, to = 90 mm
= 90 × 10–3 m
Density of the rotor material, U= 7800 kg/m3

Radius at the required thickness, r = 400 mm
= 400 × 10–3 m
The angular speed of the rotor is obtained as
2πN
Z =
60
2π × 6000
=
60
= 628.32 rad/s
From equation (17.41), the expression for the thickness is given as
⎛ ρω 2 r 2 ⎞
⎜− ⎟
⎝ 2σ ⎠
t = to × e
⎛ 7800 × ( 628.32 )2 × ( 400 ×10−3 )2 ⎞
⎜− ⎟
⎝ 2 ×150 ×106 ⎠
= 90 × 10–3 × e
= 90 × 10–3 × e–1.642
= 90 × 10–3 × 0.193
= 0.01742 m
= 17.42 mm Ans.
Example 17.13
The minimum thickness of a steam turbine rotor is 10 mm at a radius of 200 mm and is required to
be designed for uniform strength under rotational conditions for a stress of 180 MPa. It runs at 10,000 rpm and
its material weighs 7800 kg/m3. Determine the thickness of the rotor at a radius of 40 mm.
Solution: Given,
Rotational speed of the rotor, N = 10,000 rpm
Radius at the desired thickness, r = 40 mm
= 40 × 10–3 m
= 180 × 106 Pa
Density of the rotor material, U = 7800 kg/m3
2πN
Z=
60
2π × 10, 000
=
60
= 1047.2 rad/s
The thickness expression is given as

⎛ ρω 2 r 2 ⎞
⎜− ⎟
⎝ 2σ ⎠
t = to × e
At r = 200 mm, t = 10 mm. Substituting these values in the above equation, we have
⎛ 7800 × (1047.2 )2 × ( 200 × 10−3 )2 ⎞
⎜− ⎟
–3 ⎝ 2 × 180 × 106 ⎠
10 × 10 = to × e
= to × e– 0.9504
= to × 0.3866
which gives
to = 0.02586 m
= 25.86 mm
Again using the thickness equation and substituting the value of to , we have
⎛ ρω 2 r 2 ⎞
⎜− ⎟
⎝ 2σ ⎠
t = to × e
⎛ 7800 × (1047.2 )2 × ( 40 × 10−3 )2 ⎞
⎜− ⎟
⎝ 2 × 180 × 106 ⎠
= 0.02586 × e
= 0.02586 × e–0.038
= 0.02586 × 0.9627
= 0.0249 m
= 24.9 mm Ans.
Example 17.14
A steam turbine rotor is 160 mm diameter below the blade ring and 5 mm thick, and runs at
30,000 rpm. If the material of the rotor weighs 7800 kg/m 3 and the allowable stress is 160 MPa,
ZKDWLVWKHWKLFNQHVVRIWKHURWRUDWDUDGLXVRIPPDQGDWWKHFHQWUH"$VVXPHXQLIRUPVWUHQJWK
condition.
Solution: Given,
Rotational speed of the rotor,
N = 30,000 rpm
Radius at the desired thickness, r = 60 mm
= 60 × 10–3 m
= 160 × 106 Pa
Density of the rotor material, U = 7800 kg/m3

2πN
Z =
60
2π × 30, 000
= = 3141.6 rad/s
60
The thickness expressions is given as

⎛ ρω 2 r 2 ⎞
⎜− ⎟
⎝ 2σ ⎠
t = to × e
where to is thickness of the rotor at the center, that is, at r = 0.
Now at r = 80 mm, t = 5 mm
Using these values in the above equation, we have
⎛ 7800 × ( 3141.6 )2 × ( 80 ×10−3 )2 ⎞
⎜− ⎟
–3 ⎝ 2 ×160 ×106 ⎠
5 × 10 = to × e
= to × e–1.53966
= to × 0.2144
which gives
to = 0.0233 m
= 23.3 mm Ans.
Again using the thickness equation for r = 60 mm, we have
⎛ ρω 2 r 2 ⎞
⎜− ⎟
⎝ 2σ ⎠
t = to × e
⎛ 7800 × ( 3141.6 )2 × ( 60 ×10−3 )2 ⎞
⎜− ⎟
–3 ⎝ 2 ×160 ×106 ⎠
= 23.3 × 10 × e
= 23.3 × 10–3 × e–0.866
= 23.3 × 10–3 × 0.4206 = 9.8 × 10–3 m
= 9.8 mm Ans.
Example 17.15
A steel turbine disc is to be designed so that between radii of 250 mm and 400 mm, the radial and
hoop stresses are required to be constant at 60 MPa, when running at 3000 rpm. If the axial thickness
LVPPDWWKHRXWHUHGJHRIWKLV]RQHZKDWVKRXOGLWEHDWWKHLQQHUHGJH"7KHGHQVLW\RIWKHGLVF
material is 7800 kg/m3.
Solution: Given,
= 60 × 106 Pa
Density of the disc material, U = 7800 kg/m3.

2πN
Z =
60
2π × 3000
=
60
= 314.16 rad/s
The thickness expression is given as
⎛ ρω 2 r 2 ⎞
⎜− ⎟
⎝ 2σ ⎠
t = to × e
Now at r = 400 mm, t = 12 mm. Substituting these values in the above equation, we have
⎛ 7800 × ( 314.16 )2 × ( 400 × 10−3 )2 ⎞
⎜− ⎟
–3 ⎝ 2 × 60 ×106 ⎠
12 × 10 = to × e
= to × e–1.0264
= to × 0.3583
which gives
to = 0.0335 m
= 33.5 mm
Again using thickness equation for r = 250 mm, we have
⎛ 7800 × ( 314.16 )2 × ( 250 × 10−3 )2 ⎞
⎜− ⎟
⎝ 2 × 60 ×106 ⎠
t = 0.0335 × e
= 0.0335 × e–0.40095
= 0.0335 × 0.6697
= 0.0224 m
= 22.4 mm Ans.
17.5 ROTATING LONG CYLINDER

The force analysis of a rotating thick cylinder is similar to that of a rotating thin disc except the
introduction of axial stress. Hence three stresses acting on a rotating thick cylinder include hoop
stress (Vh), radial stress (Vr) and axial stress, also called longitudinal stress (Vl). It is assumed that
the transverse sections of the cylinder remain plane even at high speeds of rotation, which implies
that longitudinal strain is constant. At the same time, all the three stresses acting on the cylinder are
principal stresses.
Consider a small element ABCD of the cylinder at a distance r and of radial thickness dr subtending
an angle dșDWWKHFHQWHUDVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Fig. 17.7
Let h = Hoop strain, also called circumferential strain
r = Radial strain
l = Longitudinal strain
Z = Angular speed of rotation of the cylinder
v = Poisson’s ratio
E = Modulus of elasticity of the cylinder
The strains produced by various stresses are obtained as

σ σ σ
h = h − v r − v l
E E E

= [Vh – v (Vr + Vl@
E
σ σ σ
r = r − v h − v l
E E E

= [Vr – v (Vh + Vl@
E
σ σ σ
and l = l − v h − v r
E E l

= [Vl – v (Vh + Vr@
E
Due to rotation, the radius of the cylinder increases. Let the radius r changes to (r + u) and dr
changes to (dr + du).
Now the hoop strain is also expressed as
2π(r + u ) − 2πr
h =
2πr
u
= ...(17.45)
r
The radial strain is also expressed as
(dr + du ) − dr
r =
dr
du
= ...(17.46)
dr
u 1
h = = [Vh – v (Vr + Vl)]
r E
which gives
Eu = r [Vh – v (Vr + Vl)] ...(17.47)
du 1
r = = [Vr – v (Vh + Vl)] ...(17.48)
dr E
Differentiating equation (17.47) with respect to r, we get
du 1 1 ⎡ d σh ⎛ d σ r d σl ⎞⎤
= [Vh – v (Vr + Vl)] + ⎢ r − vr ⎜ + ⎟⎠ ⎥ ...(17.49)
dr E E ⎣ dr ⎝ dr dr ⎦
d σh ⎛ d σr d σl ⎞
Vr – v (Vh + Vl) = Vh – v (Vr + Vl) + r – vr ⎜ + ⎟
dr ⎝ dr dr ⎠
Vr – vVh – vVl = Vh – vVr – vVl + r – vr ⎜ + ⎟
dr ⎝ dr dr ⎠
Cancelling vVl from both sides of the equation and rearranging the terms, we get
Vr + vVr = Vh + vVh + r – vr ⎜ + ⎟
dr ⎝ dr dr ⎠
Vr (1 + v) = Vh (1 + v) + r – vr ⎜ + ⎟
dr ⎝ dr dr ⎠
(1 + v) (Vr – Vh) = r – vr ⎜ + ⎟
dr ⎝ dr dr ⎠
(1 + v) (Vr – Vh) – r + vr ⎜ + ⎟
dr ⎝ dr dr ⎠
Since l is constant, hence from equation (17.44), we have
1
l = [Vl – v (Vh + Vr)] = Constant
E
or Vl – v (Vh + Vr) = Constant (as E is a constant)
Differentiating with respect to r, we have
d σl ⎛ d σh d σr ⎞
– v⎜ + ⎟ =0
dr ⎝ dr dr ⎠
Multiplying all the terms by r, we get
r – vr ⎜ + ⎟ =0
dr ⎝ dr dr ⎠
or r = vr ⎜ + ⎟ ...(17.51)
dr ⎝ dr dr ⎠
d σh d σr d σl
(1 + v) (Vr – Vh) – r + vr + vr
dr dr dr
Substituting equation (17.51) in the above equation, we get
d σh d σr ⎛ d σh d σr ⎞
(1 + v) (Vr – Vh) – r + vr + v 2r ⎜ + ⎟
dr dr ⎝ dr dr ⎠
d σh d σr dσ d σr
(1 + v) (Vr – Vh) – r + vr + v 2r h + v 2r
dr dr dr dr
d σh d σr
(1 + v) (Vr – Vh) – r (1 – v2) + vr (1 + v) = 0
dr dr
Eliminating (1 + v) from all the terms, we get
d σh d σr
(Vr – Vh) – r (1 – v) + vr =0
dr dr
dσ d σr
(Vh – Vr) + r (1 – v) h – vr =0 ...(17.52)
dr dr
The equilibrium equation of the element can be obtained in a similar manner as in case of a rotating
thin disc, which is given by equation (17.7) as
d σr
(Vh – Vr) Ur2Z2 + r (from equation (17.7))
dr
Substituting the above in equation (17.52), we get

d σr dσ d σr
Ur2Z2 + r + r (1 – v) h – vr =0
dr dr dr
Eliminating r from all the terms and simplifying, we have
d σr dσ
UrZ2 + (1 – v) + (1 – v) h = 0
dr dr
d σh d σr ρrω 2
or + =– ...(17.53)
dr dr (1 − v )
Integration of equation (17.53) gives
ρr 2 ω 2
Vh + Vr = – +A ...(17.54)
2 (1 − v )
where A is a constant of integration.
Now subtracting equation (17.7) from equation (17.54), we get
ρr 2 ω 2 d σr
Vh + Vr – Vh + Vr = – + A – Ur2Z2 – r
2 (1 − v ) dr
d σr ⎡ 1 ⎤
2Vr + r = – Ur2Z2 ⎢ + 1⎥ + A
dr ⎣ 2 (1 − v ) ⎦
⎡ 1 + 2 − 2v ⎤
= – Ur2Z2 ⎢ ⎥ +A
⎣ 2 (1 − v ) ⎦
ρr 2 ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 v ⎞
=− ⎜ ⎟ +A
2 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
Multiplying by r on both sides, we get
d σr ρr 3ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
2 r Vr + r2 =− ⎜ ⎟ + Ar
dr 2 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
d 2 ρr 3ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
(r × Vr) = − ⎜ ⎟ + Ar ...(17.55)
dr 2 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
ρr 4ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ Ar 2
r × Vr = − ⎟+
2
⎜ +B
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ 2
where B is another constant of integration.
Dividing throughout by r2, we get
A B ρr 2 ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 v ⎞
Vr = + − ⎜ ⎟ ...(17.56)
2 r2 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
This is the required expression for the radial stress for a rotating thick cylinder. The constants A
and B can be determined by using suitable boundary conditions.
Substituting equation (17.56) in equation (17.54), we can obtain the value of Vh.
A B ρr 2 ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 v ⎞ ρr 2 ω 2
σh + + 2 − ⎜ ⎟ = – +A
2 r 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ 2 (1 − v )
A B ρr 2 ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 v ⎞ ρr 2 ω 2
or Vh = A − − 2 + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ −
2 r 8 1− v 2 (1 − v )
A B ρr 2 ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 v ⎞
= − 2 + ⎜⎝ − 1⎟
2 r 2 (1 − v ) 4 ⎠
A B ρr 2 ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 v − 4 ⎞
= − 2 + ⎜ ⎟⎠
2 r 2 (1 − v ) ⎝ 4
A B ρr 2 ω 2 ⎛ 1 + 2 v ⎞
= − − ⎜ ⎟ ...(17.57)
2 r2 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
This is the required expression for the hoop stress for a rotating thick cylinder. The constants
A and B can be determined by using suitable boundary conditions.
17.5.1 Hoop and Radial Stresses in a Rotating Solid Cylinder or a Solid Shaft
:KHQ ZH SXW r LQ HTXDWLRQV DQG ZH VHH WKDW VWUHVVHV EHFRPH LQ¿QLWH +HQFH
for the meaningful values of the two stresses, the constant B has to be zero. Now the stresses are
expressed as
A ρr 2 ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 v ⎞
Vr = − ⎜ ⎟ ...(17.58)
2 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
A ρr 2 ω 2 ⎛ 1 + 2 v ⎞
and Vh = − ⎜ ⎟ ...(17.59)
2 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
These are the expressions for the radial and hoop stresses respectively at the centre of a rotating
solid cylinder.
At the surface of the cylinder, where r = R2 ( = R say),
Vr = 0
Substituting Vr in equation (17.58), we have
A ρR 2 ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 v ⎞
0 = − ⎜ ⎟
2 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
which gives
A ρR 2 ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 v ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
2 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
A
On putting in equation (17.58), we have
2
ρR 2 ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 v ⎞ ρr 2 ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 v ⎞
Vr = ⎜ ⎟− ⎜ ⎟
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2
= ⎜
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
(
⎟ R −r
2
) ...(17.60)
This is the required expression for the radial stress for any value of r.
A
The expression for the hoop stress on substituting the value of in equation (17.59) becomes
2
ρω 2 R 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ρω 2 r 2 ⎛ 1 + 2v ⎞
Vh = ⎜ ⎟− ⎜ ⎟ ...(17.61)
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
The radial stress is maximum at the centre of the cylinder, that is, at r = 0. Putting r = 0 in equation (17.60),
we get the expression for the maximum radial stress as
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
Vr = ⎜ ⎟ ...(17.62)
max 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
Maximum hoop stress
The hoop stress is also maximum at the centre of cylinder, that is, at r = 0. Putting r = 0 in equation (17.61),
we get the expression for the maximum hoop stress as
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
Vh = ⎜ ⎟ ...(17.63)
max 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
Hence,
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
Vr = Vhmax = ⎜ ⎟ ...(17.64)
max 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
17.5.2 Hoop and Radial Stresses in a Rotating Hollow Cylinder

For a hollow cylinder
Vr = 0 at r = R1
Also Vr = 0 at r = R2
Substituting these boundary conditions in equation (17.56), we have
A B ρω 2 R12 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
0 = + 2 − ⎜ ⎟ (where r = R1) ...(1)
2 R1 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
A B ρω 2 R22 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
and 0 = + 2 − ⎜ ⎟ (where r = R2) ...(2)
2 R2 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
Subtracting equation (2) from equation (1), we have

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2
B ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎠ + 8 ⎜⎝ 1 − v ⎟⎠ ( R2 − R1 ) = 0
2
⎝ R1 R2
⎛ 2 ⎞ ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2
B R2 − R1
2
2 = 0
⎜⎝ R R
2 2 ⎟⎠ + 8 ⎜⎝ 1 − v ⎟⎠ ( R2 − R1 )
1 2
Eliminating ( R22 − R12 ) , we have

B ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
= − ⎜ ⎟
2 2
R1 R2 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
which gives
ρω 2 R12 R22 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
B =– ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(17.65)
8 1− v ⎠
Substituting the value of B in equation (1), we have
A 1 ⎡ ρω 2 R12 R22 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ⎤ ρω 2 R12 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
0 = + 2 × ⎢− ⎜⎝ ⎟⎥ − ⎜ ⎟
2 R1 ⎣ 8 1− v ⎠⎦ 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
A ρω 2 R22 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ρω 2 R12 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
= − ⎜ ⎟− ⎜ ⎟
2 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
A ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2
− ⎟⎠ ( R1 + R2 )
2
= ⎜⎝
2 8 1− v
which gives
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2
⎟ ( R1 + R2 )
2
A = ⎜ ...(17.66)
4 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
Now Substituting the values of A and B in equation (17.56), we get the expression for the radial
stress as
1 ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2 1 ⎡ ρω 2 R12 R22 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ⎤
Vr = × ⎜ ⎟ 1 + 2
+ × − ⎜⎝ ⎟
r 2 ⎢⎣ 1 − v ⎠ ⎥⎦
( R R )
4 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
2
2 8
ρr 2 ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 v ⎞
− ⎜ ⎟
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2 ρω 2 R12 R22 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ρr 2ω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
⎟⎠ ( R1 + R2 ) − ⎟−
2
= ⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ ⎜ ⎟
8 1− v 8r 2 1− v ⎠ 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ⎡ 2 R12 R22 ⎤
= ⎜⎝ ⎢
⎟⎠ 1R + R 2
− − r2 ⎥ ...(17.67)
1− v ⎣
2 2
8 r ⎦
This is the required expression for the radial stress for a long rotating hollow cylinder.
Substituting the values of A and B in equation (17.57), we get the expression for the hoop stress as
1 ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2 1 ⎡ ρω 2 R12 R22 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ⎤
× ⎟⎠ ( R1 + R2 ) − 2 × ⎢ −
2
Vh = ⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎥
2 4 1− v r ⎣ 8 1− v ⎠⎦
ρr 2 ω 2 ⎛ 1 + 2 v ⎞
− ⎜ ⎟
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2 ρω 2 R12 R22 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ρr 2ω 2 ⎛ 1 + 2v ⎞
⎟⎠ ( R1 + R2 ) + ⎟−
2
= ⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ ⎜ ⎟
8 1− v 8r 2 1− v ⎠ 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ⎡ 2 R12 R22 ⎤ ρω 2 r 2 ⎛ 1 + 2v ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎢ 1
R + R 2
+ ⎥− ⎜ ⎟ ...(17.68)
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ ⎣ 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
2
r2 ⎦
This is the required expression for the hoop stress for a long rotating hollow cylinder.
Maximum hoop stress

Equation (17.68) suggests that the hoop stress is maximum where r is minimum, that is, at r = R1.
Putting r = R1 in equation (17.68), we obtain the value of the maximum hoop stress for the hollow
cylinder as
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ⎡ 2 R12 R22 ⎤ ρω 2 R12 ⎛ 1 + 2v ⎞

⎟⎠ ⎢ R1 + R2 + ⎥−
2
Vh = ⎜⎝ ⎜ ⎟
max 8 1− v ⎣ R12 ⎦ 8 ⎝ 1 − 2v ⎠
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2 ρω 2 R12 ⎛ 1 + 2v ⎞
⎟⎠ ( R1 + 2 R2 ) −
2
= ...(17.69)
8 ⎜⎝
1− v 8 ⎜⎝ 1 − v ⎟⎠

7R¿QGWKHORFDWLRQRIWKHPD[LPXPUDGLDOVWUHVVZHGLIIHUHQWLDWHHTXDWLRQZLWKUHVSHFWWR
r and equate it to zero.
d σr
=0
dr
d ⎡ ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ⎛ 2 R12 R22 ⎞⎤
⎟⎠ ⎜ R1 + R2 − − r2 ⎟ ⎥ = 0
2
⎢ ⎜⎝
dr ⎢⎣ 8 1− v ⎝ r 2
⎠ ⎥⎦
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ⎡ R12 R22 × ( −2) ⎤

⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎢0 + 0 − − 2r ⎥ = 0
8 1− v ⎣ r 3
⎦
2 R12 R22
or − 2r = 0
r3
which gives
r = R1 R2 ...(17.70)
Hence, the radial stress is maximum at r = R1 R2 . Substituting this value in equation (17.67), we
obtain the maximum value of the radial stress for a hollow cylinder as
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ⎛ 2 R12 R22 ⎞
⎟⎠ ⎜ R1 + R2 − − R1R2 ⎟
2
Vr = ⎜⎝
max 8 1− v ⎝ R1R2 ⎠
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2
⎟ ( R1 + R2 − 2 R1R2 )
2
= ⎜
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
⎟ ( R2 − R1 )
2
= ⎜ ...(17.71)
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
This is the required expression for the maximum radial stress for a hollow cylinder.
Example 17.16
Determine the maximum hoop stress in a long cast iron solid cylinder of diameter 400 mm, which
rotates at 2000 rpm about its axis. It weighs 7200 kg/m3 and the Poisson's ratio is 0.3.
Solution: Given,
400
Radius of the solid cylinder, R = mm
2
= 200 × 10–3 m
Density of the cylinder material,
U = 7200 kg/m3
The angular speed of the cylinder is obtained as
2πN
Z =
60
2π × 2000
=
60
= 209.44 rad/s
The maximum hoop stress is obtained using equation (17.63) as
Vh =
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
⎜ ⎟
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
max
7200 × (209.44) 2 × (200 × 10−3 )2 ⎛ 3 − 2 × 0.3 ⎞

= ×⎜
8 ⎝ 1 − 0.3 ⎟⎠
= 5.41 × 106 Pa
= 5.41 MPa Ans.
Example 17.17
Calculate the maximum hoop stress in a long hollow cylinder of inside diameter 40 mm and outside
diameter 200 mm rotating at 3000 rpm. The density of the cylinder material is 7800 kg/m 3 and the
Poisson’s ratio is 0.25.
Solution: Given,
40
Inside radius of the hollow cylinder, R1 = mm
2
= 20 × 10–3 m
200
Outside radius of the hollow cylinder, R2 = mm
2
= 100 × 10–3 m
Density of the cylinder material, U = 7800 kg/m3

2πN
Z =
60
2π × 3000
=
60
= 314.16 rad/s
The maximum hoop stress is obtained using equation (17.69) as
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2 ρω 2 R12 ⎛ 1 + 2v ⎞
Vh = ⎜ ⎟ 1
( R + 2 R 2
) − ⎜⎝ ⎟
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ 1− v ⎠
2
max 8
7800 × (314.16) 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 × 0.25 ⎞ −3 −2

⎤
⎟⎠ × ⎡⎣( 20 × 10 ) + 2 × (100 × 10 ) ⎦
−3 2
= ×⎜
8 ⎝ 1 − 0.25
7800 × (314.16) 2 × ( 20 × 10−3 ) 2 ⎛ 1 + 2 × 0.25 ⎞

– ×⎜
8 ⎝ 1 − 0.25 ⎟⎠
= 6543578.3 – 76983.3
= 6466595 Pa
= 6.46 MPa Ans.

Example 17.18
Compare the peripheral velocities for the same maximum intensity of stress of (a) a solid cylinder
(b) a solid thin disc and (c) a thin ring, if they are made of the same material. Take velocity of the
ring as unity and the Poisson’s ratio 0.3.
Solution:
For a solid cylinder
The maximum hoop stress is
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
Vh = ⎜ ⎟ (using equation (17.64))
max
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
Since the peripheral velocity is
V = ZR
Hence, the hoop stress equation for the solid cylinder is
ρV12 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
Vh = ⎜ ⎟
max 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
ρV12 ⎛ 3 − 2 × 0.3 ⎞
= ×⎜
8 ⎝ 1 − 0.3 ⎟⎠
= 0.428 UV12
σ h max
or V12 =
0.428 ρ
σ h max
= 2.33 × ...(1)
ρ
For a solid thin disc
ρω 2 R 2 ( 3 + v )
Vh = (using equation (17.25))
max 8
ρV22 (3 + v)
= (as V2 = ZR)
8
ρV22 × (3 + 0.3)
=
8
= 0.4125 U V22
σ hmax
or V22 =
0.4125 ρ
σ hmax
= 2.42 × ...(2)
ρ
For a thin ring

Vh = UZ2R2 (using equation (17.5))
max
= UV32 (as V3 = ZR)
σ hmax
or V32 = ...(3)
ρ
Hence,
V12 : V22 : V32 = 2.33 : 2.42 : 1
which gives
V1 : V2 : V3 = 1.526 : 1.556 : 1 Ans.
Example 17.19
A long solid cylinder of diameter 500 mm is rotating at 3500 rpm. Taking Poisson’s ratio as 0.3 and
the density of the cylinder material to be 7500 kg/m3¿QGa) the maximum stress developed in the
cylinder and (b) plot the distribution of the hoop and radial stresses along the radius of the cylinder.
Solution: Given,
500
Radius of the cylinder, R = mm = 250 × 10–3 m
2
2πN 2π × 3500
Z = = = 366.52 rad/s
60 60
The maximum hoop and radial stresses are equal and are given by equation (17.64) as
Vh = Vrmax =
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
⎜ ⎟
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
max
7500 × (366.52) 2 × (250 × 10 −3 ) 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 × 0.3 ⎞

= ×⎜
8 ⎝ 1 − 0.3 ⎟⎠
= 26.98 × 106 Pa = 26.98 MPa Ans.

ρω 2 R 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ρω 2 r 2 ⎛ 1 + 2v ⎞
Vh = ⎜ ⎟− ⎜ ⎟
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
the above equation. The distribution of the hoop stresses are shown in Table 17.5.
r (mm) 0 50 100 150 200 250

Vh (MPa) 26.98 26.26 24.10 20.50 15.47 8.99

ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2 2
Vr = ⎜ ⎟ (R − r )
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
The values of the radial stresses corresponding to the selected values of the radius r are determined
r (mm) 0 50 100 150 200 250

Vr (MPa) 26.98 25.90 22.67 17.27 9.71 0

Fig. 17.8
Example 17.20
A long hollow cast iron cylinder of inside diameter 50 mm and outside diameter 300 mm is
rotating at 6000 rpm. Taking Poisson’s ratio as 0.3 and density of the cylinder material to be
7200 kg/m3¿QGa) the maximum hoop stress (b) the radius at which the radial stress is maximum
(c) the maximum radial stress and (d) plot the distribution of the hoop and radial stresses along the
radius of the cylinder.
Solution: Given,
50
Inside radius of the hollow cylinder, R1 = mm
2
= 25 × 10–3 m
300
Outside radius of the hollow cylinder, R2 = mm
2
= 150 × 10–3 m
Rotational speed, N = 3000
2πN
Z =
60
2π × 6000
=
60
= 628.32 rad/s
(a) The maximum hoop stress is obtained using equation (17.69) as
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2 ρω 2 R12 ⎛ 1 + 2v ⎞
⎟⎠ ( R1 + 2 R2 ) −
2
Vh = ⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ ⎟
max 8 1− v 8 1− v ⎠
7200 × (628.32)2 ⎛ 3 − 2 × 0.3 ⎞

= ×⎜ × [(25 × 10−3 )2 + 2 × (150 × 10−3 )2 ]
8 ⎝ 1 − 0.3 ⎟⎠
7200 × (628.32)2 ⎛ 1 + 2 × 0.3 ⎞

× ( 25 × 10−3 ) × ⎜
2
−
8 ⎝ 1 − 0.3 ⎟⎠
= 55580232 – 507582.03
= 55072650 Pa
= 55.07 MPa Ans.
(b) The radius at which the radial stress is maximum, is given by equation (17.70) as
r = R1 × R2
= 25 × 10−3 × 150 × 10−3

= 0.0612 m
= 61.2 mm Ans.
(c) The maximum radial stress is given by equation (17.71) as
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2
Vr = ⎜ ⎟ (R – R1)
max 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ 2
7200 × (628.32) 2 ⎛ 3 − 2 × 0.3 ⎞ −3 −3 2
= ×⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ × (150 × 10 − 25 × 10 )
8 1 − 0.3
= 19034326 Pa
= 19.03 MPa Ans.
(d) Distribution of the hoop stress

ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ⎡ 2 R12 R22 ⎤ ρω 2 r 2 ⎛ 1 + 2v ⎞
Vh = ⎜ ⎟⎢ 1
R + R 2
+ ⎥− ⎜ ⎟
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ ⎣ 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
2
r2 ⎦
the above equation. The distribution of the hoop stresses is shown in Table 17.7.
r (mm) 25 50 75 100 125 150

Vh (MPa) 55.07 33.00 26.65 21.76 16.58 10.66

ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ⎡ 2 R12 R22 ⎤
⎟⎠ ⎢ R1 + R2 − − r2 ⎥
2
Vr = ⎜⎝
8 1− v ⎣ r 2
⎦
The values of the radial stresses corresponding to the selected values of the radius r are determined
r (mm) 25 50 75 100 125 150

Vr (MPa) 0 18.27 18.27 14.28 8.04 0

Fig. 17.9
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3. Name the stresses that act on a rotating thin disc.
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1. The rotational speed N (rpm) and the angular velocity Z (rad/s) are related as
2πω 2π N πN 3π N .
(a) N = (b) Z = (c) Z = (d) Z =
60 60 60 60
2. The expression for the hoop stress for a thin rotating ring is given as (U = Density, Z = Angular
speed and r = Radius)
(a) UZr2 (b) UZ2r (c) UZ2r2 (d) U2Z2r2.
3. The expression for the hoop stress for a solid rotating disc at any radial distance r is given as
(U = Density, Z = Angular speed, v = Poisson’s ratio, R = Radius).
ρω (3 + v ) ρω 2 (1 + v)
(a) (R2 – r2) (b) (R2 – r2)
8 8
(c) ρω [(3 + v)R2 – (1 + 3v)r2] (d) ρω [(3 + v) R2 – (1 + 3v) r2].
2 2
8 8
4. The expression for the radial stress for a solid rotating disc at any radial distance r is given
as (U = Density, Z = Angular speed, v = Poisson’s Ratio, R = Radius).
ρω (3 + v ) ρω 2 (1 + v)
(a) (R2 – r2) (b) (R2 – r2)
8 8
ρω 2 ρω 2
(c) [(3 + v)R2 – (1 + 3v)r2] (d) [(3 + v) R2 – (1 + 3v) r2].
8 8
5. The hoop and radial stresses at the centre of a solid rotating disc are expressed as (U = Density,
Z = Angular speed, R = Radius and v = Poisson’s ratio)
ρω 2 R 2 (3 + v) , ρω 2 R 2 (1 + v) ρω 2 R 2 (3 + v) , ρω 2 R 2 (3 + v)
(a) (b)
8 8 8 8
ρω 2 R 2 (1 − v) , ρω 2 R 2 (3 + v) ρω 2 R 2 (1 − v) , ρω 2 R 2 (1 + v) .
(c) (d)
4 8 4 8
6. The hoop stress at the outer radius of a solid rotating disc is (U = Density, Z = Angular speed,
r = Radius and v = Poisson’s ratio)
ρω 2 R 2 (3 + v ) ρω 2 R 2 (1 + v ) ρω 2 R 2 (1 − v ) ρω 2 R 2 (1 + v ) .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 4 4 8
7. The maximum radial stress in case of a hollow disc occurs at a radial distance equal to
(R1 = Inner radius and R2 = Outer radius)
(a) R1 (b) R2 (c) R1 R2 (d) 2 R1 R2 .
8. The maximum value of the radial stress for a hollow disc is (U = density, Z = Angular speed,
v = Poisson’s ratio, R2 = Outer radius and R1 = Inner radius)
(1 + v ) ρω 2 (3 + v ) ρω 2
(a) (R2 – R1)2 (b) (R22 – R12 )2
4 8
(1 + v ) ρω 2 (3 + v ) ρω 2
(c) (R2 – R1)2 (d) (R22 – R12 )2.
8 8
9. The expressions for the hoop and radial stresses in a rotating disc with a central pin hole are
(U = Density, v = Poisson’s ratio, Z = Angular speed and R = Radius)
(3 + v) (3 + v) ρω 2 R 2 (1 + v ) ρω 2 R 2 , (3 + v ) ρω 2 R 2
(a) ρω 2 R 2 , (b)
8 4 4 8
( 2 + v ) ρω 2 R 2 , (3 − v ) ρω 2 R 2 (3 + v) ρω 2 R 2 , (3 + v) ρω 2 R 2 .
(c) (d)
4 8 4 8
10. Consider the following statements :
1. The radial stress is zero at both inner and outer radius of a hollow rotating disc.
2. Both radial and hoop stresses at the centre of a solid rotating disc are maximum and equal.
3. The radial stress at the outer radius of a solid rotating disc is zero.
4. The maximum hoop stress for a rotating disc with a central pin hole is twice the maximum
hoop stress for a rotating solid disc.
(a) 1 and 2 are true (b) 1, 2 and 4 are true
(c) 2 and 3 are true (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are true.
11. Consider the following statements about a disc of uniform strength :
1. The hoop and radial stresses do not vary along the radius of the disc.
2. It has maximum thickness at the centre.
3. It has uniform thickness throughout.
4. Its thickness decreases gradually towards its outer edge.
Of these statements :
(a) 1 alone is true (b) 1, 2 and 4 are true
(c) 1 and 2 are true (d) 1 and 3 are true.
12. Consider the following statements about a rotating long cylinder :
1. It involves three stresses, namely hoop, radial and axial.
2. The longitudinal strain is constant.
3. All the stresses are principal stresses.
4. The radial stress is zero at the surface of the cylinder
Of these statements :
(c) 2 and 4 are true (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are true.
13. The maximum radial stress in case of a solid long rotating cylinder is (U = Density, Z = Angular
speed, R = Radius, v = Poisson’s ratio)
ρω 2 R 2 ⎛ 3 − v ⎞ ρω 2 R 2 ⎛ 1 − v ⎞
(a) ⎜ ⎟ (b) ⎜ ⎟
4 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ 4 ⎝ 3 − 2v ⎠
ρω 2 R 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ρω 2 R 2 ⎛ 1 − v ⎞ .
(c) ⎜ ⎟ (d) ⎜ ⎟
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ 8 ⎝ 3 − 2v ⎠
14. The maximum hoop stress in case of a solid long rotating cylinder is (U = Density, Z = Angular
speed, R = Radius, v = Poisson’s ratio)
ρω 2 R 2 ⎛ 1 − v ⎞ ρω 2 R 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
(a) ⎜ ⎟ (b) ⎜ ⎟
8 ⎝ 3 − 2v ⎠ 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
ρω 2 R 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ ρω 2 R 2 ⎛ 1 − v ⎞ .
(c) ⎜ ⎟ (d) ⎜ ⎟
4 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ 4 ⎝ 3 − 2v ⎠
15. The maximum radial stress in case of a hollow long rotating cylinder is
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2 ρω 2 ⎛ 1 − v ⎞ 2
(a) ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ (R2 – R1) (b) ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ (R2 – R1)
4 1− v 8 3 − 2v
ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2 ρω 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞ 2 2
(c) ⎜ ⎟ (R2 – R1) (d) ⎜ ⎟ (R2 – R1 ).
8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠ 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (b)
9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (c)
EXERCISES
1. A uniform thin disc of diameter 600 mm has a central hole of diameter 100 mm. Determine the
maximum hoop stress induced in the disc, if the maximum radial stress is not to exceed 15 MPa.
Take Poisson’s ratio as 0.25. (Ans. 43.48 MPa).
2. A uniform thin disc of diameter 700 mm has a pin hole at the centre. Determine the maximum
hoop stress induced in the disc, if it rotates at 3000 rpm. Take Poisson’s ratio as 0.3 and the
density of the disc material to be 7800 kg/m3. (Ans. 77.8 MPa).
3. A hollow steel disc of uniform thickness has outer diameter 500 mm and inner diameter 200 mm
and it rotates at 3000 rpm. Taking Poisson’s ratio as 0.3 and the density of the disc material to
be 7800 kg/m3¿QGa) the maximum hoop and radial stresses induced in the disc and (b) the
radius at which the radial stress is maximum.
(Ans. (a) 41.04 MPa, 7.14 MPa (b) 158.11 mm).
4. A thin uniform steel disc of diameter 300 mm rotates at 4000 rpm. Calculate the maximum
hoop stress induced in the disc and plot the distribution of the hoop and radial stresses along
the radius of the disc. Take Poisson’s ratio as 0.25 and the density of the disc material equals to
7800 kg/m3. (Ans. 12.5 MPa).
5. Derive the expression for the hoop stress at the outer radius of a solid disc of radius R, which
rotates at Z rad/s and is made of material having a density U and Poisson’s ratio v. Hence, prove
that the hoop stress reduces to zero, if the Poisson’s ratio tends to unity.
6. A long thick cylinder of inner diameter 150 mm and outer diameter 450 mm rotates at 4000 rpm.
Find the hoop stresses at its inner and outer surfaces. Take the Poisson’s ratio of 0.3 and the
density of the cylinder material as 7470 kg/m3.
(Ans. 57.9 MPa, 11.9 MPa).
7. A steam turbine rotor is 150 mm diameter below the blade ring and 5 mm thick, and runs at
USP:KDWLVWKHWKLFNQHVVRIWKHURWRUDWDUDGLXVRIPPDQGDWWKHFHQWUH"7DNHWKH
allowable stress of 150 MPa and the density of the rotor material to be 7800 kg/m 3. Assume
uniform strength condition.
(Ans. 14.9 mm, 35.7 mm).
8. A long solid steel cylinder of diameter 400 mm is rotating at 5000 rpm. Taking Poisson’s ratio
as 0.3 and the density of the material of the cylinder to be 7800 kg/m 3¿QGa) the maximum
stress developed in the cylinder and (b) plot the distribution of the hoop and radial stresses along
the radius of the cylinder.
(Ans. 36.66 MPa).
9. A long hollow cast iron cylinder of inside diameter 60 mm and outside diameter 300 mm is
rotating at 3600 rpm. Taking Poisson’s ratio as 0.3 and the density of the material of the cylinder
to be 7200 kg/m3¿QGWKHIROORZLQJSDUDPHWHUV
(a) the maximum hoop stress
(b) the radius at which the radial stress is maximum, and
(c) the maximum radial stress.
(Ans. (a) 19.87 MPa (b) 67.08 mm (c) 6.31 MPa).
10. Prove that the maximum hoop stress at the centre of a long rotating solid cylinder is given as
ρω 2 R 2 ⎛ 3 − 2v ⎞
Vh = ⎜ ⎟
max 8 ⎝ 1− v ⎠
where U = Density of the cylinder material
Z = Angular speed of the cylinder
R = Mean radius of the cylinder
v = Poisson’s ratio.

18
Mechanical Testing of Materials
Johan August Brinell, born on 21 November 1849, was a Swedish

mechanical engineer. He invented a method, called Brinell hardness
test in 1900, which is the oldest method of hardness testing commonly
used today. The hardness of the material is indicated by a number called
Brinell hardness number (BHN). He is also known for describing the
failure mechanism of material surfaces, popularly called Brinelling. He
became a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1902
and a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences
in 1919.
Johan August Brinell

(1849-1925)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5_18
18.1 INTRODUCTION
The mechanical properties of materials have intensive applications in manufacturing processes and
to the service life of components. They help us in estimating forces required in forming processes
and in predicting the behaviour of materials in shaping processes. Mechanical properties depend on
several factors, such as temperature, rate of deformation, surface condition, environment and type of
material. Important mechanical properties include tension, compression, hardness, torsion, bending,
fatigue, creep, impact etc. Numerous tests have been developed, by which these properties can be
measured. These tests are discussed below under different headings.
18.2 HARDNESS TEST

Three types of hardness tests are important, namely Brinell test, Rockwell test and Vickers test. These
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usually indicative of increased hardness of the material.
18.2.1 Brinell Test

The Brinell test was introduced by J.A. Brinell in 1900. The test specimen, usually in the form
of a circular disc, is pressed with a load of 500 kg, 1500 kg and 3000 kg against a hardened steel
or tungsten carbide ball of 10 mm diameter, producing an impression on the specimen. The usual
time of pressing the specimen is 15 seconds. Subsequently the load is released and the diameter of
impression, usually a hemispherical cavity, is measured with the help of a travelling microscope. A
number, called Brinell Hardness Number (BHN), is used to measure the hardness of the material,
GH¿QHGE\
Load applied in kgf

BHN =
Area of the spherical indentation in mm 2
P
= ...(18.1)
πD ⎡
D − D 2 − d 2 ⎤⎥
2 ⎢⎣ ⎦
where D = Diameter of the steel ball

d = Diameter of indentation
The standard unit of BHN is kgf/mm2. ,WVKRXOGEHHQVXUHGWKDWWKHVSHFL¿HGORDGLVDSSOLHGRQWKH

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from the specimen, the deformation i.e., indentation has elastic recovery tendency to a little extent.
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the calculation of BHN. The steel ball gives satisfactory measurement, when BHN is less than 500.
For higher than this value, steel ball suffers distortion. For thin sheets, the results are reliable if its
thickness is at least ten times the depth of impression.
18.2.2 Rockwell Test

The Rockwell test was developed by S.P. Rockwell in1922. It is based on measuring depth of
penetration instead of diameter of indentation as in case of Brinell test. The indentor is pressed
Mechanical Testing of Materials 859
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in the depths of penetration is a measure of hardness of the material. The test uses three scales for
measuring the hardness of the materials. Rockwell A is used for case hardened materials; Rockwell B
for soft materials, such as mild steel, brass and aluminum; and Rockwell C for hard materials, such as
high carbon steel, high speed steel and tool steels. A diamond indentor, having 120º included angle,
is used in case of Rockwell A and C; and a hardened steel ball indentor of 0.0625 inch diameter
for Rockwell B. The load to be applied during testing of materials also varies accordingly to the
grade of the Rockwell. For example, Rockwell A uses a 60 kg load, Rockwell B, a 100 kg load and
Rockwell C, a 150 kg load.
18.2.3 Vickers Test

The Vickers test was developed in 1922, and is also known as diamond pyramid hardness test. It
uses a 136º pyramid-shaped diamond indentor on a square base. On pressing the indentor against
the surface of test specimen, it produces a square-shaped indentation. The test uses a load varying
between 1 kg and 120 kg. The hardness, usually expressed in terms of a number, called Vickers
Pyramid Number (VPN) is expressed as
Load appied in kgf

VPN =
Surface area of the pyramidal indentation in mm2
1.854 P
= ...(18.2)
D2
where P = Load on the test specimen
D = Diagonal of the indent
18.3 FATIGUE
The behaviour of a manufactured part during its expected service life is an important consideration.
The wings of an aircraft, the crankshaft of an automobile engine, and gear teeth in machinery are all
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to the formation of cracks, which may result in failure of components and the property responsible
for it is called fatigue. Fatigue failure has brittle nature and probably account for nearly 90% of all
PHFKDQLFDOIUDFWXUHV$IDWLJXHWHVWLVFRQGXFWHGE\VXEMHFWLQJWKHWHVWVSHFLPHQXQGHUYDULRXVVWDWHVRI
stress, usually in alternate tension and compression mode or torsion. During testing, stress amplitudes
(S), and the number of cycles (N) required to produce the failure is recorded. The stress amplitude
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graph is plotted between S and NDQGWKHUHVXOWLQJ¿JXUHLVFDOOHGS-N curve. These curves are based
on complete reversal of the stress i.e., maximum tension, maximum compression, maximum tension
and so on as in case of bendLQJDZLUHDOWHUQDWLYHO\LQWZRGLUHFWLRQVMXVWRSSRVLWHWRHDFKRWKHU7KH
test is also performed on a rotating shaft, with a constant downward load. The endurance limit, also
known by other names, such as endurance strength or fatigue limit, is the maximum stress before
fatigue failure, regardless of the number of stress application cycles. Endurance limit depends on the
ultimate tensile strength of the metals. For example, the endurance limit of steel is about one-half of
its tensile strength.
18.4 CREEP
A turbine disk and WKHEODGHVLQWKHMHWHQJLQHRIDQDLUFUDIWDQGKLJKWHPSHUDWXUHSUHVVXUHYHVVHOVDUH
VXEMHFWHGWRKLJKVWUHVVHVDQGWHPSHUDWXUH7KHVHFRPSRQHQWVXQGHUJRFUHHSGXULQJWKHLUXVHRYHUD
period of time. In creep, components elongate permanently under applied stresses, which ultimately
lead to components’ failure. It is a very slow process but of great importance from design point of
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as forging and extrusion also undergo creep.
It has been observed in old houses that a window glass has more thickness at its bottom than at its
top part. It is because of the reason that the glass has undergone creep by its own weight over many
years.
Creep is the characteristics of metals, and certain nonmetallic materials, such as thermoplastics
and rubber also show this property. It can occur at room temperature or at any temperature. For
H[DPSOHOHDGVKRZVWKLVSURSHUW\DWURRPWHPSHUDWXUHZKHQVXEMHFWHGWRDFRQVWDQWWHQVLRQORDG
A creep test is conducted on a test specimen, usually a lead wire of length 1m and diameter 2-3
PPE\VXEMHFWLQJLWWRDFRQVWDQWWHQVLRQORDGDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUHDQGPHDVXULQJWKHFKDQJHLQ
length, over a regular interval of time. Initially, the extension in the wire is measured at regular
intervals of 15 seconds and after sometime, say 10 or 15 minutes, at interval of 1 minute. Initially,
WKHVWUDLQUDWHLVKLJKDQGLWJUDGXDOO\GHFUHDVHVWRDFRQVWDQWYDOXH7KHVSHFLPHQ¿QDOO\EUHDNVE\
necking with a conical shaped fracture.
A creep curve (Fig. 18.1), which is usually a plot between strain and time, has three distinct stages,
namely primary, secondary and tertiary. The creep rate increases with temperature and the applied load.
The primary and tertiary stages are shot-lived, with higher creep rates; and secondary stage is
rather longer, where creep rate is somewhat linear.
Fig. 18.1 A Creep curve.
18.5 TENSION TEST

The tension test is the most commonly used test to know various mechanical properties such as
strength, ductility and toughness of the material. It is a static test, conducted on a 10 or 12 mm test
VSHFLPHQZLWKJDJHOHQJWKRUPPZKHUHWKHWHVWVSHFLPHQLVVXEMHFWHGWRXQLD[LDOWHQVLRQ7KH
FKDQJHVDUHUHSRUWHGRYHUWKHVSHFL¿HGJDJHOHQJWK
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UDWLRRIHORQJDWLRQDQGRULJLQDOJDJHOHQJWKDQGDQRWKHUFDOOHGVWUHVVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIORDG
and original cross-sectional area of the test specimen.
A universal testing machine (UTM) is usually used to conduct the tension test.
18.6 COMPRESSION TEST

There are many manufacturing operations such as forging, rolling and extrusion in which material is
VXEMHFWHGWRFRPSUHVVLRQ
The compression test is conducted by applying a compressive load on a solid cylindrical specimen
E\NHHSLQJLWEHWZHHQWZRÀDWGLHV$VWKHORDGLVLQFUHDVHGWKHUHLVGHFUHDVHLQWKHKHLJKWRIVSHFLPHQ
and its starts bulging out with maximum cross-sectional area in the middle. At the maximum load,
the specimen fails, as it loses its resistance. Again, stress-strain curve is plotted, as is done in case
RI WHQVLRQ WHVW EXW FRPSUHVVLRQ WHVW LV PRUH GLI¿FXOW WR FRQGXFW7KLV LV EHFDXVH RI WKH IDFW WKDW
some energy is lost in overcoming friction between the specimen and the dies at its two ends, and it
necessitates the use of increased load during the test.
The true stress-true strain curves are similar for tension and compression tests conducted on a
ductile material, but the results vary for brittle materials. Brittle materials are more stronger in
compression than in tension as opposite to ductile materials, which are more stronger in tension than
in compression.
18.7 STIFFNESS TEST

Stiffness of a material is indicated by its modulus of elasticity, E. The higher value of modulus of
elasticity is indicative of higher stiffness of the material. The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of
stress to strain in the elastic region, given as
Stress σ
E = =
Strain ∈
As strain has no unit, units of E and V are the same. Diamond has higher stiffness compared to
carbides, tungsten, titanium or steel. Generally, a harder material has higher stiffness.
18.8 TORSION TEST

Torsion is associated with shear strength, which in turn, is connected to the modulus of rigidity (shear
modulus, G) of the material. Higher modulus of rigidity means increased shear strength. The torsion
test is used to measure the shear modulus of material and also shear strain encountered with various
applications, such as during punching of holes in sheet metals and metal cutting.
The test may be conducted on a thin tabular specimen or a solid shaft of certain length by
VXEMHFWLQJWKHPWRDWZLVWLQJPRPHQWi.e. torque.
7KHWHVWLVEDVHGRQ¿QGLQJWKHUDWLRRIWRUTXHT) and angular twist (T) in radian, from the curve,
drawn between the two, and using polar moment of inertia (J) and length (l) of the test specimen.

T Gθ
=
J l
⎛T⎞ ⎛ l ⎞
or G = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ . ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ...(18.3)
θ J
π 4
where J = d (d is diameter of the solid shaft)
32
The shear stress W is expressed as
Shear Force ( Fs ) T
W = = ...(18.4)
Shear Area ( As ) 2πr 2t
where r = Average radius of the tube
t = Thickness of the tube
Again from torsion formula, we have
Tr
Shear strain, I = ...(18.5)
l
Dividing equation (18.4) by equation (18.5), we get the value of shear modulus of the shaft
material.
18.9 BEND TEST

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The bend test is conducted on a brittle test specimen of rectangular cross-section, supported at its
ends and vertically loaded with one or two point loads.
Fig.18.2 A three-point bend test.

Wl
(Maximum bending moment, occurs at centre of the beam)
4
In case, it uses one point load, the test is called three-point bend test (Fig. 18.2) and on using two
point loads, the test is called four-point bend test (Fig. 18.3). During bending, the upper surface of
WKHVSHFLPHQDEHDPLVVXEMHFWHGWRFRPSUHVVLRQDQGLWVORZHUVXUIDFHWRWHQVLRQ
Fig.18.3 A four-point bend test.
(Maximum bending moment, Wa is constant for ‘b’ part of the beam)
18.10 IMPACT TEST

An impact load is the example of dynamic loading, where a load is suddenly applied, as in case of
drop forging. Its effect is much greater than a steady load of same magnitude. The impact test is used
to measure the toughness of material, a property, which indicates its capacity to store strain energy
EHIRUHLW¿QDOO\EUHDNVDQGLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\KLJKVWUHQJWKDQGKLJKGXFWLOLW\$GXFWLOHPDWHULDO
with voids and discontinuity in its structure, behaves as a brittle material, and this is not indicated
during its tension test. A brittle material requires less energy to break and hence lacks toughness than
SXUH GXFWLOH PDWHULDO7KH LPSDFW WHVW LV SDUWLFXODUO\ XVHIXO LQ ¿QGLQJ WKH GXFWLOHEULWWOH WUDQVLWLRQ
FKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIPDWHULDOV7KHUHDUHWZRFRPPRQO\XVHGLPSDFWWHVWVQDPHO\FKDUS\DQGL]RG
In Charpy testDQRWFKHGWHVWVSHFLPHQRIVL]HPPîPPîPPLVVXSSRUWHGDWLWVHQGV
and a swinging pendulum is used to provide the impact load (Fig. 18.4). Here, the potential energy
of the pendulum is converted into kinetic energy during the release of the load. The load thus applied
at the notch portion breaks the specimen, and the energy required is absorbed by it.
Fig.18.4 A Charpy test setup.

In Izod testDWHVWVSHFLPHQRIVL]HPPîPPîPPLVVXSSRUWHGDVDFDQWLOHYHUEHDP
(Fig. 18.5). The swinging pendulum is allowed to strike at the notched portion of the specimen. The
energy needed to break the specimen is obtained, which measures its impact toughness.
Fig. 18.5 An Izod test setup.
:KDWLVPHDQWE\PHFKDQLFDOSURSHUW\RIDPDWHULDO"
2. Name a few important mechanical properties of a material.
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+RZGRHV%ULQHOOWHVWGLIIHUIURP5RFNZHOOWHVW"
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+RZGRHVFUHHSGLIIHUIURPIDWLJXH"
:K\LVWHQVLRQWHVWFRQGXFWHG"
+RZGRHV&KDUS\WHVWGLIIHUIURP,]RGWHVW"
1. Consider the following parameters:

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:KLFKRIWKHDERYHSDUDPHWHUVFDQEHFODVVL¿HGDVPHFKDQLFDOSURSHUW\"
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 and 4.
1. Brinell test uses a 10 mm diameter steel ball indentor.
2. Brinell test measures depth of indentation on the test specimen.
3. Rockwell A uses a test load of 100 kg.
4. The standard unit of BHN is N/m 2.
(a) 1 alone is true (b) 1 and 2 are true
(c) 1, 2 and 3 are true (d) 1, 2 and 4 are true.
1. Brinell test uses spherical impression on the test specimen.
2. Vickers test uses a 136° pyramid-shaped diamond indentor.
3. Vickers test produces a square-shaped indentation.
4. Rockwell C uses a test load of 100 kg.
(c) 1, 2 and 3 are true (d) 1, 2 and 4 are true.
4. :KLFKRIWKHIROORZLQJPHFKDQLFDOSURSHUWLHVLVFRQQHFWHGWRWLPH"
(a) Hardness (b) Fatigue (c) Creep (d) Tension.
1. Creep is a time-dependent phenomenon.
2. Endurance limit is dependent on tensile strength of the material.
3. Impact test measures toughness.
4. Resistance against scratching is called hardness.
6. Endurance limit of steel is
(a) equal to its tensile strength (b) equal to one-half of its tensile strength
(c) equal to two-third of its tensile strength (d) independent of its tensile strength.
7. Consider the following statements about creep:

1. It increases with increase in temperature.
2. It decreases with increase in temperature.
3. It is independent of temperature.
4. It increases with applied load.
1. In three-point bend test, two point loads are used.
,QIRXUSRLQWEHQGWHVWWKHEHQGLQJPRPHQWGLDJUDPLVDWUDSH]LXP
,]RGWHVWXVHVDYHUWLFDOO\SODFHGWHVWVSHFLPHQ
4. Impact test measures hardness of a material.
(c) 3 and 4 are true (d) 2, 3 and 4 are true.
1. For a test specimen loaded in the three-point bend test, the bending moment diagram is a
triangle.
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surface to tension.
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$FRPSUHVVLRQWHVWLVPRUHGLI¿FXOWWRFRQGXFWWKDQDWHQVLRQWHVW
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (d).

Model Multiple Choice Questions for
Competitive Examinations
1. Consider the following statements: 3. As compared to a cantilever beam, propped
cantilever beam has shorter length.
1. Bending moment producing downward
concavity is termed as negative bending 4. Triangular loading LV DQ H[DPSOH RI
uniformly varying load.
moment.
2. Positive bending moment is also called
sagging.
3. Simply supported, overhanging and
cantilever beams are categorized as
statically determinate beams. (d) 1, 2 and 4 are true.
4. A simple beam has two hinged supports. 4. Consider the following statements:
1. The shear force diagram (SFD) consists
of horizontal straight lines in case of
(a) 1 and 2 are true point loads and inclined straight lines in
(b) 1, 2 and 3 are true case of uniformly distributed load (udl).
(c) 2, 3 and 4 are true $WSRLQWRILQÀH[LRQVKHDUIRUFHLV]HUR
3. The weight of a simple beam is considered
(d) 1, 3 and 4 are true.
to act at one support only.
2. Consider the following statements: $ EHDP LV VXEMHFWHG WR D[LDO IRUFHV LQ
1. Roller and pinned supports are termed as case of inclined loads acting on it.
simple supports. Of these statements:
&DQWLOHYHUFRQWLQXRXVDQG¿[HGEHDPVDUH (a) 1 and 2 are true (b) 2 and 3 are true
called statically indeterminate beams. (c) 1 and 4 are true (d) 1, 2 and 4 are true.
3. A cantilever EHDPKDVWZR¿[HGVXSSRUWV 5. Match List I with List II and select the correct
4. A continuous beam has more than two answer using the codes given below the lists:
supports. List I List II
Of these statements: (Beams) (Conditions)
(a) 1 and 2 are true (b) 1 and 3 are true A. Simple beam 1. More than two
supports
%)L[HGEHDP 2QH UROOHU DQG RQH
3. Consider the following statements: pinned support
1. Statically determinate beams involve only &&RQWLQXRXVEHDP &RQ¿QHG EHWZHHQ
three unknowns. two rigid supports
2. A ¿[HGsupport involves two reaction force D. Cantilever beam 4. Statically
components and a reaction moment. determinate beam

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5
Codes: A B C D Of these statements:

(a) 2 3 4 1 (a) 1 and 4 are true
(b) 2 3 1 4 (b) 2 and 4 are true
(c) 4 3 1 2 (c) 1, 2 and 3 are true
(d) 2 4 1 3. (d) 3 and 4 are true.
6. Uniformly distributed load (udl ) is expressed 10. For a beam being subjected to transverse loads,
as the shear force at a certain section is zero,
(a) N (b) N/m then bending moment at that section will be
(c) kg/m (d) N.m. (a) zero (b) maximum
7. A roller support allows (c) minimum (d) maximum or

minimum.
(a) Free movement in vertical plane
(b) Free movement in horizontal plane
1. Section modulus and elastic modulus are
(c) Free movement in vertical and horizontal the same.
planes both
2. The SI unit of section modulus is N/m.
(d) No free movement in any direction.
3. Bending stress is also called flexural
8. Consider the following statements about strength.
simple bending theory:
4. The SI unit of bending stress is pascal.
1. The beam material is isotropic and
homogeneous.
2. The elastic modulus of beam material is
more in tension than in compression. (b) 2 and 3 are true
3. The radius of curvature is small. (c) 1, 3 and 4 are true
4. The loads are applied in a plane perpen- (d) 3 and 4 are true.
dicular to the plane of bending. 12. Match List I with List II and select the correct
Of these statements: answer using the codes give below the lists:
(a) 1 and 2 are true (b) 1 alone is true List I List II

A. Moment of 1. Tensile stress
inertia
B. Elongation 2. Modulus of rupture
1. Bending stress in a beam is maximum at its
extreme faces and minimum (zero) at the C. Neutral axis 3. Zero shear stress
neutral axis. ' 7RS¿EUH =HUR ORQJLWXGLQDO
2. Bending stresses can be tensile or stress
compressive. Codes: A B C D
3. Shear stress in a beam is maximum at neutral (a) 2 1 3 4
axis and zero at its extreme faces. (b) 1 2 3 4
4. Shear stress variation for a circular section (c) 3 4 1 2
of a beam is linear in nature. (d) 2 1 4 3.
Model Multiple Choice Questions for Competitive Examinations 869
13. A beam is designed to support Of these statements:

(a) horizontal loads (a) 1 and 2 are true
(b) vertical loads (b) 1, 2 and 3 are true
(c) vertical loads and moments (c) 1, 2 and 4 are true
(d) horizontal loads and moments. (d) 2, 3 and 4 are true.
14. The validity of torsion formula for pure 18. Consider the following statements:
torsion indicates that 1. Percentage elongation and percentage
(a) The shaft is subjected to bending stress reduction of area are the measures of
only ductility.
(b) The shaft is subjected to shear stress only 2. Poisson’s ratioLVWKHUDWLRRID[LDOVWUDLQWR
(c) The shaft is subjected to combined transverse strain.
bending and shear stresses 3. A prismatic bar is a bar of varying cross-
section.
(d) The shaft is not subjected to any stress.
4. Elastic modulus and shear modulus
15. If a circular shaft is subjected to a torque
are related as E = 2G (1 + Q), where
T and a bending moment M, the ratio of
v = Poisson’s ratio.
WKH PD[LPXP VKHDU VWUHVV WR WKH PD[LPXP
bending moment is given by Of these statements:
(a) 2M/T (b) T/2M (a) 1 and 2 are true (b) 1 and 4 are true
(c) 2T/M (d) M/2T. (c) 2 and 3 are true (d) 2 and 4 are true.
16. Consider the following statements: 19. Consider the following statements:
1. Stress and pressure have the same unit. 1. Natural strain and normal strain are the
same.
2. Stress is related to internal force, whereas
SUHVVXUHWRH[WHUQDOIRUFH 2. Strain has no unit.
3. Normal and shear stresses are the same. 3. The value of offset strain is usually 0.2%.
4. Shear strain is produced by direct force. 4. Normal strain is produced by a shear

force.
1. Tensile and compressive stresses are
(d) 3 and 4 are true.
normal stresses.
20. Stress-strain analysis is conducted to know
2. Tension force is related to increase in
which of the following properties of material?
length.
(a) physical properties
3. True stress is based on original cross-
sectional area of the test specimen. (b) optical properties
4. Normal strain is the ratio of change in (c) magnetic properties
length to instantaneous length. (d) mechanical properties.
21. If the diameter of a shaft subjected to torque 27. The specimen rod under the tension test has
alone is doubled, then the horse power can be the following parameters:
increased to (a) gauge length = 50 mm, diameter = 15 mm
(a) 2P (b) 4P (b) gauge length = 60 mm, diameter = 12 mm
(c) 8P (d) 16P. (c) gauge length = 25 mm, diameter = 25 mm
22. A prismatic bar has (d) gauge length = 75 mm, diameter = 20 mm.
28. The working stress is obtained by
(a PD[LPXPXOWLPDWHVWUHQJWK
(a) multiplying ultimate stress with the factor
(b PD[LPXP\LHOGVWUHQJWK
of safety
(c) uniform cross-section (b) dividing ultimate stress by the factor of
(d) varying cross-section. safety
23. A material showing similar elastic properties (c) multiplying yield stress with the factor of
in all the directions is called safety
(d) adding ultimate stress to the factor of
(a) elastic material
safety.
(b) isotropic material
29. Consider the following statements regarding
(c) plastic material a beam of uniform cross-section simply
(d) viscous material. supported at its ends and carrying a
concentrated load at one of its third point:
24. A load applied at the centre of a carriage
1. Its deflection under the load will be
spring to straighten all its leaves is called
PD[LPXP
(a) yield load 2. The bending moment under the load will
(b) proof load EHPD[LPXP
(c) safe load 7KH GHÀHFWLRQ DW WKH PLGSRLQW RI WKH
VSDQZLOOEHPD[LPXP
(d) ultimate load.
4. The slope at the nearer support will be
25. Two close coiled springs of stiffness K
PD[LPXP
and 2K are arranged in series in one case
and in parallel in another case. The ratio of
stiffness of spring connected in series to
parallel is (c) 1 and 2 are true (d) 3 and 4 are true.
30. Which of the following statements is true for
(a) 2 / 3 (b) 1 / 9
linear strain?
(c) 2 / 9 (d) 1 / 3.
1. It is a ratio of two lengths.
26. A higher value of ÀH[XUDOULJLGLW\ is indicative 2. It is a dimensionless quantity.
of
3. It measures deformation produced in the
(a KLJKHUVWLIIQHVVDQGORZHUGHÀHFWLRQ material.
(b ORZHUVWLIIQHVVDQGORZHUGHÀHFWLRQ Of these statements:
(c ORZHUKDUGQHVVDQGKLJKHUGHÀHFWLRQ (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
(d ORZHUGHÀHFWLRQRQO\ (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3.
31. Thermal strain varies (a) between yield strength and ultimate
(a) inversely proportional to change in strength
temperature (b) between limit of proportionality and yield
(b) directly proportional to change in strength
temperature (c) between ultimate strength and fracture
(c) inversely proportional to the square of point
change in temperature (d) at yield point.
(d) directly proportional to normal strain. 37. Structural steel forms neck before it breaks.
Neck formation starts
32. The failure criteria for ductile materials is
based on the following factor: (a) before limit of proportionality
(a) ultimate strength (b) after yield strength
(b) shear strength (c) before ultimate strength
(d) at ultimate strength.
(c) yield strength
38. Fatigue failure occurs at a stress
(d) limit of proportionality.
(a) higher than the static breaking strength
33. The failure criteria for brittle materials is
based on the following factor: (b) equal to the static breaking strength
(a) Ultimate strength (c) much lower than the static breaking
strength
(b) Shear strength
(d) equal to yield strength.
(c) Yield strength
39. Which of the following materials has zero
(d) Limit of proportionality. ductility ?
34. Stress-strain curves are obtained by conducting (a) cast iron (b) brass
the following tests on the materials:
(c) chalk (d) steel.
1. impact test 2. torsion test
40. Which of the following statements is true ?
3. tension test 4. shear test
(a :KHQ WUDQVYHUVH VWUDLQ LQFUHDVHV D[LDO
Of these: strain also increases.
(a) 1 alone is true (b) 2 and 3 are true (b :KHQ WUDQVYHUVH VWUDLQ GHFUHDVHV D[LDO
(c) 1 and 4 are true (d) 3 alone is true. strain also decreases
35. The limit of proportionality of a material is (c :LWK LQFUHDVH LQ WUDQVYHUVH VWUDLQ D[LDO
the strain decreases.
(a) minimum value of stress for which the (d) There is no relationship between transverse
stress is still proportional to the strain VWUDLQDQGD[LDOVWUDLQ
(b PD[LPXP YDOXH RI VWUHVV IRU ZKLFK WKH 41. 7KHOHQJWKFRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQ
stress is still proportional to the strain and Young’s modulus of bar A are twice that
(c) average value of stress for which the stress of bar B, If the temperature of both bars is
is still proportional to the strain increased by the same amount while preventing
(d) average value of strain. DQH[SDQVLRQWKHQWKHUDWLRRIVWUHVVGHYHORSHG
in bar A to that in bar B will be
36. The materials become harder due to strain
hardening. Stain hardening in case of (a) 2 (b) 4
structural steel occurs (c) 8 (d) 16.
42. If all the dimensions of a prismatic bar of certain Codes: A B C

cross-section suspended freely from the ceiling (a) 2 3 1
of a roof are doubled, then the total elongation
(b) 3 2 1
produced by its own weight will increase
(c) 1 2 3
(a) eight times (b) four times
(d) 2 1 3.
(c) three times (d) two times.
47. The property of a material to undergo large
43. Two bars, one of material A and the other of
uniform elongation before fracture (in tension),
material B of same lengths are tightly secured
is called
EHWZHHQWZRXQ\LHOGLQJZDOOV&RHI¿FLHQWRI
WKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQRIEDUA is more than that (a) superelasticity (b) superplasticity
of bar B. When temperature rises, the stresses (c) viscoelasticity (d) viscoplasticity.
induced are 48. A given material has Young’s modulus
(a) tension in both materials E, modulus of rigidity G and Poisson’s
(b) tension in A and compression in B ratio 0.25. The ratio of Young’s modulus to
(c) compression in A and tension in B modulus of rigidity of the material is
(d) compression in both A and B. (a) 3.75 (b) 3.0
44. A bar of diameter 30 mm is subjected to a (c) 2.5 (d) 1.5.
WHQVLOHORDGVXFKWKDWWKHPHDVXUHGH[WHQVLRQ 49. For mild steel, the ratio of Young’s modulus
on a gauge length of 200 mm is 0.09 mm and of elasticity in tension and compression is
the change in diameter is 0.0045 mm, then the equal to
Poisson’s ratio will be (a) 0.5 (b) 1.0
(a) 1/4 (b) 1/3 (c) 1.2 (d) 1.3.
(c) 1/5 (d) 1/2. 50. Ductile fracture generally takes place along
45. In terms of bulk modulus (K) and modulus planes on which the shear stress is
of rigidity (G), the Poisson’s ratio can be (a PD[LPXP b) minimum
H[SUHVVHGDV
(c) positive (d) negative.
(a) (3K – 2G) / (6K + 4G)
51. Fatigue failure is basically of
(b) (3K + 4G) / (6K – 4G)
(a) brittle nature
(c) (3K – 2G) / (6K + 2G)
(b) ductile nature
(d) (3K + 2G) / (6K – 2G).
(c) combination of brittle and ductile nature
46. Match List I with List II and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists: (d) none of these.
List I List II 52. Consider the following statements about
(Bar) (Elongation) FRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQ
A. Uniform bar 1. 4PL/pDdE 1. It is independent of the temperature
change.
B. Square tapered bar 2. PL/AE
2. It is a material constant.
C. Circular tapered bar 3. PL/DdE
3. It has the unit of per degree Celsius.
[where A = Cross-sectional area
D, d = Diameters or sides at two points Of these statements:
E = Elastic modulus (a) 1 alone is true (b) 2 and 3 are true
L = Length] (c) 1 and 3 are true (d) 1, 2 and 3 are true.
53. In tension test, fracture takes place along a 61. The limiting values of Poisson’s ratio are
crystallographic plane, on which the normal (a) 0 to (+ 0.5) (b) 0 to (– 0.5)
WHQVLOH VWUHVV LV PD[LPXP 6XFK SODQH LV
(c) 1 to (+ 0.5) (d) –1 to (+ 0.5).
called
(a) shear plane (b) neutral plane
1. The proportional sign thermal stress
(c) cleavage plane (d) normal plane.
LV H[SUHVVHG DV E.D. 'T, where D
54. The percentage reduction in area during the UHSUHVHQWV WKHUPDO FRHI¿FLHQW DQG 'T,
tension test on a cast iron test specimen is
the difference in temperatures and E, the
(a) 5 to 10 % (b) 10 to 15 % modulus of elasticity.
(c) 0 to 3 % (d) 0 to 5 %. 2. The volumetric strain is the algebraic
55. The phenomenon under which the strain in a sum of normal strains.
material varies under constant stress is called 3. The value of gauge length is usually
(a) strain hardening 50 mm.
(b) Bauschinger’s effect 4. Neck formation begins just after yield
(c) creep point.
(d) fatigue. Of these statements:
56. A material loaded in tension beyond yield point (a) 1 and 2 are true
is unloaded and then loaded in compression. (b) 1, 2 and 3 are true
Its yield strength in compression is found to
be reduced. This effect is known as
(d) 4 alone is true.
(a) inelasticity (b) Bauschinger’s effect
63. A ratio of moment carrying capacity of a
(c) hysteresis effect (d) fatigue.
circular beam of diameter D and square beam
57. The usual value of gauge length is of side D is
(a) 100 mm (b) 75 mm (a) S/4 (b) 3S/8
(c) 50 mm (d) 25 mm. (c) S/3 (d) 3S/16.
,Q DQ H[SHULPHQW LW LV IRXQG WKDW WKH EXON 64. Match List I with List II and select the correct
modulus of a material is equal to its shear answer using the codes given below the lists:
modulus. The Poisson’s ratio is
List I List II
(a) 0.125 (b) 0.250
A. Shear centre 1. Tension
(c) 0.375 (d) 0.500.
B. Principal plane 2. Slope
59. For a material, Poisson’s ratio is 0.25. The ratio
of elastic modulus to shear modulus is &)L[HGHQG 6KHDUVWUHVV
(a) 2.55 (b) 2.5 D. Middle third rule 4. Twisting
(c) 3.0 (d) 1.5. Codes: A B C D
60. The ratio of Elastic modulus to Bulk modulus (a) 4 3 2 1
for the Poisson’s ratio of 0.25 is (b) 3 1 4 2
(a) 2.55 (b) 2.5 (c) 4 1 2 3
(c) 3.0 (d) 1.5. (d) 4 2 3 1.
65. The value of Poisson’s ratio for cork is 70. Consider the following statements about spring
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.30 constant:
(c) 0 (d) 0.50. 1. It is the force required to produce unit
66. A beam of channel cross-section with vertical torque.
web loaded with a concentrated load at mid- 2. It is the force required to produce a
span in a plane perpendicular to the plane deformation of one unit length in the
of symmetry passing through the centroid spring.
subjected to 3. It is the force required to produce unit
1. bending moment angular twist.
2. twisting moment Of these statements:
3. shear force (a) 1 alone is true (b) 2 alone is true
D[LDOIRUFH (c) 2 and 3 are true (d) 3 alone is true.
Of these: 71. Match List I with List II and select the correct
(a) 1 and 2 are true answer using the codes given below the lists:
(b) 1, 2 and 3 are true List I List II
(c) 1 and 3 are true (Loaded Cantilever (Shape of B.M.
(d) 4 alone is true. beam) Diagram)
67. The bending stress in terms of bending A. Linearly varying 1. Parabola
moment (M) and section modulus (S) is load from zero at
H[SUHVVHGDV its free end to
(a) 2M/S (b) M/S PD[LPXPDWWKH
¿[HGHQG
(c) S/M (d) M/2S.
B. Uniformly 2. Rectangle
68. A beam has a triangular cross-section having
distributed
base b and altitude h. If a section of the beam
load over entire
is subjected to a shear force V, then the shear
VWUHVVDWWKHOHYHORIQHXWUDOD[LVLQWKHFURVV span
section is given by C. Concentrated load 3. Cubic parabola
(a) 4V/3bh (b) 3V/4bh at its free end
(c) 8V/3bh (d) 3V/8bh. D. Free end is 4. Triangle
subjected to a couple
69. Consider the following statements about close-
Codes: A B C D
coiled helical spring:
(a) 1 2 3 4
7KHSODQHRIWKHFRLOLVQRUPDOWRWKHD[LV
of the spring. (b) 4 3 2 1
7KHDQJOHRIKHOL[LVODUJH (c) 3 1 4 2
7KHSODQHRIFRLODQGWKHD[LVRIVSULQJ (d) 1 3 4 2.
are closely attached. 72. The variation of shear stress with respect to
Of these statements: radius in a circular shaft is shown by a
(a) 1 alone is true (b) 1, 2 and 3 are true (a) parabola (b) cubic curve
(c) 2 and 3 are true (d) 3 alone is true. (c) straight line (d) hyperbola.
73. The effect of arching a beam is to 77. The design of the cylindrical shell is based on
(a) make the bending moment uniform (a) bending stress (b) longitudinal stress
throughout. (c) hoop stress (d) shear stress.
(b) reduce the bending moment throughout 78. Which of the following statements is true
(c) increase the bending moment throughout about a thin cylinder?
(d) increase the shear force throughout. (a) Hoop stress is one-half of the longitudinal
stress.
74. If a solid circular shaft and a hollow circular
(b) Longitudinal stress is constant across the
shaft have the same torsional strength, then
thickness.
1. the weight of the hollow shaft will be less (c) Hoop stress is constant across the thickness.
than that of the solid shaft.
(d) Hoop stress is equal to longitudinal stress.
2. the external diameter of the hollow shaft
79. Which of the following statements is true
will be greater than that of the solid shaft.
about the effective length of a pinned ended
3. the stiffness of the hollow shaft will be column?
equal to that of the solid shaft. (a) It is equal to its actual length.
Of these statements: (b) It is one-half of its actual length.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are true (c) It is two times of its actual length.
(b) 2 and 3 are true (d) It is 1/ 2 times of its actual length.
(c) 1 and 2 are true 80. Which of the following statements is true about
(d) 1 alone is true. the effective length of a ¿[HGHQGHG column?
75. A shaft runs at 150 rpm under a torque of (a) It is equal to its actual length.
1500 N-m. The power transmitted is (b) It is one-half of its actual length.
(a) 15S kW (b) 10S kW (c) It is two times of its actual length.
(c) 7.5S kW (d) 5S kW. (d) It is 1/ 2 times of its actual length.
76. Consider the following statements: 81. The critical load is the load at which the
column
1. The hoop stress acts along the circum-
ferential direction and is tensile in nature. (a) breaks
2. The longitudinal stress acts along the (b) loses its strength
longitudinal direction and is equal to (c) buckles
one-half of the hoop stress. (d) can take minimum load.
7KHLQVLGHÀXLGSUHVVXUHLQWKHSUHVVXUH 82. Which of the following statements is true
vessels is much smaller as compared to about the buckling of column ?
hoop and longitudinal stresses. (a) It usually occurs about the axis w.r.t which
Of these statements: the moment of inertia is the maximum.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are true (b) It usually occurs about the axis w.r.t which
the moment of inertia is the least.
(c) It usually occurs about the axis w.r.t which
(c) 1 and 2 are true the moment of inertia is zero.
(d) 1 alone is true. (d) It is independent of moment of inertia.
83. Consider the following statements about the (a) plane normal to [D[LV
Johnston formula of column: (b) plane normal to yD[LV
1. It is a semi-empirical formula. (c) plane at 45 degree to y-direction
2. It involves inelastic buckling. (d) plane at 45 degree and 135 degree to
3. It is basically an equation of a parabola. y-direction.
Of these statements: 88. Two closed thin vessels, one cylindrical and
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are true other spherical with equal internal diameter
(b) 2 and 3 are true and wall thickness are subjected to equal
internal fluid pressure. The ratio of hoop
stresses in the cylindrical to that of spherical
(d) 1 alone is true. vessel is
84. Consider the following statements: (a) 4.0 (b) 2.0
2QSODQHVKDYLQJPD[LPXPDQGPLQLPXP (c) 1.0 (d) 0.5.
principal stresses, there will be no
89. Which of the following statements is true
tangential stress.
about a continuous beam?
2. The shear stresses on mutually perpendicular
(a) It is supported on three or more roller
planes are numerically equal.
supports.
7KHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLVHTXDOWRRQH
(b) It is supported on three or more hinge
KDOI RI WKH GLIIHUHQFH RI WKH PD[LPXP
supports.
and minimum principal stresses.
(c) It is supported on one hinge support and
two or more roller supports.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are true
(d) It requires no support.
1. The slope of the shear force diagram
(d) 1 alone is true.
(SFD) at any section of the beam is equal
85. The Johnston formula of column is used for to the load intensity at that section.
(a) short columns 2. The slope of the shear force diagram
(b) long columns (SFD) at any section of the beam is equal
(c) short and intermediate columns both to the bending moment at that section.
(d) intermediate columns. 3. The slope of the bending moment
diagram (BMD) at any section of the
86. A cast-iron pipe of 1 m diameter is required
beam is equal to the shear force at that
to withstand a 200 m head of water. If the
section.
limiting tensile stress of the pipe material is
20 MPa, then the thickness of the pipe will be 4. The slope of the bending moment
(a) 25 mm (b) 50 mm diagram (BMD) at any section of the
beam is equal to the load intensity at that
(c) 75 mm (d) 100 mm.
section.
87. In a rectangular element being subjected to
two like principal tensile stresses in two
mutually perpendicular directions [ and y, the (a) 1 alone is true (b) 2 and 3 are true
PD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVZRXOGRFFXUDORQJWKH (c) 1 and 3 are true (d) 4 alone is true.
91. Poisson’s ratioLVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLRRI 100. Shear stress

(a D[LDOVWUHVVWRVKHDUVWUHVV (a) acts normal to the surface
(b) longitudinal strain to lateral strain (b) acts tangential to the surface
(c) lateral strain to longitudinal strain (c) is equal to the tensile stress
(d D[LDOVWUHVVWREHQGLQJVWUHVV (d) is equal to the compressive stress.
92. For a 12 mm diameter steel rod test specimen, 101. Modulus of rigidityLVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLRRI
the suitable gauge length is
(a) shear strain to volumetric strain
(a) 24 mm (b) 36 mm
(b) shear stress to shear strain
(c) 72 mm (d) 60 mm.
(c) normal stress to shear strain
93. The stress produced on a surface normal to
the load applied is called (d) normal stress to linear strain.
(a) shear stress (b) bending stress 102. During the tightening of a nut on a bolt, the
stress induced in the bolt is
(c) normal stress (d D[LDOVWUHVV
(a) compressive (b) shear
94. The deformation of a uniform section bar
VXEMHFWHGWRDQD[LDOSXOOP is given by (where (c) tensile (d) bending.
symbols have their usual meanings) 103. Stresses are said to be compound, when
(a) PL/AE (b) 2PL/AE (a) normal and shear stresses are acting
(c) PL/2AE (d) PL/3AE. simultaneously
95. Tensile load results in (b) torsion and bending stresses are acting
(a) contraction (b) elongation simultaneously
(c) bending (d) twisting. (c) normal and bending stresses are acting
96. Factor of safety LVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLRRI simultaneously
(a) shear stress to working stress (d) shear and bending stresses are acting
simultaneously.
(b) bending stress to shear stress
104. Principal planes are planes of
(c) ultimate stress to working stress
(a PD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVV
(d) working stress to ultimate stress.
(b) minimum shear stress
97. The relationship between E and G is
(cPD[LPXPQRUPDOVWUHVV
(a) E = 2G (1 – Q) (b) E = 2G (1 + Q)
(d) zero shear stress.
(c) E = 2G (1 – 2Q) (d) E = 2G (1 + 2Q).
98. The relationship between E and K is 105. The principal stresses are basically
(a) E = 3K (1 – 2Q) (b) E = 3K (1 + 2Q) (a) shear stresses (b) bending stresses
(c) E = 2K (1 – 2Q) (d) E = 2K ( 1 + 2Q ). (c) normal stresses (d) hoop stresses.
99. The relationship between E, G and K is 106. The planes RI PD[LPXP VKHDU VWUHVV DUH
(a) E = 3 KG / (2K + G) located at the following angle to the principal
(b) E = 9 KG / (3K + G) planes
(c) E = 5 KG / (2K + G) (a) 90° (b) 45°
(d) E = 9 KG / (3E + K). (c) 60° (d) 30°.
107. The principal planes are separated by 114. The bending stress is proportional to
(a) 90° (b) 45° (a) moment of inertia
(c) 60° (d) 180°. (b) modulus of elasticity
108. The maximum shear stress is equal to (c) its distance from the neutral axis
(a) one-half the algebraic difference of (d) radius of curvature.
principal stresses 115. For a complex stress system, the total number
(b) difference of principal stresses of principal planes is
(c) sum of principal stresses (a) two (b) four
(d) algebraic difference of principal stresses. (c) three (d¿YH
109. For uniaxial loading condition, the maximum 116. The bending stress is maximum at the
shear stress is equal to
(a) neutral axis
(a) uniaxial stress
(b) top layer of beam
(b) two times the uniaxial stress
(c) bottom layer of beam
(c) three times the uniaxial stress
(d) none of these.
(d) one-half of uniaxial stress.
117. The ratio of maximum shear stress and average
110. The radius of Mohr’s circle indicates shear stress for a triangular section is
(a) maximum principal stress (a) 0.66 (b) 1.33
(b) minimum principal stress
(c) 1.5 (d) 0.75.
(c) maximum shear stress
118. Compared to the bending deformation, the
(d) minimum shear stress. shear deformation is
111. In case one principal stress is zero, the other (a) large (b) small
principal stress is equal to
(c) very large (d) zero.
(a) maximum principal stress
119. The bending stress is zero at the
(b) two times the maximum shear stress
(a) neutral axis
(c) maximum shear stress
(b) top layer of beam
(d) three times the maximum shear stress.
(c) bottom layer of beam
112. The maximum bending moment, when a point
load W is acting at the free end of a cantilever (d) none of these.
beam of length L, is 120. The shear stress varies in direct proportion to
(a) WL/2 (b) WL/4 (a) moment of inertia about the neutral axis
(c) WL/3 (d) WL. (b) width of the beam
113. The variation of bending moment for a (c) distance between neutral axis and centroid
cantilever beam carrying a udl of intensity of the area above the neutral axis
w/unit length over its entire span is shown (d) normal stress.
by a/an 121. The shear stress is maximum, where
(a) straight line (a) bending stress is minimum
(b) second degree parabola (b) bending stress is maximum
(c) third degree parabola (c) bending stress is zero
(d) ellipse. (d) bending moment is positive.
7KH VKHDU VWUHVV DW WKH QHXWUDO D[LV RI D 129. The ÀH[XUDOULJLGLW\ is the product of
rectangular section is (a) modulus of elasticity and mass moment of
(a) average shear stress inertia
(b PD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVV (b) modulus of rigidity and area moment of
(c) minimum shear stress inertia
(d) none of these. (c) modulus of rigidity and mass moment of
123. The modulus of section is a ratio of inertia
(a) moment of inertia and bending stress (d) modulus of elasticity and area moment of
(b) moment of inertia and the distance from inertia.
WKHQHXWUDOD[LV 130. Shear stress variation across a rectangular
(c) moment of inertia and modulus of section is
elasticity
(a) hyperbolic (b) parabolic
(d) moment of inertia and modulus of
(c) circular (d) elliptical.
rigidity.
124. The strength of a beam depends upon 131. The slope and GHÀHFWLRQDWWKH¿[HGHQGRID
cantilever beam are
(a) modulus of elasticity
(a ]HURPD[LPXP
(b) bending moment
(c) section modulus (b) zero, zero
(d) radius of curvature. (c PD[LPXPPLQLPXP
7KHGHÀHFWHGQHXWUDOVXUIDFHRIDEHDPDIWHU (d PD[LPXP]HUR
bending is called 132. The slope and GHÀHFWLRQ at the centre of a
(aGHÀHFWHGVXUIDFH b) bent surface simple beam carrying a central point load are
(c) elastic curve (d) plastic curve. (a) =ero, zero
126. The bending equation is valid for a beam (b) =HURPD[LPXP
subjected to
(c) MD[LPXP]HUR
(a) bending moment and no shear force
(d) MLQLPXPPD[LPXP
(b) combined bending and shear force
133. The torsion equation is
(c) shear force only
(a) T/I = GT/L = W/r
(d) shear stress only.
(b) T/J = GT/L = W/r
127. A composite beam is made of
(a) more than one material (c) T/J = GT/L = W/D
(b) more than one cross-section (d) J/T = GT/L = W/r.
(c) plastic material 134. Which of the following methods uses Mohr’s
(d) composite material. theorem IRU¿QGLQJVORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQRID
beam?
7KHGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGE\EHQGLQJLV
(a) Macaulay’s method
(a HTXDOWRGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGE\VKHDU
(bOHVVWKDQGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGE\VKHDU (b) Integration method
(c JUHDWHUWKDQGHÀHFWLRQSURGXFHGE\VKHDU (c) Moment area method
(d) unpredictable. (d) Conjugate beam method.
135. The slope at any section of a beam is equal to 140. If the diameter of a circular sectional beam is
which parameter of the conjugate beam? doubled, its GHÀHFWLRQ is reduced by
(a) bending moment (a) 16 times (b) 4 times
(b) slope (c) 8 times (d) 32 times.
(cGHÀHFWLRQ 141. For a shaft being subjected to a torque T,
(d) shear force. variation of shear stress w.r.t its radius is
136. The GHÀHFWLRQ at any section of a beam is (a) linear (b) parabolic
equal to which parameter of the conjugate
beam? (c) hyperbolic (d) cubic curve.
(a) bending moment 142. The shear stress produced in a circular shaft
due to pure torsion is
(b) slope
(cGHÀHFWLRQ (a) directly proportional to the radius of the
shaft
(d) shear force.
(b) inversely proportional to the diameter of
137. The conjugate beam method is the most
VXLWDEOHPHWKRGIRU¿QGLQJ the shaft
(a VORSHDQGGHÀHFWLRQRIDXQLIRUPVHFWLRQDO (c) inversely proportional to the radius of the
beam shaft
(bVORSH DQG GHÀHFWLRQ RI D QRQXQLIRUP (d) directly proportional to normal stress.
sectional beam 143. The torsional rigidity LVGH¿QHGDVWKH
(c) slope of a uniform sectional beam (a) ratio of torque and angle of twist
(dGHÀHFWLRQRIDXQLIRUPVHFWLRQDOEHDP (b) product of polar moment of inertia and
138. According to moment area method, change in modulus of rigidity
slope between any two sections of a beam is (c) sum of modulus of rigidity and angle of
equal to twist
(a) moment of area of (M/EI) diagram between (d) ratio of torque and polar moment of inertia.
two sections
144. Shear stress for a shaft being subjected to a
(b) area of bending moment diagram between
torque T is minimum at
two sections
(c) area of (M/EI) diagram between two (a KDOIRIUDGLXVIURPWKHD[LV
sections (b D[LVRIWKHVKDIW
(d) area of shear force diagram between two (c HTXDOUDGLDOGLVWDQFHVIURPWKHD[LV
sections. (d) its both ends.
139. According to moment area method GHÀHFWLRQ 145. Shear strain in a circular shaft varies
at any section of a beam w.r.t. a reference point (a OLQHDUO\ZLWKWKHGLVWDQFHIURPWKHD[LVRI
is equal to
the shaft
(a) moment of area of (M/EI) diagram between
section and reference point (b) linearly with the square of the distance
IURPWKHD[LVRIWKHVKDIW
(b) area of bending moment diagram between
section and reference point (c) inversely proportional to the distance from
(c) area of (M/EI) diagram between section WKHD[LVRIWKHVKDIW
and reference point (d) inversely proportional to the square of the
(d) area of shear force diagram between GLVWDQFHIURPWKHD[LVRIWKHVKDIW
section and reference point.
146. The shear strainLVPD[LPXP 152. The load-deflection curve of a spring is a

(a) at a distance equal to one-third from the straight line, only if
D[LVRIWKHVKDIW (a) spring is stressed up to yield point
(b) at the centre of the shaft (b) spring is stressed up to ultimate point
(c) on the surface of the shaft (c) spring is stressed up to failure point
(d) at a distance equal to one-half from the (d) spring is stressed within the elastic limit.
D[LVRIWKHVKDIW 153. The Wahl’s correction factor is introduced to
147. The stiffnessRIWKHVSULQJLVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLR (a) increase the number of coils in the spring
of
(bWDNHFDUHRIH[WUDORDGRQWKHVSULQJ
(a) load and angle of twist
(c) take care of the curvature of spring wire
(b ORDGDQGGHÀHFWLRQ
(dWDNHFDUHRIH[WUDVWLIIQHVVLQWKHVSULQJ
(c) load and strain energy
154. The VSULQJLQGH[ LVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLRRI
(d) load and strain.
(a ORDGWRGHÀHFWLRQ
148. The deformation produced in the spring is
(b) mean coil diameter to spring wire diameter
said to be
(c) load to angle of twist
(a) semi-elastic
(d) mean coil diameter to length of spring
(b) plastic
wire.
(c) elastic
155. Energy stored in a material during its
(d) visco-elastic. deformation is called
149. The PD[LPXPVWUDLQHQHUJ\ stored in a body (a) elastic energy
at the elastic limit is called
(b) plastic energy
(a) resilience
(c) strain energy
(b) modulus of resilience
(d) potential energy.
(c) proof resilience
156. For two springs being connected in series, the
(d) potential energy. following statement is correct?
150. In a close-coiled helical spring, (a) Deflection produced in the equivalent
(aSODQHRIWKHFRLODQGD[LVRIWKHVSULQJDUH spring is the sum of the deflections
closely attached produced in the individual spring.
(bDQJOHRIKHOL[LVODUJH (b) Total weight is the sum of the weights
(c SODQHRIWKHFRLOLVQRUPDOWRWKHD[LVRI acting separately on the two springs.
the spring (c) Equivalent stiffness is the sum of the
(dGHÀHFWLRQLVVPDOO individual stiffnesses.
151. A conical helical spring is used, where (d) Equivalent stiffness is the product of the
individual stiffnesses.
(a) space is a problem
157. For two springs being connected in parallel,
(b) more stiffness is required
the following statement is correct?
(c) more load is to be taken (a) Equivalent load is the sum of the
(d OHVVGHÀHFWLRQLVUHTXLUHG individual loads.
(b (TXLYDOHQW GHÀHFWLRQ LV WKH VXP RI WKH (b PD[LPXP SULQFLSDO VWUDLQ H[FHHGV WKH
LQGLYLGXDOGHÀHFWLRQV HODVWLFOLPLWVWUDLQ
(c (TXLYDOHQW VWLIIQHVV LV WKH VXP RI WKH (c PD[LPXP VKHDU VWUHVV H[FHHGV WKH
LQGLYLGXDOVWLIIQHVVHV PD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVDWWKHHODVWLFOLPLW
(d (TXLYDOHQWGHÀHFWLRQLVWKHSURGXFWRIWKH (d GLVWRUWLRQHQHUJ\SHUXQLWYROXPHH[FHHGV
LQGLYLGXDOGHÀHFWLRQV WKHGLVWRUWLRQHQHUJ\SHUXQLWYROXPHDW
7KH stress SURGXFHG E\ D VXGGHQO\ DSSOLHG WKHHODVWLFOLPLW
ORDG LV KRZ PDQ\ WLPHV WKH VWUHVV SURGXFHG :KLFK RQH RI WKH JURXSV FRQVLVWLQJ RI WZR
E\WKHJUDGXDOO\DSSOLHGORDG"
WKHRULHVLVVDLGWREHPRGHUQEHFDXVHRIWKHLU
(a IRXUWLPHV b WKUHHWLPHV FORVHQHVVWRH[SHULPHQWDOYDOXHV"
(c WZRWLPHV d HLJKWWLPHV (a 5DQNLQH¶VDQG6W9HQDQW¶VWKHRULHV
7KHPRVWLPSRUWDQWSRLQWLQWKHFRQVLGHUDWLRQ (b7UHVFD¶VDQG5DQNLQH¶VWKHRULHV
RIDPDWHULDO¶VIDLOXUH LV
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(d5DQNLQH¶VDQGYRQ0LVHVWKHRULHV
(c IDLOXUHSRLQW d HODVWLFOLPLW
7KHEuler’s formulaLVYDOLGIRU
7KHmaximum principal stress theory LVDOVR
NQRZQDV (aVKRUWFROXPQV
(a+DLJK¶VWKHRU\ (b PHGLXPFROXPQV
(b 6W9HQDQW¶VWKHRU\ (cORQJFROXPQV
(c 5DQNLQH¶VWKHRU\ (d VKRUWDQGORQJFROXPQVERWK
(d 9RQ0LVHV¶VWKHRU\ 7KHRankine-Gordon formula LVYDOLGIRU
7KHHooke’s law LVYDOLGIRU (a VKRUWFROXPQV
(a EULWWOHPDWHULDOV (b PHGLXPFROXPQV
(b GXFWLOHPDWHULDOV (cORQJFROXPQV
(cLVRWURSLFPDWHULDOV (d VKRUWDQGORQJFROXPQVERWK
(d LVRWURSLFDQGKRPRJHQHRXVPDWHULDOV $ VWUXFWXUDO PHPEHU VXEMHFWHG WR DQ D[LDO
7KHmaximum shear stress theory JLYHVEHWWHU FRPSUHVVLYHORDGLVFDOOHGD
UHVXOWVIRU
(a VWUXW b EHDP
(a EULWWOHPDWHULDOV
(c VKDIW d OHYHU
(b GXFWLOHPDWHULDOV
7KHUDWLRRIHTXLYDOHQWOHQJWKRIDFROXPQWR
(cEULWWOHDQGGXFWLOHPDWHULDOVERWK
LWVOHDVWUDGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQLVNQRZQDV
(d DPRUSKRXVPDWHULDOV
(a IDFWRURIVDIHW\
7KHmaximum shear stressDWWKHHODVWLFOLPLW
(b 3RLVVRQ¶VUDWLR
IRUDERG\EHLQJVXEMHFWHGWRDVWUHVVVLV
(a) 2V (b) V/3 (c VOHQGHUQHVVUDWLR
(c) V/2 (d) V (d PRPHQWRILQHUWLD
$FFRUGLQJ WR WKH Tresca’s theory IDLOXUH 7KH HIIHFWLYH OHQJWK RI D FROXPQ ZLWK both
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(c) two times the actual length 177. For Euler’s formula to be valid, crippling
(d) 1/ 2 times the actual length. stress of the column is
171. The slenderness ratio is less than 30 for (a) more than its yield strength
(a) short columns (b) less than its yield strength
(b) long columns (c) equal to its yield strength
(c) medium columns (d) equal to its ultimate strength.
(d) short and medium columns both. 178. Consider the following statements:
172. A short column fails mainly due to 1. For a test specimen loaded in three-point
(a) buckling bend test, the bending moment diagram
(b) compressive stress is a triangle.
(c) combined effect of buckling and 2. In the bend test, the upper surface of the
compressive stress specimen is subjected to compression
(d) tensile stress. and the lower surface to tension.
173. Consider the following statements: 3. Charpy test uses a horizontally placed test
specimen.
1. In three-point bend test, two point loads
are used. 4. A compression WHVW LV PRUH GLI¿FXOW WR
2. In four-point bend test, the bending conduct than a tension test.
moment diagram is a trapezium. Of these statements:
3. Izod test uses a vertically placed test (a) 1 alone is true
specimen. (b) 1 and 3 are true
4. Impact test measures hardness of a (c) 1 and 2 are true
material.
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are true.
1. Creep is a time-dependent phenomenon.
174. The crippling stress varies 2. Endurance limit is dependent on tensile
strength of the material.
(a) directly proportional to slenderness ratio
3. Impact test measures toughness.
(b) inversely proportional to slenderness ratio
4. Resistance against scratching is called
(c) inversely proportional to the cubic power
of slenderness ratio hardness.
(d) inversely proportional to the square of Of these statements:
slenderness ratio. (a) 1 and 3 are true
175. The radius of gyration of a circular section of (b) 1, 3 and 4 are true
diameter 50 mm is (c) 3 and 4 are true
(a) 25 mm (b) 50 mm (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are true.
(c) 12.5 mm (d) 20 mm. 180. Consider the following statements:
176. For a long column, the slenderness ratio is 1. Brinell test uses a spherical impression on
greater than the test specimen.
(a) 30 (b) 90 2. Vickers test uses a 136 degree pyramid-
(c) 120 (d) 200. shaped diamond indentor.
3. Vickers test produces a square-shaped Of these:

indentation. (a) 1 alone is true (b) 1 and 4 are true
4. Rockwell C uses a test load of 100 kg.
186. For a thin-walled shell, the diameter-thickness
(a) 1 and 2 are true (b) 1, 2 and 3 are true ratio is
(c) 2 and 3 are true (d) 1, 2 and 4 are true. (a) less than 20 (b) greater than 20
181. Which of the following mechanical properties (c) equal to 20 (d) equal to 10.
is connected to time ?
187. For a thick-walled shell, the diameter-
(a) hardness (b) fatigue
thickness ratio is
(c) creep (d) tension.
(a) less than 20 (b) greater than 20
(c) equal to 20 (d) equal to 10.
1. Brinell test uses a 10 mm diameter steel
188. For a thin cylindrical shell of diameter d and
ball indenter.
thickness tEHLQJVXEMHFWHGWRDÀXLGSUHVVXUH
2. Brinell test measures depth of indentation p, the hoop stress is given by
on the test specimen.
(a) pd/3t (b) pd/8t
3. Rockwell A uses a test load of 100 kg.
(c) pd/2t (d) pd/4t.
4. The standard unit of BHN is N/m2.
189. For a thin cylindrical shell of diameter d and
(a) 1 and 2 are true (b) 1 alone is true p, longitudinal stress is given by
(c) 2 and 3 are true (d) 1, 2 and 4 are true. (a) pd/3t (b) pd/8t
183. For a thin cylindrical shell of diameter d and (c) pd/2t (d) pd/4t.
p, the hoop stress is given by 190. The hoop stress is also known as
(a) pd/3t (b) pd/8t (a) longitudinal stress
(c) pd/2t (d) pd/t. (b) circumferential stress
184. Consider the following parameters: (c) bending stress
1. Hardness (d) compressive stress.
2. Toughness 191. Thin and thick walled pressure vessels are
3. Density subjected to two types of stresses, namely
6SHFL¿FJUDYLW\ (a) hoop stress and longitudinal stress
Which of the above parameters can be placed (b) tensile stress and compressive stress
under mechanical property ? (c) bending stress and shear stress
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (d) hoop stress and bending stress.
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 and 4. 192. For a thin cylindrical shell, longitudinal
185. Creep stress is equal to
1. increases with increase in temperature (a) hoop stress
2. decreases with increase in temperature (b) two times the hoop stress
3. is independent of temperature (c) three times the hoop stress
4. increases with applied load (d) one-half of hoop stress.
193. The hoop stress is considered as 199. The hoop strain for a thin cylindrical shell of
(a) minor principal stress diameter d, thickness t, Poisson’s ratio v and
being subjected to a pressure p, is
(b) major principal stress
(a) pd (1 – Q) / 4tE (b) pd (1 – 2v) / 4tE
(c) bending stress
(c) pd (2 – Q) / 4tE (d) pd (1 + Q) / 4tE.
(d) compressive stress.
200. The longitudinal strain for a thin cylindrical
194. The difference of the hoop stress and the
shell of diameter d, thickness t, Poisson’s ratio
longitudinal stress, for a thin cylindrical shell
v and being subjected to a pressure p, is
of diameter d and thickness t, being subjected
to a pressure p, is (a) pd (1 – Q) / 4tE (b) pd (1 – 2Q ) / 4tE
(a) pd/4t (b) pd/16t (c) pd (2 – Q) / 4tE (d) pd (1 + Q) / 4tE.
(c) pd/8t (d) pd/3t. 201. The volumetric strain for a thin cylindrical
7KH PD[LPXP VKHDU VWUHVV LQ FDVH RI D thin shell of diameter d, thickness t, Poisson’s
cylindrical shell of diameter d and thickness ratio v and being subjected to a pressure p, is
t, being subjected to a pressure p, is (a) pd (5 – 3Q) / 4tE
(a) pd/4t (b) pd/16t (b) pd (5 – 4Q) / 3tE
(c) pd/8t (d) pd/3t. (c) pd (5 – 4Q) / 4tE
196. Which is the correct relationship ? (d) pd (5 + 4Q) / 4tE.
(a) Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure 7KH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU KRRS VWUHVV IRU D thin
= Absolute pressure spherical shell of diameter d, thickness t,
Poisson’s ratio v and being subjected to a
(b) Gauge pressure – Vaccum pressure
pressure p, is
= Absolute pressure
(a) pd/2t (b) pd/3t
(c) Gauge pressure + Absolute pressure
(c) pd/8t (d) pd/4t.
= Atmospheric pressure
203. For a thin cylindrical shell with hemispherical
(d) Gauge pressure + Vacuum pressure ends, the ratio of thicknesses of the cylindrical
= Absolute pressure. part and hemispherical ends, being subjected
197. For a thin spherical shell to equal hoop stress, is
(a) hoop stress is two times the longitudinal (a) 0.5 (b) 1.5
stress (c) 2.0 (d) 2.5.
(b) longitudinal stress is two times the hoop 204. In case of a thin cylindrical shell with
stress hemispherical ends, if no distortion occurs
(c) hoop stress is equal to one-half of the at the junction of the two parts, the ratio
longitudinal stress of thicknesses of the cylindrical part and
hemispherical ends, for a Poisson’s ratio n, is
(d) hoop and longitudinal stresses are equal. given as
198. The hoop stress and the longitudinal stress (a) (1 – n) / (2 – n) (b) (2n – 1) / (1 – n)
act at the following angle to each other.
(c) (2 – n) / (1 – n) (d) (1 + n) / (2 – n).
(a) 45 degree
205. The unit of the constant A in the Lame’s
(b) 60 degree equation is
(c) 90 degree
(a) newton (b) newton-meter
(d) 180 degree.
(c) newton-sec (d) pascal.
206. Lame’s equationsDUHXVHGWR¿QG (b 9ROXPHWULF VWUDLQ î +RRS VWUDLQ

(a EHQGLQJDQGKRRSVWUHVVHV /RQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQ
(b KRRSDQGUDGLDOVWUHVVHV (c /RQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQ î+RRSVWUDLQ
9ROXPHWULFVWUDLQ
(c KRRSDQGORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVVHV
(d /RQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQ î+RRSVWUDLQ
(d D[LDODQGEHQGLQJVWUHVVHV
9ROXPHWULFVWUDLQ
207. Lame’s equationsDUHDSSOLFDEOHLQFDVHRI
7KHKRRSVWUHVVYDULDWLRQ LQDthick cylinder LV
(a WKLQZDOOHGSUHVVXUHYHVVHOV VKRZQE\D
(b WKLFNZDOOHGSUHVVXUHYHVVHOV (a VWUDLJKWOLQH b SDUDEROD
(c E RWK WKLQ DQG WKLFNZDOOHG SUHVVXUH (c HOOLSVH d K\SHUEROD
YHVVHOV 7KHF\OLQGHUVDUHcompounded to
(d PHPEHUVRIHOOLSWLFDOVHFWLRQ (a LQFUHDVHWKHVWUHQJWKRIWKHF\OLQGHU
,QFDVHRIRQO\LQWHUQDOSUHVVXUHDFWLQJLQWKH (b LQFUHDVHWKHSUHVVXUHEHDULQJFDSDFLW\RI
F\OLQGHUPD[LPXPUDGLDOVWUHVVLVHTXDOWR WKHF\OLQGHU
(a RQHKDOIRILQWHUQDOSUHVVXUH (c) PDNHWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRIKRRSVWUHVVXQLIRUP
(b WZRWKLUGRILQWHUQDOSUHVVXUH (d PDNHWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRIORQJLWXGLQDOVWUHVV
(c LQWHUQDOSUHVVXUH XQLIRUP
(d RQHWKLUGRILQWHUQDOSUHVVXUH ,Q D WKLFN F\OLQGHU WKH UDGLDO VWUHVV DW LQQHU
7KH XQLW RI WKH FRQVWDQW B LQ WKH Lame’s VXUIDFHLV
equationLV (a LQGHSHQGHQWRIÀXLGSUHVVXUH
(a QHZWRQ b QHZWRQPHWHU (b PRUHWKDQÀXLGSUHVVXUH
(cQHZWRQVHF d SDVFDO (c OHVVWKDQÀXLGSUHVVXUH
,QFDVHRIRQO\internalSUHVVXUHDFWLQJLQWKH (d HTXDOWRÀXLGSUHVVXUH
F\OLQGHUPD[LPXPUDGLDOVWUHVVRFFXUVDW ,Q D WKLFN F\OLQGHU WKH UDGLDO stress at outer
(a LQWHUQDOVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHU VXUIDFHLVXVXDOO\
(b H[WHUQDOVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHU (a PRUHWKDQ]HUR b OHVVWKDQ]HUR
(cFHQWUHRIWKHF\OLQGHU (c ]HUR d QRWGH¿QHG
(d QRQHRIWKHVH 217. Neck formationVWDUWVDIWHU
7KH PLQLPXP UDGLDO VWUHVV RFFXUV DW WKH (a \LHOGSRLQW b XOWLPDWHSRLQW
IROORZLQJ ORFDWLRQ RI D thick cylinder ZKHQ (c HODVWLFOLPLW d IDLOXUHSRLQW
VXEMHFWHGWRLQWHUQDOSUHVVXUHRQO\ 218.
Poisson ratioLVDUDWLRRI
(a LQWHUQDOVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHU (a ORQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQWRODWHUDOVWUDLQ
(b H[WHUQDOVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHU (b ODWHUDOVWUDLQWRORQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQ
(c FHQWUHRIWKHF\OLQGHU (c ODWHUDOVWUDLQWRYROXPHWULFVWUDLQ
(d QRQHRIWKHVH (d ODWHUDOVWUDLQWRVKHDUVWUDLQ
7KH UHODWLRQVKLS DPRQJ volumetric VWUDLQ :KLFK RI WKH IROORZLQJ PDWHULDOV KDV ]HUR
hoop VWUDLQDQGlongitudinal VWUDLQ LV YDOXHRIPoisson ratio?
(a +RRS VWUDLQ î 9ROXPHWULF VWUDLQ (a &RUN b &HPHQWFRQFUHWH
/RQJLWXGLQDOVWUDLQ (c) Rubber (d) Wood.
220. Tensile load produces 224. The equivalent bending moment in case of a
(a) contraction (b) elongation shaft being subjected to bending moment M
(c) bending (d) no effect. and twisting moment T is
221. The highest stress that a material can withstand
(a) M2 + T2
IRUDVSHFL¿HGOHQJWKRIWLPHZLWKRXWH[FHVVLYH
deformation is called
(a) fatigue strength 1
(b) M2 + T2
2
(b) endurance strength
(c) creep strength
(c) 1 ⎡ M + M2 + T2 ⎤
(d) creep rupture strength. 2 ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
222. Match List I with List II and select the
1⎡
correct answer using the codes given below (d) M − M2 +T2 ⎤ .
the lists: 2⎣ ⎦
List I List II 225. The equivalent torque in case of a shaft being

subjected to bending moment M and twisting
%HDP¶V 0D[LPXP
moment T is
Cross-section) Shear Stress)
4 1
A. Rectangular 1. W av (a) M2 + T2
3 2
3
B. Thin circular tube 2. W av (b) M2 + T2
2
C. Circular 3. 2 Wav
(c) 1 ⎡ M + M2 + T2 ⎤
Codes: A B C 2 ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
(a) 1 2 3
1⎡
(b) 2 1 3 (d) M − M2 +T2 ⎤.
2⎣ ⎦
(c) 2 3 1.
226. A shaft of diameter d is subjected to bending
223. The equation representing shear stress
moment M and twisting moment T. The
distribution in a beam, is given by
developed principal stresses will be
Fs
(a) Fs by (b) Iy
IA Ab (a) ± 16 M 2 + T 2
πd 3
Fs F
(c) Ay (d) s Ab .
Ib I y 16
(b) [M ± M 2 + T 2 ]
(where πd 3
Fs = Shear stress
32
I = Moment of inertia of beam’s cross-section (c) ± M2 +T2
πd 3
A = Cross-sectional area
b = Width of cross-section 32
y = Distance of centroid of area from the (d) [T ± M 2 + T 2 ] .
πd 3
QHXWUDOD[LV
227. A section of solid circular shaft with diameter 16 Te

d is subjected to bending moment M and (a) 16 M e (b)
πd 3 πd 3
torque T7KHPD[LPXPSULQFLSDOVWUHVVDWWKH
section is given as 32 Te 32 M e .
(c) (d)
πd 3 πd 3
(a) 16
M2 +T2 232. Luders linesare connected to
πd 3
(a) brittle materials
32
(b) M +T
2 2
(b) ductile materials
πd 3
(c) both brittle and ductile materials
16 (d) plastic materials.
(c) [M + M 2 + T 2 ]
πd 3
233. Poisson’s ratiorelates
(aD[LDOVWUDLQDQGVKHDUVWUDLQ
32
(d) [ M + M + T ].
2 2
(b) lateral strain and shear strain
πd 3
(c) lateral strain and longitudinal strain
228. The strain energy stored in a solid shaft
VXEMHFWHG WR PD[LPXP VKHDU VWUHVV WPD[ is (d) lateral strain and volumetric strain.
given by 234. A prismatic baris a bar of
(a) circular cross section
τ 2max τ 2max (b) rectangular cross section
(a) × V (b) × V
2G 3G (c) uniform cross section
τ
(c) τ max × V
2 (d) non-uniform cross section.
(d) max × V .
4G 4G 235. Hooke’s lawis related to
229. The strain energy stored in a hollow shaft (a) stress and strain
VXEMHFWHG WR PD[LPXP VKHDU VWUHVV WPD[ is (b) work and energy
given by (c) coplanar forces
τ2 (d) collinear forces.
(b) τ max × V
2
(a) max × V
2G 4G 236. Consider the following statements about
theoretical and actual stresses:
τ τ
(c) max × V (d) max × V. 1. The theoretical stress is based on the
2G 4G
actual cross sectional area.
7KH PD[LPXP WHQVLOH VWUHVV LQGXFHG LQ D 2. The actual stress is based on the original
shaft of diameter d subjected to equivalent cross sectional area.
bending moment Me and equivalent torque
3. The actual stress is lesser than the
Te is given as
theoretical stress.
16 M 16 T 4. The theoretical stress is lesser than the
(a) e (b) e
πd 3 πd 3 actual stress.
32 M e 32 Te . Of these statements:
(c) (d)
πd 3
πd 3
231. 7KHPD[LPXPVKHDUVWUHVVLQGXFHGLQDVKDIW (b) 2 and 3 are true
of diameter d subjected to equivalent bending
moment M e and equivalent torque Te is
given as (d) 4 alone is true.
237. Consider the following statements: 242. Structural membersare usually subjected to
1. Elastic limitand limit of proportionalityare stresses produced by
same. (aD[LDOORDGRQO\
2. Yield pointindicates the elastic state of (bD[LDOORDGDQGEHQGLQJPRPHQW
the material.
(cD[LDOORDGDQGWRUVLRQ
3. Actual stressis always higher than the
theoretical stress. (d) bending moment and torsion.
4. Ultimate pointindicates the highest load 243. A hack sawmay be subjected to stresses
bearing capacity of the material. produced by
Of these statements: (aD[LDODQGWRUVLRQ
(a) 1 and 2 are true (bD[LDODQGEHQGLQJ
(c) torsion and bending
(d) bending only.
(d) 3 and 4 are true.
238. Shear modulusis also called
(a) Bulk modulus of elasticity 0D[LPXP VWUHVV PXVW EH ZLWKLQ WKH
elastic limit.
(b) Modulus of rigidity
(c) Modulus of elasticity 2. Deformations produced should be small.
(d) Torsional rigidity. 3. Load should always act in the vertical
239. Combined stressesinclude direction only.
(aD[LDODQGEHQGLQJ While using method of superposition, which
(b) torsion and bending of the above statements should be valid?
(cWRUVLRQDQGD[LDO (a) 1 alone (b) 1 and 2
(d) all of the above. (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3.
240. Which of the following methods is employed 245. In case of thick-walled cylindrical pressure
WR ¿QG WKH FRPELQHG VWUHVVHV SURGXFHG E\ YHVVHOVWKHZDOOWKLFNQHVVH[FHHGVWKHLQQHU
two or more different types of loading? radius by
(a) Moment area method
(a) less than 5%
(b) Method of superposition
(b) more than 5%
(c) Macaulay’s method
(c) more than 10%
(d)OH[XUHPHWKRG
241. A circular shaftis usually subjected to the (d) less than 10%.
following stresses: 246. Pure torsion produces direct stresses on
(aD[LDODQGWRUVLRQ planes inclined to the shaft at the following
(bD[LDODQGEHQGLQJ angle:
(c) torsion and bending (a) 30° (b) 45°
(d) none of the above. (c) 60° (d) 90°.
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b)

9. (c) 10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (b)
17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (d) 21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (b)
25. (c) 26. (a) 27. (b) 28. (b) 29. (b) 30. (d) 31. (b) 32. (c)
33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (b) 36. (a) 37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (c)
41. (b) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (b) 45. (c) 46. (a) 47. (b) 48. (c)
49. (b) 50. (a) 51. (a) 52. (d) 53. (c) 54. (c) 55. (c) 56. (b)
57. (c) 58. (a) 59. (b) 60. (d) 61. (d) 62. (b) 63. (d) 64. (a)
65. (c) 66. (c) 67. (b) 68. (c) 69. (a) 70. (b) 71. (c) 72. (c)
73. (b) 74. (c) 75. (c) 76. (a) 77. (c) 78. (c) 79. (a) 80. (b)
81. (c) 82. (b) 83. (a) 84. (c) 85. (c) 86. (b) 87. (d) 88. (b)
89. (c) 90. (c) 91. (c) 92. (d) 93. (c) 94. (a) 95. (b) 96. (c)
97. (b) 98. (a) 99. (b) 100. (b) 101. (b) 102. (c) 103. (a) 104. (d)
105. (c) 106. (b) 107. (a) 108. (a) 109. (d) 110. (c) 111. (b) 112. (d)
113. (b) 114. (c) 115. (c) 116. (d) 117. (c) 118. (b) 119. (a) 120. (c)
121. (c) 122. (b) 123. (b) 124. (c) 125. (c) 126. (a) 127. (a) 128. (c)
129. (d) 130. (b) 131. (b) 132. (b) 133. (b) 134. (c) 135. (d) 136. (a)
137. (b) 138. (c) 139. (a) 140. (a) 141. (a) 142. (a) 143. (b) 144. (b)
145. (a) 146. (c) 147. (b) 148. (c) 149. (c) 150. (c) 151. (a) 152. (d)
153. (c) 154. (b) 155. (c) 156. (a) 157. (a) 158. (c) 159. (b) 160. (c)
161. (d) 162. (b) 163. (c) 164. (c) 165. (c) 166. (c) 167. (b) 168. (a)
169. (c) 170. (b) 171. (a) 172. (b) 173. (b) 174. (d) 175. (c) 176. (c)
177. (b) 178. (d) 179. (d) 180. (b) 181. (c) 182. (b) 183. (c) 184. (a)
185. (b) 186. (b) 187. (a) 188. (c) 189. (d) 190. (b) 191. (a) 192. (d)
193. (b) 194. (a) 195. (c) 196. (a) 197. (d) 198. (c) 199. (c) 200. (b)
201. (c) 202. (d) 203. (c) 204. (c) 205. (d) 206. (b) 207. (b) 208. (c)
209. (a) 210. (a) 211. (b) 212. (b) 213. (b) 214. (b) 215. (d) 216. (c)
217. (b) 218. (b) 219. (a) 220. (b) 221. (c) 222. (c) 223. (c) 224. (c)
225. (b) 226. (b) 227. (c) 228. (c) 229. (a) 230. (c) 231. (b) 232. (b)
233. (c) 234. (c) 235. (a) 236. (d) 237. (d) 238. (b) 239. (d) 240. (b)
241. (c) 242. (b) 243. (b) 244. (b) 245. (c) 246. (b)

Appendix A
IMPORTANT MATHEMATICAL RELATIONS
ALGEBRA
A quadratic equation having highest power of variable 2 is represented by
ax2 + bx + c = 0
Its two roots are expressed as
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x =
2a
The mathematical expression for binomial theorem is given as
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1) (n − 2) 3 ...
(a) (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x +
2 3
where |x| < 1 and n can be any number; positive, negative or a fraction. In case, n is a
positive integer, the expansion will have (n + 1) terms and in other cases, the number of
WHUPVZLOOEHLQ¿QLWH
(b) (1 + x)n = 1 + nx, when |x| is very small.
TRIGONOMETRY
Quadrant System (Fig. A.1)
Fig. A.1 Four quadrants with their angle ranges.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5
Ist quadrant has the angle range of 0° – 90° and all the trigonometrical ratios namely sin T,
cos T and tan T, and their respective reciprocals cosec T, sec T and cot T are positive in this quadrant.
IInd quadrant has the angle range of 90° – 180°. sin Tand its reciprocal cosec T are positive and
rest are negative in this quadrant.
IIIrd quadrant has the angle range of 180° – 270°. tan T and its reciprocal cot T are positive and
IVth quadrant has the angle range of 270° – 360°. cos T and its reciprocal sec T are positive and
sin (90° + T) = cos T
cos (90° + T) = – sin T
tan (90° + T) = – cot T
sin (180° + T) = – sin T
cos (180° + T) = – cos T
tan (180° + T) = tan T
sin (270° + T) = – cos T
cos (270° + T) = sin T
tan (270° + T) = – cot T
sin (90° – T) = cos T
cos (90° – T) = sin T
tan (90° – T) = cot T
sin (180° – T) = sin T
cos (180° – T) = – cos T
tan (180° – T) = – tan T
sin (270° – T) = – cos T
cos (270° – T) = – sin T
tan (270° – T) = cot T
sin (– T) = – sin T
cos (– T) = cos T
tan (– T) = – tan T
Appendix A 893
T-Ratios of Some Standard Angles
Angle (T) 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°
1 1 3 3 1 1
sin T 0 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 1 1 1 1 3
cos T 1 0 – – – 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
tan T 0 1 3 D – 3 –1 – 0
3 3
Important Trigonometrical Relations

S radian = 180°
1
sin T =
cosec T
1
cos T =
sec T
1
tan T =
cot T
sin2 T + cos2 T = 1
1 + tan2 T = sec2 T
1 + cot2 T = cosec2 T
2 tan θ
sin 2T = 2 sin T cos T =
1 + tan 2 θ
1 − tan 2 θ
cos 2T = cos2 T – sin2 T = 2 cos2 T – 1 = 1 – 2 sin2 T =
1 + tan 2 θ
2 tan θ
tan 2T =
1 − tan 2 θ
sin 3T = 3 sin T – 4 sin3 T
cos 3T = 4 cos3 T – 3 cos T
3 tan θ − tan 3 θ
tan 3T =
1 − 3 tan 2 θ
Note: The angle T is taken to be positive, if it is measured anticlockwise and is negative if
measured clockwise.
x
sin–1 x = cos–1 1 x 2 = tan–1
1 x2
cos–1 x = sin–1 1 x 2 = tan–1 1 x2

x
1 cot 1 1 x 2
cosec–1 =
x x
sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
tan A r tan B
tan (A ± B) =
1 B tan A tan B
cot B.cot A B 1
cot (A ± B) =
cot B r cot A
sin A + sin B = 2 sin A B cos A B

2 2
A B A B
sin A – sin B = 2 cos sin
2 2
A B
cos A + cos B = 2 cos A B cos
2 2
A B A B
cos A – cos B = 2 sin sin
2 2
3 1
sin 15° =
2 2
3 1
cos 15° =
2 2
tan 15° = 2 3
cot 15° = 2 3
5 1
sin 18° = = cos 72°
4
10 2 5
cos 18° = = sin 72°
4
10 2 5
sin 36° = = cos 54°
4
5 1
cos 36° = = sin 54°
4
Appendix A 895
Important Logarithmic Relations

log (mn) = log m + log n
⎛m⎞
log ⎜ ⎟ = log m – log n
⎝n⎠
log mn = n log m
log a m
logb m =
log a b
CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
Conic Section
Conic section or conic is the locus of a point moving in a plane in such a way that the ratio of its
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distances is called eccentricity (e ,WLVDOZD\VOHVVWKDQIRUHOOLSVHHTXDOWRIRUSDUDERODDQG
JUHDWHUWKDQIRUK\SHUEROD
The line passing through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis7KHSRLQW
DWZKLFKWKHFRQLFFXWVLWVD[LVLVFDOOHGWKHvertex
Standard Equation of the Ellipse (Fig. A.2)
x2 y2
ZKHUHa > b and b2 = a2 (1 – e2)
a2 b2
Fig. A.2 An ellipse.
V1 and V2DUHYHUWLFHV
aLVVHPLPDMRUD[LV
bLVVHPLPLQRUD[LV
F1 and F2DUHIRFLL
L1 Lc1 and L2 Lc2DUHODWXVUHFWD
Equation of a Circle
Standard Forms
1. (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
where (h, k) is the centre and r is the radius.
2. x2 + y2 = r2
where origin (0, 0) is the centre and r is the radius of the circle.
General Form
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
where centre is (–g, – f) and radius is g2 + f 2 − c .

Diameter Form
(x – x1) (x – x2) + (y – y1) (y – y2) = 0
where (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are the co-ordinates of the ends of the diameter.
Parametric Form
x = h + r cos T
y = k + r sin T, 0 d T d 2S
where centre is (h, k) and r is the radius.
Standard Equation of the Parabola (Fig. A.3)
y2 = 4ax
The parabola is symmetrical about the x-axis.
Fig. A.3 A parabola.
Focus is F (a, 0).

Vertex is origin O (0, 0).
XOXc is the axis of parabola.
LLc is the latus rectum = 4a.
Appendix A 897
Standard Equation of the Hyperbola

x2 y2
= 1
a2 b2
CALCULUS
Important Differential Relations

z If y = f (x),
dy f (x + Δx ) − f ( x) Δy
then = lim = lim
dx Δx →0 Δx Δx →0 Δx
d (c )
z = 0, where c = Constant
dx
z If y = uv and u = f (x), v = f (x),
dy dv du
then = u v
dx dx dx
u
z If y = and u = f (x), v = f (x),
v
du dv
v u
dy dx dx
then = 2
dx v
z If y = u ± v ± w and u, v and w are functions of x,
dy du dv dw
then = r r
dx dx dx dx
z If y = xn, where n is a real number
dy
then = nxn–1
dx
z If y = un, and u = f (x)
dy n1 du
then = nu
dx dx
d (sin x) d (cos x)
z = cos x, = – sin x
dx dx
d (tan x) 2 d (cot x) 2
z = sec x, = – cosec x
dx dx
d (sec x) d (cosec x) – cosec x cot x
z = sec x tan x, =
dx dx
d (e x )
z = ex
dx
d (loge x) 1
z =
dx x
x
d (a )
z = ax loge a
dx
d (log a x) 1
z = log a e
dx x
Important Integral Relations

x n +1
∫ = + c, n z – 1
n
z x dx
n +1
∫ e dx = e +c
x x
z
ax
z ∫ a x dx =
log e a
+c
z
∫ sin x dx = – cos x + c
z ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
∫ sec x dx = tan x + c
2
z
∫ cosec x dx = – cot x + c
2
z
z ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + c

z ∫ cosec x cot x dx = – cosec x + c
1
z ∫ 1 + sin x dx = tan x – sec x + c
1
z ∫ 1 − sin x dx = tan x + sec x + c
1
z ∫ 1 + cos x dx = – cot x + cosec x + c
1
z ∫ 1 − cos x dx = – (cot x + cosec x) + c
Note: In all the above integrals, c is the constant of integration.

Appendix B
IMPORTANT SI UNITS
Quantity Unit
Acceleration m/s2
Angle rad
Angular acceleration rad/s2
Angular velocity rad/s
Area m2
Density kg/m3
Energy or Work J (joule = N.m)
Force N
Frequency Hz
Impulse N.s
Length m
Mass kg
Moment N.m
Power W (watt = J/s)
Pressure or Stress Pa (pascal = N/m2)
Time s
Velocity m/s
Volume m3

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5
IMPORTANT CONVERSIONS
1 kgf = 9.81 N
1 lbf = 4.448 N
1 cm = 10 mm
1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm
1 kg = 1000 g
1 lb = 0.453 kg
1 hp = 740 W
1 Psi (lb/inch2) = 6.895 kPa
1 GPa = 109 Pa
1 MPa = 106 Pa
1 kPa = 103 Pa
1 cm2 = 10–4 m2
1 mm2 = 10–6 m2
1 km = 1000 m
1 gal = 3.785 litre

References
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Subject Index
Combination of springs 397

A
Combined bending and axial loads 622
Area moment of inertia 109 Combined bending and torsion 627
Combined bending, torsion and direct thrust 641
B Combined loadings 621
Beam 144 Combined torsion and axial loads 638
Beams of uniform strength 213 Composite beam 211
Bending equation 210 Compound cylinders 534
Bending moments in a beam 147 Compression test 861
Bend test 862 Conjugate beam method 294
Biaxial bending 657 Conjugate beam theorem I 295
Brinell test 858 Conjugate beam theorem II 295
Buckling load 460 Continuous beam 144, 145
Buckling of columns 459 Creep 860
Bulk modulus of elasticity 9
Crippling load 460
C Crippling stress 469
Cylindrical shell 515
Cantilever beam 144, 145, 148, 149, 151, 152,
153, 154, 156, 254, 256, 257, 258, 260, 284, 285 D
Castigliano’s theorem 422
Centre of gravity 89, 90 'HÀHFWLRQVRIEHDPV
Centroid 89, 90 'LIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQRIÀH[XUH
Charpy test 863 Double eccentricity 653
Close coiled helical spring 366, 380, 382 Double integration method 254
Columns 459, 460 Ductility 6

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59667-5
E M
Eccentric loading 648, 653 Macaulay’s method 272

Elastic constants 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 Mass moment of inertia 109
Maximum distortion energy theory 438
Euler’s formula 461, 463, 465, 467
Maximum normal strain theory 435
Euler’s theory 460
Maximum normal stress theory 434
F Maximum shear stress theory 436
Maximum total strain energy theory 436
Factor of safety 14 Mechanical testing of materials 857
Fatigue 859 Methods of joints 568
Fixed beam 144, 145, 743, 745, 748, 754, 758, Method of sections 568, 600
766 Method of superposition 310
Flat spring 367 Mohr’s circle for second moment of area 112
Flitched beam 211 Mohr’s circle of plane stress 73
Forces in the truss 567 0RKU¶V¿UVWWKHRUHP
Mohr’s second theorem 283
H Moment-area method 281
Hardness test 858 N

Helical spring 366, 367, 380, 382, 384, 386
Non-rigid truss 566
I
O
Impact test 863
Open coiled helical spring 366, 384, 386
Izod test 864
Other cases of combined loadings 648
J Overhanging beam 144, 145, 187, 189
Johnston’s parabolic formula 477 P
L Parallel-axes theorem 113

Plane trusses 565
Lame’s theory 517 Poisson’s ratio 6
Leaf spring 366, 367, 368, 374 Polar modulus 323
Limitations of Euler’s formula 470 Power transmitted by a shaft 324
Loading on a chimney 661 Pressure vessels 495
Loading on a dam 665 Principal axes 111
Loading on retaining walls 671 Principal moments of inertia 111
Longitudinal stress in pressure vessels 523 Principal plane 54, 55
Subject Index 905
Principal stresses 53, 54 Straight-line formula 478

Product of inertia 111 Strain energy 409, 410, 412, 413, 414, 415, 417,
Propped cantilever beam 144, 145 418, 419, 420
Pure bending in beams 208 Stress concentration 351
6WUHVVGXHWRÀXLGSUHVVXUH
R Stress-strain curves in tension 3, 4, 5
Radius of gyration 110, 111
T
Rankine-Gordon formula 476
Rigid truss 566 Tension test 2, 860
Rockwell test 858 Thermal stress and strain 35, 36
Rotating cylinders 799, 834, 839 Torsion 319, 354, 355
Rotating disc of uniform strength 827 Torsion equation 320
Rotating rings 799, 800 Torsional rigidity 323
Rotating thin disc 799, 803, 809, 811, 815 Torsion test 861
True stress-strain curves 4, 5
S Truss 565
Types of beams 145
Secant formula 479
Types of loading 145
Second moment of area 109
Types of trusses 566, 567
Section modulus 211
Shear centre 693, 717, 719
U
Shear forces in a beam 146
Shear stress and shear strain 7 Unsymmetrical bending 693, 694, 713
Shear stresses in beams 227, 229, 231, 233, 235
Shrinkage allowance 540 V
Simple beam 144, 145, 161, 163, 165, 166, 169, Vickers test 859
172, 262, 263, 286, 287, 295, 297
Volumetric strain 8, 498
Simple bending theory 208
Sinking of a support 769
W
Slenderness ratio 460, 469
Spherical shell 510, 512, 553 Wire wound thin cylinders 500
Spiral spring 367, 377
Springs 365 Z
Spring terminology 366
Zero-force members 612
Stiffness test 861

Strength of Materials: D. K. Singh

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Strength of Materials: D. K. Singh

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D. K.

ISBN 978-3-030-59666-8 ISBN 978-3-030-59667-5 (eBook)

1st–4th editions: © The Author(s) 2007, 2009, 2013, 2021

New Delhi D. K. Singh

NSIT, New Delhi D. K. Singh

What is new in the Fourth Edition?

Preface to the Fourth Edition vii

1. Simple Stresses and Strains 1–52

2. Principal Stresses 53–88

3. Centroid and Moment of Inertia 89–142

4. Shear Forces and Bending Moments in Beams 143–206

 6LJQ&RQYHQWLRQVIRU6KHDU)RUFHDQG%HQGLQJ0RPHQW 

5. Centroid and Moment of Inertia 207–250

 0HWKRGRI6XSHUSRVLWLRQ 

7. Torsion of Circular Members 319–364

9. Strain Energy 409–432

11. Buckling of Columns 459–494

(XOHU¶V)RUPXOD ZKHQ%RWK(QGVRIWKH&ROXPQDUH+LQJHGRU3LQQHG 

12. Pressure Vessels 495–564

 6WUHVVHVLQ$7KLFN6SKHULFDO6KHOO 

13. Plane Trusses 565–620

14. Combined Loadings 621-–692

15. Unsymmetrical Bending and Shear Centre 693–742

16. Fixed Beams 743–798

17. Rotating Rings, Discs and Cylinders 799–856

 5RWDWLQJ/RQJ&\OLQGHU 

18. Mechanical Testing of Materials 857-–866

Thomas Young, born on 13 July 1773, was an English physician, physicist

© The Author(s) 2021 1

1.2 STRESS-STRAIN CURVES IN TENSION

Fig. 1.1 A tension test.

Fig. 1.2 An engineering stress-strain curve for ductile materials.

For most of the materials (for example cast iron WKH\LHOGSRLQWLVQRWZHOOGH¿QHG,QVXFKFDVH

Fig. 1.3 A stress-strain curve for brittle materials.

1.3 TRUE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE

7KHKLJKHUYDOXHRIn indicates that material

Fig. 1.5 Correction in the stress-strain curve for neck formation.

1.4 POISSON’S RATIO

1.6 ELONGATION PRODUCED IN A TEST SPECIMEN

Change in length (elongation) dl

1.7 SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR STRAIN

(a) A body subjected to a shear force Fs (b &RPSOHPHQWDU\VKHDUVWUHVVRQIDFHVAD and BC

The modulus of rigidity or the shear modulus (G LVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLRRIWKHVKHDUVWUHVVWRWKHVKHDU

1.8 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN

where °x, °y and °z are the strains produced in x, y and zGLUHFWLRQVUHVSHFWLYHO\DQGDUHJLYHQDV

For a sphere of diameter dWKHH[SUHVVLRQIRUYROXPHWULFVWUDLQLV

1.9 BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

The bulk modulus of elasticity (K) LVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLRRIWKHYROXPHWULFVWUHVV V) or the uniform

1.10 ELASTIC CONSTANTS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS

1.10.1 Relationship between E and G

(a) A cube subjected to a shear force Fs (b &XEHABCD deformed to ABCcDc due to Fs

Fig. 1.9 Direct stresses due to shear.

1.10.2 Relationship between E and K

Fig. 1.10 A cube subjected to equal stresses V on all the sides.

&RPSDULQJHTXDWLRQV  DQG  ZHKDYH

This is the required relationship between E and K.

1.10.3 Relationship between G and K

&RPSDULQJHTXDWLRQV  DQG  ZHKDYH

This is the required relationship between G and K.

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5RWDWLQJ/RQJ&\OLQGHU

For most of the materials (for example cast ironWKH\LHOGSRLQWLVQRWZHOOGH¿QHG,QVXFKFDVH

(a) A body subjected to a shear force Fs (b&RPSOHPHQWDU\VKHDUVWUHVVRQIDFHVAD and BC

The modulus of rigidity or the shear modulus (GLVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLRRIWKHVKHDUVWUHVVWRWKHVKHDU

where °x, °y and °z are the strains produced in x, y and zGLUHFWLRQVUHVSHFWLYHO\DQGDUHJLYHQDV

For a sphere of diameter dWKHH[SUHVVLRQIRUYROXPHWULFVWUDLQLV

The bulk modulus of elasticity (K) LVGH¿QHGDVDUDWLRRIWKHYROXPHWULFVWUHVVV) or the uniform

(a) A cube subjected to a shear force Fs (b&XEHABCD deformed to ABCcDc due to Fs

&RPSDULQJHTXDWLRQVDQGZHKDYH

&RPSDULQJHTXDWLRQVDQGZHKDYH

*LYHQ'LDPHWHURIWKHEDU d PP

Pull force, P N1 5 N

= 6.36 –5 Ans.

V = °E = 6.36 –5

The change in length of CDGXHWRN1LVREWDLQHGDV

7KHIRUFHVLQEDUVDQGDUHFRPSUHVVLYHDQGLQEDULVWHQVLOH

PP,QFUHDVH Ans.

1.414 –3 = 3.535 –4

Solution: *LYHQ/HQJWKRIWKHVWHHOEDU l1 PP

Diameter of the steel bar, d1 PP

Length of the brass bar, l2 PP

Diameter of the brass bar, d2 PP

3 = VS AS + VAl AAl

= ES S AS + EAl Al AAl

15 3 = (Vs + Vc

= 215 1PP2 Ans.

8VLQJHTXDWLRQVDQGZHKDYH

A force P equal to Vt ·A, where ALVWKHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHURGLVDFWLQJRQWKHURGLI

6ROYLQJIRU'T, we get 'T & Ans.

4. $URGULJLGO\¿[HGDWLWVOHIWHQGFRQVLVWVRIWKUHHEDUVRIXQHTXDOGLDPHWHUV)LJ)LQG

(Ans. (a) RA N1), RB = 37.2 kN ()

Take Es î51PP2

(Ans. 1PP27HQVLOH1PP2&RPSUHVVLYH

(Ans. Vmax 1PP2 &RPSUHVVLYH

11. $FRPSRXQGEDUPDGHRIDVWHHOURGDQGDEUDVVURGLVULJLGO\¿[HGDWWKHWZRHQGV)LJ

Vx = Vx cos2T + Vy sin2T + 2Wxy sin T cos T