Strength of Materials

STBEIGTl 1
or
MAIBBIALS .
( IN MKS/SI UNITS)
(A Text Book for Engineering Students of all Disciplines]
U.C.JINDAL
B.E. (Mech.); M. Tech. (Mech.); Ph.D.
Professor in Mech. Engg. Deptt.
Delhi College of Engineering,
Kashmere Gate, Delhi - 110006 (India)
UMESH PUBLiCAtI6NS
Publishers of Scientific, Engineering & Technical Books- ·
5-B, Nath Market, Nai Sarak, Delhi-110006
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Strength of Mater~als
U. C. Jindal
©Author
All rights reserved. No part of thi6 pubiieation ma;, be ,ri!produced or transmitted, in dn}' {N-m
or by any means, without the written permission of tfie autlwr and the ptibfisheYs.
1st Ed. : 1989
Published by :
Umesh Publications,
SB, Nath Market, Nai Sarak, Delhi-110 006.
Phone: 2915961
Printed at :
Himdeep Printers,
Pad am Nagar, Kish.an G'anJ1
Delhi-110007.
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Dedicated
to the loving memory of my son
..
~ . •.
PANKAJ
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Preface
This book on Strength of Materials covers firstly the introductory course on the subject
for the engineering students of all disciplines i.e. Mechanical, Production, Civil, Electrical, Elect-
ronic Engg. and Computer Sciences in the Engg. Colleges as well as in Polytechnics and second-
ly the advanced course on the subject for the students of Mechanical and Civil Engg. disciplines.
This book will act as a faithfull companion to the students studying a course on Machine Design
and computing stresses in machine members and to engineers serving in design offices of various
Research and Development Organisations.
The author is teaching the subject for the last 23 years and is fully conversent with the
difficulties experienced by the students. Therefore, while preparing the text of the book, the
point of view of the students was constantly kept in mind. The contents of the book have
been designed in a manner to help all grades of the students. For the relatively mediocre students
unable to attend classes regularly, there are simple examples and exercises, a thorough study of
which would impart confidence and a clear understanding of the subject. For the brighter
students, there are complicated problems and exercises, the understanding and solution of which
will help them go a long way in securing exceptionally good marks and in assuring a place
of distinction in any competitive examination.
In brief, the book contains the following' features :-
( l) A rigorous treatment given to the subject to meet the current requirements of the
students.
(2) Providing a clear understanding of the basic principles of the subject through the
worked examples which are more than 500.
(3) Thought-provoking and self-testing objective type questions which are more than
200 in number.
(4) Information provided about testing the mechanical properties of the materials m
the laboratory.
(5) Solution of examples and problems both in MKS and SI units.
The advanced chapters on Bending of Curved Bars, Rotational Stresses, Energy Methods,
Unsymmetrical Bending, Shear Centre and Torsion of Non Circular Shafts are no doubt avail-
able in many books but either the treatment given is too elementary or the examples given are
insufficient. As a result, the students are apprehensive of these chapters when they appear
in the examinations. Therefore, these topics have been thoroughly explained and a large number
of solved examples are given so that the students can very well understand these advanced
topics.
Constructive suggestions for improvement of the book are always solicited.

The development of this book has been strongly influenced by the author's colleagues,
students and the numerous books on the subject published in India and abroad.
The author is deeply indebted to the inspiration received initially from his brilliant
and genius son and this book is dedicated to his loving memory.
pr, U. C. Jin~!
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REFERE~'Cl:. BOOK
NOT FOR ISSUE.
Contents
Chapter Page Nos.

1. Simple Stresses and Strains 1
1· 1. Normal and shear forces !.
1·2. Normal strain 4
1·3. Bars of varying cross section
8
1·4. Tapered bars 11
1·s. Bar subjected to various forces 15
1·6. Extension under self weight
19
1·1. Bar of uniform strength
20
1·s. Shear stress and shear strain
22
1·9. Volumetric stress and volumetric strain 26
" 1· 10. Tensile test on mild steel 27
1· 11. Strain energy and resilience 35
1· 12. Sudden load
39
1· 13. Impact loads 41
1·14. Stress concentration in members under tensile force 43
1· 1s. Factor of safety
45
Summary 66
Multiple choice questions 68
Exercises 70
2. Composite Bars and Temperature Stresses 75
2 ·1. Stresses in a composite bar 75
2·2. Composite bar with more than 2 bars of different materials 78
2.3. Composite systems
80
2·4. Bars of different lengths subjected to loads
84
. , 2·s. Bolt and tube assembly tightened with a nut 86
., 2·6. Temperature stresses in a single bar
89
" 2·1. Temperature stresses in a composite bar
90
Summary 115
Exercises 118
· 3. Principal Stresses and Strains
123
, 3·1. Stresses on an inclined plane 123
3·2. Principal stresses 129
, 3·3. Graphical soiutioµ p• l~J
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(ii)
Chapter Page Nos.

3·4, Ellipse of stresses 137
3·5, Strain components 139
3'6. Strain components an inclined plane 140
3·1. Mohr's strain circle 142
3·s. Principal strains jn terms of principal stresses J4S
3·9, M odified modulus of elasticity 146
Summary 163
Exercises 165
4. Relations Between Elastic. Constants
4· 1. Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio 169
4' 2. Modulus of rigidity 171
4'3. Relation between E and G 172
4'4. Relation between modulus of elasticity and bulk modulus 174
Summary 183
Exercises 185
5. Thin Cylindrical and Spherica] Shells 187
5' I. Stresses in thin cylinders 187
5 ·2. Thin spherical shells 192
5'3. Cylindrical shell with hemispherical ends 194
5·4. Wire winding of thin cylinders 196
Summary 215
Exercises .218
6. Thick Cylinders 221
6"1. Lame's equations 221
6'2. Thick cylinder subjected to internal fluid pressure 226
6"3. Compound cylinders 229
6'4. Shrinkage allowance 234
6"5. Hub and shaft assembly 237
Summary 273
Exercises 277
Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams 282
1· 1. Various types of beams 282
7·2. Shear force diagram of simply supported b~a m sqbje<;ted tp
concentrated loads 283
7·3, SF d iagram of a simply supported beam subjected to uniformly
1;li~tributed loag , .. 28~
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Chapter Page Nos.

7'4. SF diagram of a cantilever subjected to a concentrated load 288
7·5 . SF diagram of a cantilever subjected to uniformly distributed
load 290
7·6. Bending moment diagram of a simply supported beam carrying a
concentrated load 291
7'7. Bending moment diagram of a S.S. beam subjected to tin:iforroly
distributed load 294
7'8 , Bending moment diagram of a cantilever subjected to concen-
trated loads 297
7·9. Bending moment diagram of a cantilever carrying a uniformly
disttibuted load 299
7'10, SF and BM diagrams of a beam with variable loading 301
1· 11. SF and BM diagrams of a cantilever with variable loading 305
7' 12. SF and BM diagrams of a beam subjected to a moment 307
7' 13. Relations between rate of loading, SF and BM 310
7'14. Graphical method 313
Summary 345
Multiple choice_questions 346
Exercises 348
8. Theory of Simple Bending 352
8"1. Assumptions for the theory of simple bending 353
8'2. Theory of simple bending 353
, 8" 3. Neutral axis 355
-!{. -~ 8'4. Moment of resistance 356
8·5. Moment of inertia of sections 358
8' 6. Beams of rectangular section 361
8'7. Circular section 363
8'8, I-Section 366
8'9. T-Section 367
8'10. L-Section 369
8'11. Channel section 37l
8' 12. Unequal I section 372
< 8' 13. Modulus of rupture 375
,,, 8' 14. Built-up sections 377
"' 8"15. Beams of uniform strength 380
,, 8"16. Bimetallic strip 384
-· 8' 17. Composite beams 386
,. · s·t 8.. Reinforced cement concrete 391
Summary 418
Exercises 42}
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(iv)
Chapter Page Nos.

9. Com.bined Bend~
1
~~aiot~,~; Str~~ls~s 425
9· 1. Bending moment and axial thrust 42S
9·2. Load eccentric to both the axes 427
9'3. Core or the kernel of a rectangular section 430
9"4. Core of a circular section 432
9.5. Wind pressure on walls and chimney shafts 434
Summary 453
Exercises 456
10. Distribution of Shear Stress in Beams 459
1o· 1. Shear stress distribution 460

10·2. Shear stress distribution in a circular section of a beam 463
10·3. Shear stress distribution in a beam of rectangular section 1 465
10"4. Shear stress distribµtion in a hollow circular section 467
10"5. Directional distribution of shear stress 470
Summary 494
Exercises 49.5
11. Deftection of Bea:m.s and Cantilevers 499
11 ·1. Relations between slope, deflection, radius of curvature and

bending moment 499
11 ·2. Sign·conventions 501
11 "3. A simply supported beam with a concentrated load 501
11"4. A simply .supported beam with a uniformly distributed load over
its length 504
11 "5. A cantilever with a concentrated load 507
11 "6. A cantilever with a uniformly distributed load 509
11"7. Macaulay's method 510
11 "8. Eccentric load on a simply supported beam , 516
11 ·9. Impact loading of beams 518
11"10. Propped cantilevers and beams 520
11 ·11. Slope and deflection by the use of bending moment diagram 524
11 · 12. Slope and deflection of beams by a graphical method 528
11" l 3. Slope and deflection of beams by conjugate beams method 532
11"14. Slope and deflection of cantilever with stepped sections 534
11 · 15. Slope and deflection of beams of stepped sections 538
Summary 580
Exercises 584
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Chapter· REFER [ ~L BOOK Page Nos.
12. Fixed and Continuous Beams NOT FOR iSSUE.. 587
12' 1. Fixed beam BM diagrams 587
12·2. Support moments-Fixed beams 588
12'3. Fixed beam with a concentrated load at the centre 589
12'4. Fixed beam with uniformly distributed load 591
12'5. Fixed beam carrying an eccentric load 594
12'6. Alternate method for determining support moments, slope and
deflection for fixed beams 598
12'7. Effect of sinking of support in a fixed beam 601
12'8. Continuous beams 604
12·9, Theorem of 3 moments-any loading 612
12'10. Supports not at the same level in a continuous beam 616
12· 11. Continuous beams with fixed ends 619
Summary 646
Exercises 648
13. Torsion 651
13'1. Shear stress and angular twist in shaft 652
13'2. Modulus of rupture 656
13'3. Horse power transmitted by shaft 657
13'4. Shafts of varying diameters 658
13·5, Compound shafts 660
13'6. Stresses in shafts subjected to torque 666
13'7. Torsional Resilance of shafts 669
13'8. Stresses developed in key 67r
13'9. Torsion of non circular shafts 672
13' 10. Torsion of elliptical section shaft 676
13'11. Torsion of a shaft with equilateral triangular section 677
13'12. Membrane analogy 678
13'13. Torsion of thin walled sections 680
13'14. Torsion of thin rectangular sections 684
13'15. Torsion of thin walled multicdl sections 686
Summary 708
Exercises 713
14. Springs · 717
14' 1. Helical springs 718
14'2. Close coiled helical springs subjected to axial load 720
14·3, Close coiled helical springs subjected to axial moment 721
14'4, Open coiled helical springs 723
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(vi)
Chapter Page Nos.

14'5. Open coiled helical springs subjected to axial moment 726
14'6. Stresses developed in spring wire of circular section 728
14'7. Plane spiral spring 730
14'8. Leaf springs 733
14'9. Quarter elliptic spring (cantilever leaf spring) 736
Summary 756
Exercises 758
15. Struts and Columns 762
15· 1. Euler's theory for long columns 763
I 5 ·2. Equivalent length 768
15'3. Limitations of Euler's theory of buckling 770
15'4, Rankine Gordon Formula 771
15'5. Spacing of braces for built up sections 773
15'6. Other empirical formulae for struts and columns 776
15·7. Eccentric loading of long columns 719
15'8. Prof. Perry's formula 782
15'9. Long columns with initial curvature 784
15' 10. Perry- Robertson Formula 787
15'11. Lateral loading on struts 789
15· 12. Strut with uniformly distributed lateral load 792
Summary 808
Exercises 812
16. Strain Energy Methods 814
16· I. Castigliano's first theorem 814
16'2. Elastic strain energy due to axial force 816
16' 3. Elastic strain energy due to shear stress 817
16'4. Strain energy due to bending 820
16'5. Strain energy due to twisting moment 824
Summary 838
Exercises 840
17. Theories of Failure 842

11· 1. The maximum principal stress theory 843
17'2. Maximum shear stress theory 845
17'3. Maximum principal strain theory 847
17'4, Strain energy theory 851
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(vii)
Chapter Fage Nos.

17'5. Shear strain energy theory 853
Summary 867
Exercises 869
18. Rotating Discs and Cylinders 870

18'1. Rotating rings 870
18·2. Rotating thin disc 871
18 ·3, Disc of uniform strength 880
18'4. Rotating long cylinders 882
18'5. Temperature stresses in thin disc 889
Summary 912
Exercises 915
19. Bending of Curved Bars 917

19' l. Stresses in a curved bar 917
19·2. Ah2 for rectangular section 921
19·3. Value of h2 for sections made up of rectangular strips 924
19 4. Ah2 for a tapezoidal section 929
19'5. Ah2 for a circular section 932
19'6. Ring subjected to a diametral load 934
19·7. Chain link subjected to a tensile load 939
19'8. Deflection of curved bars 945
19'9. Deflection of a chain link 948
Summary 958
Exercises 960
20. Unsymmetrical Bending and Shear Centre 962
20·1. Priucipal axes 963
20·2. Parallel axes theorem for product of inertia 966
20·3, Determination of principal axes 967
20·4, Stresses due to unsymmetrical bending 972
20·s. Deflection of beams due to unsymmetrical bending 977
20·6. Shear centre 980
Summary 993
ExerciselJ 99~
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(viii)
Chapter Page Nos.

21. Mechanical Properties 996
21 · 1. Behaviour of materials under static tension 996
21 '2. Behaviour of materials under static compression 1001
21 '3, Behaviour of materials under bending 1004
21 ·4. Behaviour of materials under torsion 1008
21 'S. Behaviour of materials under impact 1009
21 '6. Hardness 1013
21·1. Fatigue behaviour of materials 1016
21'8. Creep 1023
Exercises 1028
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NOT fOH lSSUE.
1
Simple Stresses and Strains
A machine member or a strncturnl incmbe:r is deformed when it is subjected to a
force or a moment. A force can extend or contract the member or it m:i.y distort the shape
of the member while a moment can bend or twist the member, depcr.di·qg l'pOD the type of
the, force or the rnomynt applied.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
Fig. 1·1
Fig. 1·1 (a) shows that a cylindrical bar of section A and length L gets extended under
the action of the for~e P. Its length increases to L' and area of crnss section decreases to A'.
Fig. 1·}\ b) shows that a cylindrical bar gets contracted under the action of the force P
)ts length decrdses to·.ffwh~Ie -its area of cr0ssss~ction incrca~cs to A',
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2 STRENGTH OF MA Tf.RIALS
Fig. 1· 1 (c) shows a rec1angular block fixed at the lower surface DCEF and at its top
surfa ce a force Pacts tangential to the surface ABGH. The shape of the rectangular block
is distorted to A'B' G'H ' FECD. ·
Fig. 1· 1 (d) shows that a rectangular bar initially straight is bent under the action of
bending moment M. Straight bar ABCDEFG is deformed into A'B'C'D 'E'F ' G' .
Fig. 1· 1 (e) shows that a circular bar fi xed at one end gets twisted under the action of
a twisting moment T appli ed at the other end. A line OA initially drawn on the surface of the
bar gels deformed to OA' .
In this chapter we will analyse the eff..:ct of the' for.::e which extends, contracts or
distc.rts the machine member. Ttc effect of bending moment will be discussed in Chapter 7,
wh ile the effect of twist ing moment wi ll be analysed in Chapter I 3.
1· 1. NORMAL AND SHEAR FORCES

Consider a body subjected to a number of forces Fi, F 2 , F 3 , F 4 F 5 , F 6 , F 7 etc., as shown
in Fig. t·2. Say the resultant of these forces on a section aa' is FR inclined at an angle 8 to
the plane of the section . There are two components of FR i. e. , F,. and F,. Component Fn
is perpendicular to the section aa' whi le the component F, lies in the plane of the section aa'
and is tangential to it. The force F,. is called the Normal force on the section aa'. When
F., is pointing away from the plane aa' it is called the Normal Force (Fig. 1'2) and when it is
pomting towards the plane, it is called a Compressive Force (as shown in Fig , 1'3). -
F ig. t·J
The Force F, or. the section aa' is called the shear force. The shear force tending to
rotate the body in the clockwise direction is taken as a positive shear force (Fig. 1·2) v.'hile
1he she:lr for.;e tending t o rotate the body in the anticlockwise direction is taken as a negative
shear force The normal force per unit a rea is called the normal stress and the shear force
per unit area is called the shear stress. Fig. 1·2 shows the tensile force Fn and positive shear
fprce F, on the section aa'.
f, Tensile stress= :n (Tensile)

A
q, Shear stress = A (+ ve)
I
Fi~. 1·3 shows compressive strc~s aud ne$ative lihear stress on the area A. r·
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5IMPLE STRESSES AND STltAINS 3
Example J·1-1 A bar of rectangular section 20 mm X 30 mm carries an axial force

of 10 kN. Determiue the normal and shear force on a plane inclined at a u angle of 30° to the
axis of the bar. Determine also the magnitude and nature of the normal and shear stresses
on this inclined plane.
Fig. 1·4
Solution. Fig. 1·4 shows a bar of rectangular section 30 mm x 20 mm, carrying an

axial force P= 10 kN. Now this force is perpendicular to a section efgh or to any section
parallel to the plane efgh. Sinc0 this force P is wholly normal to such planes, these planes
carry only the normal stress.
Consider a plane abed inclined at an angle 8=30° to the axis of the bar. The force Pis
not perpendicular to the plane abed but is inclined at an angle of 30°. There are two com-
ponents of this force i.e., P cos 6 tangential to the plane and P sin () normal to the plane
abed.
So Fn= P sine, a normal force pointing away from the plane, so a
tensile force.
F1 = P cos 8, a shear force tending to rotate the body in the
clockwise direction, so a positive shear force.
Fn= lO x !sin 30°= 5 kN = 5000 N
F,= IO x cos 30°= 8'66 kN= 8660 N.
Area of the inclined plane, A = ad x ab
20
=30 X --:--a
Sill 30
'
20
=,3()"x o·s = 1200 mm
.. 2
Normal stress on the plane,
Fn 5000 / 0
f = ·y = 1200 N mm-
= 4' 167 N/ mm2 (Tensile)
Shear stress on the plane,
Fi 8660
Q= - - N /111111 2
= ·--
- A 1200 ·
= 7'216 N/ mm 2 ( + ve).
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Example i' l-2. Fig . . 1·5 shows a
stepped bar of di.a meters 10 mm and 20 mm
respectively. An axial compressive for.c e of
lO mm dia
1000 kg acts on the bar. Determine the
minimum and maximum normal stress in
the bar.
Solution. The bar has two portions I
20 mm dio
and II.
Area of cross-section of poi'tion I,
t4 1 = : (1) 2 = 0"7854 cm 2 •
Area of cross-section of portion II,

Fig. 1'5
A2 = ; (2J2 =3'1416 cm2 •
Force P is the normal compressive force on all sections perpendicular to the axis.
Maximum n0rmal stress is developed in portion I with minimum area of cross . section while
minimum normal stress will be developed in the portion II with maximum area of cross
section.
So maximum normal stress,
1000 I
. = 1273"23 kg/cm 2 (compressiveJ ' J
0 7854
Minimum normal stress
p 1000 . .
= A--;= 3
.
1416
=3 18 31 ·kg/cm 2 /compre,;s1ve).
Exercise l'l-1. A cylindrical rod , of diaJ.+).eter 1'6 cm is subjected to a t axial tensile

force of 500 kg. Determine tl1e normal and shear stresses on a plane inclined at a u angle of 30°
to the axis of the bar.
[Ans. 62" l 7 kg/cm2 (tensile), l 07'68 tg/cm2 ( + ve)]
Note. In this case the inclined _plane will be an ellipse, with ma}:.:: axis equal to
d . . . re x major axis x minor axis
3·2 cm, mmor ax1s = d = l'6 cm,. Area -of oftheell1pse-:- Ji . ·
sin 30°
Exc1·cise 1·1-2. A cylindrical tapered , bar ,0I ·12·mm diameter at one end and 20 mm
diameter at the other end is subjected to an axial tensile force of 4000 N. Determine the
maximum and minimum direct stret:ses develop~d ili'the l?~r.
. Ans. [35'36'7 N/mm2 (tensile), 12'732 N/mm:: (tensile))
Note. A normal stress is ,also called the direct stress. ··1
1·2. NORMAL STRAIN
Fig. 1· 1 (a) shows a bar of circular cross-section subjected to a tensile force P. [In
practice, one end of the bar is fixed while force P is applied at the other entl. To · maintain
equilibrium an equal and opposite force P acJs as a reaction at the fixed end].
Due to this force P, ·the bar elongates and its original length L increases to L' and at
he same time its diameter is reduced from D to D'. '
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SIMPLE STRESSES AND StRAINS
Normal strain or the linear strain is defined a·s the change in iength per unit iengtil
along the direction of the normal force. Lateral strain is defined as the change in diameter
tor a dimension lateral to the axial length) per unit diameter or change in lateral dimension
per unit lateral dimension as in the case of a rectangular section.
Normal strain, (due to tensile force)
Change in length · Final length-- lniti al length
1a = Original length =- Original length
L '- L 'SL ( .. )
= L -[- pos1t1¥e
, Change in diameter
Lateral strain,
E = Original dian1etcr
Final diameter . .:. . 'Initial diameter
Original diameter
D'- D 'SD .
= D =D (negative)
(as the diameter is reduced)
Similarly Fig. l 'I (b) sh ows a bar of circular cross-section subjected to an axial com-
pressive force P, the length of the bc1r is reduced and its diameter i.s increased.
Normal ~train (due to compressive force)
Final length- lnitial length
Original length
L'- L 'SL .
= - L- =L (negative)
Final diameter- Initial diameter

Lateral strain,
Initial diameter
D'-D 'SD ( .. )
= D ~D pos1t1ve
Lateral strain ' "' . . 1 .. d

. - -.- = - = a negat1ve -ratto = - -
Normal stram E nt
The ratio of laterfll stcain to normal strain is called Poisson's R,itio and is denoted
by 1/m.
In the first case, normal stress
p
= ,r=J
,,·,:,
where P = axial tensile .force
A= ~ D2 , cross-sectional area
q .
f is the tensile stress 0r a positive direct stress
E = normal strain, a positive strain.
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6 S'tRENG'rH OF MATERIALS
. .In the second case, normal stress

1, p
',!, =7 I :,
where P=axial compressive force
A= ; D 2 ; cross-sectionit area
is the compressive stress or a negative direct stress.

f
€=normal strain, a negative strain.
In both the cases of tensile and compressive forces, as the force gradually increases,
the normal stress and normal strain also gradually increase and stress is proportional to strain
but only upto the elastic limit, as shown in Fig. t ·6.
Fig. l ·6 shows the variation of normal strain with respect to the normal stress developed
in the bar.
.....
Ill
1/l
-
-
t:,J
.....
fe
i"' 1
V,
t:,J
.....
Q.
t
E
0
0 - ~---c"E_ __
u
E
Normal st rain, E Normal strain. E
( pos,t ive) ( negative)
(.a) (b)
Fig. 1·6
Upto the elastic limit, if force is removed from the bar, the bar will return to its
original dimensions. Beyond the elastic limit, the graph between f and e is no longer a
straight line, but it is curved and once this limit/. is crossed, the bar is subjected to a per-
manent deformation (or strain) after the removal of the loa~.
'
So within the elastic limit/ot e i.e;, the material obeys Hoo~e's l;tw. ,,.
foc€ .
f,. I • ' ~i. , . =;Ee, where Eis the constant of proportionality
E= _f__ = Normal stress
or E Normal strain ,i ... (1)
This ratio of stress and strain within the elastic limit is called the Young's modulus
of Elasticity and is denoted by E. Since strain is only a ratio, the units of E are the same as
those of stress,/.
p ·· dL
In order words !=-,
A
E= - then
L'
, Yo1:1ng's modulus of elasticity,
;,;, I • • •• PL
E=A8L ... (2)
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SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS 7
If E for the material is given, then

f p
Strain, "= y = AE
PL
Change in length, dL = eL= AE ... (3)
Exam.pie 1·2-1. A circular tteel bar o f 10 mm diameter and 100 mm gauge length
is tested under tension. A tensile force of 10 k'N increases its length by 0'06 mm while the
diameter is decreased b y o·oo 18 mm. Determine (i) Young's modulus of elasticity, (ii) Poisson's
ratio for the material of the bar. ·
Solution. Fig. 1·7 shows a tensile test specimen. Collars are prcvided at the ends
so that the speciwen can be prorerl y gripped in the testing machine. The central portion
pi} .~ . 't]
Co ll ar ~e le~
la p
Tensile
force
Fig. 1 ·7. Tensile Test Specimen.
along which the cross-section is uniform is called the gauge length as shown.
Tensile force, P= 10,000 N
Area of cross-section, A= ~ ( 10)2

4
= 78'54 mm 2
Change in length, dL= o·o6
Original length, L = 100 mm
Young's modulus of elasticity,
E _. _PL __ _!_0000 X I 00_
-- A8L - - 78'54 x 06
_J_OOOX 1000 = l x JOs N/ 2

- 78·54 x 0·06 2 2 mm
8L 0'06
Normal s train, €= 1,- = wo
Change in diameter, 8D= O·OO l8 mm
Original diameter, D = IO mm
, 8D o·OOl8
Lateral strain, E =-D- = ---io
I ,- e' _ O·OOl3 X 100 _ 0'01 8 _ .
Poisson's ratio, 03
/1/ E IO 0·06 0'06 ·
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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Exa mple 1·2-2. A circular brass bar of 12 mm diameter is tested under tension. If
the increase in the gauge length of I 00 mm is o· 12 mm, det ermine the stress developed in the
bar. What is the change in its diameter?
Given E for brass -= 102 X 10 3 N/mm 2
__!_ for brass = 0'32.
m
Soludon. E= J 02 X ]() 3 N/ mm2
E::hange in length, 8L= 0 ·12 mm
G auge length , L = I 00 m m
~L 0·12 .
Normal strain , £ = y = 100 = 0 0012
Normal stresi:, J="' E

= 0·0012 x 102 x 103 N/ mm2
= 122·4 N/mm 2
Poisson's ratio,
J... = lateral stra!i1 0 . 32
m norm al stram
Lateral strain = ag = 0·32 x ·oo12

= 0'384 x 10- 3
Change in diameter, SD= 0'384x 10- 3 x 12 mm
= 4 '608 x 10- 3 mm
= 0'004608 mm.
Exercise 1'2-t. An aluminium round bar of diameter 15 mm and gauge length 150
mm is tested under tension. A tensile force o f 2 tonnes produces an extension of 0·253 mm,
while its diameter decreases by cr0083 mm. Determine the Young's modulus and Poisson's
ratio of aluminium. r
Ans. 671 · 15 tonnes/cm 2, 0'328].
Exercise 1·2-2. A steel bar of rectangular cross-section 10 mm X J 5 mm and length

100 mm subjected to a compressive fo rce of 3 kN. If E for steel = 210 x 103 N / mm 2 and
1/m for steel = 0·3, determine :
(a) Change in length.
(b) Change in 10 mm side.
(c) Change in 15 mm side.
lAns. (a) ·009524 mm (b) 0'2857 X 10- a mm (c) 0'428 X 10-s mm].
t·3. BARS OF VARYING CROSS SECTIONS
Fig. l '8 shows a bar with different diameters D 11 D 2 and D 3 with lengths along
the axis equal t o L 1 , L 2 and L 3 respectively. Say E is the Young's modulus and I /m is the
Poisson's ratio of the materi., J.
This bar is subjected to an axial coml?ressive force P, which will produce contraction
in the length of the bar and its diameters will increase.
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F ig. 1·8 . II•'

·,
Force P is the normal force on all sections perpendicular to the axis. Each portion
of the bar is subjected to same compressive force but the normal stress developed in each
porti.o n will be ~ifferent. ..
Stres!ies
Normal stress in portion I,
Normal stress in portion TI ,
p '
Norm~] s~ress in portion Irr, J3 = - A (Compressive)
3
Where Areas of cross-sections are
The normal strain in each portion is
" 1 =- 1, , " 2= - ~ and E3 =- 1e (negative)
Change in length in each portion

8L1 = £1 Li, 8L 2 = £ 2 L2 , SL3 = c 3 L3 •
Tota l change. in length, 8L= ilL1 + 8L2+ U 3
= £ 1L1 + E2L2+ £3L3

= - !1 Li- f2 L2 _ ( aLa
E E E
or 8L = - 4pL-
rr.E
Li 2
D1
+ ~ - ..
Dz2 + Dl
L3]
Showini the decrea se in !en~th, each diameter wiil increase due to the Jaten ~I strai n.
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10 STRE~GTH QF .MATERIALS
Lateral strain in each portion will be
'--+ -E'
€ 1·-
m
/1 ·~- ,· m·- !-1..
E
The change in diameters will be

8D1= 1a1'D1 = f1D1
mE'
Showiry.g the increase in dilimeters.
Example 13-1. A stepped circular bar having diameters 20 mrh, 15: mm ;J~<i 10 mm
over axial lengths of JOO mm, 80 mm and 60 mm is subjected to an axial tensil~. fpJce of 5 kN.
If E = lOO x L03 N/mm2 and l /m = o·32 for the materi al of the bar, determine- ' · ..
(a) Total change in length.
(h) Change in each diameter.
Solution. As per the data given
Lengths /1 = 100 mm, /2=80 mm, / 3 =60 mm.
Diameters D 1 =20 mm , D 2 = 15 mm, D3 =10 mm.
Since the axial force is tensile; there will be increase in ·length ' and decrease in
diameters .
Total ch ange in length =+

4P [
1t_E
/i /2 . la
D/· + D? + Da2
J
where P= 5 kN=5000 N
E = lOO X 1000 N/mm 2
or
4 X 5000
di= 100 x 1000
[ 100 80 60
20 2 + 15 2 + 102
J
=0·2 [0·2so + o·355+0·6001=0·241 mm.
Change in diameters 8D1 = - <~:i = - n1 2 X ,~J = - r;D~:E

4 x 5000 x o·32 _ _ . _3
=,- 1t X 20 X IOO X 1000 - l 018 x 10 mm .
4P 4 X 5000 X0'32
Sim ilarly l'iD 2= -
r;D 2mE = - T
-X-- - -- X-IOOO
15xl00 -
= - 1'358 x 10-3 mm
4P 4 x sooo x o·32
aD = -
3 nD3mE= - T X 10Xl00 X l000
= -2'037 x 10-3 mm.
Exercise t·3-1. A stra,ight stepped bar of steel is of square section throughout with
sides 10 mm, 12 n,TP, 16 mm with axial lengths of ~ cm, 10 cm and 12 cm respectively.
The bar is subjected to an axial te11sile for(:e of 3600 N,
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1i
If E=200 X 103 N/mm 2 and l /m = o·29 determine
(a) Total change in length.
(b) Change in the side of the each square section.
[Ans. (a) 0'0353 mm, (b) 0·522 X 10- 3 , 0'435 X 10- 3 , o ·326 X 10- 3 mm]
t ·4. TAPERED BARS

Consider a tapered round bar of length L and diameter D 1 at one end continuc,usly
increasing to diameter D2 at the other end, as shown in Fig. 1·9. The bar is subjected .o
an axial tensile force P. Say Eis the Young's
modulus of the material of the bar. In thi s
case maximum stress occurs at end A and
minimum stress occurs at end B, or in other
words there is continuous variation of stress
along the length. Consider a small element
of length dx at a distance of x from the
end A.
Diameter,
where
re
Area of cross-section, Am = (Dr,) 2
4
P 4P
Stress at the section, f.,=A. = .,,D.,2
Strain at the section,
Change in length over dx i.e.,

4Pdx
odx
rcED,,2
Total change in length,

L L
f 4Pdx f 4Pdx
~£ = J rcED ,2 = J rcE(D 1 + Kx)2
0 0
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12 StRENGTH OF MAtBRiAts
=- ::K[ ~;--~j 1
=- Tt4:K [,
f"' ,; I
DD~~: ]=r.4:K [ D~~:.l J
Substituting the value of K=P 2 -;,D 1
. ,
.'
Total change in length, SL= ;~LD
· 1t 1 2
Tapered Flat. Consider a flat of constant thickness t but breadth varying uniformly
lfom B1 at one end to B 2 at the other end. Length of the flat is L.
)
r' I---r
,... L
Fig. 1:10
The flat is subjected to an axial tensile force P as shown in Fig. ;1 ·10. Say the modulus
of elasticity of the material of the flat is E. · '
,.,
Again consider an elementary strip of thickness dx at a distance of x from end A.
Breadth B2-- B-.

B.,= B1+-L 1
x = B1+ K x
where K _ B2-B1
L • a constant
Area of cross-section, AIIJ= B,,. t = (B1 +Kx) t

p p
Stress, Jx=-A,,- = t(B +Kx) 1
f,, . p
, ~train, €:i: = e = Et (B + Kx ) 1
Change in leHgth over dx,

dx= Pdx
Et (B1 +Kx) \
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SIMPLE STRESSES AND StRAINS u
L
Pdx
Total change in length, 8L= - - --
J
0
Et (B +Kx)
1
L
= it j l tn (B1 + Kx) I
0
· · Example 1"4-1. A bar of square section throughout, of length l metre tapers from
an area of 20 mmx20 mm to the area 10 mm x 10 mm. £ = 200 x 103 N/ mm 2 , determine
the change in length of the bar, if the axial force on the bar is IO kN compressive. ·
Solution. Since there is compressive force acting on the har, there will be contraction
in its length.
Fig. 1· 11
Consider a section X-X at a distance of x from end A.

20-10
Side of the square, a:c= 10+ lOOO XX
=(IO+·OI X)
Area of cross-section, A.. = a:c2 =(IO+o·OJ x) 2
Stress, J. = _ !O x 1000 _ _ 10,000
• a,. 2 - (lO+·OJx) 2
f., 10,000
Strain, €,.=-£ = - E(lo + ·o1x)2
Change in length over dx,
10000 dx
3dx=- E(IO+·Olx)2
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·14 STRENGTH OF MATERiALS
1000 .
10000 dx
Total change length, 8/= -
0
I WO x 103() o+ ·o l.x)2
1000
= - 2~ /- C~l) ·00+·01x)-1 I
0
.=+ 0~2 [-fo-- -k- J.

l 10
= -0'2x 200 = -0·25 mm.
.. . Example t·4-2; In a bar of rectangular section, the width tapers from 25 mm to 15

mm, while the thickness tapers from 12 mm to 8 mm over a length of 500 mm. The bar is
subjected to a tensile force of 8 kN. If E= 1 x 105 N/mm 2, determine the change in the length
of the bar.
Solution. Consider that the axis of the bar is passing through CG of the section at
both the ends. The Fig. 1'12 shows the tapered bar with section of 25 mmX 12 mm uniformly
tapering to the section 15 mm X 8 mm.
'I
l\
I
t
25mm
dkn
-
~---
l
I Wx
i ,~ / I
Fig. 1·12
Again consider an element of length dx, at a distance of x from the end A.

_:__ 2·5 _ ,,(25- 15) = c2s- ·02 )
Width, w.- 500 .· X X
- 12- (1 2- 8) X = (12-'008 X)
Thickness, t. - 500
Area of cross-section, A,,= w., t,.= (2s - 0·02x)(12- ·008x)

, 8 X I000 8000
Stress, f,. = -' A.,, (25-·02x)(12....:·, 008x)
·8.000
Strain, £.,= E(25-''02.x)(l2-"008x)
.· ·,: ·,
Change in length over dx,
. 8009 d;,
8dx E (2S - ·02x)(l2-'008x)
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1~
S_IMPLE STRESSES ~ND STRAINS

500
r 8000 dx
a/= j I05(25 - 0'02x)(12-·00L.,
0
500
·J
= ·os (25 -
2·5 dx
·02x)(30- ·02x)
0
500
0·2 .f
0
!(2s·=1·02x - :fo-1-ah ) dx
500
I . L
=- 04
I (=..:--o-2Y In (25- 02x)- (- ·02) In (30
. - ·02x) \I
0
500
= - 21 In (25--·02x) - ln (30- o·02x) I
0
- - ?
- -
1· _!2 - In 20
L In 25 30 J
= + 2 [ In
20 25
'.lO x J5
J
= 2 ln 1·111 = 2 X "I052= ·2 104 mm.
Exercise 1·4_I. A tapered round bar of length 150 cm, has a diameter of 2 cm at one
end which uniformly increases to a diameter of 3 cm at the other end. If £ = 2000 tonnes/
cm2, what load is required to produce an extension of l mm in the bar. . .I'
[Ans. U-2832 tonne]
Exercise 1·4-2. A flat of rectangular section has area of cross-section 3 cm 1·2 cm x

:-:tone end which unifor mly decreases to area of cross-section 2 cm X 1·2 cm. T he length of
the flat is 80 cm . If an axial tensile load of 2'5 t onnes is applied on the flat, what will be
extension in its length. E= 1000 tonnes/cm 2. [Ans. '676 mm]
t·s. BAR SUBJECTED TO VARIOUS FORCES
A bar of uniform section is subjected to force P1 (compressive) at section A are and

to force P 2 (tensile) at section D. Then at sections Band C, the forces applied at are P 3 and
p 4 respectively as shown in Fig. 1·13. Consider the three portions J, II and III i. e., AB, BC
and CD of lengths I 1 , L 2 and L 3 respectively.
Portion AB will be under a compressive force P 1 and the net force available at B for
portion BO is P 3 + P 1 • The portion CD will be under a tensile force P 2 and the net force ·at
C for the portion BC will be P4 -- P 2 •
To r.naintain equilibr ium of the central portion BC, P3 + P 1 = P.1- P 2
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16 STRENGTH OF MA TERTALS
~- tFP3 a1•
A I B II C
~LI lll• L2 11
P1 ~ ,
I
•_ Et-pl B
- p)
2
Fig. 1·13
If Eis the Young's modulus of elasticity of the material. Contraction in the length AB,
Contraction in the length BC,
Extension in the length CD,
SL 3 = 4P2 X ..!..i_
rcD 2 E
Total change in length, Si= -S/1 -812 +8/a
The bar in this article can also be considered with different stepped diameters.
Example 1'5-1. A stepped circular bar 150 mm long with diameters 20 mm, 15 mm
and 10 mm along the lengths AB, BC and CD respectively is subjected to various forces as
shown in the Fig. l' 14. Then! is a tensile force on section A (as the fo1ce is pointing away
from the plane) and there is a compressive force on section D (as the force is pointing toward ~
the plane). Deterrnine the change in length if £ = 2 X 106 kg/cm 2 •
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SIMiPIJE 'STRESSES AND STRAINS
· :·· .·
-
21
1T
. I .
u-~
A 8 ,., ·'
.; :i .
8 ll C
osr(y.,
C Ill D
- ~ .. ~ .. ~
l'r .
• I
1T
..
· ·.·.~-
Fig. 1·14
·'
Solution. Consideriog P<;>r't ion AB, a re~ction of 2 .tonnes is acting on the plane BC,
~
so for portion BC the the force available is l.'5- 2=- 0'5 tonne or the tensile force of0'5
tonne is a cting on the plane B considering the portion BC. Again a compressive force of 1
tonne is acting on the plane D, there will be equal reaction of 1 tonne on plane C for portion
~
CD. But the force at C is l'5 t.on.nes, so

a force of J '5- l = 0·5toi1.ne is acting on" tlte plane
C for portion BC. Or the port'ion BC is under a tensi le force of 0'5 tonne.
Areas of cross sections
•' .P
..
A 2 = ~4 x 1·52 ~ 1'767 cm 2
A3 = ~
4 X l 2= 0'7854 cm2
..
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18 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Extension in portion AB,

2 X4
a/1 = . x • E = 2X 108 kg/cm 2 = 2000 tonnes/cm3
3 1416 2000
= 1'273 x 10-3 cm.
Extem.ion in portion BC,
0·5 x 4·5
3/2 = . x = 0'636 X 10 s cm
1 767 2000
Contraction in portion CD,
1 X 6'5
8/s= 0'7854 X 2000 = 4' 138 X 10-s cm
Total change in length, 8/=8l~+a12 -8/3

= (1'273 + 0'636- 4'138) x 10-s cm
=-2'229X 10-s cm.
Exercise t·S-t. A bar of steel of diameter 16 mm and length 600 mm is subjected

to axial forces as shown in Fig. 1'15. If E for steel=210 x 10a N/mm 2 • Determine the change
in its length. [Ans. 0'00]
SkN 1kN 3kN
t- 200 +200 + 200--t

mm mm mm
Fig. 1·15
Exerch1e 1'5-2. A round tapered brass bar o f length 500 mm is subjected to loads as
shown in Fig. I' 16., Determine the change in length if E= 1 x 106 kg/cm 2 • ·
[See Article I'4) [Ans. -0'0655 mm]
300kg 500kg 500kg

tOmm+
700kg
20mm +
Fi~. 1'16
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2.0
8/r = 8h' +oh"= c~tension <ilue. W · lts 0w,n wejght

+extension due to the weight of the lower portion
2
SI'- wh _ o·oo78 x 5@x5o _
1
- 2E - 2 X· 21x 106 ' 0 ·
=4'875 X 10- cm · 6
Weight of the hollow portion

= W,,= : (l ·22 - ;'0·6 2) >.< 50 X 0'0018 k& =0'330 kg,
t-l" = -
01
W1t
- x -50
A. E
where Aa = area of cross section of solid portion
= : (1'2)2=1'131 cm 2
0'330 X 50
So ol/' = - - - - - - 7'294 x 10-s cm
1' 131 X 2 X 106
Total elongation of the bar
•, 'i·' I
= (4' 875+4' 875+7'294) >.< 10- 5
= 17'044 x 10-6 cm: 1
'
Exercise 1'6-1. A circular steel ·bar. di~metet_i10 tµ)ll aµd length 1500 mm is fixed at
its upper end. If the weight density of steel ~s 0'0078 kg/chi 5 aetermine : '
(a) maximum stress dcvelope.d in bar,
·, l ;•. J
(b) elongation of bar under its own 't'trlght. Oiv~n E = 2 x 106 kg/cm2.
\ [Ans.; far 1·17 kg/cin2 (b) tN1875 X10- 3 mm]
1'7. BAR OF UNIFORM STRENGTH

·.,
A bar of varying section is shown
in Fig. 1·19 such that the· stress developed in J I ' I
the bar at. any section is the same. Say w is ,.,

the weight per unit volume of the bar. The
area of cross section aj: the bottom edge is A1
and area of cross sectioJ.?. at top fixed edge is
A 2 and length of the bar is H. I'
j - I • \
:• i • i ' H·, J '.
Let i us consider a small elementary
strip ABCD rof length •dy at a distance of y .;
from the .hottoi;n : edge . Say the stress
developed in tQ.e i J:jar- ~brqug~ µt its length
. f.
lS
!
I
' •
i i ,
! !
,
~ t ; !.,.. -~ t
Say area at (:!J =A
f
Area at AB = A '= A + dA
1
Weight of~'tr1p·, = wA . dy I ,
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For equilibrium
f. A + w. A dy= f(A + dA)
wA dy=f . dA
or
Integrating both the sides

A0 H
dA w
--y=y Jdy
J
A, O
. A2,
or llti A~=; ·H
A1
or
or
or at any distance,
Example t·7-1, A vertical circular bar 150 cm high is. subjected to a uniform stress
of 2 6 kg/cm2 throughout its length. The diameter at the bottom edge is 6 cm, determine
the diameter at the top edge if it is fixed in the ceiling. Given the weight density =0'0078
kg/cm3 •
s,,Iution. Arca of cross section at the bottom edge, A 1 = ; 62 = 911 cm2 ., Weight
density, w=·0078 kg/cm3; Height, ll= l50 cm; Uniform stress,/= 2'6 kg/cm 2 •
Area of cross section at the top fixed edge
wH
A2 =A1 el
·0078 X 150
=9n e ~ - -= 9i; x e·45
= 9ft X l '5683= ~ D'i.3

4
Diameter at the top edge,
D~= r 9n X 1"56~3
. rv · *
X4
= 'V56'4588 = 7'514 cm.
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'-
Exercise 1·1-1. A copper bar of uniform strength, 2 metres long is suspended

vertically with its top edge fixed in the ceiling. The uniform stress developed in the bar is
17·8 kg/cm2 • If the diameter at the bottom edge is 8 mm, what will be the diameter at the
top edge. Given weight density of copper= S·9 X 10- 3 kg/cm3 • [Ans. s·tt mm]
t·s. SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR STRAIN
Fig. 1· 1 (c) shows a rectangular block distorted under the acti<m of the force P acting
tangentially to the top surface ABGH. At the bottom surface which is fixed to the ground
there is equal and opposite reaction P.
This force which is parallel to the plane is called shear force (article 1' 1). This shear
force per unit area of the plane on which it is applied is called the shear stress q. The shear
stress tending t o rotate the body in the clockw ise direction is taken to be p ositive. The angular
displacement of the vertical side A D by an angle <fa, is called the shear angle.
C1'
'
!
~1
cl
(>I
.c.
<.fl
D C
'If
~L~
I ( 0)
Sh ear stre.,n, 4>
( b)
Fig. I ·20
Fig. 1·20 shows a block of length L, breadth Band height H subjected to a force P
at the top surface while the bottom surface DCEF is fixed. Under the action of this force, the
block is distorted to a new shape A'B'G'H ' DCEF.
· shear force, P P
Shear stress = area
- --of ·----·
the plane, ABGH Bx L
= q (generally denoted by this letter)

. displacement AA' ,1,
Shear stram = AD = tan .,, .
But the angle ¢, is very very small within the elastic limit of the material.
Shear strain = tan if>!"" sin ef> ,,=,, ¢,.
So the shear strain is given by the angle of displacement ef>.
Jf the force Pis gradually increased, the shear stress q also gradually increases and the
angle of displacement if, changes with q. Fig. 1·20 (b) shows the variation of ¢, with respect
to q. Upto a particular l imit shear stress q is directly proportional to !lthear strain r/>. This
limit is called the elastic limit. Within the elastic limit, if the shear force is removed from the
block, the block returns to its original shape and original dimensions. But if the shear force is
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removed after the elastic limit stress (q.), there will be permanent deformation or distortion left
in the block.
Within the elastic limit q ex: ¢,
or q= G</> · where G is the proportionality constant
G- shear stress, q
- shear strain, ¢ ·
Ratio of { - is defined as the Mo dulus of rigidity, G.
Complementary shear stt'ess. Fig. 1·21 shows a b lock subjected to shear stress q
at the top surface, and a shear stress q (due to the reaction) at the bottom surface. The shear
_rq~r?·"
qxlxB
C l ockwise
Anticlockwis e
couple
co uple ·
Fig. 1·21 , j,·
angle ¢, is very small (and not so large as shown in the fi gure) the length D C, breadth A'H'
and height A'D' can be considered as n egligibly changed fr om their original dimensions L, B
and H respectively.
-+
Shear force at the t op surface = q XL X B
+
Shear force at the bottom surface= q XL XB.
These two forces constitute a couple of arm H , tending to rotate the body in the
clockwise direction.
Moment of the couple = qXL X B x H-;)
For equilibrium this applied couple has to be balanced by the internal resistance
developed in the body. Say the resisting shear stress on the vertical faces is q' as shown in the
figure.
Shear force on the surface CEG'B' = q' x Bx Ht
Shear force on the surface DFH'A'=q'xBx H ,I..
These two forces constitute an anticlockwise couple of arm L, resisting the applied
couple.
Moment of the resisting couple = q' x B x H x L. ')
For equilibrium q' x BHL= q X LBH
or q'= q.
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24 STRENG:rH OF MA'HiRJA:LS
This -resisting stii:ess q' is called .the ·complementary sh.ear str~ss a:nd always acts at an
angle of 90° to the applied shear stress . Moreover if the applied stre,s is positive i.e .., tending
to rotate the body in the clockwise d irection, then the compl~!llentary shear stress will be
negative i.e., tending to rotate the body in the anticlockwise direction.
The use of the concept of complementary shear stress 'Will be made in the chapter 3
on principal stresses.
Example 1·8-l. Fig. 1 ·22 shows a rivet joining two plates of thickness t= 1·2 cm and
width= 6 cm. The plates are subjected to for-ce F = 1200 kg. If the diameter of t"'1 ~ rivet is
diameter
of rivet
Fig. 1·22
15 mm, determine the shear stress developed in the rivet. The ultimate shear strength of the
material of the rivet is 2·s tonnes/cm2. How much maximum load the plates can carry.
Solution. The plates carry the force F which acts as a shear force on the circular
plane aa' of the rivet.
This plane aa' is along the contact surface between the two plates.
Force F = qOO kg
Area of cross section under shear force,
TC TC
A=
4 (d):!=
4 ( I ' 5)2= I '767 cm2
Shear stress in the rivet, q= ~ = J1.;~~ = 679' I 2 kg/cm 2.
If one section of the rivet is subjected to shear force, the rivet is said to be in single
shear.
N0w the ultimat,e shear stress of the materiiil of the rivet
q .. u= 2800 kg/crn 2
Maximum shear force, = qu11 x A
= 2800 x 1·767 = 4947'6 kg.
Un<ltr thi& rnaxirrmm shear fore~, th~ rivet will bre;ik a!ong t}ie section ~, a~ shown
in the Fig. I ·22.
Example 1·8-2. A hole of SO mm di~meter is to be punched in a mild steel ~heet of

t·6 mm thickness. If the ultimate shear strength of mild s~eel is 290 N/mm2 , determine th:~
force required to punch the hol~. ·
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SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS -25
Solu.tion. Fig. 1·23 shows a phte of

1·6 111m thickness with a punched hole of 50
mm diameter.
Area of cross section under shear Area und'er
shear
=1tDt
where D = diamcter of punch
t = thickness of plate
So A = 1tX50 X ]·6
= 80 rc cm 2
Ultimate shear strength of plate,
quu= 290 N / mm 2
Force required to punch the hole Fig. t ·23
= qu11 X A
= 290 x 801t N = 7288Y 12N = 72·8 85 kN.
Exa:mple 1·8-3. F ig. 1·24 shows two tie roJs joined through a pin of diameter d.
Tie rods are transmitting a pull of Ip kN. Determine tlw diam.::tcr of th) pin, if the shear
stress in the pin is not to exceed JOO N / mm 2 •
Pi n in
11E ROD PIN JOINT ci')\l ble2 shear
Fig. 1·24
Sol~~ion. The pull P transmitted by the tic rods acts as shear force on two planes aa'
and bb' of the pin. The pull is divided equally on both t he planes. This force P acts as shear
(orce on these planes as it is parallel to the circular p lanes of the pin.
Shear force on each section

Allowable shear stress in pin, q= 100 N /mm 2
Area of cross section, A= ~ d~
4
TT f•
So q.4c- == 2p
100 X ; d2=5000
or d= f
5000 X 4
\J 100 rt
Diameter of the pin, r/=7·98 P-11ll
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Exerdse 1'8-1. A rivet of dia meter 25 mm joins two plates transmitting a pull of
10 kN. Determine the shear stress deve loped in the rivet. [Ans. 20·37 N /mm 2 J
Exercise 1'8-2. A ho le of 5 cm diameter is to be punched in a brass plate of 2 mm

thickness. If the ulti mate shear strength of brass is 210 N/m m2, determine the amount of force
r equired to punch the hole. [Ans. 65'97 kN]
Exercise 1'8-3. Two tie r ods transmitting 2 tonnes of pull a re connected by a pin.
The diameter of the pin is 2'4 cm, determine the magnitude of the sheai' stress developed in
the pin. (Ans. 0·221 tonne/cm 2]
t ·9. VOLUMETRIC STRESS AND VOLUMERIC STRAIN
A body subjected to a stress equal in a ll the directi ons, is said to have volumetr ic stress
or t he h ydrostatic str ess . Cons ider a body at a depth h from the free sur face of the liquid in
T
p p h
p:wh
w: wl'i ght dl'nsity
of liquid.
Fig. 1·25
a ccP.tainer. Jf w is the weight density . of the .liqt:id, then_ hydrostatic pressure p = wlt.
According to Pascal' s law in Fluid Mech anics, the liquid tran~m1ts pr essure equally in all the
directions. i.e. the intensity 0f the pressure o n th e body remains the same. Say the body is a
spherical ball of volume v. When it _is subjected t o V?lumctric stress, its volum~ Vis r educed
t o V'. The change in volume, SV= V -V, (: educt!on 111 vo lume). The change m volume per
unit volume i.e., SV/ V is termed as volumetric strain, E,.
As the depth of the body ir.creases,

Ill
the m agnitude of the pressur e p increases . a~d Ill.
the volumetric strain also increase~. W 1thm
the elastic limit, volumetric str.ess is directly
...~
H
proportional to volumetric stram.
pel:: . Ee
p = KE., where K is the co nstant
of proportionality >
-----E .,.
or K =..!!..._ is called the Modulus of Volum~tric
e, str a i n
compressibility or Bulk
modulus. Fig. 1·26
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Example 1'9-1. A spherical ball of a material 100 mm in diameter goes d own to
a depth of 500 metres in sea water. If the weight density of sea water = I040 kg/m 3 and the
Bulk modulus of the material is 16 x 10s kg/cm 2, determine the change in the volume of
the ball.
Solution. Weight density, w= 1040 kg/m3
= 1040 x 10- 6
kg/cm a
= '00104 kg/cma
Depth of water upto the ball, h= 500 metres
= 500 X 100 cm
Hydrostatic pressure or volumetric stress,
p = wh
= '00104 x 500 x 100 = 52 kg/cm 2
Bulk modulus, K = l6 x 10s kg/cm~
Volumetric strain (reduction in volume),
p 52 - 3'25 10-s
f.o= K 16 x 10s- X
IW
f..,= V or av, change in volume= f.u . V
Original volume, - = n X (I 00)3 = 0'5236 X 106 mm a

V = -nD3
6 6
oV=V. f.o= 0'5236 X 106X 3 25 x 10- 5
= 17'017 mm3= '017 cma.
Exercise 1·9-1. A cube of 200 mm side of a mater ial is subjected to a volumetric

stress of 50 N/ mm2 • What will be the change in its volume if the Bulk modulus of the m aterial
is lOO X 103 N/mm 2 • [ Ans. 4000 mm 3 ]
1'10. TENSILE TEST ON MILD STEEL
. !'vfikl steel is the m1tterial most commonly used in m achi ne members and in structural
~pplicat10ns. A specimen of circular section and of the shap e shown in F ig. 1·27 is cla mped
m the fixtures of a testing machine. Collars are provided at both the ends so that the specimen
~~ Fracture
Fig. 1'27
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28
is firmly fixed in the fixtures of the machine. t he cc11trai portibn, where section is uniform
is called the guage length. Then t he spt cuncn is gradually extended and the hiternal resi1;tailce
ofl'er'ed by the specimen (i.e., tensile load) gradually increases. During the init ial stage i.e.,
when p oc 8/, extensometer is used to measure very small changes in length. AfLer this stage,
vernier scale on the machine is used to measure cxteuj;ion. Load and extension are simul- .
taneously recorded t ill the specimen breaks into two pieces. P and 8/ are now plotted on a
graph taking suita ble scales. 0 to A is a straight line ; stress at A is called the limit of prl!)por-
tionality. The material obeys Hooke's law i.e.,
p oc. 8/
P 81
or A ocT
stress, f oc E, strain
/ = EE wher e Eis the Young's modulus of elasticity.
B is the elast ic limit, i.e., if the load is removed at thi s stage, strain will also return to
zero When the material is loaded beyond this stage, plastic deformation will occur in the
material, i.e., after the removal of the load, strain is not fully recovered and the r esidual
strain (0r deformation) remains in the materi al. From O to B, there is elastic stage and from
B to the point of fracture is the plastic stage.
Beyond B i.e. , at the point C, t here is considerable extension with decrease in internal
resistance. This is called the upper yield point and the stress at this point is called the upper
yield strength . At D again the internal resist aJ1ce of the material increases upto the point
E, i.e., the maximum load point. At this p oint, necking takes place in the specimen and
further extension t akes place in the vicinity of this neck. This point is also called the point of
plastic instability.
The stress at t he maximum load i.e., P.,,,.,/A is called ultimate tensile strength of the
material. At the p oint F , the test piece breaks making a cup and cone type of fracture as
sh own in the figure which is a typical fracture for a ductile material. The two pieces can be
joined together t o find out the diameter at the neck where the specimen has broken, say t4c
area at. the neck is a.
N ominal breaking strength
I
Load at fracture /
- A (original area of cross section)
. Load at fracture
Actual breakmg strength= ( f k)
a area o nee
Percentage reduction in areas
A-a
= - A- X lOO
81
Percentage elongation = - - X 100
1
where 8/ is the elongation upto fracture.
The specimen of mild steel suffers a considerable increase in length till it breaks. T his
type of material is called a ductile material. On the contrary, a brittle material like cast iron
fails after very small elongation .
In some ductile materials, which d o not exhibit a definite yield point, a proof stress
(at 0'2% strain) is determined to fi nd the onset of yielding (as shown in the figure).
Percentage elongat ion and percentage reduction in area give estimate about the ductility
of the material.
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Now for differ ent gauge lengtl\S and different areas of cross-section the percentage
elongation will be different and to draw a comparison between the ductility of various materials
becomes difficult. To avoid this difficulty, similar test pieces must be tested for all the
materials if the test pieces of same gauge length l and a1'ea A cannot be tested.
Barba has sho wn th.at extensio n upto the maxi11rnm load i.e. , 8/1 is proportional to the
length of the specimen and extension beyond maximum load a nd upto the point of fracture ie.,
M2 is proportional to VA, where A is the area of-cross section
8/1 ex: /
or = bl
8/2 cc -./A
= c-1 7r
T otal elongatio n, 8i=ol1 +812= ·bl+ cif A
Similar test pieces will h ave the sa me ratio of ...,-~ = -D{~, rt or DI ratio will be
25
the same for similar test pieces .
The constants b and c ar e call~d the Barba's co nstants.
Example 1'10·1. An aluminium a lloy specimen 12·5 mm dia meter and 5 cm gauge
length was tested under tension. During the first part of the test, following readings were
recorded
Load (kg) 0 750

I 1000
I 1250 1500
I
- -·~- - . .
1750 2000
Extension (mm) 0 '0327

I
'0450
I '0568 '0756
I
· 120 '216
Plot the load extension diagram and determing the following values :
1. Young's modulus of elasticity ;
2. Limit of proportionality ;
3. o·1% proof stress.
Solution. Diameter~of the specimen

= 12'5 mm= 1'25 cm
Area of cross section , A=; (1·25)2= 1'227 cm2 •
Graph is plotted between load in kg and extension in mm (taking suitable scales for
beth). Fro m the graph OA is a straight line and beyond the point A load-extension curve is
not a straight line. So the point A represents the limit for proportion ali~.
Taking a point C along the straight line
Load at C = 500 kg
p 500 2
Stress = A= 1.227 kg/cfn
81, extension at C = '022 mm
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ao STRENGTH OF M.ATEilIALS
0 022
Strain
=so
Young's modulus, E -_ -2QQ_
J'227 X 2Q_
·022 -_ 9'26 X 105 k g / cm .
2
_ 1250 _ .
Limit of proportionality - . -1018 75 kg/cm11 . (See the graph)
1 227
Guage length = 50mm
o· 1 percent extension - 50 x 0· 1 = 0'05 mm.

100
At 0·05 mm extension draw a line EB parallel to the straight line OA , intersecting the
load extension curve at the point B.
Load at point B = 1838 kg (from graph of Fig. l '28)
So o· 1% proof stress -- ~.
1 227
-
-1498 kg/ cm a.
2000
1S38
1750 -------- ·-- I
,B
I
I
roo 1250
Limit of I
I
I
I
I
I
I
0> 1000 I
-><
I
't, I
d 750 I
0
..J
I
500 p
I
250 I
I
1
dt
0 0~--~0~2~+~:-l:~--:!
.o~s-~-1~0---~12:--:
.,~4--.1~6:-~
.1s~-;o~-2,~o
-22
- - - - Extension (mm)
Graph P Vs f
1
Fig. 1'28
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Example 1'10-2. A specimen of an aluminium ~alloy 1·2 cm in diameter was tested

under tension. The linear strains parallel to the application of the force P and the lateral
strains measured with the help of strain gages, were as follows :
Pin kg 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3400 3600 3700 3800 3900 3950
-- -- -- -- - - - - -- -- -- -- - - - - - -
Linear
Strain € 1 0·343 0 692 l '03 1·39 1·72 2·07 2'40 2·734 3·53 4·30 4·90 5'65 6·95 8'40
( I X 10-3)
- -- - - - - -- - - -- -- -- -- - - - - -- - - - -
Lateral
Strain £ 2
(I X (0- 3)
0'108 0'217 0'322 0'435 0·541 0·650/0·754lo·s57 - - - - - -
Plot graphs: (i) P Vs. € 1 (ii) € 1 Vs. £ 2 and determine (a) Young's modulus of elasticity,
(b) Poisson's ratio, and (c) o·1% Proof stress.
,
Solution. Graphs have been plotted as P Vs. e 1 and e1 Vs. e 2 as shown in the
Fig. l "29.
4000
3500
3000
1 2500
P = 2 3 54 kg t
€ 1 = 2 X 103
1·0
-
"'
V
2000
:/
I. ..,
r 08
10
0
r
1500 0 ·6
u.. >< -3
€1 = l· 5 X 10
w"' 0·4 E2 = 0·475 X1ci3
500 /l
. I
I
0 ~-:r-::--~----":--':-..:....-'--
0 0 2 4 6 6 10 2 3
~ »---strai n ( € 1 r'"' -3 3
~~~-E,(1 X io ) ~
1000 X 10
Fig. 1·29
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32 S!~E~{GTH. OF. MATERIALS_
' th~ straight porJjon of the ctirve choose a point. P,

1a) On
where force P = 2354 kg
Strain,
Oi~!)1cter. of the t~.st piece = I ·2 ems
Area of cross section, A = _!:_ (1'2) 2 = 1'13cm 2

4
E= _!_ X ..l:_
A E1
2354. 103
=~ X2
= l·OS X 10 6 kg/cm2 .
(b) The slope of the curve between e: 1 and E2 will give "'ls the value of Poisson's ratio.
Choose any point K 0 :1 the straight graph, where
Lateral strain, e 2 = 0·475 x 10-3
Linear strain, e 1 =t·5 x 10- 3
1 0·475 10- 3
Poisson's ratio. ~ = ~- X
10_3 = 0'317 .
(c) Take 00' equal to o· 1°/r. strain or 1/ IOOQ. strain and from O' draw a line O'P'
parallel t o the ·straighf pot-tion of the grap h (P Vs. E 1) intersecting the graph at the point P'
where force P' = 3550 kgf ·
Area of cr oss section, A= 1:'l
r
3 cm2
P' 3550
0·1 % Proof stress = - A = - 1--·
· J3
= 3160 kg/cm2·
Example 1'10-3. A mild steel lest p iece of 20 cm gauge length is 111:uked off in 2
cm length and tested to destructi on. The extension in each marking rn eai;urcd from one
end is equal to 0·32-cm, 0 36 cm, 0'46 cm , 0·50 cm, o·96 cm, 0·34 cm, o :52 c:m, 0·44 cm, 0 36 ·
cm and 0·32 cm. ·
By using gauge lengths of 8 cm, 12 cm, 16 cm and 20 cm, respectively, explain the
effect of gauge -fengtµ on the percentage elpngation.
Solution. Gauge lengt]l, /1 = 20 cm
Change in length, S/1 = s:os cm
5
P.ercent elo.ngation, = ·og X 100= 25'4%
20 -
Gauge ·length, 12= 16 cm

Ch ange in length, U~= S-08- 0·32 - 0·32= 4·44 cm (considerin~ the ;1,iddle :portion)
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SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
3J
4'44 ·
Percent elongation = - 16- X 100= 27'75%.
Gauge length, /3 = 12 cm
Change in length, 8/3 = 4'44- 0' 36 - 0'36= 3·72 cm .
3·72
Percent elongation = ~ X l.00 = 31 % .
Gauge length, /~ = 8 cm
Change in length, a/~ = 3·72- '46- '44 ·= ?.'82 cm
Percent elongation
82
,o-, \ X 100 ·= 35'25% .
It can be concluded while viewing the effect o f g:wgc le,:gth on the percentage elonga-
tion, that the percentage elong,ttion goes o n increasing as the g wgc kngth is decrea'sed.
Example t ·to-4. A r.:,und specimen of wrought irnn, diameter 1·25 cm and gage
ength equal to 10 cm was tested in tens io n upto fracture. The observat ions taken were as
iollows :
Load at the yield point = 2'95 tonnes
Maximum load = 4'40 tonnes
Load at the time of fracture = 3'70 tonnes
Diameter at the neck = 0'92 cm
Extension upto the maximum loa<l point = 2' l cm
Total extension = 2'85 cm
From the above data determ ine (a) yield strength (b) ultimate strength (c) a ct1.1a l
,reaking strength (d) percent elongation for a test p iece cf gnug~ length I 5 cm and diameter
'.cm.
Solution. Diameter of the test piece , d= 1·25 cm.
Area of cross section, A = : x (l '25)~ = 1·226 cm 2.
_ Load at the yield point

Yield strength· - A
2·95
= 1.226 = 2'41 tonnes/cm2 •
Maximum load
Ultimate strength - A
=. 14·40
.
226
= 3·59 tonnesI cm-.•
Load at the time of fracture
Actual breaking strength=-= _ _ _A_r_e_a_a_t_t_h_e_n_e_c--c-k- -
3·7
-
y;'· {0'92) 2
4
= ~·57 tonncs/cm 2 ,
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34 STRENGTH OF MA TERI A LS
Extension in the test piece = bl+c4" X

=extension upto the point of the maximum load + further
extension
2'85=2'1 + 0·75
C onstants, b= I.l.=0·21
IO
0·75
and c= - -
,J A-
··· 0'75_ = 0'68.

,J 1·226
(b) R esults in ar,other p iece, whose gauge length is 15 cm and dia meter is 2 cm.
Si,~ce yield strength, ultimate strength, ~ctiial breaking strength :1:'.cl con stants b, c are
the properties of the materi al irrespective of the dimensions of the test piece , therefore
Yield strength =2'41 tonnes/cm 2
Ultimate strength = 3'59 tonnes/cm2
Actual breaking strength = 5·57 .tonnes/cm 2
.
Percentage eI ongat10n _ ( bl+c4°A)
/
x 100
1
= ( 0'21 + 0'
6
i8/--;-) X 100 Since A= ~ cm 2.
= 29'03%.
Exercise t·to-1. (a) In a tensile test on a specimen 12'5 mm diameter and 200 mm
gauge length, the following readinrs fl TC observed
1
Force in kg 1 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 ., 4000
Extension in ·001 X mm J 38 1
75 112·5 149 188 226 264 I 305--
Determine the Young's modulus of elasticity.
(b) Afterwards the sp!cim ~n w.ls tested to destruction and the maximum load recorded
was 6000 kg. The diameter at the neck was 7·5 mm and the length between the gauge markr.
was 260 mm. Determine the ultimate strength, percentage reduction ·in area and percenta:ge
elongation. fAns. (a) 2' 16 X I0 6 kg/cn;1 2 (b) 4880 kg/cm2, 63'9% , 30% ]
Exercise l '10-2. In a tensile test upto de~truction on the specimen of mild steel of
rectangular section 5 cm x l cm, the extensions measured on successive l cm length on 16 cm
gauge length are as follows :-
o· 11, o·l7, 0·18; 0·18 ; 0·19, 0·21, 0·21, 0·29; o ·63, 0'64, 0·28, 0·26; 0·19, 0·19, 0·11,
o·I7 cm.
Estimate the percentage elongation of a round bar of the rnme material having a
Jen~th IQ tip,.es the diameter, (.Ans. Barba'!i <;:on~tants b= 0· 11 1 c= 0'653 ; 22'82%]
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SIMl'LB STRESSES AND STRAINS 35
Exercise 1'10-3. A metallic specimen of diameter I 5 mm ,and gauge length JOO mm
is tested under tension upto fracture. The load at upper yield point is 6020 kg and · at breaking
point it is 6400 kg while the maximum load is 9300 ~g. Distance between the gauge marks
after the test is I 36'7 mm, and the minimum diameter at fracture is 9' 15 !mm. Determine the
following : -
(a) Yield strength.
(b) Ultimate tensile strength.
(c) Percentage elongation.
(d) Percentage reduction in area.
(e) Nominal and actua l stress at fracture .
[Ans. (a) 3406'9 kg/cm 3 (b) 5263'16 kg/cm 2 (c) 36'1% (d) .62'81 % (e) 3621'96 kg/
cm 3, 974 I ·25 kg/cm2 ]
Exercise 1·10-4. A test piece 10 mm di a meter was marked with 5 cm and 10 cm

gauge lengths and after fracture (which c,ccured r:car the middle section) the two lengths
measured were 6'5 cm and 12·50 cm. Calculate the pr o ba ble elongation for a test piece of the
same material with gauge length 15 cm and diameter 20 mm. [Ans. 3·999 cm]
1"11. STRAIN ENERGY AND RESILIENCE

In the previous articles we have studi ed about the nc,rm al stress and no rmal strain ;
shear stress and shear strain ; vo lumetric stress and volumetric str .iin. With in the elastic
limit, stress is d irectly proportio nal to strain.
q· ~
Li'' I ; .
l .
, . ' I ri, 'f)
~ -~.,, 1· .'....., !t - 1.1
r
.-, ! ' { .:J ___ _ ,_
·-- - I=:
rr; •n
- --··- · -"";-- ·~ ' .:..- -~V
• 1 ":· t SJ,:~J.r ... . ((;· ·, \'·' ! '..!rnc tr, c stro, n
\.: ( C)
Fig . 1·JO
Say a bar c'lrries a normal stress/ (tensile or compressive) producing a normal strain
E (extension or contraction). Then
r! ,;. ~train cm,rgy per unit volum.c; u'r i f. E
f 12
but E=E = 2E
Total strain e:1ergy, u., .,. {j;; X volume of the specimen. ·
(has the units' ·of work donc-N mm or kg cm

etc. etc.). ·
The strain ener gy, U absorbed by the speci~e~ is. also c d ied Resili"cnce. Because if a
material is loaded producing stress within the,_elast1c l1m1_t, the l whatever energy is absorbed
during loading, same energv is recover~d dunng unload!ng. Machine mcm b,ers . like springs
possess the property of resilience. As m the case of an internal combustion engine. during the
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STRENGTH OP MATERIALS
openin_g of inlet or exhaust valve, spring on the steh1 of the valve is compressed and when the
SJlr?ng rcJpases its energy the valve is closed.
Jhe maximum strain energy absorbed by the body upto its elastic limit is · termed as
, Proof Resilience.
Proof resilience l (f,A) ( I• . L )

2 E
. where /• . A.=Load at the elastic limit; P.
f, ·f =change in length upto the elastic limit, oL•

Proof resilience =iP, . 'BL..
Proof resilence per unit volume is called the Modulus of resilience.
i.e. Modulus of resilience= {~ where/• is the stress at the elastic limit as shown in
fig. l '30 (1a).
Similarly if one studies the relationship between shear stress q and shear strain ; ;
between volumetric stress p and volumetric strain Ee.
Shear strain energy per unit volume,
I _q:_
11 •= 2 q if, = 2G
Total shear strain energy,

q2
U, = X V.
20
Where q is the shear stress within the elastic limit and G is the Modulus of rigidity 01
Shear modulus.
Volumetric strain enr.rgy per unit volume,
1 p2
U~=2 p, Eu = 2K
~ Total volumetric strain energy,"

1 !i'. I 1 ,. ' p2
Ue= 2 K . V. • I
Where pis the pressure on the body·within its elastic limit and K is the Bulk modulu
and Vis the volume of the body . ·
E:J!:aµiple 1 · 11-1. A round bar of 15 mm diameter is subjected to a tensile force o

10 kN. If lepgth of t~e bar is 200 mm determine.
,,. C.~} SJrai~ ~.~Jrgy per unit;rqlume.
(ii) Tot;\1"-std fn energy. .
. '· 1;. ,· Giveµ elastic limit stress for the material ·
'' ; = 260 N/~m2
,I ){,Quvg's ruod~l1.i°s of e~4*ty, E= .2'10 x rto'op N/ mm2 .,j
·~"',~
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Solution. Diameter of the bar = 15 mm

Area of cross section,
10kN
15mmdia.---·- -..
A = ~ (! 5)2
=176"715 mm2 lOOmm---•~J

Length of the bar, Fig . 1·31
L=200 mm
Volume of the bar, l'"-176"715 x 200=35343 mm3
10 X 1000
Stress in the bar, 2
176 .715 =56"59 N/ rnm (less than the elastic limit
stres~ of 260 N/mm2)
Young's modulus, E=2l0 x 103 N/ mm 2
. . p (56-"59) 2
Stram energy per umt volume, U = 2E = i x iio x ioa
= 7"62 x lo-• N/mm 2 per unit volume

Total strain energy absorbed by the bar,
U=x {~ x volume
= 7"62 x 10-3 x 35343 = 269'3 Nmm= 0"269 Nm.
Example 1"11-2. A rectangular block

of 80 mm x 60 mm x 40 mm fixed . at the ~·ornm--j
bottom edge is subjected to a shear force of
240 kN at the top surface as shown in Fig . _, T
l "32. Considering that shear stress is propor- 40mm
tional to shear strain, determine.
(1) Shear angle¢ .
(2) Shear strain energy for unit :.
volume.
(3) Total shear strain energy for the
block.
Given G, modulus of rigidity
= 840 x l0 2 N/mm2 · Fig. 1·32
Solution. A, Area of the surface on which shear force is applied

= 60 x 40= 2400 mm2
Shear fo.ce, F= 240 kN
Shear stress, F .240 x 1000

q=A = .2400 100 N /mui2
Modulus of rigidity 2
= ?40x 10 N/mm2.J
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q 100
Shear strain,
r/, = c = 840x 100
J:
=
1.d.
840
,ra 1an=
1
840
n
x 180degree
..
. ="068°.
One can realise that the shear angle r/i is very very small.
q2 . lOO x· IOO 1 ,
11
•= 2G, = 2 X 840 X 100
= ·059 N/ mm 2 per unit volume.
Volume of the block, V=80x 60 x 40 = 192 x 10a mm•
~
U, = . ~ X V ="0590X 192 X 103

2
= 11"424 k Nmm=ll"424 Nm.
Example 1·11-3. A spherical ball of aluminium· of diameter 100 mm' is subjected to

a hydrostatic pressure of 90 N/mm'. It has been observed that p·r essure is directly proportional
to the change in volume. Determine
(I) Volumetric strain
(ii) Vohimetric strain energy per unit volume
(iii) Total volumetric strain energy. •j, ;
... ;
Giyen Bulk modulus for aluminium= 65 x 10 3 N /mm2
Sol~don. Pressure,
\ ·. ' p = 90 N/mm 1 :_A l µmi ~•··; n
:; ph ( ': s
·Bulk modulus, K ' ,
= 65 ~ 101 N/ mm 2
Volume of the sp·h~re, ,
31
'\. 1 V - nD _ " >< (100 mm) 8
\' - 6 :- 6 .
' i
,. -= 0·5236·x 106 mma.
(i) Volumetric strain
Ev = i 9tlN/mm2
90 Fig. 1·33
= 1·3846 x l,(P 1
65 X 103 -
(ii) Volumetric strain energy per unit volume,

· p 2 ' ,. 90 X.90 ,..
Uv = 2K = 2 x 6s x ·1os
\ . ! •
= ·062·3 N/mrri.'2 per unit volume. ·
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(iii) Total volumetric strain energy,

2
U,= fK X V='0623 X' 5236 X JO&
= 32620 Nmm=32'62 Nm.
Exercise 1"11-1. A circular bar of copper 16 mm diameter and length 200 mm is sub·
j~cte.1 t1 a C):n?r-!ssivl! force such that its length is reduced by o· 1 mm. Determine
(i) Stress developed in bar
(ii) Strain energy per unit volume
(iii) T,)t:tl stnin energy fo r the bar.
Given E=lOO x }03 N / mm 2
[Ans. (i) 50 N / mm 2 (ii) 12'5 x i0-3 N/ mm2 (iii) 502'650 Nmm]
Exercise 1·11-2. A rectangular block of aluminium fixed on one plane is subjected

to a shear stress q on the opposite plane. Jf the shear a ngle is 1/20 degree, determine
(i) Shear stress q
(ii) Shear strain energy per unit volume
Given G= 500 X 10 2 N/ mm 2
[Ans. (i) 43.633 .N /mm 2 (ii) 0'1 90 N/mm 2 ]
Exercise J·lt-3. A spherical ball of volume o·s x 106 mm 3 is subjected to pressure

p such that its v,•lume is reduced by 200 mm 3. ff the bulk modulus = 170 x 10 3 N/ mm 2,
determine
(i) Pressure p
(ii) Strain energy per unit volume
(iii) Total volumetric strain energy.
f Ans. (i) 68 N / mm 2 (ii) 13'6 N/ mm 2 (iii ) 6800 N mm]
1·12. SUDDEN LOAD

When a force P on a body is gradually increased, its change in length 3/ also gradually
increases and the strain energy absorbed = 1/2 Pd/. But when whole of the load suddenly
acts, change in the length of also suddenly
takes place. This type of load is called a
sudden load. As a n example say a load W c,,
u
is being lowered on to a platform and at C
Cl
the instant when the load is very near the
platfo rm, suddenly the rope breaks, then
whole of the load W suddenly acts on the
platform producing 8/ change in its length.
r· ·. .'\'.
The load may act suddenly but the
internal resistance of the body gradually C
increases from zero to the maximum value
Work done on the body by sudden
load = W.U ( !·
Strain energy of the body= 1/2 R.~/ Fig. 1·34

where R is the internal resista nce
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For equilibrium 1/2 R.31= W.81

Internal resistance, R= 2 W
Stress developed due to sudden load
R 2W
,, J,vdd t n = -A =-A-
where A is the area of cross section
fs11dde11= 2 /gradual
where ~ is the st1ess when load Wis gradually applied,
Example·l'l2-l. Water under a pressure of 6 N / mm2 is suddenly admitted on a

plunger of diameter 100 mm. The plunger is attached to a connecting rod 25 mm diameter
and 5 metres long. Determine the value of the stress develc,ped suddenly and dtfo1mation o t
the rod. £ = 210 X 103 N/ mm 2 •
Solution.
Water pressure, p = 6 N / mm 3
Plunger diameter, D= 100 mm
Area of cross-section of plunger,
A=~ (100) 2 = 7854 mm 2
4
Sudden load on plunger,
W= pA = 6 X 7854= 47124 N
Diameter of connecting rod
= 25 mm
Area of cross section of connecting rod
A'= : (25)2 = 490'875 rnm 2
Stress developed in rod d\le ,to sudden load W

2W 47124 X-2
fmdden=-;r, =
490 . 875 = 192 N /mm
2
Length of the rod = 5000 mm

Sudden deformation in rod
- f,,. ,,,n X /
- E
192 .
= fO X 103 X 5000 = 4 57 mm . . Ans.
2
Exercise 1·12-1. An axial load of 20 tonnes is suddenly applied on a bar of 8 cm

diameter. Find
(i) Maximum instantaneous stress
(ii) Maximum instantaneous elongation if bar is 2m long.
(iiven £ = 2080 tonnes/cm 2
. [Ans. (i) 0'7958 t onne/cm2 (ii) ·07~5 cm]
I
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1'13. IMPACT LOADS
Whenever a load with some velocity

acts on a body, it is said to be an impact
load or a shock load. In other words the load
possesses some kinetic energy which is utilised
in the deformation of the bcdy. As an
example, a blacksmith gives blow or the
shock load to the hot iron with the help uf a
hammer striking the iron with some velocity.
L
Consider a rod of area of cr( ss sectic,n
A and length L fixed at one end and having
a collar at the other end. A weight W sliding
rL,----L~l
freely on the bar is dropped on to the collar,
through a height h as shown in the Fig. l '35.
The weight arrested by the collm· produ ces
an instantaneous elongation 'Bl in the bar. Say
at this instant stress developed in the bar is S'f /""f' _ _ _ _ _ _ Colla r-
fa and E is the Young's modulus of elasticity
of the material of the bar.
Fig. 1·35
Potential energy lost by the weight
= W(h + SI)
Strain energy absorbed by the bar
:--= { ; x Volume of the bar

2
= fi XAL
2E
For equilibrium
fi2
W(/1 + 81) = E X AL
2
fi2
Wh+ W81= £ X AL. .. . (I )
2
Instantaneous elongation can be exp1·cssed in terms of instantaneous stress as follows :

IJ/= instantaneous strain (€1) x /
- f, X L
-- E
Equation (1) can now be written as
Wh+W{L = {~ x AL ... (2)
Multiplying throughout by ~1 we get
2WhE + 2Wfi /ti , .. (3)

4L A ·
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42 ~TJ_lCNGTH OF MHERIAI,S
The va lue <,f/1 will be

w I w2 2/zEW
/t= + -;r ± ~ A2 +-:;u:-
=~
A
+ J W2
A
2
+ W X 2hE
A L
(Negative sign is ir.admissihlc ns the stress can not be com-
p·,·essive \\ hen the bar gets elongated) · ·- ·
/t=~+~J I+A A
2EA/z
WL
Instanta neous stress, f. - ~A [JI +2EWALh . J

lnstantaneous elongation
\\
olt= E
A XL
In case h= O, it becomes a sudden load
fmdde11= -~ [ 1+ ../ l + O ]=2::_1 as proved in the article 1'12.

Exa.rnple 1'13-1. A steel bar 10 mm in diameter and 150 cm long is stressed by a
weigth of 12 kg dropping freely through a height or 5 cm before co mmencing to stretch the
bar. Find the maximum instantaneous stress and i1~siantaneous elongation.
£ = 2 100 tonnes/cm 2 •
Solution. Diameter of the bar,

d= lO mm = l cm
TI: TI:
Area of cross section, A= - X d 2= - X (I )2 = 0'7854 cm 2
4 4
Length of the bar, L = l50 cm
Height through which load foils,
/, = 5 cm
Falling load , W= 12 kg
Young's modulus, E =-.., 2100 x 1000 kg/cm 2
Maximum instantaneous stress,
r.
Jt
= !Y_[
A _
I+ \ / ~ +2 EAh
WL
J
_ 12 [ i+.I 1+ 2 x 2100 ~ 10oo x ·7854 x 5]
- - 0' 7854 "V 12 X 150
= 15'279 [L + ../ 1+ 9163]
= !S-279 [l + 95'73]= 1477·:)3 kg/r.; m 2
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s1~1Pi:-e sfitEssEs ANo siRAiNs
Elongat16n in' tlie bar, 8/1 :.c { xL

1477'93
= 2100 x 1000 x 150 = '1055 cm.
Exercise 1'13-1, A brass bar of cross sectional area 80 mm 2 and 2000 mm long is
fixed at one end a nd at the other end of the bar, a coll ar is provided. A weight 50 N drops
freely through a height of 25 mm on to the collar. Determine the instantaneous stress and
instantaneous elongation developed in the bar.
Ebrass= I00 X 1000 N/ mm 2 • [Ans. 40'158 N/!nm 2 , '803 mm]
1 '14. STRESS CONCENTRATION IN MEMBERS UNDER TENSILE F'oRCE
Uptil now we have studied that stress is defined as the load lpcr unit area and we
have assumed that stress is uniform. But if a rapiJ change in cross section occurs I along the
length of the member as shown in Fig. 1'36, the stress will no longer be uniform. The Fig.
Secti o n
-1 f 2 f.:.
Stress distribution
al·on·g section" b·.:..b
Sl ress di.st r lbu'tion
olo'ng·, s r e tion o·-a·
Fig. 1·36
shows a bar of two different diameters D and d subjected to a tensile force P. As per tlie
definiti on, the stress in sect ion l is 4P/ r.D 2 and the stress in secti'on t is 4P/ rrd2 but what
about the stress al'ong· th~ sectiuit" a-a where tlie area of cross section has abruptly changed
from tt/4 D2 to it/4 c/2. The stress distribution along this section is not uniform' and is of the
shape shown in the Fig: There are variou s methods such as photoelasticity, strain gauges,
theory of elast:icity, finite element- method which can be employed to determine this stress dis-
tribution.- But the treatment of these topics is beyqnd the scope of this book. The maximum
stress occurs at sharp corners as shown '• 01· in. other words stress is . con.c entrated in sharp
corners, fillets etc. The b 1r will tend to fall along this sharp corner under tensile loading.
Stress concentration factor
= -,-- - - -Maximum stress
·- -- -,-,:----- ,--
Average stress at minimum section
=/,nn•
~ (as shown)
To avoid or to reduce th~ effect of stress concentration, large fillet ra dius should be
provided at the corner so that tlie.. stt·ess gt'adu:i lly i1icreases fro m [ 1 to / 2 .
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44 STRENGTH OF MAtER.IAtS
(a) Sma11 elUptical hole in a plate. Stress distribution along the axis of the ellipse
has been theoretically determined using the principles of theory of elasticity. Maximum stress
would occur at the ends of the semi major axis a, as shown in the Fig. 1"37.
t
s-
·;,·
( Q) ( b) ( C )
Fig. 1·37
Stress concentration factor,

2
SCF= l + a
b
where a = Semi major axis
b= Semi minor axis of the ellipse.
Note that SCF increases rapidly as b goes on decreasing i.e., when instead of an
elliptical hole, there is a fine crack, SCF becomes very high. Similarly as a decreases, SCF
goes on decreasing i.e , a longitudinal crack (along the direction of load) has no stress
concentration.
(b) Circular hole at the centre of the plate. Again the results have bee11 obta ined
theoretically by theory of elasticity and experimentally by photoelasticity for the SCF at the
edge of a circular hole in a plate. Fig. 1·37 (b).
R/B 0" 167 o· 1 ·05
SCF 2·25 2"46 2·97
R is the radius of the hole, B is the width of the plate. In this case the limiting value' of ·
SCF is 3 i.e., for a large plate having a small circular hole.
(c) Edge fillets. Theory of photoelasticity has been med to determine SCF ·in the
case of a bar having a fillet radius Rat the corner. Fig. 1·37 (c). ;
R /B 0·333 0·222 o· 143 0'083
SCF 1·25 1·5 1"65 1"8-
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SlM~j:,E STRESSES AND S!RAJNS 45
These values of SCF for vanous cases h ave been obtained by considering that the
material is loaded within the elastic regi on.. But for a ductile material, if the yielding occurs
then redistribution of stresses takes place and the SCF is reduced.
1'15. FACTOR OF SAFETY

We have learnt uptil now that the stress in a m ember is calculated o n the basis of
(i) type, magnitude and position of the applied load (ii) dimensions of the member and
(iii) properties of the mater ial. But in p ractice, all these factors are not accurately known
and as a result correct value of stress occuring on a member is not determined.
There are various types of loads such (a) static load or dead load or a gradually and
slowly applied load (b) sudden load (c) impact load (dJ a lternating load, when the magnitude
of the load changes cyclically. Many a times the load is assumed to be co ncentrat ed at a p oint
and while in som e applications load is assumed to be distributed over an area.
rn some machine membe rs there may be abrupt change in dimension, sometimes under
the compulsion of design details and it is not possible to correctly find out the effect of stress
concentration.
Moreover the materi a l is assumed to be isotropic and ho mogeneou s while the material
may be containing internal defects, sharp cuts etc. Such as in casting, the m ater ial may have
internal defects such as blow holes which may act as ar eas of stress concentration.
The material may not be obeying Hooke's law. Brittle materials like cast iron, concrete
etc., if they are assumed to obey Hooke's Jaw, then serious err ors m ay be. introduced into the
calculations for the stresses.
All the factors expla ined above influence the stress-stra in behaviour of the material
and in many applications determination of the correct value of stress occuring at a critical
section becomes somewhat complicated. Under t hese circumstances a factor of safety is taken
and an a llowable stress on the material is decided such thateven when all these factors have
n ot beea accounted for, the material is not goi ng to fa il.
Ultimate stress
Factor of safety = working stress or al-lo-w
-ab_l,_e_s_t-re_s_s·
For general engineering applications, the factor of safety is taken frc m 3 (for dead
loads) t o 12 (for shock loads). The value of the ultimat e stress is determined through a test on
the specimen of the material.
Many a times the factor of safety is decided on the basis of yield stress because at the
yield point, the material ceases to obey Hooke's law and on the removal of the load, irrecover-
able strains remain in the m aterial. Moreover the material is assumed to fail at the yield
point because of considerable strain without much increase in load.
Exarnple 1·15-1. The ultimate tensile strength of mild steel is 450 N/mm2. A tie
bar of equal-angle section has to carry an axia l load of 200 kN. The m .;an thickness of
angle sector is 10 mm. T aking factor of safety as 5, determine the dimensions of the angle-
section.
Solution. Ultimate tensile strength ILlOmm
= 450 N/ mm2 -11-
Factor of safety =5
Working stress =s
450
=90 N/ mm2
Say the length of equal angle section
ILi,omm
}+-L-~ T .•
Fig. 1 38
=L mm(as shown in Fig. l '38)
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S't'RENGTH OF MATEUAUS
A, Area of cross section .

= L x lO+ (L-10) x 10 mm 2 (neglecting rounding of corners)'
= 20 L - 100 mm2
P, Axial load on tie bar
= 200 kN= 200 x 1000 N
P 200 x 1000
Work,ing.stress = A = 20L- lOO 90 (as given)
01; I· 200,000 = 1800 L-90,00

1800 L = 200,000-9,000 = 191,000
191 ,000
,. L= = 106' 11 mm say 107 mm .
1800
The equal angle secti on is 107 mm x i07 mm x 10 mm.
Exer.c ise 1 '15-1. A. short strut is of
,.._,so·~ m-~ ·_t
seeti-0n· 15@', mm x 80 mm x 10 mm. 1f it
carries a load of 150 kN, find the compressive
T .
· ,-: 10mm
stress in the strµt. If the ultimate crushing
stress for the material is 500 N/mm 2, what is 80mm I
tµe factor of safety ? The section is shown in L _
the.Fig~
,, l '39. [Ans. 68' 18 N/ mm2; 7' 33] ~tm
m
Fig. J·39
Problem. 1·1. Two parts of a certain
machine component are joined · by , a rivet of
2 cm - diameter. ·. Determine the shear and
normal stresses i1t the rivet if the axial force
P = l tonne, and the angle of the joint is 50° to
the axis of the load (See Fig. 1·40). Fig,- 1·40
Solution. Force, P= 1000 kg
Angle IX= 90°-50°= 40°
N6rmal force on the ri:vet,
· · Pn= P:cos ix.= 1000 x cos 40°= 765 kg
Shear force on the rivet,
Pa= P sin IX= 1000 X sin 40°=642'5 kg.
Diameter of the rivet, d- 2 cm.
Area of cross section oHhe rivet,
A= ; d 2 = 3·14 cm2
Normal stressrin·the rivet,

Pn _ 765 _
fn = A - • 141 243 kgf.cm2
3
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SJMP,l.,E SJ'RESSI:S AND STRAINS 47
Shear stress in the rivet, (in single shear)

42 5
I'=
.1, A =..?3'14'
Z• =204'5 kg/cm2 .
Problem 1 ·2. A solid circular
shaft of diameter 120 mm has a collar of
20 mm thickness as shown in Fig. 1'41. The P= 250 kN
shaft is subjected to a compresssive force of
250 kN. Determine
(i) Compressive stress developed in
the shaft.
(ii) Shear stress developed in collar
section.
Solution. Diameter of the shaft
= 120 mm
Area of cross section of shaft
= : (120) 2
'
= 11309'76 mm2 Fig. 1·41
Compressive force = 250 x 1000 N
Compressive stress in shaft
_ 250000 _ 22 . 10 N/ 2
-- 11 309'76 - mm·
This force Pacts as a shear force along the circular section aa of diameter 120 mm
and thickness 20 mm.
Area of cross section of collar under shear
= 1t x 120 x 20 = 7539'8 mm 2
Shear force = 250 X 1000 N

Shear stress in collar section
250000 _ . N/
= -7539·8 - 33 15 mm ·
2
Problem 1'3. The Fig. l '42 shows a tie bar 25 mm in diameter carrying a load which
causes a stress of 120 N /mm 2 • The t ie bar is attached to a cast iron bracket with the help of
4 bolts which can be stressed only upto 90 N/ mm 2 ? Determine the diameter of the bolt.
Solution. Tie bar is attached to the
cast irnn bracket with the help of four bolts as
shown.
Stress in tie bar = 120 N/mm 2
bar
Di ;1.meter of tie bar p
= 25 mm
Area of cross section of tie bar
= 47t (25)2
'Bolts
""'
= 490, 875 mm2
Tensile force in tie bar, Fig. 1'42
P= 120 X 490'875
= 58905 N
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Tensile force on each bolt

= : -= !
58 05
= 14726.25 N.
Allowable stress in each bolt
= 90 N/mm :i
So area of cross sect ion of each bolt
1
= ~~?'~? = 163'625 mm 2
90
Say diameter of each bolt =d
So ....!:.. d 2 = 163'625
4
d 2= 163'625 X 4 = 208'333
...
Diameter of each bolt,
d= 14'434 mm.
Problem t ·4. Three wooden pieces of square cross section 4 cm x 4 cm n.re glued
together as shown in Fig. 1'43. The outer surfaces of the assembly are glued to the
foundation. What will be the average shearing stress in the glued joints if the horizontal
force P = 4000 kg.
d----'--
.,
+.,
•
Fig. 1·43
Solution The cross sections A-A and B-8 carry the shear stresses due to the load P.
Area of cross section of the glued joints
= 12 X4= 48 cm 2
Shear force, ? = 4000 kg '
Average shear stress in the glued joints
= 24000 - 4t·67 k g /Ctn2 .

X 48 -
Problem t·5. A round brass bar as shown in the Fig. 1·44 is subjected to a tensile
force of 50 kN. What must be the diameter at the middle portion if the stress there is not to
exceed 160 N/mm2. What should be the length of this middJe portion if 1he total extensioQ in
the bar is 2)(j mm. ~= 100.x JOOO N/ mm2 , ·
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49
' •• .f ~ : ,'' • :
p -&- 1 - - - - --- ..L----"""'1 P: 50 kN

E
- E - - - - d --
o
-.-
--- -- f - - - - -
Fig. 1·44
'~
Solution. Say the diameter at the middl e portion = d mm .
Area of cross section
Stress in the middle portion

= 160 N/mm2
So 160 x 0·7854 d 2 = 50 x 1000
q 50000 .
d" = 160 X 0·7854- = 397 886
Diameter of middle portion,

d = 19·947 mm
Area of cross section = 3 12"5 mm 2
Say che length of middle portion
= / mm.
Area of cross section of o uter po1'tion
J;
= 4 (40) 2 = 1256"64 rnm 2
. he outer porti.on = -50i X 1000 39 788 N/ mm?

Stress mt
1 56.64 = ·
Total change in length 160 x / + 39 ·788 x (300 - /)_= .
0 36
E E
160 / -j- 11936'4- 39'788 I = 100 X 1000 X 0'36 = 36000
120·212 / = 24063"4
24063'4
I = 120'212
Length of the middhi portion

= i ()o·17 m,rn,
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50 . STRENOTJl OF MATElllA~S
Problem t·6. A rigid pl:tte l m~ is P :100 kg
supported on 4 equal elastic legs A, B, C and

D as shown in the Fig. 1·45, A load of 100 kg
is applied on the plate at a distance of 40 cm
from edge AD and 25 cm from edge AB as
sho wn. D etermine the magnitude of the com-
pressive forces in each leg.
Solution. Say the compressive force

in the legs is R,1, Rs, Re and Ro respectively.
Then total vertical load

= total r eactio ns from supports
R,. + R o+ Re+ Rn= IOO kg. ... ( I )

Taking moments of the forces about the edge AB
100 X25 = 100 Ro -f-- 100 Re
or 25 = Rn+ Rc. ... (2)
Taking m oments o f the forces about the edge AD
100 X 40 = 100 Rs + IOO Re
or 40 = Rn + Rc. ... (3)
Now the plate A BCD is a rig id p late and it is not going to bend, i.e. it will remain in
one p1a ne. Or in other words
Mean change in lengths o f A and C legs
= Mea n change in lengths of Band D legs
Say a = area of cross section o f each leg.
E = Y oung's modulus of elasticity of legs
/ = length o f each leg
R A! Rd Rb/ R oi
Then
aE + aE = aE + a E
or R,. + Re= RJ1 + Ro . .. . (4)
or RA+ Rc=50 kg. ... (5)
Rs+ Rn = 50 kg. ... (6)
From equations (2) and (3) substracting equation (2) from equation (3)
Rs-Rn= 15. . .. (7)
Fro m equations (6) and (7)
Compressive force in
leg B, Rs= 32' 5 kg
leg D, Rn= 11'5 kg
leg C, Re =25 - R o = 7·S kg
le~ A, R,4 = 59 -7·5= 42'5 k~. · . ·,
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SIMPLE STRESSES AND ST RA INS ;f
Problem 1'7. Two rigid yokes P & Q
are connected by three elastic rods A, B
and C made of the same material as shown
in the Fig. 1'46. The area of cross section of
bars A and C is a, while the area of cross
section of the bar B is 2a. A load of 1200
kg h angs from the lower yo ke. Find the
magnitude of the forces in the bars A and C,
and in two portio ns of bar B. The frame is
symmetrical about the central rod B, which
is passing through a horizontal bearing as
shown.·
Solution Say tensile forces developed

in bars A, Band C ar e TA, T» ', T»" (in two
portions) and Tc as shown.
Considering the equilibrium for yoke P

TA+ T»' + Tc = O ... (1)
C o nsidering the equilibrium o f forces at yoke Q

TA + T»"+ Tc = 1200 kg ... (2)
Say E= Young's modulus of the material of the rods. Since the yokes arc rigid, elonga-
tion in each bar will be the same i.e.,
8IA = 8!» = 8lc
"SIA= TA x 30 .. . (3)
aE
"Sic = Tc X 30
aE ... (4)
"8/» = T»'x IO _ T»"X 20

2aE -1 2aE ... (5)
Since the rods A and C are sy mmetrically placed about rod B and their area, of cross
section is the same.
TA=Tc, 8IA=8lc
So from equation ( l) and (3)

T»'= -2TA
Tn"= 1200-2TA= I200+Ts'
or Tn"-Ts'= 1200 .. (6)
30 TA Tn'X JO Tn"X 20
-;y-= 2aE + 2aE ... (7)
30 TA = 5Tn'+ IOT»" ... (8)
•• I ••
But Ts"= l200 + Tn ' from equa tio n (6)
So 30 TA = 5Tn' + IO ( I200 + Tn' )
30 T a= .lST» '+ J-2000 .. . (9)
From equation ( l) 2T,. = - T »'
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'srRENGt :H OF MAfERlALS-
Substituting in equation (7) we get

30TA = -30TA+ 1200()
T A= 200 kg= Tc
Tir'= t- 2X200= - 400 kg
T»"= 1200- 400 = 800 kg from equation (6)
Fordes in ~ars are TA = Tc = 200 kg
Ts'=-400 kg
Probleni 1·s. Fo·r the structure shown, member AC is a steel wire 3 mm in diameter
nnd member AB is an aluni.inium rod 15 mm in diameter, supporting a vertical load P = 200 N.
Determine the horiiontal and vertical displacements of the point A if ·
E for steel =210 x 103 N/mm2
':. E for aluminium = 70 X 103 N/mm2 •
Solution. Figure 1·47 shows an

aluminium bar and steel wire carrying the load C
P= 200 N . If the force polygon is drawn for
the point A; ,as shown in the Fig. l '47. ,
P: ~ 8 2 8 N
Tension in steel wire = 282'8 N.
200 N
Compressive force in aluminium rod wire
4 s·
= 200'8 N.
~-----'1'- .,,_A
,..._ 200 N
Extension in steel wire Force Polygo r.
282'8 X length of steel wire Bj ~Alumi nium bar
S m--.,..
= Area of cross section X E, P " 200 N
Length of steel wire
Fig. 1·41
= 5-v2= 5 X 1'414= 7'07 m
= 7070 mm
1;
Area of cross section = (3)2 =7·~685 mm2
4
Extension in steel wire 282'8 X 7070
7'0685x210 x 1000 = 1·347 mm
Length of aluminium rod = 5000 mm
Area of cross section of aluminium rod
Contraction in aluminium rod

200 X 5000 · 200 X 5000
116'1 X Eu = 176·7 x 70x 100 - '080 mm,
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SlMl'LE STRESSES AND STRAINS 53
Displacements at point A
080 mm
- - - ~ 1 3 4 7 C o s 4 5• = 0 9 5) c ontract i on in
~
o lum ·1n ium rod
~
1. J47 Si n ~~
1· 34 7m m ( ~xtension ste e l w, n )
: 0-952
Fig. 1-48
Vertica l displacement of point A

= 0·952 mm .j,
Horizontal displacement of point A
= 0'952-0'080 = 0'872 mm. ---

Probem 1'9. The cross section of a bar is given by (169 + 0·01 .x:i) 111111 2 where xis the
distance from one end in mm. If the length of the bar is 200 mm, find lhe change in length
· under a load of 5 kN.
E= 2 X 10 5 N/ 111111~.
Solution. Considering a small length dx at a distance of x mm from cne end.

Area of cross section = (169 + ·01 x2 ) mm2
Load = 5 kN
5000
Stress, / ,,= (l 69 + 0·o I x 2 )
5000
Strain, E(l69 + 0·01x2)
<=:i: =
. 5000 dx
Change 111 lengt~ over dx= E(l69 + o·o ix 2)
200
. f 5000 dx
Total change m length, of= J 2 x 105 -(-1-69-+---=-o.-:-O-lx__,.2,_
)
0
200
- = 2·s x 10- 2 r dx
j (L69+ o·Olx2)
0
200
-- 2·5 X 10-2
.
f0"0:-1:--:-(--,-16dx:-:-9-00_+_x_z_)
. 0 . -
200
1 •
=2'5 x
I130 tan- 1
1:0 I
0
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= 2 '5 X l X t 200
130- an
-1
130
Probtem 1·10. Determine the reduction in length in a circular tapered steel bar with
a cylindrical hole under a compre5sive force P= 40 kN as shown in the Fig. J '49.
E = 2IOO X 100 N/ mm2 . '
Solution. Consider the two portions

AB and BC separately. r, - ~,r---rc-.
Portion AB A - =---· 1- ~
p /, 0 ;, "
- - -- t.Omm.p.__...____
Diameter at A = 60mm
100+ 60 ' IOOmn •
Diameter at B - 2
80 mm
Length AB
Force
= IOO
P =40 kN
mm
l,oomm -~ :t~-L
, Contraction in the length AB, Fig. 1·49
4PL
4 X40 X lOOO X 100

= ~ x 60 x80 x 2 L~O x 100
o·oosos mm.
Portion BC
Consider an elementary ring of length dx at a distance of x from B.
100-80
Diameter at x, D.:=80 + Xx
100
= (80+ 0·2x)
,; 'IT \
Area of cross section, A.:= (80 + 0·2x) 2 - , (40)2
4 4
• = ~ [80 + 0·2x+40][80 + o·2x-40]
= ~ (120+ 0·2.1)(40+ 0·2x)
= ~ (0 '2)2[600 + x][200+x]
= ~ [600+x][200+x]
10
P 40 X 1000 X 100.
Stress, f• = -Z = ,;[600+x][200+x]
Strain, E.: = {
Change in length over dx= E.: • dx
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SIMPLB STRESSES AND STRA INS 55
Total change in length for BC,

100
°8/2= J Er dX
0
100
= J-=--c-_4_x_l0-==d_x_ __
6
rr E f600 + xl[200+ x]
0
=
4 X I or.
rt X 2 100 X 100
JOO
f
J
1 [
400
1 l
200 + x - 600 + x
Jd:a
0
100
= 2 ~rt \ in (200 +x)- ln (600+x) I

0
= _ !__ ( In 300 - In 700 )

21n 200 600
1 3 6 1 9
= 21n: ln 2X7 = 21n In 7
l
= ~ X 0"2515 = 0"00381 mm
Total change in length =0·00505+0·0038 I

= 0·00886 mm (contraction).
Problem 1·11. A load W is suspended by ropes as shown in Fig. 1·so. In case (a)
a rope of ar<!a of cross section 400 mm2 passes over a µd ley of diameter 200 mm and its ends
are connected to the ceiling as shown. The p ulley carries a load of 2000 N. In case (h), load
D
~ .,/.
~ Dr
r,
Sm
l,I
A
5 rr,
t.m t,m zoo

mm
L' 1: ,'_l
T
( (;l)
W: 2000N W:2000 N
( !.l)
..
Fig. 1'5Q
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of 2000 N is suspended at a bar attached to the ropes of area of cross section 400 ·mm 2 and
lengths 4 m and 5 m respectively as shown. The load is suspended in such a manner that
the bar remains horizontal in bot h cases determine the stress in the ropes and downward
movement of the pulley and the bar. E = 210 x 103 N/ mm 2 •
Solution. In case (a ) there is a continuous rope from ABC to D. The load W

produces tension T = W/2 in both the portions.
Length of the rope, /= 4000 + 5000 + n x R
where R is the r adius of the pulley.
= 9000+ n x 100 = 9314'16 mm
W T
Stress in the rope J= -2 -area
- ,...,, -area = -1000
-- = 2'5 N/ mmi
400
Change in leng th of the rope,
J 2·5
= E X I= 2IO X IOOO X 9314'16
= 0'11088 mm
Downward movement of pulley
= o·11088
2
= '05544 ·mm.
In case (bl the length of the ropes AB and CD are different, but the bar RC is to
remain horiz01 ta l i <'., the change in length in bo th the ropes is the same
i.e., 0/1 = 8/2
E1 X l1 = E:2 X 12
wher e E 1 and £ 2 are strains in AB and CD
or "i x 4000 = e- 2 x 5000
E1 = 1·25 E: 2
_ /1 _ /2
But E"1- E' E:2 - - E-
or iL = 1·25 ! 2__ Both th e ropes of the same material.

E E
or /1 = 1·25 /2
Tension in rope I + tension in rope 2=
W= 2000 N
or T 1 + T 2 = 2000 N
/ 1 A+ f 2 A= 2000 N
/ 1 X 400+ / 2 X 400= 2000 N
Ji +J; = 5
or 1·25/1 + / 2 =5 N /mm 2
/ 2 = 2·222 N/ mm 2
2
/ 1 = 2'777 N/mm
Stress in rope AB = 2·777 N / 111111 2

Stress in rope CD = 2'222 N / IT\1112
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Downward displacement of bar BC= 811 = 'iii~
= 1 X /1
2·777 .
x x 4000 = 0 0529 mm.
(• 210 1000
Problem 1·12. A steel wire 5 mm in d ia meter is used for hoisting purposes during
construction of building. If 100 m length of the wire is hang ing vertically aud a load of
0'6 kN is being lifted at the lower end of the wire, determine the .total elongation of the
wire. Given specific weight of stecl = 0'008 kg/cm=i.
£ = 210 x 1000 N/mm 2 •
Solution. Diameter of wire,

d=5 mm
n
Area of cross section, A= (5)2 = l 9'635 mm 2
4
l ength of steel wire, I= 100 m = IOO X 1000 mm
Load, W= 0'6 kN = 600 N
E=-~210 x 1000 N/mm 2
? loi;igation in wire due to load W,

·w
'ii/1 =- !IE X i
600 X l 00 X 1000
= l.9'635 X 2 10 X 1000 =~ l 4 'S 5 l mm. · I '
D ens ity of steel =o·oo 8 x 9 ·8 = 0'0784 x 10- 3 N/mm 3

10 3
Elongation due to the self weight,
~ - w/ 2 0'0784 X 10-~ X (105 P
o/ 2
- --:rr= 2 X 210 X 1000
-- '078:: 103 = J '866 mm
Total elongation = 'iil1+ 'iil2= 14'551 + l '866

= 16'417 mm.
Problem 1'~3. _A cone of base ?iamcter _D and height L is securely fixed with base
at the top as shown m Fig. l '5 1. If the weight density of the material is w, dctcrininc th<;
C?ttension in the Jcn~ h of the i,;one d1,1e to ·it~own wei ~ht, ·
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58 STRENGTH OF MA TERTALS
Solution. Consider an elementary disc

of length dx at a distance of x from the apex.
X
Diameter D.,,=L-XD
Weight of the cone abc
Wx = W [ + (7t~a
2
) XX J T l
"'
;1,·', ;· ,, .
1,, I ,., •
.
',
I,
-- ~12
-
,rw
12 - ~
. 1t
.
(XL
'
D Y.x
I' • '
., _____ ' I It
_...
Fig. !·51
C:,:·
Ii
l,,
;1.
•I I /' l'
4W,, 1tW x 3D 2 4L2 1vx

Stress, f,, - nD., 2 - 12 X L2 X 1;x2 D 2 - 3
f,, wx
Strain £.=E = 3£
Change in length over
- wx dx
dx - 3E
L
wx _dx wL 2
at= J
0
3£ =- -6E - . (I' I
Problem 1'14. A stepped b:ir I '6 m long has area of ;cross sectfo'n 4 cm 2 over a
certain length ~nd 8 cm 2 ever remainder of its length. The strain energy of this stepped
bar is 40% of that of a bar 8 cm~ in area, 1·6 m long subjected to the same maximum stress.
What is the length of the portion of '1 cm2 in area?
Solution. Say the bar is subjected to ·same axial load and
Stress in porti on T =J
. portion
Then stress m . Ir-- I· 4 =_ _!
8 2
a:4cm 2
I T
+
l 6m
Il
(160cm
a= Bcm2 -ei
_[ j·_
!1 '
fill. 1·si
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SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS'
5ay E is the Young's modulus or'tlie materia(

2
Strain ener gy, /2 (4 x l) + ( -f ,) - 1 (8)( 160-/)
U= ·---
2E 2 2E 1
·={; [ 4/+2(160- /)]= ~ [ 1+160 ].

Now the uniform bar of area 8 cm 2 is also subJ~cted t o the stress f (maximum stress in
stepped bar). '
Strain energy, u· = {;, (8)(160)

but U= 0·4·U'
12
E. (1+ 160)= 0'4 I'~. X 1280
2
1+160= 256
, I
1= 96 cm.
Problem t·ts. Compare the strain energy absorbed by the bars A and B as shown.
Bar A of length L having diameter d at one end and uniformly increasing to the <liametcr D at
p F
di 1I+ l
d ,11
, t'r
I 0 · 5L
B
TT
Fig. 1·53
the other end is s ubjected to cJmpressive force P . Bar B of the same material, but a stepped
bar of diameter d for half bf its length and diameter D of th~ rem1ining half of its length is
subjected to the same compressive force P. Given d= 0'6 D ..
Solution. Say £ = Young's modulus of the material.

· PL
8£, contraction in bar A = 7;DdE
1 2PL:1,
Strain energy, u.. =-i° P8L == rr.DdE.
,ut d= 0·6 D
2PV
VA = 7; X0' 6D 2E' ... ( 1J
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st'RENGTH o'F MATERiAt.s
, · . ·. . .b B- 4P t
8£ • contraction m ar -- --
I 4P
- + -·nD
- L 1
1td---2 x ~E · X 2 2 x -E x -2
2P L [ 1
- 1tE
1
d 2 + D2
J 2P1tEL[o·36D1 + D1 J
- 2 2
2PL x 1'36
= 0'361tED 2
1 1,. ,• !
ri: .
1'36PL2
Strain energy, 0·3_6nED.2
VA 2PL2 nED2 X 0:36 2 0'36 0·72
or VB - TJ:ED 2 X 0'6 X 1'36 PL2 - o·6 X 1'36 - '816 J: If~
Stra!n energy, bar A' = 0 .882 _

Stram energy, bar B
Example 1·16. A steel r~d 80 cm long_ and 2 cm in d_iameter suspended vertically

is secured dt its upper end, and a weight of 20 kg_ 1s allow~d to sltde freely on the rnd. through
a height h = 3 cm on to a collar at the lower end. Determme :- . 'i , .
(a) The stress developed in the rod.
(b) The stress developed, if the extension of rod while computing the potential energy
given up by the weight is neglected. .
(c) The stress developed in the rod when h= O.
Take £ = 2100 tonnes/cm2 •
Solution. (a) W= 20 kg
h=3 cm
E=3100x 1000 kg/cm2
R
A= X4
4
= 3'1416 cm2
Length of the bar,
1= 80 cm
Stress, f = :[ 1+J I+
2e;/ J
Fig, 1·54
2EAh 2 X 2100 x 1000 x 3'1416 X 3

wr = 2ox so = 2472o
f = 3,!i16 [ 1+ .{24721 J •\ I,
2o x 1ss·2_
. - 1007 kg/cm 2 .
3 1416
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~I~~~Le S~RESSES AND STRAINS 61.
(b) The extension of the rod when the potential energy given up by the weight is
neglected.
Potential energy lost by the weight
= W Xh
Strain energy stored in the bar
= 12
2E x Ax l
W X h= 12E XAXI
2
2WhE= 2 X 20 X 3 X 2100 X 1000_ = .
2-_ l0
1 - AI 3' l4 i 6 X 80 1 002 X 6
/= 1001 kg/cm2 .
(c) lz= O, the load will suddenly act on the bar
f= ~ X 2= ~?1~t6 = 12·72 kg/ crn 2

.
Problem 1'17. A vertical steel rod 150 mm long is rigidly secured at its upper end
and a weight of 15N is allowed to slide freely on the rod through a distance of 20 mm on to a
stop at the lower end of the rod. What would be maximum stress developed if the upper
90 mm length of the rod has a diameter of 16 mm and the lower 60 mm length remains at
12 mm diameter. ·
E = 210 x 10 3 N/mm2 •
Solution. Say the instantaneous stress
developed in portion I =/ 1
Insta ntaneous stress developed in
portion II
For equilibrium
= f~
/1A1 =f2A1
16mm+--,, 1
90 mm
/1 ~ ; (l6) 2 =/ 2 X %(12) 2
+
/1 = 0"5625 /2, ... (l)
Volume, V1 =: (16) 2 X 90
= 18095'6 mm 3
Volume, V2 =: (12) 2 X60
= 6785'8 mm3
Say the change m length under the
instantaneous stress,
Fig, 1·55
~/ _ :f1l1 _ /1 X 90
o 1- E - E
~! _ fi2 _ f; X 60
o 2- E - E
Loss of PE of the we_ight = W(li+ oli + 0!2)
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Strain energy absorbed by the bar I J

/12
1 1 ,11
fl
=2E V1 + 2E X V2
Using the principle of conservation of energy
/12 . ,,
W(h+l>l1 +812 ) = 2E X V1 + /22
2E X V2
or W.h+ w ·1 x 9o+ W.ft 60 = {~ x 18095'6+ {~ x 6785·s ·

E X 15 X20 + 15 X/ 1X90 + 15/2X60
= tfr,X J809§; 6 + ff X 6785'8
Putting W= l5 N
2£+ 9f1 +6/2= 6'032/12 + 2'26 /2 2
2 X 210 X 1000+ 9(0'5625/2)+6f2
= 60'32(0'5625}2)2+22·6/22
420 X 103 +] ] '0625/2 = 41 '7 fl·
/22-'02653/2-\0071 '94= 0 , ( ..:.,·• .
1 ' ft = 0'265~+V-(0'265i) 2 + 4 X ]007] '94-
l ~'
'2653 + 200·72
. 2
Maximum stress developed in steel rod
= 100·49 N/mm2.
Probletn 1 ·18. A load W suspende~ from a cra)J.e hook by a ch~in is b~ing lowered
at a speed of 1 metre/second. At a particular instant when the length of the unwound chain
is 8 metres, the motion is suddenly arrested. The chain links are made of 10 mm round steel
bu. · ·
Determine the maximum load that the chain can carry under these conditions if the
instantaneous stress produced in the chain is not to exceed 150 N/mm2 • Neglect weight of the
chain.
Acceleration due to gravity = 9'8 m/sec2
E for steel= 210 X 103 N/mm2.
Solution. The chain link is sh own in
Fig. 1'65
Arca of cross section of the chain
' = 2X : (10)2 I• _J_
= 157'58 mm2 10mm
Length of the unwound chain,

T
1= 8000 mm
Speed, V= l m/sec
Say when the motion is stopped, the
instantaneous stress developed in chain is ft •Fig. 1'56
N/mm2 •
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'SIMPLE STRESSES
. AND
. STRAINS 63
Extension in chain, 81= { X I= 210 f lOOO X 8000

= 0'038/j I ,
Say the maximum load carried by the chain= W N.
KE lost by the weight

wv2 W x IOOO x 1000
= 2.g = 2 x 9'8 x LOOO
= 5L'02 W Nmm •·· ... ( I)
P.F. lost by t ile weight c:=W.S!
= 0'038 W/t ... (2)
Strain energy absorbed by the ch:!ti1t
2
= f1. X·Volume1 • • • • "
2£ ' ,.
f;,2 X 157 1 58 X8000 = 3 '00 ,. 2
- 2 X 210 X !000 . Jt .. . (3)
Applying the principle of conservation of energy

51 ·02 w +·o3s w fi = 3Ji2
•
.
- •f
... (4)
' But maximum stress developed is n ot to exceed 150 N/ mm 2
So f;. = J50 N/mm2

'51'02 + 0'038 W X 150 ~ 3 X 150 X 150
51 ·02 w+5·7 W = 67soo
The maximum load which the chain can carry
67500 .
W=-· 56-:7T = I !90 0 N
Problem 1'19. . The load t o be c:trried by ~~ !if~ can be dropped on its fl oor tl~rc{;/g1~ a
height of 8 cm . . The weight_ o~ the_ cage of t he 11ft 1s 250 k~. The cage is supportcdi by a
wire rope 20 m 111 length ~ciglu ng O ?O kg/ metre !ength . . The w1:re rope consists o f 49 wires
of J·5 mm dia . ~adl. 1f the 1:1;.ix1mum stres~ 111 the wire !·ope 1s n ot to exceed 1000 kg/cm2,
determine the maxmmm load which can be earned by the lift. E for the rope materia l= 670
tonnes/cm 2
Solution . . Weight of the cage = 250 kg

Weight of the r ope supporting the cage
= 0' 8 X 20 = 16 kg.
The maximum stress in the wire rope will occur at the end of the rope coming out of
the rope clrnm.
Area of cross section of wire rope
= 49 x ; (O' I5)2 = 0'866 cm 2
250 + 16 .
Initial stress in wire rop e=- . = 307 16 kg/cm 2
0 866
Allowable str<:ss = I 000.,kg/c1112
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' '. 'i: ; •
Stress due to the falling lo.a d,

ft = 1000-307" 16
= 692'84 kg/cm2
Extension in wire rope dii'e to),
= f;. ; iei:i.oth of the r~pe
•E ·"'
I I•
=· 692"84 x 20 X JOO = 2· . 068
· 670 x lOOO .. - cm .
Say the maximum load which can be droppec! . on the floor of the cage is W, then
W(h-1- 1$1) =
/t 2
£ X Volume 0f the rope . ' 1, ,,
2
where h = height through which the load falls
W(8 + 2·068) =
2
J!;~'.!~)~oo _
x o·866 x 2o x 100
= 620"453 '
W= 61'62 kg.
Example 1·20. A vertical tie consisting a steel rod 1·6 m long and 25 mm diameter
encased throughout in a brass tube '40 mm external diameter, is rigidly fixed at the top end.
The rod and the tube are fixed together so as to form. a co mpound bar. The compound bar
is suddenly lnacled in tension by a weight W falling freely th.ro ugh a height of 10 mm , before
being arrested by a collar provided at the lower encl of the' tie. Determine the magnitude of W
if the maximum stress in the tie is not to exceed 80 N/mm 2 •
Given E steel= 2 X 105 N/mm2 ,, .
E brass= 1 X 105 N /mrn 2 .

Solution. Since steel rod and brass
tube are fixed t ogether, there cannot be diffe-
rential elongati cu for them. Both the rod a nd
tube have t o strain together under load i. e ,
change in length in st~el rod = change in length
· i'n.' brass tu be
or E.'i = <:b
(Strains are the s,i.me)

Say the stress developed in steel rod = /,
Stress developed in brass tube =f b
f, _ J!_
then E, - Eb
· J; _ E, _ _2 x l05 =2 Fig. 1·57
or f b - · fa - 1 X 105
f ,= 2/b . .. (I)
or
Extension in compound bar ; ·
·={, xi where /= length of the bar
' .. (;2)
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Height through which load falls,

lz = lO mm
Area of cross section of steel rod
= -; (25) 2= 490'875 mm 2
Area of cross section of brass tube

7t
= (40 2 - 25 2) = 765'765 mm2
4
Volume of steel rod, V. = 490'875 x 1600 mm~
Volume of brass tube, Vb= 765'765X 1600 mm 3
Applying the principle of conservation of energy
f ,2 j b2
W(/1 + 81) = 2£, X v .+ 2Eb X vb
. f .2 /b 2
W(LO + 008/,) =£ , X V, + -it;- X V n
2
Maximum stress in tie =80 N/ mm 2
Which means J .=80 N / mm2
fo=40 N/mm 2
Substituting the values above
80 2 40 2
W(I 0-1- '008 X 80) = ?_x -,_x _o:r X 49()" 875 X 1600 + _x
l ? l ,x (on X 765'765 X 1600
W (10"64) = 12566"4+ 9801 '8
2
Load, W ~~~~ 42 2102·27 Newtons.
Problem 1'21. A steel bar 3 cm in dia meter, 2 metres long is rigidl y fixed to a
bracket as shown in Fig. l "58. The other end with a collar rests on a support. A weight of
15 kg moving horizontally along the bar at the velocity of 300 cm/second is brought to rest
by the c0llar at the other end. The bracket deflects hori zontally by 0-04 cm/ton ne of t he
load induced in the bar. Calculate the maximum tensile stress in the bar .
Given £ = 2100 t onne.s/cm 2
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 980 cm/sec2 •
Solution.
25kg
- -~ - 200c m s . ~~~-~1
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66 ~TRENGTH OP .MATERIA~S
K.E. lost by the travelling load

25 X 300 X 300
2 x 980
= J 150 cm-kg
Say the stress developed =f kg/cm 2
Equivalent load induced, W = f. A kg
f.A
= · tonnes
1000
Cross sectional area, A= ..2:... X 9= 7'07 cm 2

4
Length of the bar, / =, 200 cm.
Instantaneous horizontal c.!dkction in the bracket,
8= 0'04 W = ·o4 f · A cm
1000
f.A
= 25000 cm
Strain energy in the bracket

= WS (since the load is sudden)
Strain energy in the bar = {; X Al
5
f A f. A f ~ A X 200
I l 0 = 1000 X 25000 + 2X2l00 x 1000
2
1150 x l0r, = r x 1·012; 1·01 + f X2~?:1·01
=J ! r2·003 + 337J
/
2 = _ l_l10 _ x 106 =3'39x I0°
339·003
f = I 840 kg/cm 2. Ans.
SUMMARY
I. FR is the resultant force on a plane, making an angle 0 to the plane, then normal force
= FR sin tJ, shear force=FR cos 6 on the plane.
2. Ncrmal stress= Normal force per unit area of the plane
+ve normal stress-a tensile stress (pointing away from the plane)
-vc normal stress-a compressive stress (pointing towards the plane).
3. Nc,rmal strain= change in length per unit length along the direction of the applied force
+ vc normal strain-elongation in the length of specimen
-ve normal strain-contraction in the length of the specimen.
. . . . . , Normal stress
W1thm the elastic
·
l1m1t, Youn~ s modulus = M
.pOT111a 1
t . ·
. S r~ll\
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· .. . _ Chang~ in lateral dimens ion

4. L atern1 stram- 0 ngma (lateral to the direction of force) lateral
. . II
ateraI ct·1mens1011
.
strain 1s a lways of the opposite sign to the normal (or linear) strain.
5. Poisson's ratio= N . (wit

Lateral strain . 1.urnt
. h.mt 11e e1ast1c . I) .
. o f th e matena
orma1 stram
6. Within the elastic limit of the material, if t he load is removed from t he specimen, the
specimen returr.s to its original d imension and original shape. Or the strains produced
on the material within the elastic limit are recovered after the removal of the load.
7. A tapered bar of length L , diameter at one end D1 a:r..d diameter at the other end D . is
subjected to an axial force P. ff £= Young's modulus of t he material, then change "in
the length of the bar is
4P L
SL= --- x -E ·
rtD 1 D 2
8. Bar of uniform strength, area of cross section at a distance y from the end where area
is A, is given by
wy
A= A 1 el
where w= weight density of the material
f = uniform stress in bar.
. . . . ~wh2
9. Extension m bar due to its own weight= £
2
where w= weight density
h= height of the bar.
10. Within the elastic limit, shear steess is proportional to shear strain,
Shear stress
Modulus of rigidity, G
Sh~ar strain
1.1. Within the elastic limit, volumetric stress is proportional to volumetric strain,
K = Volumetric stress .
Bulk modulus,
Volumetric strain
12. Tens~le test on_mild steel.
Mild steel fai ls showing a cup and cone type fracture.
At the yield point there is considerable extension without increase in interna l resistance.1
Ultimate tensile strength is the maximum load withstood by the specimen divided by its
original area of cross section.
Total change in length M= bl+ c .f A- where b and c ar.-:
Barba's constants, != length and A= area of cross section of the specimen.
t 3. Strain energy absorbed by a body wit~in its c lastic Iimit
f2
= lE X Vulume
/ = stress developed in the body.
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68 SfiENGtH OP MAtEittAts
14. Strain wergy due to shear stress q,

q2
U,=w - x Volume.
15. Volumetric strain energy, U~= r; x Volume

where p = volumetric stress .
16. Stress produced by a sudden load Won a bar of area of cross section A
2W
sudden=A·
l 7. ·Instantaneous stress produced by an impact load
/, = : [ 1+J 1+ 2:12 J
where A=area of cross section
h= height through which load W falls
L = length of the bar.
l 8. Stress concentration factor in a specimen with a discontinuity such as hole, fillet etc.
Maximum stress
SCF = ~~~~~~~~.,-~~~-
Average stress at minimum section
Ultimate stress
19. Factor of safety
Working stress
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. On a plane resultant stress is inclined at an angle 30° to the plane. If the normal stress
on the plane is 50 N/mm2, the shear stress on the plane will be
(a) 43·3 N/mm2 .(b) 86·6 N/mm2
(c) 100 N/mm2 (d) None of the above.
2. A bar of square cross section side a is subjected to a tensile load P. On a plane
inclined at 45° t o the ~xis of the bar, the normal stress will be
p
. (a) 2P (b) a2
az
p p
(c) (d)
2a 2
4a2
3. A steel bar 100 mm long is subjected to a tensile stress/ If the change in the length of
the bar is 1/20 mm, what will be the value off? E for steel= 200 x 1000 N/mm 2
(a) 200 N/mm2 (b) 100 N/mm2
(c) 50 N/mm2 (d) 25 N/mm2.
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S1Mi>LE STRESSES AND stRAINS
4. A steel bar of square section tapering fro m 25 mm X 25 min to 20 mm X 20 mm over a

length of I metre, is subjected to a tensile force of 1000 N. If E ...... , The change in the
length of bar is given by (£= 200 x 1000 N/m1112 )
(a) ·2 mm (b) ·1 mm
(c) ·02 mm (d) ·01 mm.
.S. Two tie rods are connected through a pin of 40 mm~ area of cross section. If the tie
rods cany a tens ile load of 10 kN, the shear stress in pin will be
(a) 125 N/ mm 2 (b) 250 N / mm2
(c) 375 N/mm2 (d) 500 N / mm 2 •
6. A rivet is connecting two plates through a lap joint subjected to a tensile force of 500 kg.
If the maximum shear stress permissible in rivet is 625 kg/cm2, what is the area of cross
section of the rivet
(a) 125 mm 2 (b) JOO mm 2
(c) 80 mm2 (d) 40 mm2 •
7. A wire r ope l O metre long is suspended vertically from a pulley. The wire rope weighs
1·2 kg/metre length. The area of cross section of the wire rope is 20 mmi. The maxi-
mum stress developed in wire rope is
(a) 12 kg/cm 2 (b) 24 kg/cm 2
(c) 30 kg/cm 2 (d) 60 kg/cm 2 •
8. A spher ical ball of volume [QG mm 3 is subjected to a hydrostatic press ure of 90 N/ mm2.
If the bulk modulus for the material is 180 X 1000 N /mm 2 • The change in the volume
of the bar will be
(a) 50 mm3 (b) 100 mma
(c) 250 mm 3 (d) 500 mm 3 •
9. A bar JOO mm long and cross sectional area 64 mm 2 is tested under tension. The Barba's
constants for the material are b = 0·2, c= O· 5. The percentage elongat.ion of the bar is
(<l) 29'6 (b) 24
(c) 20 (d) N one of the above.
10. A load of 100 kg acts suddenly o n a bar with o·8 cm 2 area of cross section and length
10 cm. The maximum stress developed in the bar is
(a) 125 kg/cm2 (b) 250 kg/cm2
(c) 500 kg/cm 2 (d) 1250 kg/cm 2 •
11. A bar l m long and 4 cm2 area of cross section is securely fixed at one en<l and a collar
is provided on the bar at the other end. A weight of 10 kg falls through a height of
10 cm on to the collar so as to extend the bar instantaneously. Neglecting the effect of
extension in bar, the maxim um stress developed in the bar is- E = 2 X 10 6 kg/cm2
(a) 5 kg/cm2 (b) 500 kg/cm 2
(c) 1000 kg/cm2 (cl) 2000 kg/cm.
12. A round bar 'A' of length Land d iameter D is subjected to an axial force producing
stress [ Another r0und 'B' bar of the same material but diameter 2D and length 0·5 L
is also subjected to the same stress/ The ratio of strain energy in '1 to the strain energy
in B is given by
(a) 2 (b) 1'5
(c) 1·o (d) o·5.
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STREN(}TH OF MA TEllIAL~
13. A steel rod I m long of diameter 3 cm is completely encased in a brass tube of external
diameter 5 cm. and internal diameter 3 cm. A shock load produces a stress of 900 N(mm2
in £teel rod. If Estee! = 2Ebrass, the stress developed in brass tube is .
(a) 1600 N/mm2 (b) 1500 N/mm 2
(c} 900 N/mm2 (d) 450 N/mm2.
14. A mild steel specimen is tested .under tension and a continuous graph between load and
extension is obtained. A load at which there is considerable extension without increase
in resistance is called
(a) Ultimate load (b ) Breaking load
(c) Upper yield load (d) Lower yield load.
15. The approximate value of Poisson' s ratio for mild steel is
(a) 0'35 (b) 0·33
(c) 0'29 (d) 0'25.
ANSWERS
1. (b). 2. (c). 3. (b) . 4. (c). 5. (a} . 6. (cl.

7. (d). 8. (d). 9. (b). 10. (b) . l l. (c). 12. (d).
13. (d). 14. (c}. 15. (c).
EXERCISE
1·1. The parts of a certain machine

component · are joined by a rivet 25 mm in
diameter. Determine the shear and normal p
stresses in the rivet if the axial force P= 15 kN
and the angle of joint is 30° to the axis of
the load. Fig. 1·59
[Ans. 15'28 N/mm2 , 26'46 N/mm2 } Fig. 1·59
1'2. A solid circular shaft and collar

are forged in one piece. If the maximum
2
permissible shearing stress is 300 kg/cm ,
what is the greatest compressive load W which
may act on the shaft ? What will be the com-
pfe_ssi've stress in the shaft ? F ig. l '60
2
. (Ans. 22·62 t onnes, 288 kg/cm }
Fig. 1·60
2
1·3. A tie bar 2 cm in diameter carries a load which causes a stress of 1000 kg/cm •
It is attached to a cast iron bracket by means of four bolts whic11. can be stressed only upto
800 kg/cm2. Determine the diameter of lhe bolts. [Ans. 1· 12 cm}
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1·4. The wooden pieces of square

cross section 5 cm x 5 cm are g lued together as
shown in Fig. 1·61. The o uter surface of the
assembly are glued to the foundation. What
will be the average shearing stress on the glued
joints if the horizontal for ce= 5 k N.
- 5cm
[Ans. 50 N/ mm2l
Fig. 1·61
t·s. The round bar as shown in Fig.

l "62 is subjected to a tensile load of 10 tonnes.
What must be the diameter of the midd le
portion if the stress there is to be l tonne/cm 2 •
What must be the length of the middle
portion if the total extension of the bar under
the given load is 0·010 cm
£=2100 t onnes/cm 2 •
fAns. 3"568 cm. 9"633 cm) Fig. 1·62
1"6. A rigid plate 80 cm X 80 cm is

supported by 4 elastic legs A, B, C and D as
shown in Fig. I "63. A load of 1200 N is
applied on the plate at a distance of 30 cm
from edge AD and at 20 cm fro m edge AB.
Determine th e required compressive fo rce in
each leg.
IAns. 525, 375, 75, 225 N] Fig. 1·63
t ·7. Two rigid yokes P and Q are

connected by three elastic r ods A, Band C
m ade of the same material as sho wn in F ig. ,-
l "64. The area Gf cross section of bars A and Tc 150r""l
C is a each, while the ar ea of cross section of -iton .. .i
the bar B is 3a. A load of l O kN h angs fro m
the lower yoke. Find the m agnitude of the A ·~
C
forces in the bars A and C and in two portions 25.0
of the bar B. The frame is symmetrica l about T.c
the central rod B, which is passing through a j_
hor izontal bearing.
fAns. TA = Tc= 1086"96 N ,

T n' -.:;- 2173"9 1 N, To",.- + 7826"09 NJ
Fig. 1·64
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1·s. For the simple structure sho wn

in F ig. J '65, member AC is a steel wire 4 mm
in diameter a nd member AB is an aluminium
r o d 8 mm in diameter supporting a vertical
load P= 100 kg. Determine the horizontal
and vert ical displacements of the point A , if
25m
2
Estee1= 2100 tonnes/cm
E aluminium = 700 to nnes/cm 2
rAns. 0' 103 cm , 0'178 cm]

Fig 1·65
1'9. T he cross section of a bar is given by (2 + '02x 2) cm2 where x is the d ist a nce
fro m one end in cm. If the length of th e har is 15 c m, find the change i,i'length under a load
of 5 tonnes. E = 2 X 10° kg/cm 2. [Ans. 0'0123 cm]
1'10. D etermine the extensio n in a

rectangular steel bar 30 cm long with a tri-
angular ho le cut in it , under an ax ia l fo rce of
P = 25 tonnes. Given Esteet= 2 100 tonnes/cm 2 .
[Ans. 12'6 x 10- 3 c m]

Fig 1·66 ,
LL~T
1·11. A gradua lly app lied load
W = 300 kg is suspended by r o pes as sho wn in
Fig. I ' 67. Jn both (a ) a nd (bl the r o pes have a
cross sectiona l area 5 cm 2 and value of
cl
T
LL/
£ = 2100 to nnes/cm2 • J.n case (a), the rope
ABC is c ontinuous and the weig ht is suspended
by a frictionless pulley of dia meter 20 cm. Jn
1
3m
A
4ro
A
4, n
l I 11
(b) AB and BC are separ ate ropes connected 20 20
C rn
l
( m
to a bar fro m which the r opes are suspended,
such that the bar rema ins h ori zontal.
B
Find for both (a ) and (b) the stresses
in the r 0pes and find the do wnward mo vement
of the pulley and the bar due to the load .
,w
rAns. (a) 30 kg/cm2 , 0'05 mm] Fig. 1·67
(b) 25'71 kg/cm2, 34'285 kg/cm2, 0·049 mm l
1 ·12. A steel wir e 6 m m in di a meter is used for hoisting purposes in a building con-
structi o n. lf I 50 metreso f th e wire is hanging vertically and a load of 100 kg is being lifted
a t the lower enu o f Lhe wire, deter mine the total elongation of t\l.e wire. The specific weight
9f ~teel is 8 g/cm 3, E = i lOO ton nes/cm 2 . [Ans. i·954 cm J
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S)MPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS 73
1· 13. A steel cone of base 200 mm and h..:ight 600 mm is securely fixed with base on
the top. lf the weight density of the material is 0"0078 kg/cm 2, determine the extensi on in th~
length of the cone due to its own weight. E = 2· 1 X 10 6 kg/cm2 . [Ans. 2·228 X 10-Gcm]
1·14. A brass rod 1 m long and 15 mm dia meter suspended vertically is secured at its
upper end and a weight of 40 N is a llowed to slide freely on the rod thr0ugh a height 50 mm
on to a stop provided at the lower end. Determine
(a) Stress developed in the rod.

(b) The stress developed in the rod when /i = O.
Efor brass = lOO x lOOO N/ mm 2 • [Ans. (a) 47"96 N/mm 2, (b) 0·453 N/ mm 2]
1·1s. A vertical steel rod 100 cm long is rigidly secured at its upper end and a weight
of 10 kg is allowed to slide freely on the rod through a distance of 5 cm on to a stop at the
lower end of the rod, what would be the maximum stress developed if the upper 60 cm length
of the rod has a diameter of 2 cm and lower 40 cm length rema ins at 1·6 cm diameter.
E = 2·1 x 106 kg/cm 2 • [Ans. 1109·5 kg/cm 2]
1·16. A load of 1 tonne suspended from a crane hook by a chain of cross section_al
area 2 cm 2 is being lowered at a uniform speed of 50 cm/sec. At the instant when the length
of the unwound chain is 10 metres, the machine stops working and the m otion is suddenly
arrested. Determine the instantaneous stress produced in the chain along with the elongaticn
in its length due to sudden stoppage. Neglect weight of t he chain.
g, acceleration due to gravity=9'8 rn/sec 2 •

£ = 2100 tonnes/cm 2 • IAns. 2210 kg/cm 2 , 1·05 cm]
1·11. A stepped bar L m long has area of cross section a crn 2 over a certa in lengt h
and 2a cm 2 over the remainder of the length. The strain energy of the stepped bar is 30% of
that of a bar 2a cm 2 in area, L m long subject~d t o the same maxi mum stress. What is the
length of the portion of a cm2 in area ? [Ans. 0·2 L]
1·1s. Compare the strain energy absorbed by two baTs A and B. Bar A 1'5 m long
has diameter 8 cm at one end uniformly tapering to a diameter 4 cm at the other end. Bar B
is a stepped bar of diameter 8 cm for 0·5 m length and 4 cm diameter for I m length. Both
the bars are of the same material and are subjected to the same magnitude of axial load.
[Ans. 1"059]
1·19. The load to be carried by a lift can be dropped on its floor through a height of
15 cm. The weight of the cage of the lift is 200 kg, the cage is supported by a wire r ope of
30 m length weighing 0·7 kg per metre length. The wi re rope cons ists of 49 wires of 1·2 mm
diameter each. If the maximum stress in the wire rope is not to exceed 90 N/ mm 2 • Determine
the maximum load which can be carrri ed by the lift. £=70,000 N/mm2. [Ans . 179"2 NJ
. 1 ·20. ~ _vertical tie consisting a s~eel rod 2 m long a_nd 3 cm diameter encased through-
out m an alumm:um tube 4 cm external diameter and 3 cm 111ternal dia meter is r igidly fixed
at the top end. The rod and the tube are fixed together so as to form a compo un d bar. The
compoun~ bar is suddenly loaded in tension by a weight W fa lling through a h eight of 2 cm,
before bemg arrested by a collar provided at the lower end of the tie. Determine th e magnitude
of W if the maximum stress in the t ie is not to exceed 1800 kg/cm 2.
Esreel = 2100 tonnes/cm 2 •
E(lf11mi11i11m = 100 tonnes/cm 2 • [Ans. 632 kg l
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1·21. A steel bar 20 mm in diameter

1·5 m long is rigidly fixed to a bracket as
shown in Fig. 1·68 The other end with a -...J
collar rests on a support. A weight of 200 N < ol I ar
moving horizontally along the bar at the
velocity of 2m/sec is brought to rest by the
collar at the other end. The bracket deflects Supoo r r.
horizonta lly by 2 x I0- 5 mm/N of the load
induced in the bar. Calculate the maximum
tensile stTess in the baT. Fig. 1.68
£ = 210 X 1L3 N/1111112
acceleration due to gravity, g = 9·8 m/sec2 • fAns. 190'2 N/mm2 ]
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2
Composite Bars and Temperature Stresses
A bar made up of two or more than two different materials is called a composite or a
compound bar. The bars of different materials in a composite bar are rigidly fixed together
and there is no relative movement amongst these bars. Under the applied load, all the bars of
different materials strain together. The most common example of a composite bar is an
RCC column or a slab i.e., concrete column or slab reinforced with steel bars to increase the
strength of a concrete structure. Another common example is a bimetallic strip, made of
two different materials, used in a refrigerator for temperature control.
1·2. STRESSES IN A COMPOSITE BAR
Fig. 2· 1 sh ows a composite bar in which a solid circular rod of material 1 is completely
I-'"'- L
Fig. 2·1
encased in a tube of material 2. The outer tube can be force fitted or shrink fitted over the inner
rod, so that both are perfectly fixed at the interface. The diameter of the rod is d and outer
diameter of the tube is D. The composite bar is subjected to an axial tensile force P. Say
the change in length in composite bar is 'SL change in length in rod, 'SL=change in length in
tube, 'SL. The force P will be shared by rod and t he tube in such a manner that change in
length due to axial force for both rod and tube is the same.
Total load on composit~ bar =P
Say load shared by rod = P1
Load shared by tube = P~
Therefore P 1 -'.- P~= P ... (1)
A1, Area of cross section of rod =~ x d~

4
( 75 )
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16 STRENGTH OF MAfERIAi..S
1t
A 2 • Area of cross section of tube = 4 (D 2-J2)
f 1-
_ .!i._
Stress in rod, A1
P2
Stress in tube, f2=~
Say Young's modulus of rod = E1

Young's modulus of tube = E2
fi Pi
Stra in in rod, €1= y 1 = yi---;-
l. i
Strain in tube,
Change in length of rod,
Change in length of tube,
But SL 1 = 8L 2 (as per the condition for a composite bar)

Pi L 1 P2 L
or
A1E1 = A 2 E2
~ p A1 Ei ". (2)
or ! i = 2 -A2 X E
2
Stress in th~ rod, ". (3)
Stress in the tube, .. . (4)
But
So from equations (3) and (4).

. . "(5)
Now
".(6)
From equation (6), stress/2 can be worked out and then from equation (5) stress / 1 can
be calculated. .
Exa rnp?e 2· 1-1. A steel bar 50 mm diameter is completely encased in a brass tube
of 80 mm outside diameter. Th~ length of the composite bar is 400 mm. If the assembly is
subjected to a co mpressive force of 80 kN determi1,e ·
(i) stresses in steel bar and brass tube
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COMPOSITE BARS AND tEMPERATURE STRESSES
(ii) change i-o the length of the assembly.

2
Given E sree/ = 208 X 1000 N/ mm
Ebrass = 104 X 1000 N/mm2 •
Solution. Area of cross section of steel bar,
A,= ~ (50)2 = 1963"5 mm 2
Area of cross section of brass tube,
Say the stress in steel bar = /,

Stress in brass tube = fb
But
f, - E,
fb - fa
208 X 1000
/,= 104 X IOOO X fo = 2 fo ... ( I)
Total load P = 80 kN = 80,000 N = P,+Po (compressive load)

where P.= load shared by steel bar = /, A,
Po = load shared by brass tube=/ b Ao
So 80,000 = /, X 1963"5+ /o X 3063"06
= 2/o X 1953·5 + /o X 3063"06
or Jo= 6
!~~?g 2
6 = 11·44 N/mm (compressive)
/, =2[,= 22"88 N/ mm~ (compressive)
Change in length, 8/ = _!, _ 22: 88 X 400

• E, - 208 X 1000
= 0·044 mm = change in length in brass tube
Change in length of composite bar
= 0.'044 ~m.
Exercise 2'1·2. A steel rod of 2 cm diameter is fully encased in an al~minium tube

of outside diameter 4 cm, so as to make a composite bar. The assembly is subjected to a
-
tensile force of 4 tonnes. Determine the stresses developed in steel r od and aluminium tube
and change in the length of the assembly if its length is I metre.
Given E st ee/ = 2 100 t01U1es/cm2
Eatuminiwn= 1/3 Estee/.
[Ans. 0·6366, 0·2122: tomi.e/cm~ (tensile), 0· 303 mm]
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78 STRENGTH ·op MATERIALS
2·2. COMPOSITE BAR WITH MORE THAN 2 BARS OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS
A composite bar can be a combination of two or more than two bars of different
materials. The Fig. 2·2 shows a composite bar of 3 different materials. Three bars of cross
I ·- ' I
I 1:-<i • ~ - ''1.
I
r
-!--- - ---
I
I-•- L- -~l
Fig. 2· 2
sectional areas Ai, A 2 and A 3 respectively but of same length Land of different materials are
perfectly joined together, say the Young's modulus of elasticity of these bars is respect ively
E1 , Ea and E 3 •
The composite bar is subjected to an axial tensile force Pas showr . The load will be
shared by each rod i.e.,
P= l\ + P2+ Pa= f 1 A1 +/2 A2+ f a Aa
where / 1 , / 2 and fa are the stresses developed in each bar.
But f1= E1 E1 , / 2 = E2 E 2, / 3 = E3 E3
. . '8L change in length
But111 a compos1tebar E1 = E2= Ea= --L = · · llengt h
ongma
8L
So P= y [E1 Ad - E2 A·2+ E3 A3]
or cha nge in .length, 8L = PL

A 1E 1 + A2E2 +A 3E3
8L !1 f2 fa
then E1= E2= Ea or y = E1 ;= E2 = Ea
8L 8L
/ 1= y XE1 and P1 = /1A1 = y XE1A1
So the load ·~hared by bar 1,

Pi = PE1 A1
E1 A1+ E2A2+E3 A3
Similarly the load shared by other bars oon be determined. Say in a composite bar
there are n bars of same length but with areas of cross sections A 1 , A 2 , A3 • • • An respectively.
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COMPOSITE BAR.S AND TEMPERATURE STRESSES 79
Load shared by any ith bar (i < n)

Pi = P E,A1
£ 1 A 1 + E 2 A 2 + ...... £,.A,,
Stress in the ith b:1r
Example 2·2-1. A fl.at bar of steel 2·5 cm wide and 5 mm thick is placed between
two alumini um alloy flats, each 2·5 cm wide and 10 mm thick t o form a composite bar of
section 25 mm X 25 mm . The three fl ats are fastened t ogether at their ends. An axial tensile
loaJ of 2000 kg is applied to the composite bar. What are the stresses developed in steel and
aluminium all oy.
Estee/ = 2100 tonnes/em 2
Eat11mi11i11111 alloy= 100 tonnes/cm 2 •
'
Solution. The figure 2· 3 shows the cross section of the composite bar.
A lumi ni um a ll Jy
Fig. 2·3
Cross sectio nal areas, Ai= !Ox 25 = 250 111111 2, A2= 125 mm2, A3 = 250 mm 3
2
Modulus of elasticity, £ 1 = 700 tonnes/cm , l:~= 2100 tonncs/cm 2
£ 5 = 700 tonnes/cm 2
E1 A1 = 700 X2'5 = 1750 tonnes; E 2Aj= 2 l00 x 1'25 = 2625 tonnes
E3 .4 3 = 700 X 2'5 = 1750 t onnes
E,A 1 + E 2 A 2 -l- E:1A 3 =- 6 I 25
Load applied , P ~ 2000 kg = 2 tonnes
Load shared by each bar

2 X 1750
P 1 = P3 = 0'5715 tonne
6125
2 X 26251 0 .857 t
Pi = 6125 = onne
0'5715 .
Str esses in each bar / 1 =/ 3 = - 2 .5- =0 2286 tonne/cm 2
0'857
/2= T25 = ·6856 tonne/cm 2
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Stress in aluminium alloy = 0' 2286 tonnes/cm 2

=228'6 kg/cm 2 (tensile)
Stress in steel = 0'6856 tonne/cm 2 = 685'6 kg/cm 2 (tensile).
Exercise 2·2-1. A steel bar of section 30 mm x 10 mm is placed between bar s of

aluminium and brass of secti o n 30 mm x 10 mm each. The ba.rs are fastened together at the
ends. An axiai compr essive force of 60 kN is app lied to t he co mposite bur. Deter.mine the
stresses produced in steel, aluminium and brass bars. Take,
Est eel = 210 X 10s N/mn,2
Eat11111i11i11m = 70 X 103 N/mm2
Ebrass = l05 X 103 N/111111 2 •
Calculate ::ilso the change in length of the composite bar which is 2 m lon g. '
[Ans. 36' 36, 109'1, 54·53 N/•nm 2 (compressive 'itr~sses); 1·09 mm]
2·3. COMPOSITE SYSTEMS
Two or m ore bars or. wires of diffe.r_ent ~aterjaJs m ay support a load. This type of
system is called a comp0s1te system. Fig. 2 4 shows two bars of different m aterials and
different areas of cross section but of the
same length carr ying a load through a h ori-
zontal bar.
Say the area of cross secti on of bar 1

is A 1 and that of bar 2 is A2 ; Modu lus ~f
elasticity for bar l is £ 1 and that for bai: ~ 1s
E.. The load W is placed at such a pos1t1on
that the bar AB remains hor izon tal, which
means
Elonr?;ation in b ar 1= Elongation in b.1r

2 = 8/
or Strain in bar l , e 1 = str ain in bar 2, 1:2
Fig. 2·4
Load W will be shared by the two bars
W = W1+ W2=/1A1 + f!A2
where / 1 and / 2 are the stresses developed in bars 1 and 2 respectively·
But
8L 'SL
Wc- y , E 1 A1 + L . E2A2
... (I)
or 8L= WL ( 1:.'1A~~E2A? )
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COMPOSITE BARS AND TEMPERATURE STRESSES
81
Moreover
E1 "- . .. (2)
or /1 = E2 XJ 2
W f 1A1+f 2A 2= : : Xf 2A1+ f '!.A 2 ... (3)
The stresses in bars can be determined by using equat ions (2) and (3),
Load shared by each bar
W1= / 1A1 and W 2= f 2A2 ... (4)
Position of the load W . T aking moments of the forces about the point A
W1 XO+ W(l= W2 (a+ b)
or W 2 (a+ b )= Wa
Wia+b) ... (5)
a= W
Let us consider that the load is placed

at the centre of the bar AB. then
load shared by bar l = load shared by bar 2
=2
w
Elongation in the bar I, 'oL1

TL
W- x- L-
-- -
2A E1
1
Elongation in the bar 2, 'oL2

W L
l
= 2A2 X £;
Depending upon the value of A1 E1
and A 2 E2 • 8L1 may not be equal t o 8L2 Fig. 2"5
Say
The bar AB will no longer remain horizontal but will now be inclined at an angle a.
tan .O'.= 8L2-'oL1

. X
, Example 2'3-1. A rigid bar is suspended from two wires of equal lengths l '25 metres.
One wire is I mm in d iameter and made of steel, other wire of 2 mm d ia meter is made of brass.
A load 10 kg is placed o n the rigid bar such that the bar re mains 'hori zo ntal. If the hori-
zontal distance between wires is 20 cm, d etermine.
(i) Stresses developed in steel and brass wires.
(ti) Elongation in the steel and brass wires .
(iii) Distance of the load from the steel wire.
Given E~trte l = 2 E{Jras~·= 21 0 X 103 N/mm2,
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82 ~T RENGTH P F MATERIAL :
Solution . Ar ea of cross secti on of

,.
steel wire, A.=-: (1) 2 = 0·7854 m m 2
Area of cross section of brass wire,
Ao=
'R
4 (2)2= 3'141 6 m m 2
S te e l
w i re
Bra ss
wire
T
1-2 5 m
20cm
The bar AB (Fig. 2'6) is to rem ain
horizonta l
Strai n in steel wire
= str ain in bra ss wire
a-1
·- ,I B
1
-~ = JiE~- wher e f, and Jo ar e the \' ''i-:. 10 kg
E, o
stresses developed in steel and Fig. 2·6
brass wires
. .. (1 :
Load sh ared by steel wi r e, W, = f, X A8 = 0·7854 f•
Load shared by brass wire, Wo = fo XAo=3 ' 14 16/0 •
nut W = W d -Wo fo r eq ui librium

9'8 X 10 = 0'7854f,+ 3" }416/•
= 0'7854 X 2 X/d- 3' 1416 fo
98
or Stress in brass wire, fo = 4' = 20·8 N/m m 2
7 124
Stress in steel wire, / . = 2/o = 4 I '6 N/rn m2.

Load ~hared by brass wire, Wu = 20'8 X 3' 1416 = 6S'34 N
. . 1 . "'L-f, XL - 4 1'6
El on gat1on m stec wire, o , - E. - 210 x iCOO X 1250
wher e L is the length of the w:rc

= 0'248 mm = Elongation in brass wire, 8L ~
T aking momen1s of the for ces ab out the po int A

W X a = Wo X 20
w ~x 20 65.34 X20
a=
w 98
D istance of load axis from steel wire = 13'33 cm.
Exam ple 2'3-2. A r igid bar is suppo rted by wir es of steel and aluminium alloy, eacl1
t ·5 m lo ng. The diamet<er of ea<;: h win~ is 1·2 mm,. A load of 20 kg is placed at the P1iddk
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COMPOSrfE BARS AND TEMPERATURE STRESSES 83
of the bar as shown in Fig. 2'7. After the load is applied, the bar is inclined to the horizontal.
Determine this angle made by the rigid bar. The distance between tl1e wires is 20 cm.
Given Estee1= 2· 1 X 10 6 kg/cm 2
Ealu111i11i11lll alluy = o·1 X lOGkg/cm 2 •
Solution. Since the load is placed at the midd le of the rigid bar AB. Load shared by
;tecl wire
= Load shar ed by aluminium alloy

wire
w
= y = lO ~g.
Length of each wire, L = 150 cm. S t ee l Alluminium
alloy
Diameter of each wire = 1·2 mm
= 0·1 2 cm
Change in length of steel wire,
lO x 4 150 .
SL, = 1t("l 2 ) 2 x 2 . 1 x 10~= 063 cm
Change in length of aluminium a lloy
wire
10 X 4 150
oLa= ff X (0' 12) 2 X 0 ·7 X lQG
=0.189 cm Fig. 2·7
Say the angle of inclination of the bar is O
tan e-- olu- '81. _

x -
o· 189 -
20
'063 _ _QJl6 = .
- 20 0063
8= 0° 22'.
Exe1·cise 2'3-1. T wo wires each of diameter 2 mm and length 2 metre are securely
ixed at the top. At the botto m a r igid bar is sw;pended , keeping the distance between the
vires equa l to 0·25m. One wire is of brass and the othe•: wire is of aluminium. A load of 30 kg
s applied at the bar in a manner that bar remains horizo ntal. Determine the stress in each
.vire and ch ange in their Ie11gths
Given Ebrass = 1000 ton nes/cm 2

Eat11111 ; 11 ; 11111 = 700 tonnes/cm 2 • [Ans. 56t ·7 kg/cm ~, 393 ·2 kg/cm 2, o· 11 2 cm.]
Exercise 2'3-2. A rigid bar is s uspended from two wir es A and B. Wire A is of steel
.vith diameter 2 mm,- wire Bis of brass with diameter I mm. Length of each wire is 2·5 metres.
f-1orizontal clistance between the wires is 240 mm. A load of 300 N is placed on the bm at a
listance of 80 mm from the brass wire. The rigid bar is inclined with the horizontal, determine
:he angle of inclination of the bar.
Esteet= 2 Ebrass= 210 X 10 3 N/mm2 , [Ans. 0° 16' ]
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84 STRENGTH OF MATEkIAtS
2'4. BARS OF DIFFERENT L'.ENGTHS SUBJECTED TO LOADS
Fig. 2·s shows a rod of material 1 and diameter d placed co-axially in a tube of out-
side diameter D 2 , inside diameter D 1 of material 2. The length of the tube L 2 is slightly
less than the length of the rod L 1.
i.e., L1 = L2 +c w
where C= clearance between rod and tube.
Area of cross section of rod,
Ai= : (d2)
Area of cross section of tube,

n
A2 = (D22 -D1 2)
4
Say, the Young's Modulus of elasticity
of rod · =E1
Y cung's modulus of elasticity of tu be
=E2. Fig. 2·8
The load W applied axially on the assembly would compress the r od and tube simul-
ta neously and load will be distributed between rod and the tube.
Say the stress developed in rod = f1
Stress developed iu tube ---f2
Change in the length of rod, SL 1 = /i X L1
E1
Change in the length of the tube, 8L 2 = Jx 2

L2
But 8L1= 3L2+C
So Ji X L= J; X L +C
E1 i E2 2
or " E1 L2 E1
f , = J2X E2 x-r;+c Li. ... (1)
From this equation relationship between/1 and / 2 is obtained.

Total load, W = W1 + W2
= f1A1+f2A2
=(f;X Ei x .!:1 X A1 +C Ei Ai )+f2A2 ... (2)

E2 L1 Li
From equation (2) stress/2 in tube is determined and then from equ1tion (1) stress /1
in rod is determined.
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COMPOSit!! BAtts AND TEMPERAtURE $TRESSES 85
Example 2'4-1 . A steel rod 20 mm diameter 1·5 m long is placed co-axially in an

aluminium tube of outer diameter 60 mm and inner diameter 30 mm and 1500'4 mm length.
1500 mm
Fig. 2·9
A compressive force of 100 kN is applied 01;1 !he assembly as shown in the Fig. 2·9. Determine
the stresses developed in steel rod and alumnuum tube.
Given Esteet= 210xl0 3 N/mm 2
Ea111mi11ium= 70 X 1oa N/mm2
Solution.
(i) Say the load is taken up by the aluminium tube only

Area of cross section of aluminium tube,
n
Aa= .(602 -30 2) = 2120'58 mm2
4
Change in the length P L" 100 X 1000 1500A
= 7. X E a= 2120'58 X 70 X1000= l 'Ol mm.
Note that 1·01 mm is greater than 1500·4-1500= 0·4 mm i.e., clc~rance between the
rod and tube. So the load will be shared by both the rod and tube.
(ii) Say the stress developed in steel rod = /,
Stress developed in aluminium tube =J;,
7t
Area of cross section of steel rod, 2
A,=
4 (20) = 314.16 mm2
8L,, change in length in steel rod = f, X 1500
E,
8L0 , change in length in aluminium tube = / a_ x 1500'4
Ea
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86 ~TllENGTH OF MATE~IAJ:;S •
but 0La= 8L, + 0·4

f., .X 1500'4= f , X 1500 + 0·4
Ea E,
. 70 103 1500 Q· 4 X 70 X l 03
Substituting the values of Ea and E, f a=/, '/.. 210Xl03 X l500'4 + 1500'4
= 0'333 J, ,+ 18' 662 .
.
But P= Pa+ P, (load shared by the aluminium tube a nd steel rod)
100 X 1000 = / aX2120'58 + / , X314' L6
J 0,000 = (0'333 /• + 18'662) 2120'58 + 314' 16 f.
100,000-39574'26= 1020·3 13 f,
or stress 111 t 1 rod , I ,

see 60425'74
. _N/ mm i -- 59·22 'N/ mm z
1020 313
Stress in aluminium tube, fu = 0· 333 J,+ l 8'662
= 38·382 N/mm 2 •
Exercise 2'4-1. A steel rod 40 mm d iameter is p laced co-axially inside a brass tube
of inner diameter 42 mm and outer di~meter SO mm. T he length of the brass tube is 2· 5 metre
ip =B Ton nes
. ]_L •' :
T C::O·Zmm
: ..
I ' ..
and the lengt h of steel rod is 2 metres. There is clea::ance at the top between rod and tube
equal to o·z mm. The assemblr .is subj~eted t o a coinpress iv.e fon;e of ~ t onnes1• I?et~rm.i~e
the stresses developed in the r od and the tube. ,
r , • • • ~
Given that Estec•i= 2 I 00 tonnes/cm 2

• I' , . ')
Ebra,s= 1/2 Estee/, [Ans . 0·57 tonncs/cm2, o·'llf4 tonnes/cm%J

) ·.
2'5. BOLT AND TUBE ASSEMBLY TIGHTENED WITH A NUT
Fig. 2· 11 shows a n asse mbly of a bolt a nd a tube tightened with a nut. · Tlie· figure
shows a bolt passing through a tube co-a"<ially. On both the ends of the tube there are
washers. T he nut is tightened on th~ threaded portion o f the b9lt , exerting pn:ssure. on the
washers or consequently on the tube. · ' · ·
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. C0}'1P<;)S1TE. l:lAR,S A N D TEMPERATU R E STRESSES . 87
L ---DI Thrli'c ds
Fig. 2· lJ
When the nut is tightened on the bolt as shown, the bolt is extended and the tube is
contracted, developing compressive stress in the t ube and a tensile stress in the bolt.
Let the d ia meter of t he bolt =d
Length o f the bolt between the washers
Inner diameter of the tube
Outer diameter of the tube
Area of cross section of bolt
Area of cr0ss section of tube

Say Young's modulus of el asticity of bolt=E1
Young' s modulus of elasticity of tube = E2
When the nut is being tightened, the bolt is extended and tube is reduced in length.
Extens ion in bolt + contraction in tube = axial movemen t of the nut. · ... (l)
Co mpressive stress is developed in tube and tens ile stress is developed in the bolt, for
equilibrium.
Ten sile for ce in bolt= Compressive force in tube
Say the stress developed in bolt = / 1
stress developed in tube =/ 2
. then .f1A1 = /2A2 ... (2)
Moreover £ 1
x L+ ~~ + L= axia l movement of not ... (!)
note that f 1 is a positive tensile stress and /2 is a negative compressive stress.
Example 2'5-1. A steel bolt _of diameter l '8 cm passes co-axially through a copper
tube of inner diameter 2 cm and outer diameter 3 cm and length 50 c m. Washers are placed
at both the ends of the tube. The bolt h as threads at one end with a pitch o f 2 ·4 mm as
shown in Fig. 2· 11 The_nut is turn_ed on the bolt through 45° so as to tighten the assembly.
Determ ine the ~tresses developed m th e bolt and the tube.
£. = 2£. = 200,000 N / mm 2 •
Solution. Pitch of the threads,

p= 2'4 mm
Angle thro ugh which nut is tightcnl'd
= 45°
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88 STRENGTH OF·MATERIALS
So axial movement of nut = ;~~ x 45°= 0"3 mm
Area of cross section of bolt,
A,= ~ (18)2 = 254"47 mm2
Area of cr oss section of tube,
Say the stress developed in bolt

= +J, (tensile)
Stress developed in tube = - !, (compressive)
Due to the tightening of the nut, bolt is extended and tube is contracted.
Now f,A, - f ,A,= 0
f, X 254"47 = f c X 392"70
f, = 1·543 Jc .. . (1)
Extension in bolt = f!.- X L = f • X 500 I.!_

E, 200,000 = 400
Contraction in tube
f, f ~X 500 f,
= E,- x L = 100,000 = 200
N ow axial movement of nut = extension in bolt + contraction in tube
0 ·3 = 400
f, fr
- + 200
120=!·+~(, ... (2)

or 1·543 J,+2J.= 120
2
f, = / ~ = 33 '87 N/ mm 2 compressive)
5 3
f ,= 1·543 X 33'87 = 52"26 N/ mm 2 (tensile).
Exercise 2·s -l. A central steel rod 25 m m diameter passes through a brnss sleeve
30 mm inside and 40 mm outside diameter and 60 cm long. lt is provide:d with nuts and
washers :.tt each . end. A nut is tightened_ so as to produ c~ a compressive stress r.f 600 kg/cm 2
in tube. If t he pitch of the threads on rod 1s 3 m m, determ ine
(i) Stress developed in steel rod
(ii) Angle through which the nut is turned during tightening.
O ivcn f, . 2£, = 2 100 tonnes/cm 2 •
f,A.ns. (i) 671 85 k~/cm:i (ten:;ile)1 (ii) 64 '2 "j
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. . c·oMPOS!tE BARS AND TEMPERATURE STRESSES · 89
2"6. TEMPERATURE STRESSES IN A SINGLE BAR
A bar of diameter ·a and length L is fixed between two rigid walls as shown in the
Fig. 2·12.
Woll rWoll
· - - - - d - · -·-
Fig. 2'12
The coefficient of linear expansion of the bar is _(I. . The temperature of the bar is raised
through T°. The bar is not free to expand. The bar tli'ies to expand and exerts axial pressure
ory. wall, and at the same time wall puts equal and opposite pressure on the bar.
ff the bar is free to expand, then free expansion in the length of the bar = cxLT
Total length of the bar after expansion= (L + Cl.LT).
But the initial and the final length of the bar after the te mperature rise remains the
same. In other words the wall exerts pressure on the bar and its fo:ngth (L+ (J.LT) is compressed
to L.
So the change in length = L + (J.TL-L=r,.LT (contraction)
Strain in the bar due to temperature rise,
cxLT (I.LT
E1 = L+(J.LT =:! --y:-= (I.T as (1.LT<<L .
fr; stress in the bar due to temperature rise

= "r E= (I.TE (compressive)
where E is the Young's modulus of the bar.
Similarly if there is a drop in the temperature of the bar, the bar will try to contract
exerting pull on the wall and in turn the wall offers equal and opposite reaction exerting pull
on the bar and developing tensile stress in the bar.
fr. stress in bar due to fall in temperature
= <1.TE (tensile)
Example 2'6-1. A steel bar 2 cm in d:ameter, 2 metres long is rigidly held between
two walls. The temperature of the bar is raised by 30°C. If the coefficient of linear expans ion
of steel is I l X 10- 6/°C, determine
(i) Stress develo?ed in b~r
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90 STRENGTH OJI MATERIALS
(ii) Force exerted by the wan on the bar.

Given E stee/ =2080 tonnes/cm 2 •
Solution. Diameter of the steel bar,

= 2cm
A, area of cross sec.!ion of the bar
= ; (2)2=3'1416 cm2
coefficient of linear expansion of steel
r,.,
= 11 X 10-6/°C
Temperature rise, T=30°C
Estee/ = 2080 tonnes/cm 2
Compressive strain in bar,
€T= 0tT= ll X 10-0 x 30 = 330 X 10-6
Compressive stress in bar,
fx = rJ.TE= 330 X 10-0 x 2080
= 0·6864 tonnes/cm2 • Ans.
Force exerted by the wall,
P = fx x A= 0'6864X 3' 1416
= 2·156 tonnes. Ans.
Exercise 2·6-2. A copper bar of square section 3 cm x 3 cm and length 1 metre is
held between rigid fixtures There is drop in the temperature of the bar by 20°F. Determine
(i) Stress developed in bar
(ii) Force exerted by the rigid fixture.
Given F.copper = 100,000 N/mm 2
or copper= IO X 10-Gj°F.
lAns. (i) 20 N/mm2 (tensile), (ii) 18 kN]
2·1. TEMPERATURE STRESSES IN A COMPOSITE BAR

A composite bar made up of two bars I and fl of different materials is shown in the
Fig. 2' 13. The length of the two bars is the same, say L. The area of cross section of bar
' I
0::.1 >~2
I I
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C6Mi>o'srrfBARS AND TEMl?ERATURE STRESSES 91
1 is A1 and area of cross section of bar 2 is A 2 • The coefficient of linear expansion of bar 1
is e.t 1 while the coefficient of li.neaT e1Cpansion of bar 2 is e.t2 • Say r1.1 > r1.2 • Both the bars are
permanently fixed cogether so as to form a composite bar. Now say the temperature of the
0
composite bar is increased by T • The length of the composite bar is increased by 8L, i.e.,
BB' or CC' as shown in the figure.
If the bar 1 is free to expand independently then it would expand or ch'ange in its
length = BF=EG= et. 1 L1'.
Similarly if the bar 2 is free to expand independently, then it would expand or change
in ils length= EP = CQ= ~2 LT.
But in a composite bar, both the bars l and 2 expand unitedly, by the same c1mou11t
i.e., 8L
'oL < e.t 1 LT, 'oL > Cl 2 LT
Contraction in the freely expanded length of bar 1
= oc 1 LT-'oL
Extension in the freely expanded length of bar 2
= 'oL-rJ. 2 LT
Compressive strain in bar I,
Since
'oL- e.t2LT 'oL-<1. 2LT
Tensile strain in bar 2, r 2 = L + r1. LT ~ L
2
Contraction in length of bar I ,
'oL1 = (r,. 1£ i-'oL) XL = r1.1 LT- 8L
Extension in length of bar 2,

8L2 =( ('oL - 2LT)) L = 'oL - <1. LT 2
Contration 'oL1+extension, 8L2= (/. 1 LT- r1. 2 LT= LT (a 1 --r,.2 )

Say the stress developed in bar l,
= / 1 T (compressive)
Stress developed in bar 2 = /zT (tensile)
For equilibrium compressive force in bar ! = T ensile force in bar 2
·. t., /1T X A1 = /zr X A 2
... (2)
Contraction, 'oL1 = fiT xL
E1
£:?(tension,
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ivhere E1 and E 2 are the Young's modulus of elasticity of bars 1 and 2 respectively.
92 SfRENGTH OF MATERIALS
' "
From equation (1)
f1T + f2T = T (ct1- 0C2) ... (1)
E2
E1
From equations (1) and (2) temperature stresses in bars 1 and 2 can be determined... . ,\"
Example 2·1-1. A flat steel bar 20

mm x 8 mm is placed between two aluminium 177'.i'77,'177:'7'7?'777771 ~
6mm
'
all oy bars 20 mm x 6 mm each, so as to form ~<f*~~~~~~ -iT
a composite bar of section 20 mm x 20 mm. elnm'
The three bars are fastened together at their lr7'7?~'r:~~+-,~_.:.L..
ends when the temperature of each is 75°F. 6mm
Find tlie stress in each when the temperature
of the whole assembly is raised to 125°F.
Determine the temperature stresses developed
Fig. 2·14
in the steel and aluminium alloy bars. ,,
E,= 21.0,000 N /mm 2 E 0 = 70,000 N/mm2
o:, = 6"4 X 10- 6 /°F 1Xa= l2"8 X 10-6/°F.
Say the stress developed in steel due to temperature rise = /sr
Stress developed in aluminium alloy due to temperature rise = J.,r
E, = 2 10 X 103 N/mm2, EJ= 70 X 103 N/ mm 2
Temperature rise, T = 125- 75 = 50°F

Area of cross section , A,= 20 x 8= 160 mm 2
Area of cross secti on, Au= 2 x 20 x 9 = 240 mm2
Now fsr X A,= f r X A.,
f sr x 160 = / T x 240
or f,r = l "5 f T ... (1)
1;~ +{; = T (o:u-<1.• )
= 50 ( 12·s - 6·4) x l.0- 6 = 320 x 10- 5

fsr / aT 320 10 · r,
or
210,000 + 70,000 = X . .. (2)
l "5 /aT /aT _

· - - = 320 X 10 o ... (2)
210,000 + 70,000
or 1"5/ar = 22"4
/ar= 14"93 N/mm2
/ sr = l "5/ar = 22"40 N/ mm2
Since IXa i> °''
f or = 14"93 N/mm 2 (compressive)
/sr = 22"40 N/mm 2 (tensile).
Exercise 2·7-2. A compound bar 1'2 m long is made up of two pieces of metal ; one
of steel and the other of copper. The area of cross section of steel is 40 cm:i and that of
copper is 25 cm2. Both pieces are 1·2 m long and are rigidly connected together at both tge
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~OM,P,OSifE B,\RS AND TEMPERAfURE STRESSES
ends, the temperature 'of the qar .is now raised by l,0~°C . The bar is restrained agaimit bending.
Determine the temperature stress in both the material.
ocs=l2x ro-0/°C, E,=2100 tonnes/cm2
oc,=17'5X 10- 6/°C, E, = 1000 tonnes/cm2 •
Ans. 0 ·265 tonne/cm2 (tensile) in steel l
[ 0'424 tonne/cm2 (compressive) in copper J
· Problem 2· 1. A weight of 25 tonnes is supported by a short concrete column

25 cm x 25 cm in sectipn strengthened by 4, st~<tl b<1-rs in the corners of the cross section. The
diameter of each steel bar is 3 cm. Find the stres.ses in ~t~el and in concrete ..1
E, = 15£, = 2100 tonnes/em 2 •
lf the stl'ess in the concrete must not exceed ·20 kg/cm 2, what area of steel is required,..
in order that the column may support a load of 40 tonnes .
Solution. Load, P= 25 tonnes

I
Say the stresses developed St<el ba r:
in steel -f, . 1
,
~C;~ \',> . }'m J!ia
in concrete --f,
Area of cross section of steel,
ff ,I '
'~-:-f,-: ~: ;.._ .~.
J • •
/p.:.C~ncret~ -, - :
'~ - ... / 1'
l25f,m
A,= (3)2 X 4 = 28'27 cm2 ' .< :...,., { •
4
l • . • ;-
.<"',., _ , - -
·. ~-.,. ...
. . ./ •
·-·~:-, Y., ,.-.~
,,
·: .
Area of cross section .o f coRcrete,
, ~ ( - _':~.
A, = 25 X 25-28'27
= 596'73 cm2 , .. ~75c m-J
Concrete column reinforced with steel
bar is a composite bar
strain in steel = strain in concrete

Is le
E, = E,
l .
E,
or I,= l e X £e ,rr- ll le, · .. ... (1)
Now P=l ,A,+I.A. ~ 15f, . A',+fgA ;'

' . . '
25=15 Xfc X 28:27 + /• X 596'13
. ; 25. 25
or f• = 596'73 + 424: 05 = 1020'78 0·0245 tonnes/cm'
I ,•r;
f, = 151. = 0'3675 tonne/cm~.
i ~1 !~ 1 ! I
(b) Now the allowable stress i!l, COQG~~te,= 20 kg/cm2

So maximum stress in steel 11 = 15 x 20 = 300 kg/cm2
Say the area of steel section = A,'; A/= (225 -A, ')
' '.
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,,:
· Load p ~·40 tonnes = 40,000 kg=f,A,' +f•4e' .,i
40,000=300 X A,' +20 X (625-A,')
40,000=12,500= 280 A,'
A.'= 27500
.: .280
Area of the steel required = 98'2 cm 2 •
j~ . . .
Problem i-·2. A short, hollow cast ·iron column · 20 cm 'ext~h1al dia.tneter and
J6 cm internal diameter is filled with concrete as shown in Fig. 2·16. The' column carries a
total load of 30 tonnes. If ECJ = 6Econcrete
ca,lculate the stresses in the cast iron and th\:! Cost iron
concrete. · ·I . I
What must be the internal diameter Ccncrct,

of the cast iron column if a load of 40 tonnes
is to be carried, the stresses and the external
diameter being unchanged.
Fig. 2·J6
Solution. (a) Load on column, P= 30 tonnes

Area of cross section of cast iron, A1 = ; (202 - 162} = 113'098 cm 2
Area of cross section of concrete, A 2 = ; x 16~=201'062 cm:.i.
Say the stress developed in cast iron= / 1 (compressive) I•
Stress developed in concrete = / 2 (compressive)

.r.
(As the load on the column is a compressive force)
£: ={
2
(in a composite bar)
E '
/1 = E: f:.1=6 !2 (as given in the problem)
: j.
So /1A1+J2A2 :d, 30,000 kg
6/2A1+/2A 2 = ~0,000
fl6X 113'098+201'062]= 30,000
,. I
Stress in concrete, I' - 30,000 - 34'10 k / 2

Jz- 879·65 - g cm 1, '
Stress in cast iron, /1= 6!~= 204'60 kg/cm2
(b) Load = 40,000 tonnes

!'
Stress in cast iron, / 1= 204'60 kg/cm2
Stress in concrete, /2= 34' 10 kg/cm2
Outside diameter of cast iron column~ 20 cm
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COMPOSITE BARS AND TEMPERATURE STRESSES 95
. Sa,y insi9e ~iameter of cast iron column

= d cm
Area of cross section of cast iron, Ai'= ; (202 -d 2 )=; (40u- d 2) cm~
Area of cross section of concrete, A2' = : d 2 cm 2
Now
204' 6 X : (400-d 2)+34'1 X : Xd 2 = 40,000
64277"13-160·69 d 2 +26'78 d2 = 40,000

24277"13 = 133'91 d 2
d2=24277· 13 = 181 '29

133·91
Internal dia. of column, d= I3'464 cm.
Problem 2·3. A circular ring is suspended by 3 vertical bars A, Band C, of different

lengths. The upper ends of the bars are held at different levels. Bar A is 2 metres long,
15 mm diameter. Bar B is l "6 metres long, 12 mm diameter and Bar C is 1 melre Jong and
18 mm diameter. Bar A is of steel , B of copper and C of aluminium. A load of 30 kN is
hung on the ring. Calculate how much of this load is carried by each bar, if the circular ring
remains horizontal after the application of the load.
E,=2E0 = 3Eu= 210 x 1000 N / mm 2
s stand for steel, c for copper and a for a luminium.
Solution. Area of cross sections of bars
Aµ =
... ( 12) 2 = 113'098 mm2
4
Ac= ; (18)2 = 254'47 mm 2 .
Length of the bars, LA = 2000 mm
Ln= I600 mm
Lc= lOOO mm.
Modulus of Elasticity, EA = 210 x 1000 N/mm 2
Es = 105 x 1.000 N /mm 2
Ec= 70 X 1000 N/mm2.
Say the change in length in each bar = 8L
~L = /,EA X LA = fEn X LB = J;Ec X Le
A JB C
or JA = 8L. f~ = oL x 210
2
~~goo = I05 oL
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r = 8L ~!1 = ..L x 105 X IOOO 65'62 ..L

J B • LB O
1600 °
f c= 't>L . r: 7
- 8LX 0 ~ ~~00 = 70 3L.
Now j.fAA +fBAB + fcAc = 30,000 N

(105 X 176'71 -1- 65'62 X 113'098 + 70 X254." 47) SL= 30,000. .. . (1)
30,000
~L= 1855f 55 f 7421 '49 + 17812'9
30000 .
= 4378.8" 94,= 0 6851 mm. .,,
Load shared by bars, PA = /AAA = 18554'55 X0'685 l = 12711 '8 N

, Ps = /aAn = 7421'49 X0'68 5 l = 5084'5 N
P c = fcAc = 17812'9 X0'6851 = 12203'7 N.
[Note that values of fA AA, fsAs and fcAc are taken from equation (1) above].
Problt>m 2·4. · Prestressed concrete beam is fabricated as follows :

(a) A rod is loaded between the plates under tension,/,. r '
(b) Then the concrete is poured to form a beam of the section shown.
(c) After the concrete is properly set the external force Pis removed, and the beam is
left in a prestressed condition.
1
If E,
E, = 15 an d t heir
· cross sectional
· · t h e ratio
areas are m A, = is,
' · ·Tc wl1at w1·11 b e the
final residual stresses in the two materials.
~ ·---H~
)11
Fig. 2·17 ) '
Solution.
(a) Area of steel reinforcement = A,
J:?<-ternal forc;e =f
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p
Initial tensile stress in steel, f ,= - ·
A,
After the concrete is properly set the external force Pis removed.
The steel will try to contract but its contraction wi ll be checked by the concrete portion
because steel and concrete are bound together and released load will act as a compressive force
on the composite beam.
Strain in steel bar=strain in concrete beam
f,' - fe'
E.- E,
where f ,' =stress in steel (compressive)
/ •'= stress in concrete (compressive)
f .~. = .E.!_ = 1S
f/ E.
Moreover f,'. A,+f.'. A.= P
f.'. A,+{s; 15. A,= P
2.f.' . A,= P
f,'= _!_
2A,
I f.' - p
J.• =15- 30 A,
Final stresses, in steel, J. " - P - p - p (tensile)

' - A, 2A, 2A,
In concrete, Jc'= 3{ A, (compressive)

p
2A c
J." _ P x 2A. _ A. (tensile stress) = - IS
Ratio, Jc' - 2A, ~ - A, (compressive stress)
Prob!em 2·s. A steel bar 2 m long
with area 500 mm2 for 80 cm length and
1000 mm2 for 120 cm length. The bar is
fitted between two rigid supports at top and
bottom as shown in Fig. 2' 18. A uniformly
distributed load of 20 kN is applied on the
shoulder. Determine the stresses developed
in the upper and lower portions of the bar.
120cm
Solution. When the load is applied,
upper portion will come under tension and
lower portion will come under compression.
• .. -;
I
~~ T'1-::rr7it?--:'"7".,...,-r7'
Extension in upper = Contraction in lower
portion . rortion,
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98 STRENGTH OF MATE~IALS
Say the stress in upper portion= / 1

Stress in lower portion =J~
Young's modulus of elasticity of the material = £
Extension in upper portion = Ji X 80
E
Contraction in lower portion = 1 X 120
/1 X 80 _ /2X 120
So E - ~-
/1 = 1'5/2 .. . (1)
Total force will be shared by the upper and lower portion
P= P1 + P2
20 x 1000= / 1 A1 + /2A2
= 1'5/2X500 +f 2 X 1000
Compressive stress in lower portion,
r - 2o,ooo I 1'4~·8 N/mm2
J 2- 1750
Tensile stress in upper portion,
/ 1 = 1'5/2 = 1'5 X 11'428=17'142 N /mm 2 •
Problem 2·6. A steel rod 20 mm in diameter passes co-axially inside a brass tube of
inner diameter 24 mm and outer diameter 40 mm It is provided with n uts and washers at
each end and nuts are tightened until a stress of 150 kg/c m2 is set up in steel.
The whole assembly is now placed in a lathe and a cut is taken along half the length of
the tube reduci ng the outer diameter to 36 mm.
(a) Calculate the stress now existing in the steel.
(b) If an end thrust of 500 kg is applied at the ends of steel bar, calculate the final
stress in steel.
Estee/= 2 .Ebrass = 2100 tonnes/ cm2
Thrllads
L
Fig. 2·19
Solution.
it
(I) Area of cross-section of steel rod , As= (2) 2= 3'1416 cm2
4
Tt
2
4 (4 - 2'4 ) = 8'0425 cm2
An= 2
Area of cross-section of brass tube,
Stress in steel, fs = 150 kg/cm2 (tensile)
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COMPOSITE BARS AND fEMPERATURE STRESSES
Now for equilibrium Pull in steel rod = Push in brass tube

150 X 3' 1416= /u X 8'0425
r 150 .X3 '1416 = 58 .59 k g/ cm~"(compressive
. )
or ;B =
8 0425
(U) When the tube is turned for half of its length on fl lathe contraction of the t ube
will increase and extension of the rod is decreased.
Change in length of steel rod = change in length of brass tube
Say /n 1 = stress in the reduced section of the tube
jB 2=stress in the uncut section of the tube ·
fs 1 = stress in the steel rod
Load on the tube = load on t he rod
Reduced section of the t ube
/ n1 X An'=/ n2 X An = fs 1 X As
/n 1X 5'655 = /e 2 X 8'0425 = /s 1 X 3' 14 16
or / 111= 0·555 fs1 ... ( I )
fn2 = 0'390 fs 1 ... (2)
N ow reduction in the length of the 'rod = Reduction in the lengtl1 of the tube
fy-.fs1 X l= frit - f " X f_+ f n~- J,1 X j_
.. . (3)
E, En 2 En 2
Es
or 2( fs-fs1)=E;; [(Ja1-fn)+(Ju2-fn)]
= 2(/n 1 + /u 2 -2/n)
fs-fs 1=/n1 + / n2-2/u
Substituting the values offs a nd/n
150-/s1= 0·555 f s 1 + 0'390 /!>'1- 2 X 58'59
/s1 (l + 0·555+ 0·390) = 150 +2 x 58'59=267· 18
267' l 8
/s1 = . =137·37 kg/cm 2 •
1 945
Stress n ow existing in the steel rod = 137·37 kg/cma.
(iii) When the end thrust is applied on the steel rod, there will be further reduction in
its tensionfs1 and the compressive stresses in the two portions of tube will increase.
Fig, 2'20
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100 st1u.NG111 011.MArERiAi.s .
Say /a 1 increases to /a 3 (in the reduced section)

/n 2 increases to /"4 (in the uncut section).
So 500=compressive force in tube-tensile force in rod (for equilibrium)
500 = /Bs X 5'655 -fs2X 3' 1416
= fa 4 X 8'0425- fs 2 X 3' 1416
(Because the compressive force along the tube will be constant throughout its length).
/n 3 =88'417+ 0·555 fs2
/B4= 62'170+ 0'390 fs2,
Reduction in length of the tube= Reduction in length of the rod
fs-fs2 Xl=Jns-fo x_!_+f B4-fB X- 1-
Es EB 2 E 2
But Es=2EB
Js-Js 2=f B3- f o+J B,1-f"
I50-/s2 = 88'417+ 0'555 fs 2 +62' 170+ 0'390 / s2 -2X 58·59
fs 2 (l + 0·555 + 0·390)= 150+ 1 x 58'59- 88'417-62· 170
fs 2 (l '945) = l J 6'593
Final stress in steel rod,
I 16'593
fs 2= . 59·945 kg/cm2 •
1 945
Problem 2·1. A rigid bar EF 3 m long is supported by two wires AB and CD af

shown in t he Fig. 2·21. Wire AB is of steel, 2 m long and 6 mm in diameter. Wire CD is of
WB
Bra ss wire
- A'~ - - - •,
c- - -
t-im •j• l m - , - lm
AB:2m
CD: 1·4m w~HkN
Fig. 2·21
brass, 1·4 m long and 5 mm in diameter. The bar carries a vertical load of 1·6 kN at the end
F and end Eis hinged. Determine the stresses in steel and brass wires. '
Es = 2Es=210 x 1000 N/mm • 2
Solution. Under the applied load at the end F , the rigid bar EF will be inclined as
shown in Fig. 2·2 1.
Extension in steel wire, 'Sfscc EA
Extension in brass wire, 13/B'X EC
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but EC= 2EA

So ols= 2Sls. ... (l)
Say the stress developed in steel wire is Js and in brass wire it is jB.
f: 1s
I
Then X /s = 2 X X ls
fa
Es
X 1400= 2 X f;B X 2000
or
/B 2000 10
fs = 1400 =7· ... (2)
Load on steel wire, Ws =JsAs = fs X : (6) 2 = 28'27 fs
Load on brass wire, Wn= fBAs = jB X : (5)2 = 19'63/B
Taking moments of the forces about the poi nt E

1·6 kN X3= Ws x l + WB X2
or Ws + 2Ws = 4·8 kN= 4800 N. . .. (3)
or 28.27 Js + 2 x 19'63Jn= 4800 N
10
But f s = -r fs
10
So 28.27Js + 2 x I9'63 X - /s = 4800
7
Js[28 ·27 + 56·os6 J= 4800
Stress in steel wir~. - 4800 -

fis-84·356 s6·9o N/mm 2
-
Stress in brass wiire, fB= 8t ·29 N/ mm 2 •
Problem 2·s. A rigid steel plate is supported by three vertical concrete posts of 2 m
height each, but accidentally the height of the middle post is o·s mm less as shown in Fig. 2·22.
2m
II 11 l
Fig. 2'22
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102 . ' STRENGTH'OF MAT.ERIALS
Area of cross section of each post is 200 mm x 200 mm. Determine the safe value of the load
p if the allowable stress for concrete in compression ,is 16 N/mm 2 •
E for concrete= 12 x 1000 N/mm 2 • ,
Solution. Say the stress developed in outer posts =/ 1

Stress developed in middle post =/2
Ar.;a of cross section of each post, A = 200 x 200
or A = 4 X 10 4 mm
Now contraction in outer post = Contraction in middle post + o·5 mm
/ 1 X 2000 = _h_ X (2000-0'5)+0'5
E E
2000 / 1= 1999'5 / 2 + 0·5 X 12 X 1000= 1999'5 /2+6000
.f1=0·99975 !2+ 3. . .. (1)
i.e., f1>h
So / 1 = 16 N/mm 2 allowable stress
16= 0·99975 !2+3
or f 2 = 13'00325 N/mm 2 • ... (i)
Safe load, P = 2f1 X A + f 2 XA
= 2 X )6X4 X 104 + 13'00325 X4 X 10 4
= 128 X 104 + 52'01.3 X 104 = 1800'13 kN.
Problem 2'9. A combination of stepped brass bar 599·97 mm long and aluminium
tube 600 mm long is subjected to an axial compressive force of 20 kN. Both the tube and the
W:: 20 k N
399. 97mm
+ 200mm
Fig. 2·23
rod are co-axial. Determine the maximum stresses in brass bar and aluminium tube.
Ebrass= 105 X 103 N/mm2
Ea/uminium= 10 X.103 ~/mm2 •
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COMPOSITE BARS AND .TEMPERATURE STRESSES
103
Solution. Say the load shared

by brass bar
by aluminium tube
Contraction in brass bar
Contraction in aluminium tube

4Wq 150 4W2 X450
Siu= ~ X (802- 302) E u+ n X (80 2 -602) Ea
=
W2
Ea.
[
1t
600
X 5500 + 1t
1800
X2800
J
= W 2 [0'0347 + 0'2046] = O'l
393 W11
Ea Ea
But contraction in tube = Contr action in b ar + o·o3
0'2393 W 2 0'84 W1 + o·o 3
E., F:~
0'2393 W 2 = o·g4 X W1 + o·o 3
70 x 103 !05 X l03
0'342 W2 = 0'8 W1 + 3000
or W1 = 0'4275 W~- 3750
But J1.'.:'1 + W~ = 20,000 N
W1 = 2000-W2
or 0'4275 W2 - ·3750= 20,000- W~
1'4275 W2 = 23750
W 2 = 16637'5 N
W1 = 3362'5 N
4 X 3362'5 13
Maximum stress in brass bar = n X (20):l
=~ ~~
400 X TC
= 10·7 N/mm 2 •
M aximum stress in aluminium tube

_ ~ x 16637'_5_ _ 4 x 16637·5 .
7 565
NJ 2
- rr x (802 -60 2 ) - n x 2800 mm ·
Problem 2·10. A railway is laid so that there is no str ess in the rai.ls at l lO' F.
Determine the stress in the rail at 50 °F if all . contraction is prevented. E= 2100 tonnes/cm~,
o: = 6'5 X 10 "6 /°F.
The r a ils are 30 m long. If however, there is 5 mm allowance for contraction per r ai l,
wha t is the stress at 50 °F?
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Solution. (a) T , Fall in temperature

= I 10- 50 = 60°F
Coefficient of linear
I
expansion, rx = 6·s x 10-0 /°F
Say the stress developed in rail =/s r
£ = Young's modulus of elasticity
= 2100 x !000 kg/cm2.
Due to fall in temperature, rail will try to contract, but its contracti0n is prevented,
so tensile stress is developed in rail.
fs; = :t.XT
Jsr = 2100 X IOOO X 6'5 X J0 · 6 X 60
= 2·J x 6·5 x 60 = 819'0 kg/cm 2 •
(b) Length of the rail, L ·= 30 m = 3000 cm
Allowance for contraction = O·s cm
Say stress developed =Jsr'
fs~ XL= cxLT- contraction allowance
= 6·s x J0- 6 x 3000x6o-o·s

= 1·11- o·s =:= 0·67 cm
, __ 0_:_610 x 2100 x I 00,0
f ST - 3000 469 kg/cm 2 •
Problem 2 11. A steel wire 2·4 mm in diameter is stretched tightly between two
rigid supports I metre apart under an initial tensi le force of I kN. If the temperature of the
wire drops by 20°c , determine the maximum tensile stress in the wire.
Es = 2l0X J03 N / mm 2
os = 11 X 10- 6/°C.
Solution. Wire diameter, c/= 2'4 mm

7t
Area of cross section, As = (2'4)~ = 4·524 mm2
4
Tensile fo1ce = 1000 N
1000
Initial tensi le stress, fs =- . i = 22 1'04 N/ mm 2 •
45 4
Now due to the temperature drop, the wire will try to contract but the rigid suppons
will prevent this contraction ar.d thus further increasing the tensile stress in the wire.
Say the tensile stress in wire due to drop in te mperature = fsr
Drop in temperature, T = 20°C
fsr --
- 'J.
XT
$~ .
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9 .qMf.O~!T~ J!AA~ AND TEMPERATURE STRESSES 105
fsr = 210 x 103 x 11 x 10-6 x20=4'2 x 11

=46'2 N/mm 2.
Maximum tensile stress in wire,
fs .,,.,,=Js+Jsr = 221 '04 + 46'2
= 267'24 N/mm2.
Problem. 2·12. Two steel rods, each 5 cm in diameter are joined end to end by
means of a turnbuckle, as shown in Fig. 2 24. Tl1e other end of each rod is rigidly fixed and
there is initially a small tension in the rods. The effective length of each rod is 4 metres.
Calculate the increase in this tension, when the turnbuckle is tightened one quater of a turn.
Tl\ere are threads on each rod with a pitch of 5 mm.
£ = 2080000 kg/cm2.
If ai= 6'5X l0-6/°F, what rise in temperature would nullify this increa~e in t.ensioijl.
Solution.
Diameter of steel rod =5cm
Area of cross section, As=~ (5) 2 = 19'635 cm 2
4
Length of each rod, L = 400 cm
Pitch of threads, p= Smm
Turn Bu c k le
Fig. 2·24
Elongation in each rod ,

BL=~ = 1 = 1·25 mm = o·12s cm
(The turn buckle is tightened one quarter of a turn)

Young's modulus, £=2080,000 kg/cm 2
BL 0·125
Strain in each rod, E= y = 400
0·125
f, stress in each rod, EE= x 2080,000= 650 kg/cm2
400
Increase in tension, F= f. As= 650 X 19'635
= 12762'75 kg = 12'76 tonnes
Now if the temperature of each bar is increfls,ed 1 it would expand nullify in~ the tens*'
~tre~~ developed, ·
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106 STRENG'f.H OF ,MATER IALS
Say the temperature rise = T °F

-{ = <1.T
650 6'5 10-0 T

2080 X 1000 X X
Increase in temperature required,
T = 6'5 !~~:01iolOOO =48'08 op
Problem 2'13. Three vertical wires one of steel and two of copper are suspended in
the same vertical plane from a horizontal support. They are all of the same length and same
area of cross section and carry a load by means of a rigid cross bar at their l ower ends. The
load is increased and temperature is changed in such a way that stress in each wire is increased
by 100 kg/cm2 • Find the change in temperature.
Es=2000 tonnes/cm 2, Ee = 1000 tonnes/cm2
~s= 11 X 10- 6/°C, (/.o= 18 X 10- 6/°C.
Solution. Say the stresses developed due to load in steel and copper wires are f. and
J. respectively. The stresses developed due to temperature change by T°C are f s'I' and f cT
respectively,
then J.+fsT = 100 kg/cm2
J c+f cT = 100 kg/cm 2 •
Say the area of .::ross section of each wire=A cm2.
Stresses due to direct load
J.xA+2JcXA= I00 x 3 A
or J ,+2Jc=300 ... ( l)
(The load due to temperature change will be compressive in one and tensile in the other
so that total load change due to temperature is balanced).
Moreover strain in steel wire=strain in copper wire due to direct load.
f, fo
So -e;=e:
E, 2000
f,= 7:;: X/ =
0 - 1000- X/c= 2/c ... (2)
So 2/c+ 2/c=300
2
/ 0 = 75 kg/cm
f,= 150 kg/cm2 •

(Stress due to the direct load)
Resultant stress in steel wire
= f, +fsr= lOO kg/cm2
So f sr = -50 kg/cm 2 (compressive)
fc+Jsr = 100
/cr= I00- 75 = 25 k~/cm2 (tensile)
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COMPOSITE BARS ANb TEMPERATURE StRESSES 107
Since C1., < r.J. c, and the temperature stress in steel wire 1s compressive, there will be fall
in temperature say by T °C.
~:-+{: = (o;. -a,) x 10- nx T
50 25 10- 6 ' T
2000 X 1000 + -1000 X 1000 -- (18 - 11)
X X '
50 = 7 T
T=
5
7
°= 7' l4°C (fall in temperature)
Let us check for equilibrium

Compressive force in steel wire = 50 A
Tensile foree in copper wires = 2 X 25 x A= 50 A.
Problem 2'14. Three vert ical rods carry a tensile load of LO tonnes. The area of
cross section of each bar is 5 cm 2 • Their temperature is raised by 60' C and the 102.d of IO
tonnes is now so adjusted that they extend equally. Determine the load shared by each. The
two outer rods are of steel and the middle one is of brass.
Es= 2100 tonnes/cm2 , En = 1050 tonnes/cm2
cxs= 11 x 10- 0 rc. CXB = 18 x 10-6/°C.
Solution. Each bar extends due t o the rise in its temperature by 60°C and due to the
load shared by it.
Say the total extension in each rod =o
Expansion in each steel r od due to rise in temperature= cxs TL
Expansion in brass rod due to rise in temperature = Cl.s T L
Extension in each steel rod due to load = o- Gts TL
Extension in brass rod due to load =o-ao TL
So strain in each steel rod
8-o:s TL
L (-i-- cxs T)
Strain in brass rod = 8-r,.s TL - (}_ _ 0. 8 T)
L - L
Total load = 10 tonnes=2 ( f - r1.s T ) Es . A + ( 1-oT) Es. A

10= 2 X2100 X5 ( 1-as T) + t050 X 5 ( 1-as T )
10 48 o
= -y-4 r1.s T + -y - r1.n T
5250
= ~ -4 X 60 (11 X 10- 6 )-60(18 X 10-6)
1 58
525 =T -60 X 10- 0 (62)
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10a ·
5 X~25 = 1 - 12 X62 X l0- 6
1= ;
2 25
+ 12x62X 10- 6
=(0"381 +0·744) X 10- 6 = l "125 X 10-a
Load on each steel rod =( 1- c:11, T ) E, A
= (1 ' 125 X 10- 3-} l X 106 X 60) 2100 X 5

= 11'8125-6"930=4"88 tonnes
Load on brass rod =( ~ -(1.B T ) xEnX A
= (1'125 x 10-3-l8 x 10- 6 x60) 1050 x5

= S'9l - 5"67= 0·24 tonne .
Problem '.?°15. A steel tie rod 20 mm diameter is encased in a copper tube of

external diameter 36 mm and internal diameter 24 mm with the help of washers ancl nuts Th'e
nut on the tie rod is tightened so as to produce a tensile stress of 400 kg/cm2 in steel rod.
This combination is subjected to a tensile load of 2 tonnes. Determine the resultant stresses in
steel rod and the copper tube, if
E, = 2 Ec = 2100 tonnes/cm 2 •
Now if the temperature of the assembly is raised by 80°C, determine the resultant
stresses developed in the rod and the tube.
Given rJ.steel = 11 X 10-Gf°C
occopper= 18 X 10-Gf°C.
Solution. (i) Stresses due to tightening the nut.

Area of cross section of steel rod,
'II'
A,= - (2)2 = 3' 1416 cm 2
4
Area of cross section of copper tube,
A.= ~ (3'6 2 -2'42)= 5' 655 cm 2

4
Tensile stress developed in steel rod,
f, = 400 kg/cm 2
Tensile force in steel rod,
F,= 400 X 3' 1416 kg
= compressive force in copper tube, 'F.
- /. x s ·655 (fo! equilibrium)
So colnpressive stress in copper tube
400 X 3' 1416
222·2 kg/cm2
5'655
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coifl,bsitB BAis ANO ffiMPERA TURtl STRESSES 10~
(liJ' ~m·esies due io tens'He fore~·
Say the stresses developed due to tensile force of 4 tonnes in steel rod is /.' and in
copper tube it is f,'.
2000=/,' X A,+fe' X A, ...(1)
But {' = ~: (in a composite bar under direct force)

f,'=2/e' ... (2)
Substituting in equation (1)
So 2/,' X 3"1416+ /e' X 5"655==2000
Jo'= 1 t.~~~ 3
2 = 167"53 kg/cm ltensile)
/,'=2/o' = 335 '06 kg/cm 2
Resultant stresses in steel foci
= 400+ 335"06= 735"06 kg/crn2 (tensile)
In copper tube = 222"20 - 167"53= 54"67 kg/cm 2 (compressive).
(iii) Temperature Stresses
o:, > o:,
Due to temperature rise compressive stress will be developed in copper tube and tensile
stress will be developed in steel rod. Say the stresses developed are Jsr and f er respectively.
Then for equilibrium
J vr X A,=f cT X Ac
5"655 .
Jsr=Jc1·x 3 .1416- = l 8/c r ... (1)
Rise in temperature, T = 80°C

Jsr
then · E, + fcT
E~=(«, - o:,) X T
210f; 1000 + 1os~; ~ooo =(lS- ll) x w-s xso

J
1'8Jcr fer
= 500 X 10· 6
2'1 X 106 + l '05 X 10-0
fer (0'857+ 0·952) = 569
560 . (
f er = . = 309"56 kg/cm 2 compressive)
1 809
fs1'= 1'8 / c r = 557'28 kg/cm2 (tensile)
Resultant stress in steel rod
= 735'06+ 557'20= 1292'26 kg/cm~ (tensile)
Resultant stress in copper tube
=54·67+ 309'56:::364''23 kg/cm!! (compressive)
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it() SiRBNGTH ·OF MATERlALS ..
Problem 2·16. Fig. 2·25 shows a steel bolt 20 mm diameter and 200 mm long
passing centrally through a copper tube 150
mm long, outside diameter 40 mm and inside
diameter 28 mm. The screw on bolt has a
pitch of 2 mm and initially the nut is just tight.
Find (i) Changes in the stresses in the bolt

and the tube due to tightening the nut by
rotating it through 45°.
(ii) Changes in the stresses in the bolt ~- 150,-,m-~

and tube due to temperature rise of 40°F.
Fig . 2·25
E,= 210 x 103 N/mm2, Ee = I'OO X 10 3 N/mm~
ot,=6'4 X 10-Gj°F, oto= 10 X 10-0/°F.
Solution. (i) Stresses due to tightening of the nut
Pitch of the threads = 2mm
Rotation of the nut = 45°
Axial movement of the nut
= 2X -Jio = 0·25 mm
= contraction in tube+ extension in bolt
Area of cross section of the bolt,
.,,
A,=
4 (20) = 314'16 mmz
2
Area of cross section of the tube,

A.= : (402 -28 2 )=640"88 mm 2
Say the stresses developed
In bolt = /,
In tube Jc
Pull in bolt =Push in tube
f,. A,= f • . Ac
640'88 .
J.=1• . -3i~fir=2 o4 J. .. .(1)
Extension in bolt = ~. X I,= 210~ 103 X 200

Contraction in tube - J. I -
- ff:X . -
f•
lOO X 1Q3 X
150
. J. 1·51.
0 25 = 1050 + 1000
2·04/. 1·s1. . ... (2)
So = 1050 + 1000
3'443/,= 250
/,=72·61 N/mm2
~ _'li:•i:o
.;0 - .,V' ..,, "
.i.1· /LUU.,.•
- ... :
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C<!>MPOSITE· B~RS'AND TEMPERATURE STRESSES il 1
(ii) Stresses due to temperature rise

«c i:> ex, , so compressive stress will be develcped in copper tube and tensile stress will
be developed in steel bolt due to temperature rise.
Say the stresses developed are f c1· and f sT respectively.
f c1' X Ae-fsT X A,
314'16 .
fcT = f sr x . = 0 49 fsr .. . (3)
640 88
Jsr
Moreover E, +~/ <..T = (.x. - i,) X temperature rise
f sT 0'49 fsT
21oxToa+ 1oo x 1000 = 144 x 10- r.
0'966 jsT = 14'4
f sT= 14'9 N / mm 2 , / C1' = 7·3o N/ mm2
Final stresses in bolt = 72'61 + 14'90= 87' 51 N / mm 2 (tensile)
In tube = 35 '59 + 7·30= 42'89 N/ mm 2 (compressive)
Problem 2'17. Four steel bars of length L and area A each support a square rigid
plate. The bars are symmetrically arranged. A load P is then applied at the middle of the
square plate.
A steel rod of length L - I> and area a is now attached to the rigid support where the
four bars are secured and its temperature is raised by T 0 above t he normal so that it can be
connected at the middle of the square plate. When the central bar returned to normal tem-
perature, it was found that the load in each of the four bars has been reduced by 20%. Show
that
I> = PL (_l _ _l )
SE\ a A
To= _!_(_ l + - 1 )
SE11. a 4A
where cx = coefficient of linear expansion of steel
and E= Young's modulus of elasticity cf steel.
Solution. Init ially the four bars of area A and length L carry the load P,
p
then load on each bar =-.r
Initial extension in each bar
= ~t = I>' (as shown)

0
When the middle bar is heated by T it has to expand by (S+S').
,
So that its connection can be made with the rigid square plate.
When the <;:entral bar ret urns to normal temperat4re1
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112
Load shared by each bar of area A

= 0'8 (0'25 P) = 0'2 P
Squor~ rig ;.1

~lat~
p
Fig. 2·26
So the load on middle bar

= P- 4 X 0'2 P = 0"2 P
When the central bar tries to contract, tensile stress will be developed in this bar and
CO!JlPres_sjve s,tre~_s »'ill be develope_d in outer f91;1r par~.
Tensile force in central bar
= 0·2 P
Conwressive force in outer bars (sl19wing tquilipri.t1m)
= 4 (0'25 P - 0·20
•
P)J.= 0'2 P.
•
f sr, tensile stress in central bar

0·2 P
a
f er, compressive stress in each of outer bars
0·2 P o·os P
= 4::t =~.--
Now f sr + fer = «(T)
E E
0·2p 0·05p
~ + A E - =ocT
or P
T = 5E'1.
[
a1 + 4A1 J
Now total expansion in centr~! pl;lr ,
1>+ 8'= ixT (L-8)~«LT
Since 8 < <L
or
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COMPOSITB BARS AND TEMPERA1URE STRESSES 11.3
1
= (1.L [ -;; + 4A
1 J P
5Eia - 4AE
PL
PL PL PL PL PL
- 5Ea + 20EA - 4AE - 5Ea - SAE
o= ~i [{ - +}
Problem 2·1s. A 10 mm diameter- steel rod passes centrally through a copper tube
25 mm external diameter and 15 mm internal dia meter and 2·5 m long. The tube is closed
at each end by thick steel plates secured by nuts. T he nuts are tightened until the copper tube
is reduced in length by 0'6 mm. The whole assembly is then raised in temperature by 20°C.
Calculate the stresses in the steel rod and copper tube before and after the rise in temperature.
The thickness of the end p lates rema ins unchan ged .
Estee/ = 208000 N/mm 2
E copper= 104000 N/ mm 2
<>:s = 12 X 10- 6/°C, <Xe= 17'5 X 10- 6/°C.
Solution. Copper tube

External diameter = 25 mm
Internal diameter = 15 mm
Area of cross secti on, A . = ~ (252 - 152 )= 314.16 mm 2

4
Length of the copper tu be = 2500 mm
Contraction in length = 0·6 mm
Strain,
Young's modulus, E e= 208000 N/mm 2

Stress in copper tube, f , = EcX E f
o·6
= 2500
x 208000 = 49 .92 N / mm 2 (compressive)
Compressive fo rce in copper t ube,

P. = 49.92 X 314' 16= 15682' 87 N
For equilibrium compressive force m tube,

P. = tensile force in rod , P,
A,, Area of cross section of steel rod
=: (J0)2 = 78'54 mm 2
Stress in steel rod, •

Js= 15682'87 '99"68
-7s·s4 =- · N. i (
/ mn1 tens1e
·1 )
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• ·- l
Temperature Stresses . Say the stresses developed in steel rod and copper tube due
to temperature ri se aref~r and f er. As r1., < rJ. c ; f .r will be tensile and / er wi ll be compressive.
f sr. A,= f e r . A c (for equilibrium) ... (] )
fsr + f eEr = (cx.- 1X,) T . .. (2)

E, C
Temperature rise, T = 20°C

So /fr X 78 ·54 = f e r X 314' 16
f,r = 4 f,1· ... ( I)
Substituting the values in equation (2)
4J sr + f e r = ( 17·5 - 12) x 10- 0 x 20
208,000 104,000
3 f cr = 5'5 X 20 X 10-ox 104,000 = 11 '44
f er = 3'8l3 N/ mm 2
Jsr= 4 f er = 15·253 N/ mm2
Stresses after the ri se in temperature in steel rod
= f .+ f fr = 199'68 + 15'253 = 2 14.933 N/ mm 2 (tens ile)
In copper tube = J c+/ cr = 49'92+ 3·8 13= 53'733 N/ mm2 (compressive)
Problem 2·19 . A circular aluminium
rod of area 300 mm 2 is fitted in a square steel ·05 m rn
fra me of area of cross section 400 mm 2 as
s hown in the Fig. 2·21. At a temperature of S'hel t,c
25°C there is a clearance of 0·05 mm between
t he upper end of the rod and the top of the
frame. Determ ine the compressive force in the 400mm2
.T 1, 2m
alu miniu m if the temperature of the system 2
is raised to 50°C, neglecti ng the bending
of the frame and the bar.
300mm - I - + -~
_J_
Given ('f. •= 11 X 10- 6/°C Alumi n iu m r od t
('f.a= 22 X 10- /°C
0 Fig. 2·27
E,= 3 Ea=2100 x 1000 N/ mm 2 •
Solution. At 25°C, clearance between steel frame and alum inium rod = 0'05 mm
At 50°C, say exk nsion in steel frame = 8 mm
Then extension in aluminiu m rod = 8+ 0·05 mm
Since cxa > cx,, alum inium rod will tend to extend more than steel but steel frame wil
prevent free expansion of aluminium rod and in turn alu minium rod will exert pull on tw<
vertical steel bars and steel bars will extend beyond their free expansion limit.
E11 , compressive strain in aluminium
CXa(50-25)(]2Q0- 0 '05) - (11 + 0'05) ,
= 1200 - 0 '05 tak mg(l200-0'05) = 121
_ 22 X I0- 6 X 25 X 1200-(S+ O·QS) 0'66- 8- 0'05 0'6 1-

~u - IJOQ .= -·1ioo - = 1iQO
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COMPOSITE BARS A·Nb TEMPERATURE STRESSES i;j,5.
Area of cross section of a luminium rod,
A a= 300 mm 2
Compressive force in aluminium rod
Fa= Ea. EaXAa= Ea X E.x 300
Tensile strain in steel bar,
o-cc. (50-25) X 1200
1200
Tensile force in steel bars,
F 1 = E• E, A, = E, X3 E 0 X 800
But for equilibrium Fa = F,
Ea . Ea. 300= E,. 3 Ea 800
Ea= 8 € 1 ... (1)
o- 11 X 10-0 X 25 X 1200 s - 0·33
E,= 1200 1200
So Ea = 8 Er
\'
0·61 - 0 = S cs - 0·33)
1200 1200
or 0'61 + 8 x o·33= 9 o
3'25
- -= o o= 0'361 mm •' I
9 '
0·61-s 0·61 - 0·361 0·249 ·
Now ea= 1200 1200 = 1200
I
Stress in alum inium rod,

0·249 0'249 .
f a= XEa = 1200 X 70 x 1000= 14'525 N/mm2
1200
(compressive)
· Compressive force in aluminium rod,
Fa= 14'525 X Aa= I4'525 X 300 = 4357'5 N
= 4'3575 kN Ans.
SUMMARY
1. In a composite bar of two m1terials with cross sectional areas A1, A2 and length L
the stresses developed under a load W are . '
f1A1 +J2A2 = W. ...(1)
h_ _ f~
111 I. I. E1 - E~ · ... (2)
where E 1 a nd £ 2 are the Modulus of elasticity for both the materials
W1 + W2 = W. ... (3)
Change in length, oL= ~ X L= ·t L.
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l I~ STRENGTH OF MATERiAts
2. In a composite bar with more than 2 materials, with areas of cross sections A1 , A2 ,
.. .. .. , An etc.
W1 + W 2 + W3 ••• • •• Wn = W (Total load)
/1 /2 fa
E 1 = -E 2 = E
3
W,
Stress in any bar i, Jt= A, .
3. Bars of d ifferent lengths L 1 and L 2 placed co-axially subjected to load.

Li-L2 = C (a small clearance)
8L1 -C= 8L 2• • •• (1)
. .. (2)
. .. (3 )
4. A bolt and a tube assembly tightened with a nut
f1A1 = f2A2 . .. ( 1)
( /1 and / 2 are tensile and compressive stresses in bolt and tube)
A1 and A2- area of cross section of bolt and tube respectively.

Axial movement of the nut = f 1 L + .f 2 L
E1 ·£2
where L is the length of bolt and tube.
5. A single bar fixed o'etwee,1 rigid supports at both the ends, subjected to teiriJerature
change by T 0 • ' •
Tensile stress in bar = ':I.T (for decrease in, temperature)

Compressive stress in bar = a.T (for increase i~ temperature) '
(/. = coefficient of li11ear expansion of bar.
· 6. A composite bar, of two materials, cross sections A1 and A 2 subjected to temperature
change T , r,. 1 > o:2
f1A1 = f ~A 2
i~ + f2 = (
2
7.c - <X2) T
/1 is compressive and / 2 is tensile stress for increase in temperature.
/1 is tensile and Ji is compressive stress for decrease in temperature.
,; I
1. A composite bar is made by encasing a brass rod in steel tube. lf Estett= 2 Ebrass and
there is •a change of length of o·1 mm in brass rod in a length of l metre of the composite
bar, due to an applied force, then change in length of steel t ube is :-
(a) 0·2 mm (b) o· 1 mm
(c) o·os mm (d) 0·025 mm.
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COMPOSiTE BARS AND TEMPERATURE STRESSES 117
2. A copper bar 2 cm in diameter is completely encased in a steel tube of 3 cm external
diameter so as to make a composite bar. The bar is subjected to a compressive force of
P tonnes so as to cause a stress of 150 kg/cm 2 in copper bar, the stress developed in steel
tube will be (if Es=2Ec).
(a) 300 kg/cm2 (b) 150 kg/cm2
(c) 75 kg/cm2 (cl) None of the above.
3. A composite bar made of steel and aluminium strips each having 2 cm 2 area of cross
section. The composite bar is subjected to load P. If the stress in a lu minium is 100 kg/
cm 2 and Estee1=3 Eatuminiim, the value of load P is
(a) 400 kg (b) 600 kg
(c) 800 kg (d) 100 kg.
4. A composite bar is made of strips of material I and material 2, having area JOO mm 2
each. The stress in material 1 is 20 N/ mm2 due to an applied load of 6000 N. If the
(a) 25 x 103 N/mm2

.
value of E for material 1 is 100 X 103 , the v;;i.lue of E for m aterial 2 will be
.'
(b) 50 x 103 N/mm2
(c) 100 x 10 3 N/mm 2 (d) 200 x 10 3 N/mm 2 •
5. A steel bolt passes centrally through a brass tube. At the ends washers and nuts are
provided. Nuts are tightened so as to produce a compressive stress of I 00 N/ rnm 2 in brass
tube. The area of cr oss section of brass tube is . 1000 mm 2 and that of steel bolt is
500 mm2 • The value df E for steel is 2 times the value of E for brass. The stress
developed in steel rod is
(q) 50 N/mm2 (b) 100 N/mm 2
' ' (c) 200 N/mm 2 (d) None of the above.
6. A steel bolt passes centrally through a b'rass tube. At the ends washers and nuts are
provided. The whole assembly is raised in temperat ure by 50°C The area of the
cross section of steel bolt is 2000 mm 2 and .that of brass tube is 1000 mm2 •
Estee1= 2 Ebrass. If the stress due to temperature rise is 40 N/mm 2 (tensile) in steel bolt,
the stress in brass tube wiil be
('a) 80 N/mm 2 (compressive) (b) 60 N/mm 2 (tensile)
(c) 40 N/mm 2 (tensile) (d) 20 N/mm 2 (compression).
7. A wire of a material, 1 mm in diameter, l m long is stretehed b etween two rigid supports.
the temperature of the wire drops by 10°C. If a = JO x 10- 6/°C a nd E = 100 x 10a N/mm:i
for the ,wire, the stress developed in wire will be
(a) 1 N/mm2 (b) JO N/111111 2
(c) 100 N/mm 2 (d) 1000 N/mm 2 •
8. A steel rail track is laid by joining 30 m loag rails end to end. A 30°C there is no stress
in rails. At 50°C what will be the stress in rail if a= 11 X J0- 6/°C and £ = 200 X 103 N/mm.
(a) 88 N/mm2 (compressive) (b) 88 N/mm 2 (tensile)
(c} 44 N/mm2 (compressive) (d) 44 N/mm 2 (tensile).
9. Three wires of equal cross section and equal length but of different m aterials fixed at the
top support a ring, £ 1 = 2£2 =3£ 3~ A load of 3 kN is applied on the ring in such a
manner that the ri11g remains horizontal. The load share<.l by wire of material 1 is
(a) ·0·5 kN (b) 1 kN
·cc) 1'5 kN (d) 21cN.
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i 18 STRENGTH OF MATERIAtS
10. A steel bolt passes centrally through a copper tube. At the ends nuts and washers are
provided. The area c f cross section of both bolt and tube is the same. E steet= 2Eb,ass.
If the assembly is tightened by rotating a nut through 60° on the thread of pitch 3'6 mm.
The contraction in the length of the tube is
(a) 0'6 mm ·(b) 0'4 mm
(c) 0'2 mm (d) o· 1 mm .
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (dJ 5. (c) 6. (a)

7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b).
EXERCISE
2·1. A weight of 200 kN is supported by a short concrete column of 30 cm diameter

strengthened by 6 steel bars of 2·5 cm diameter symmetrically placed in the section of concrete.
Find the stresses in steel and co ncrete.
' Esteet = I 5 E concrete = 210 X 10 5 N /mm 2•
If the stress in the concrete is not to exceed 3 N/mm 2, what ar ea of sted is required in
order that the column may support a load of 400 kN ?
[Ans. 26'81 N/ mm2, l '787 N/ rom2 ; 4174'8 mm 2]
2·2. A short hollo w cast iron column, 250 mm external diameter and 200 mm intern.al
d iameter is filled with eoncrete. The column carries a tota l load of 500 kN. If
Ecast iron = 6 Econcrete, calculate stresses in cast iron and concrete.
What must be the internal dia meter of the cast iron column if a load of 650 kN is to
be carried. The stresses in cast iron and concrete and external diam eter . of the column being
unchanged. rAns. 21.828 N / mm2, 3'628 N/ mm2, 171'76 mm]
2'3. A circular ring is suspended by three vertical bars A, B a nd C of different lengths.
The upper end of the bars are held at different levels. Bar A is 1·5 m long with 2 cm2 cross
sectional area, bar Bis 1 m long with 1·5 cm2 cross sectional area and bar C is 70 cm long with
cross sectional area equal to 2·5 cm:i. Bar A is of steel, B of copper and C of aluminium. A
load of 2 tonnes is hung on the ring. C ulculate h ow much of this load is carried by each bar,
if the circular ring remains h orizontal after the application of the load.
Estee1= 2 l00 tonnes/cm 2 , Ecoppper = 1100 to nnes/cm 2, Eatuminium = 700 tonnes/cni2 •
[Ans. 0'941 , 0'555, 0·504 tonne]
2·4: Pre-stressed concrete beam is fabricated as follo ws :
.,
(i) A steel rod is loaded in tension between two plates.
(ii) Then the concrete is poured to form a beam of square cross section with• steel
rod in centre. ,
(iii) After the concrete is proper ly Eet, the extt.rnal force on the rod is r emoved a nd
the beam is left in a pre-stressed condition. ,q
If E , = 15 Ee, beam section 15 cm X 15 cm and the steel rod is of 3·5 cm diameter,

what will be the r atio of final residual stresses in the two m aterials. [Ans. - 22 ·39]
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COMPOSITE BARS AND .TEMPERATURE STRESSES 119
2.5. A copper rod of length 2/, with cross sectional area A 1 = 4 cm2 over the upper
half and A2 = 6 cm2 over the lower half is supported and loaded as shown in Fig. 2·28.
Calculate the str esses in the upper and lower
portions if P = 1 tonne.
. Ans. [100 kg/cm 2 (tensile) in the
upper portion, 100 kg/cm 2 (compression) in the
lower portion]. 1Ton11tt
2"6. A steel rod 25 mm in diameter
passes co-axially inside an aluminium tube of
inner diameter 30 mm and outer diameter
40 mm. It is provided with washers at each
end and nuts are tightened until a stress of
·-+
20 N/mm2 is set up in the aluminium tube.
The whole assembly is now placed in
a lathe and a cut is taken along half the length
F ig. 2·28
of the tube reducing the outer diameter to
37mm.
(a) Calculate stress now existing in the steel.
(b) If an additional end thrust of 4000 N is applied at the ends of the steel bar,
calculate the final stress in steel.
2
Esteet = 3 Eatu111i11im11 = 210 X 103 N/mm •
[Ans. (a) 13·997 N/mm 2, (b) 12·73 N/mm2]
2·1. A rigid bar EF 3"5 m long is supported by two wires AB and CD as shown in
Fig. 2·29. Wire AB is 140 cm long, 5 mm diameter and made of copper. While wire CD is
.LJ
D
1m+1m+1·5m 2 5 0 kg
Fig. 2·29
180 cm long, 5 mm diam.::tcr and made of steel. The bar carries a vertical load of 250 kg at
the end F and end E is hinged, determ ine the stresses in steel and copper wire.
E ~teer= 2100 tonnes/cm 2, Ecopper = 1080 tonnes/cm2 •
[Ans. 1220 kg/cm2 (steel), 1615 kg cm2 (copper)]
2·s. A rigid steel plate is supported by three vertical concrete posts of 80 cm height
each, but accidentally the height of the middle post is 0·04 cm less as shown in Fig. 2·30.
Area of cross section of each post is 12 cm X 12 cm. Determine the safe value of the load P
if the allowable str ess for concrete in compression is 150 kg/cm2 •
E r;oncrete = 120' tonnes/cm2. [Ans. 56.16 tonnes]
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· 002 • I
~
-t-
T
80 cm
Fig. 2"30 Fig. 2"31
2·9. A combin~tion of stepJ?ed steel rod 40 cm long and brass tube 39"998 cm long
is subjected to a1: axial compress1_ve load W ~3 tonnes. B?th the rod, and the tube are co-
axial as shown in Ftg. 2·31. D~termtne the maximum stresses m steel and brass.
Esteei= 2 Ebrass = 2000 tonnes/cm2, [Ans. 232 kg/cm2, 772 kg/cm2
2·10. A railway is laid so that there is no stress in rails at 80°F. r),etermine the stres.s
in the rail at 130 F, if its expansion is prevented.
E = 2l0 x 10 3 N / mm 2
r.t = 6"4 x w- 0/°F.
The rails are 30 m long. If, however, there is 6 mm allowance for expansion for rail,
what is the stress at I30°F. f Ans. 67·2 N/mm2, 25"2 N/mm2]
2·11. A ~~p_per wi!e 2 mm in diameter is stretched tightly between two supports 1
m apart under an m1t1al t~ns1on of 20 kg. If the temperature drops by I 0°C, determine the
maximum tensile stress in the wire material.
E= 1050 tonnes/cm2, C'. = 18 X l0- 0f°C.
[Ans. 825 kg/cm2]
2·12. Two steel rods 25 mm in diameter are joir.ed end to end by means of a turn
buckle. The other end of each rod is rigidly fixed and there is initially a small tension in each
rod. The effective length of each rod is 5 m. Calculate the increase in tension of each rod
when the turn buckle is tightened through one half of a turn. There are threads on each rod
with a pitch of 3· 18 n~m.
£ = 208 X 103 N/mm 2 • If cc = 11 X w -o/°C,
what rise in temperature would nullify the increase in tension. [Ans. 32"408 kN, 28·9°C]
2·13. Three vert ical wires, two of s,t eel and one of aluminium are suspended in a
vertical plane from a h orizontal support. They are all of the ·same length and same areq- of
cross section and carry a load by means of a rigid bar at their lower enc,ls. Th.e loa<;l is now
increased and temperature is changect iu such a way that the stress in each wire is increased by
28 N/mm 2. Find the change in temperature.
E. = 3E., = 210 X 10 3 N/ mm2
'l., = 6'5 X w - 0 /°F: •Zo= t;nx 10- 0f°F.
[Ans, - 44'44°F]
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2'14. Three vertical rods carry a tensile load of 120 kN. The area of cross section of
each bar is 600 mm2 • Their temperature is raised by I00°C and the load is so adjusted that
they extend equally. Determine the load shared by each. The outer two rods nre of aluminium
and the middle one is of brass.
Ea= 700 x 102 N / mm 2 , E~= 1050 x 102 N /mm2
v:a=23 x l0- 6 /°C, a.1,= l8 x l0- 6/°C.
[
An s . 25'285 kN in each aluminium bar
69'43 kN in brass bar
J
2'15. A steel tie rod of 25 mm d iameter is enclosed in a brass tube of external dia-
meter 40 mm and internal dia meter 30 mm with the help of washers and nuts . The nut on
the tie rod is t ightened so as t o produce a tensile stress of 30 N/1111112 in steel rod. Th is
combination is now subjected to a tensile load of 30 kN. Determine the resultant stress i,n
steel tie rod and brass tube if
£.= 2 X 105 N /mm 2, fa = 0·8 x 105 N/m m 2 .
Now if the temperature of the assembly is raised by 50°C, determine the final stresses in
tie rod and tube.
(.( s = 11 X 10-s /°C, (.(b = 19 X 10- 6/°C.
Ans. (i ) 72·19 N /mm 2 (tensile), 10·10 N /mm 2 (compressive) ]
[ (ii) 98'94 N/m m2 (tensile), 32·21 N/ mm 2 (compressive)
2'16. Fig. 2·32 shows a steel bolt 2 ' 5 cm diameter a nd 250 mm long passing centrally
through an aluminium tube 180 mm lon g, outside d iameter 4 cm and ins ide di ameter 3 cm.
The thread on bolt ha,; a pitch of 3' 18 mm.' F ind (i ) changes in the stresses in bolt and tube
due to the tightening of the nut through 30°. (ii ) changes in the stresses in bo'Jt and tube due
to increase in temperature by 30°C.
E,= 3 Ea= 2100 t onnes/cm2
C/.3 = I I X 10- src, IX,i = 22x w-r
fe::.
F ig. 2 ·32
2'17. Three brass wires o f length L, area A support an equilateral triangular rigid
plate. The bars are arranged at the corners of the triangle. A load P is then applied at the
C.G. of the triangular plate.
A brass rod of length (L-8) a nd area a is now attached to the rigid support, where
the 3 bars are fixed, and its temperature is raised by T above normal so that it can be
0
connected to the C.G. of the triangular plate. When the middle bar returned t o normal
temperature, it was found that the load in each of the 3 bars has been reduced by 25%.
Show that
'ii= __!__ r _l +--

4Ev:
·-· -
l a. 3A
·J
z.
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122 STRENGTH Of MATERIALS
T= PL
4E a
[-I __I J
A
where ix=coe:fficient of linear expansion
E= Young's modulus.
2'18. A 2 cm diameter steel rod passes centrall/through on aluminium tube 2'4 cm
internal d iameter and 4 cm external diameter. T he tube is closed at each end by thick steel
plates secured by nuts. The nuts arc tightened until the aluminium tube is reduced in length
by 0'4 mm. The whole assembly is then raised in temperature by 50cc. Ca lculate the stresses
in steel rod and aluminium tube before and after the rise in temperature. 1 he thickness of the
steel p lates remain unchanged. ·
E. = 3 Ea= 2IOO tonnes/cm2
O:a= 2 a, = 21 X 10-0 /°C.
[
Ans. (i) 448 kg/cm2 (tensile), 175 kg/cm 2 (compressive)
(ii) 979'92 kg/cm2 (tensile), 382'78 kg/cm 2 (compressive)
J
2'19. A circular copper rod is fitted
in a square steel frame of circular section.
The diameter of the copper rod is 2 cm and
the diameter of the rod of the steel frame is - ·- -·
4 cm. At a temperature of 15°C, there is a I ,. - - -~
,clearance of 0·02 mm, between the copper rod

and the frame as shown in Fig. 2'33. Deter-
I ~-
mine the compressive force in the copper rod
if the temperature of the system is raised t o
25°C, neglecting the bending of the frame.
Given 1Xc=l8 x 10- 0 rc

80c in
- l/2cm di0
14-
- :""·
·-4cm c,.,.i.
I
o:s = ll '2 X 10-6 /°C
2
Estee! = 2 Ecopper= 2080 tonnes/cm
[Ans. 132'32 kg] Fig. 2·33
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\
3
Principal Stresses and Strains
While designing a machine member or a component of any structure, a designer has
to determine in the critical region of member, where the stress developed due to loads is
maximum, the nature and magnitude of the maximum stress. However, complex may be
the state of stress at a point, there always exists a set of three orthogonal planes, perpendicular
to each other on which the stresses are wholly norrr1al and the shear stress does not accompany
these direct stresses on any of the three orthogonal planes. The normal stresses on these three
planes are called principal stresses and the planes are called principal planes. Out of these
three principal stresses, one is maximum, other is minimum and third one is of some inter-
mediate value. The designer has to consider this maximum principal stress while deciding
about the dimensions of the machine member under consideration.
3'1. STRESSES ON AN INCLINED PLANE
Fig. 3 ·1 shows a small triangular

element of a body with thickness t. Hori-
zontial · plane BC and vertical plane AC make
a right angle at the point C. On plane BC,
f 1 is the direct tensile stress and q is the shear
stress. On plane AC, f 2 is the direct tensile . f
stress and q is the shear stress Shear stress 2
q on ·p lane AC is complementary to the shear
stress q on plane BC.
Let us determine the nature and ·magni-

tude of the 'direct and shear stresses on the
inclined plane AB. Now,
- - - - Q 1 ( Hor1z$n t o. l
f o'r c Ii-~ )
(VHtica l )
fo rci s
Fig. 3·2
( 123)
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124 STRENGTH OF MATERtALS
Normal force on piane BC, F 1 - J1 x B CX t

Shear force Gn plane BC, Q1 = q X BC X t
Normal force on plane AC, F2=f 2 X AC X t
Shear force on plane AC, Q2= q X AC X t.
Forces F 1 and Q 2 are vertical while the forces Q1 and F2 are horizontal as shown in
Fig. 3·2. Take the components of vertical and h orizontal forces, along and perpendicular to
the inclined plane AB. The triangular element is in static equilibrium. So the reactions to the
applied forces are
R1 = (F1 + Q2 ) cos 0, R2=(F2+ Q1) sin 0
R 3= (F1 + Q2) 5in 0, R4 = (F2+ Q1 ) cos 0.
From these reactions,
N ormal force on the inclined plane A B,
Fn= R1 + R 2 ... (1)
= (F 1 + Q2) cos 8+ (F2 + Q1) sin 8 (a tensile force)
(Since R1 and R2 are p ointing away from the plane AB)
Shear force on the inclined plane AB,
Ft= R 3 - R 4 ... (2)
(Since R 3 is producing clockwise moment and R 4 is producing anti-clockwise moment
on the body)
Fn= F 1 cos 8+ Q2 cos 8+ F2 sin 8+ Q1 sin 0
Substituting the values of the forces

Fn=J1 x BCXt cos 0+ q x AC X t Xcos 0
+J2 x AC x t sin 0+ q x BC x t sin 0
= JnXAB X t
where fn is the direct tensile stress developed on the plane AB.
From equation (l)
BC AC · AC BC
Jn=J1 x AIJ cos O+ q x AB cos O+J;xAB sin B+ q+ AB sin 0
BC
But -
AB
= cos e
So Jn =f1 cos2 8+ q sin 0 cos 0+12 sin2 0+q cos 0 sin 0 ... (1)
1+ cos 20 1-cos 20
where cos2 0 and sin2 0
2 1
2 sin 0 cos 0=sin 20
Substituting these values above in equation (1)
Jn = f1 ( __l_±~os 28 ) +!2 ( 1+ \os 20 ) + q sin 2 0
J n= fitf2 + ( f i~fz ) cos 20+q sin 20
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PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND STRAINS iis
Similarly from equation (2)
F1= /t X ABXt= (F1 + Q2) sin O-(F2 +Q1) cos 0
=F1 sin O+ Q2 sin 0-F2 cos 0-Q1 cos 0
- / 1 XBC X t sin O+qxAC X t sin 0-/;xAC X t cos 0- qX~CXtcos 6
· BC . AC . AC BC
or /1 - f1 X AB sm e+ q x AB Sm O- f2X AB cos 0- qx AB cos 0
=/ 1 cos Osin e+ q sin2 0- f 2 sin O cos 0- q cos 2 0
=( f 1~f2 ) sin 20-q (cos2 0-sin2 0)
= ( f 1~f
2
) sin 20- q cos 20 ... (2)
Note that if BC is taken as a reference plane with which angle 0 is measured, then
sl!.ear stress on this reference plane is negative (as is obvious from the figure).
Example 3·1-1. The stresses at a point on two perpendicular planes BC and AC are
shown in the Fig. 3·3. Determine the normal and shear stresses on the inclined plane AB.
Fig. 3-3
Solution. Normal stress on plane BC,

./1= + 400 kg/cm~ (tensile)
Shear stress on plane BC,
q=O
Normal stress on plane AC,
/ 2 = -600 kg/cm 2 (compressive)
Angle of inclined plane AB with reference to p lane BC,

6= 30°
Normal stress on inclined plane,
/n= Ji+J; + fl - h COS 20

2 2
= 400 - 600 + 400+ 600 cos 600
, 2 . 2
= -100+250= +150 kg/cm2 (tensile)
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1!.1:
Shear stress on inclined plane,
'.
fi = 11-f2 sin 20 as· q~ ()
2
400 + 600 0
= 2
cos 60 =433 kg/cm2 ( +ve).
Example 3·1-2. The stress at a point on two planes perpendicular to each other are
shown in the Fig. 3·4. Determine the position of the plane AB such that shear stress on this
plane is zero. What will be the normal stress on such a plane.
A
s C
20 N/mm 2
60N/mm 2
Fig. 3·4
Solution. Normal stress on plane BC,f1 = 60 N/mm 2

Shear stress on plane BC, q=- 20 N/mm 2
Norma l stress on plane AC, / 2 =0
Shear stress on the inclined plane AB,
Ji= {1 sin 20-q cos 20
60 . ,
=y sm 20- 20 cos 20 = 0 (as given)
20
So tan 20 = =0'666
30
20= 33° 42'
or 01=16° 51'
02= 01+90°= 106° 51'.
There are two planes inclined at angles 01 and 02 on the plane BC, on which the shear
stress is zero.
Normal stress as the inclined plane AB, ,,.
(taking 0= 16° 51') /n = 11 + cos ·20+q sin 20
60 60
= 2 + 2 cos 33° 42' + 20 sin 33° 42'
= 30+3o xo·s32s+20xo·555
= 66:075 Nffu'Jti2,
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PRINCIPAL· STRESSES AND STRAINS 127
Normal stress on inclined plane

(taking 0= 106° 51') AB = 30+30 cos (2l3° 42') + 20 sin/213° 42')
= 30-30 x o·s325 - 20 x o·555
= - 6"075 N/ mm2 •
Example 3·1-3. At a point in a strained body, planes BC and AC are perpendicular

to each other. On plane BC the n ormal stress is 80 N/mm2 tensile, shear stress is 15 N/ mm2 .
On plane AC, the nor mal stress is 40 N/ mm 2 tensile and a shear stress 15 N/ mmi. Plane AB
is incl ined at an angle of 25° to the plane BC. Determine normal and shear stresses on the
plane AB.
Solution. Let us show the stress-system graphically as in Fig. 3·5.
~40NJ"'ml
__._________,c I Ls N/mrn2
B l~t:ljrrm2
2
80 N/mm
Fig. 3-5
Normal stress BC, + 80 N/mm2

/ 1=
Shear stress on BC, q=- 15 N/mm2

Normal stress on AC, };= 40 N/mm3
Shear stress on AC, q=+ l5 N/ mma
Normal stress as inclined plane,
fn = fi-i/ 2
+ Ii ;/2 cos 20+q sin 20
_- 80 + 40 + 80-40 cos 500+ 15 sm . 500

2 2
= 60+ 20 x 0"6428 + 15 x 0"7660 = 84"346 N/mm2 (tensile)
Shear stress on inclined planc, /, = / 1 ; 12 sin 20- q cos 20
-- 40 sm
=80- . 500- 15 x cos sp 0
2
= 20 X0"7660- 15 X 0"6428 = 5"678 N/mm2.
Example 3·1-4. The stresses at a p oint on two perpendicular planes A9 and CB art
as sh.o.wr. in Fig. 3·6. D~termine the normal and shear stresses on plane AC, in<;lined at 3t to
~~~~ ~
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400 kg/ cm2
Fig. 3·6
Solution. In this case no normal stress is acting on plane AB and CB, therefore,
! 1= /2= 0.
Jn=q sin 20= 400 x sin 70°= 400 X0'9397
= 375'88 kg/cm 2 (tensile)
Shear stress on inclined plane, f ,= - q cos 20
= - 400 x cos 70°:c-=- 400 X0 '342=- 133'8 kg/cm2 •
Exercise 3'1-1. The stress at a point on two perpendicular planes BC and AC are
shown in the Fig. 3'7. Determine the normal and shear stresses on the inclined plane AB.
[Ans. 40 N/ mm 2 , IO N/ mm 2 l.
A
A
j
200 kg/c m
2
B""------'---r----_j
C
8 200kg/ cm2
500kg/cm 2
Fig. 3'7 Fig. 3·8
Exercise 3·1-2. The stresses at a point on two planes perpendicular to each other
are shown in Fig 3'8. Determine the position of the plane AB such that shear stress on this
plane is zero. What will be the normal stress on such a plane.
1
[Ans. 6= 19° 19', 109° 19', 570'1 55, - 70'1 55 kg/cm2].
I
Exercise 3'1-3. At a point in a strained body, pla nes BC and AC are perpendicular
to each other. On plane BC, the normal stress is 400 kg/cm2 (tensile) and shear stress is
200 kg/cm 2 • On plane AC the nor mal stress is 200 kg/cm 2 (compression) and the shear
stress is 200 kg/~1 2 • Plane AB is incli ned at an angle of 30° to the plane BC. Determin,e the
normal and shear strcs~ on tb,e 4.fJ, (Ans. 423' 2 k~/cm·\ 1~9·8 kg/cm 2 J
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PRINCIPAL STRESSES. AND STRAINS 129
Exercise J·t.:4. At a point in a strained body, planes BC and AC are perpendicular to

each other. Shear stress 50 N/ mm 2 is acting on both these planes. Determi ne the normal
and shear stress on a plane AB inclined at an angle of 45° to 'the plane BC.
[Ans. 50 N/ mm2, O'O]
0
3'2. PRINCIPAL STRESSES
Considering a three dimensional case is not within the scope of this book. We will
consider only a plane stress problem i. e. the stress on the third plane is zero or say on the plane
of. the paper, the stress is zero. Therefore we will determine two principal sfresses only and
the third principal stress will be zero.
Now firstly on the principal p lanes shear stresses is zero and secondly the principal
stresses are maximum and· minimum normal stresses at a point.
Considering shear stress to be zero; from equation (2)
fi= f 1; f2 sin 20-qcos 20=0.
2q
tan 20 = _ . ...(3)
11 12
Since ta n 20=tan(l80+29)
The principal angles with reference to plane BC (Fig. 3 · 1) are
02=01+90°.
From equation (1), normal stress on any plane is
fn= 11 tf + Ji-·;/
2 2
cos 20+q sin 20. ... (I )
For maximum and minimum normal stresses

df.,. =O= h-f2 (-2 sin 20)+ q (2 cos 0)
de 2
2q q
... (4)
or tan -2°= /1-/2 = c11-f2)/2:
From equations (3) and (4), we learn that principal plane is inclined at an angle
8= _!_ tan - 1 _1g__

2 f1-f2
to the reference plane (refer Pig. 3 .1).
,.
q
from equation (4), sin 20 =+
J(!1;!2) q 2
+ q2
.( !1~/3)
cos 20 = +
J(=--=- ===
!1;!2 )2+q2 J.( J; 2
12 r
+q~
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130 STRENGTH OF MATERIAU
Substituting the first set of values of sin 20 and cos 20, we get principal stress
( /1-/2)
/1 + / 2 + ( /1 :fz
p =
1 2 2
X( 2
J(11 21z y+q2 J( 11~12) +q2
+ q X --::==q=== =-
... cs;
Similarly substituting second set of values of cos 20 and sin 20 we get other principal
stress
p = fd;_f2 - ~ (
2 f1;h r+q 2 . .. (6)
The third principal stress at the point is
Ps= O.
Maximum Shear Stress. The shear stress on any inclined plane given by equation
(2) is
fi f1 -f 2
sin 20-q cos 20. ...,2:
For maximum value of shear stress : =0
or ( f1 ;h) (2 ~os 20) + q x 2 sin 20= 0

tan 20 =- (f1 -f2)12 ... (T
q
_ fz-!1
- 2q·
(/1-/2)/2
From equation (7) sin 20
= ±J (11 12 y+q2
2
(J;)mau. = (f1 .h )
( /1-/,)
-2- + qXq
- 2 , ±~ ( ¥ r+q2 ± J(/1 2
l
12 +'q2
=± J(f1;!2 )2+q2. ..JS
Example ..,.1·2.1. At a point in a strained material, on plane BC there are normal an1
shear stresses of Sff N/mm2 and 14 N/mm2 respectively. On plane AC, perpendicular to plao,
!3C; the~e are normal an~ shear strc~se~ of 48 N/m111 2 and 14 Nf mm3 res:pectivelr as 1?how1
m the F1~. 3·9, Determnw
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131
2
28Njmm
1
·.,
q I
q-:1~N/mm2
B
-~-..I ~ C
66#/~m.1
Fig. 3·9
(i) Principal stresses and principal angles.

(ii) Maximum shear stress and the plane on which it acts.
Solution, Taking plane BC to be the reference plane

/ 1=+56 N/mm 2
q= -14 N/mm 2
!2= -28 N/mm 2 •
Principal stresses p1= f1 ih +J( ~ l . . r+q2
= 56-:i28 +,J( 56;28 )+04)2

= 14+ 44'27 = 58'27 N/mm2
P2= !1+!2
- 2- - J(f-1'
T )2 +qa
= 14-44'27=-30'27 N/mma
Pa = O
l ___lq_ _ _!__ - 1 2X 14
Principal Angles 01 =
2 tan-1 _ -
11 12 2
tan + = 21 [18 o 30, J
56 28
= 9° 15'
02= 90°+01= 99° 15'
Maximum shear stress, (f1)0ag; = ±J(/ r 1; /2 + q2
= ±44'27 N/mm2.
Angles of planes for maximum shear stress
e3 = _l_ tan-1 /2-/1 = _!__ tan-1 ( - 28 - 56)
2 2q 2 2x 24
= -J- [-71° 30']=-35° 45'
0,=0 3 +90°= 54° 15'.
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l 31
't. . : STRENGTI:l. OF MAf ElUAj.,S, ·
One can learn from the observations as ab ove, that the plane carrying maximum shear
stress is at an angle of 45° to the princip~ plane.
.. Example . 3'2-2: A_t a_ point i i11 a straiµed material, on two planes BC and AC only
t~e sh.ear stres~ o~ mtens1ty 35,Ni/,i;nmi acts. Detenhin~ the magnitude of principal stresses and
d1rett1on of principal planes. ·
~
&lutl:on, Let us repres~nt· the strn~s1<~ .PU.the..element..as..sh0wn in Fig. 3· 10.
e C
2
· 35N/mm
Fig. 3'10
Since in this case /1=/2 = 0

q= 35 Nfrnm2
Principal stresses Pi, ,p2= ± i q2 F ± -35 N/mm 2•
e1:-= 21 2 X 35 )
Principal angles. tan
- i
Ii2q 12 = 2l tan
-i (
_
0 0
= 21 (90 )
0
- ,45°
02= 45°+ 90°= 135°.
. .
In this example, planes BC and AC are planes of maximum shear stress. Principal
planes are at angles of 45° and 135° the plane BC.
Exercise 3·2-1. - At a point in a strained material, on plane BC there are normal and
shear stresses ofvah.;es -600 kg/cm2 and 200 kg/cm 2 respectively. On plane AC, perpendi-
cular to plane BC, there are normal and shear stresses of values + 300 kg/cm2 and 200 kg/cmi
respectively. Determine
(i) Magnitude of principal stresses.
(ii) Directions of principal planes.
(iii) Magnitude of maximum shear stress.
(N) Directions of planes carrying maximum shear stress with respect to the plane EC.
[Ans{ 310'98, -- 610.'98 kg/cm2 ; - 11° 59°, +78° 1', ±460'98 kg/cmz; 33° l', 123° l']
Exercise 3·2-2. At a point in a strained material, two plane EC and AC perpendicular

to each other carry only the shear stress of intensity 2QO . kg/cm2 • Determine the magnitude
of principal stresses and directions of principal planes. ·
[Ans. 200 kg/cm2 , -200 kg/cm11 ; 45°, 135°]
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3'3. GRAPHICAL SOLUTION ,
, The . strtsses on :any . ·p lane inclined · to a reference pfane•.. or · 'principal str-esses and
directions of 'principal planes can be easily obtained through a graphical solution. Followmg
sign conventions -can be taken for stresses :-
(i) Direct tensile stress ( +ve).
(ii) Direct compressive stress (-ve).
(iii) Shear stress tending to rotate the body in the clockwise direction ( +ve).
(iv) . Shear stress tending ..to rotate the body ,in the anti-clockwise ,direction ( .-ve)
Direct stress is perpendicular to the
shear stress on a plane. Therefore!..direct ~tress.,
can be represented along the abscissae and A
shear stress can be represented along the
ordinate of an x-y co-ordinate system;·COnsider
an element ABC subjected to 1the stresses as ·
hown in Fig. 3'11.
On plane BC
(1) / 1 is + ve tensile stress.
B
(2) q is -ve shear stress .. ---+---q
On place AC t,
(1) / 2 is +ve tensile stress.• Fig. 3'11
(2) q is + ve shear stress.
.
Fig 3· 12 shows a co-ordinate. system representing diTect stresses along the abscissa and..
shear stresses along the ordinate.
Sl'l~ar Stress
( + ve) Mohr~ Stress
. - -·T l-c · circle
Direct S~res s
0 H ( +ve)
(drigin) .: .-
... •.1
N
. ,....
Fig. 3'12
To some suitable scaie, take

OA =f 1 (co-ordinates of point B'k ive .the -state oNtress on plarte BCI
AB= -q
OC= f 2 ( co-ordinates of point D give' the st'ate of•stress on plane AC).
CD= + q
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134 ~tRENGfH OP MATERiAi.S
Join BD intersecting the abscissa at E. Since AB=CD
CE= EA= f 1-f2 , with E as centre and radius EB or ED draw a circle. This is called
2
a Mohr's stress circle.
Radius of the circle,
This circle intersects the abscissa at points H and / where the shear stress is zero .
Therefore,
Principal stress, p 1 = 0H= OE+ EH= OE+R
= OC+ CE+ R
=!2+ 11 2 .r2+ J (? y+q2

= !1+/2 + '( 2
fi-h ) + 2
2 \' ~ q
Principal stress, p 2 = 01=0E-El= OC+CE-R
= /1!h -J(l1 2/j )2+q2
Angles LBEH= 261

a-nd LBE/= 28 2 are principal angles
201= tan 1 AB =tan-1 -2:!1___

EA f1-f2
or 01 = 21 tan-1 -2:!L_
/1-/2
02 = 01 +90° as LBEI= LBEH+ I80°.
To determine the stresses on a plane inclined at an angle 0 to the reference plane, let
us take LBEK= 20. ,
" . .,
The co-ordinates of the point Kon the Mohr's stress circle i.e. OM and KM give the
normal and shear stresses respectively on the inclined plane.
Now rJM=OF+EM
fitf2 +R cos (20-20 1)
= Ii f fz + R cos 20 cos 201 +R sin 20 sin_201

EA /1- h
where cos 201 = EB = 2R
sin 20 1 ={! =; ·
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PRINCIPAL
. STRESSES
.. . .AND
.
STRAINS 13S
So normal stresses on inclined plane,

Jn = f tf +R cos 20. li;/ +R sin 20. l
1 2 2
- fi +h
- 2
+ f 1 -f2 cos 20 + q sin 20
2
(as proved analytically in article 3' I)
Shear stress on inclined plane,
f ,= KM= EK sin (20- 20 1)
= R sin 20 cos 20 1 - R cos 20 sin 201
= R sin 20. 1
112 2
R cos 20. -}
= f 1-;f2- sin 20 - q cos 20

(as proved analytically in article 3'1)
The resultant stress on the inclined plane,
f,=OK= ;./ OM 2 + KM 2 4°Jn2 +1,2
Points L and N on the Mohr's stress circle represent the maximum shear stress +ve
and - ve at the point.
(J,)1110x =±Radius of the circle
=±J( /1-;/2 )2+q2

To determine the direction of planes carrying maximum shear stress.
Let us take LBEN -203 , (in the opposite direction to the normal convention of
+ ve angle)
EA /1- /2
tan 203 = AB = 2 q
or 6a=- -2I tan-1 /1-/2

2q
Example 3'3-1. At a point in a strained material, stresses on two planes BC and AC,
perpendicular to each other are as shown in the Fig. 3' 13. Draw the Mohr's stress circle and
determine
A
q
B C 2
q:300kg/cm
600kg/cm2
fi~. 3'1~
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. STRENGTH OF' MATERIALS
(i) Stresses on the inclined plane AB

(ii) Magnitude -ef principal stresses
(iii) Direction of principal planes with respect t~ the plane BC
(iv) Magnitude •o f maximum shear stress,
(v) Direction of plan~s carrying maximum shear stress.
Solution. Choe se a co-ordinate system and to some scale take

OA=+ 600 kg/cm 2
AB=+ 300 (shear stress on plane BC is + ve)
OC= - -200 (normal stress on plane AC is -ve)
CD=-300 (shear stress on plane AC is -ve).
Join BD, intersecting abscissa at E. From E as centre draw a circle with radius ED.
This is the M ohr's stressrcircle,sh own in: F ig. 3' 14.
•
Shear Stress
, Hve:)
KL
Normal Stres s
( - Ve ) H ( + ve )
lANJj LES /
2~, .: - 37•
20 : 10 •
N 203: 53:
I -ve) 294 • 233
• Fig. 3' 14
(i) Draw an angle

!_~EK= 2 X 30°= 60°
OM =Jii= + J40 kg/cm2
KM= fi=+ 495 kg/cm2
(ii) Principal stresses Pi = OJ/= 100 kg/cm2
• p 2 = 01- - 300 kg/cm2
(iii) Directicms of,prjncipal planes
+ L BEH= 01 =-_18° 30' ._...,
1
2
(iv) Maximum shear stress,
(ft)ma~ = EL= EN=-:t:-500 kg/'1m2
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PlUNClPAL STRESSES. AND STRAINS 137
(v) Directions of planes carrying maxi mum shear stress

-+ LBEL= 03 = 26° 30°'
LBEN= 04 = 116° 30' .

2
3·4, ELLIPSE OF STRESSES
If we know the principal stresses at a point, then stresses on any plane inclined to
principal planes can be determined graphically with the help of an ellipse, with major axis 2A
and minor axis 2p2 as shown in Fig. 3· 1s. YY is the plane of major principal stress p 1 and
XX is the plane of minor principal stress p 2 • Now make L YOY' = U, i e., the inclined plane.
The normal stress on the inclined plane will be in the direction perpendicular to Y'Y' i.e., along
y
v'
Elli p~e of
OA :: P1
OB:: Pz
,
y
y
Fig. 3· 15
X'X' as shown. With Oas centre draw two concentric circles one with radius Pi and the other
with radius p 2 • The straight line X' X' intersects the concentric circles at the points L and M
respectively. From M draw a line MP parallet to OX and from L draw a line PL parallel to
OB, intersecting the line MP at the point P. This point P lies on the ellipse with major axis
2p1 and minor axis 2p2 • The resultant stress on the inclined plane is given by OP.
The components of OP, perpendicular to Y 'Y' and parallel to Y'Y' represent in
magnitude and direction the normal and shear stresses on the inclined plane,
Jn = OK, /,= KP
Resultant stress OP= ./ OK2 + KP 2
Geometrical proof
LPMK= LKPL= 0
Normal stress, fn = OK+ KM= p 2 + MP cos 0
= p 2 +(ML cos 0) cos 0= p 2 -I- ML cos 2 0
-p1+ (p1- P2) cos2 0
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138 STRENGTH OF MATERtALS
-_ P2+( P1 _ P2 ) ( 1+cos
2
29 )
= P1iP2_ + ( P1;P2 ) cos 29
Shear stress, fi = KP=MP sin 9=ML cos 9. sin 9

= ( p 1 -p2 ) sin Ocos 9
= ( Pi; P2 ) si n 26 (already derived analytically in article 3T
Example 3'4-1. The major and minor principal stresses at a p<.. int are + 70 N/ mm 2
and - 30 N/mm2 . With the help of ell ipse of stresses determine normal and shear stresses on a
plane inclined at angle of 30° to the plane of major principal stress.
Solution. With Oas centre and radii equal to +70 N/mm2 and - 30 N/ mm 2 to
some suitable scale, two concentric circles
are drawn. OA=+70 N/mm2 , YY is the
plane for major stress, OB= -30 N/mm 2, XX
is the plane for minor principal stress. Draw
plane Y'Y' at an angle -9 to YY as shown in x'
Fig. 3·16.
Draw a line X'X' perpendicular to

Y'Y' intersecting the bigger circle at C in the
1st quadr ant in which major principal stress
is positive and i·,~tcrsecting the smaller circle
at D in the 3rd quadrant in which the minor
principal stress is negative. From C draw a
line parallel to YY and from D draw a line
parallel to XX both meeting at P. Then OP
is the resultant stress or plane Y'Y'. Com- y
ponent OK is the shear stres'i and component
PK is the normal stress Fig. 3·16
Jn= PK= 44'4 N/mm2

fi = OK= 43' 8 N/mm 2
These values can be verified analyticalJy (sec article 3· 1)

/ 1 = + 70/ mm 2 , / 2 =- 30 N/mm 2 , 0= 30°
f,n = !1 +!2 + /1-/2 cos 20 70-30 + 70+30 cos 600

2 2 2 2
= 20+25=45 N/mm 2
Ji = li-!2 sin 20 = 7o + 3o sin 60°=50 x 0'866

2 2
= 43'3 N/mm 2•
T!w ~oluti on through ellipse of stresses may show ~ome sraphical error,
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PR INCiPAL STRESSES AND STRAINS
Exercise 3'4-1. The major and minor principal stresses at a point in a strained
material are - 600 kg/cm 2 and - 200 kg/cm 2 • With the help of an ellipse of stresses, determine
the normal and shear stresses on a plane inclined at an angle of 60° to the plane of major
principal stress. [Ans. - 300 kg/cm 2 , - 173 kg/cm2 ]
3·5, STRAIN COMPONENTS
Let us consider only the plane strain of a body i.e., we consider a body whose particles
311 lie in the same plane and which deform only in this p lane. In chapter 1 we have studied
'.he uniform strain, i.e., all elements of a bar have been deformed by the same amount. But
n a general case, the deformation can be non-uniform i.e., a straight line is rotated, distorted,
iisplaced from its original state in the undeformed geometry and the deformation is non-
miform, strain becomes more complicated. However if we examine a sufficiently small area,
he deformation can be approximated uniform. In the limit as the small area centered on 0
:hrinks to zero, this uniform deformation becomes the deformation at point 0, (Fig. 3'17).
I
y B
------- ;--. -~c
~'
V /
C //
Fig. 3· 17
Consider a thin eontinuous·;body OACB, lying entirely in the xy plane and undergoing a
nail geometric defon~rntioo in tl~e _.x-y plane. Let 1;1s express the defon,:iation in the vicinity
· point O quantitat ively by g1vmg the changes m the length of two Imes OA and OB. The
1rmal strain component is defined as the fract ional change in the original length of a line and
designated by the symbol E with a subscript to indicate the original direction of the line for
hich strain is measured.
. O'A'- OA
Strains Ea = hm OA
.6.•-+0
. O'B'-OB
€ 11 = ltm OB
.6.11-+0
Tliis normal strain is positive when the line elongates and is negative when the line
ntracts.
The shear strain component is specified ~ ith re_spect to two axes which are perpendi·
tar in the undeformed geometry of the body and 1s designated by the symbol y, with two
bscripts to indicate these t w?. axes. Shear. strain is defined as the tang_ent of the change
angle between these two ongmally perpendicular axes. These shear strams of engineering
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it1-terest are very .small such a ()'00t radian. it is adequate to define shear strain in terms of
chaQ.ge in angle i45,elf.
So Yoov = lim (LAOB-LA'O'B')= lim ( " -LA'O'B')

~.~o ~ oo~O 2
~.~o ~ ~~o
Figure 3'17 again shows an angle

«= LYO'B' and angle ~= LXO'A'.
Total change in angle LBOA=or.-~
i e., shear strain is positive when « is clockwise and is negative when ~ is anticlockwise.
Total shear strain = or.-~= y.,;
Shear strain y.,. is assumed to be equally divided about OB and OA axes. i.e., shear
strain y,,11/2 about OB axis is positive whi le the shear strain y,,~/2 about OA axis is negative.
3·6. STRAIN COMPONENTS ON INCLINED PLANE
Consider ;i.n element shown in Fig. 3'18 subjected to strain components Eoo, E11 and y-,/2.
Say the block ABCD is deformed to AB1 C3 D2 as sh own. In other words Bis displaced to
M
I
C
ex < < 6
L CA ( a 90° N ~~C1
~ c ·c,
C I
Fig. 3·18
B1 and C is displaced to C1, Then Dis displaced to D1 and C1 is displaced to C2 • Then C

is displaced to C3 and D1 is displaced to D 2 •
Displacements BB1 , C1C2, C2C3 etc. are very very small in comparison to the dimension
AB and BC. We have to determine the normal and shear strain components atong tb
diagonal AC, inclined at an angle 0 to the direction of strain component ""·
As per the definition of strain
RB1 CC1
""= AB = AB
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Ut
= C 1C2 DD1
e• B1C1 = AD
3 C2C C2C3
y-,=-- = but
B1C2 B1C1+ C2C1
C2Ca
=lie·
Fig. 3'18 shows the components of displacements CC1, C1C2 , C.;.C3 along the dfagonal
AC and perpendicular to the diagonal AC.
Displacement components along AC= CN+ KC2+PC3
FC3 = CC1 cos 8+ C1C2 sin B+ C 2C 3 cos 0
FC3 CC1 C1C2 . C2C3
or AC = °Ac cos e+ ~ sm &+ AC7 cos 0
Strain ebmponent, - CC1 AB

e, - AB x AC cos
0 + _f1C2
BC X
BS_ . 0 C2C3
AC sm + BC · x
BC
AC cos 0
= e,, cos 0 cos0 + ev sin0 sin0 + ,o sin0 cos0
= ea cos2 e+ ev sin20+-i !.. sin 20
= -e,, +2 --
e11 + ea - er,
2
COS 20 + Yxll
-
2
- .
Sill 20
Since II angle is very small, CF is perpendicular to AF.AC~AF.

tan 0t = CF-
IX = AC as ot
. very sma 11.
1s
Displacement component CF perpendicular to the diagonal AC,

CF= NC1 + C2P- KC1
= CC1 sin0+ C 2C 3 sineii - C1C2 cos0
CF CC1 . e C1C2 C2C3 •
OJ' angle °', AC = AC sm - AC - cos o+AC sm0
__ _<;CiAB .· _ C1<;'2.. .§<;_ C2C3 BC .
AB X AC s in 0 BC
IX - AC cos o+ BC X AC sm0
=e• cos0 sinO-e11 sin0 cos0+yd sin20
= (e. - e11) sinO cos0 + yz11 sin2 0.
Say ~ is the change in angle in the clockwise direction for the direction AC' perpendi·
cular to AC, i.e., ( 0+ ~ ) with respect to AB
/J = (e.-ev) sin( o+ ; ) cos ( e+ ; ) + r.11 sin1 ( e+ ; )

= -(e:.,- e: 11 ) cos0 sinO+ y.,11 cos 0 2
Total shear strain, = «-~

ix - ~= 2( ez -e11) sin0 cos0+ yo (sin2 0- cosie~
or 2y, = (ez- e11) sin 20-y ..,, cos 20
n=( e..-; Ev) sin 20- _Y? cos 20.
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Example 3·6-l. A sheet of metal is deformed uniformly in its own plane such that
the strain con1pcnents related to xy ax is are · :·
Ez = -200 X 10-6 , ev=500x 10- 6
"(o=450 X 10-6 •
Determine the normal and shear strain components on a plane inclined at an angle of
35° to the plane of €.,.
Solu~ion. The normal strain on inclined plane
e, =--=
€:o+ "• +
2
e.,, - ev
2 cos 20+ 2Y•• s 1·11· 20 , _.
= [l, - 200+500)
2
+ (- 2002- 500) cos· . 10 ,+ 4250 x sin 70 0 Jx 10- s
= [150- 350 cos 70~+225 sin 70°]X 10-G'

= [I 50-350 X 0'342 + 225 X 0'9397] X 10- 6 = -58'27 X 10-o
The shear strain on inclined plane
y, = -e:.,-e:r · 20- l1"~
- - Sll1 COS
20
2
=[(- 200; 500 4 0

) sin 70c.- ; cos 70° J x 10-0
= [-350 X 0"9397- 225 X 0"342] X 10-6 = [-.328"89-76·95] X iO 6
= -405'84 X 10 · 6 •
Exercise 3·6-1. A sheet of metal is deformed in its own plane such that the strain
components related to xy axes are
e:~=400x 10- 0 ; e:.= -200x 10- 6 , ; Yo= 500 x 10-0 •
Determine the normal and shear strain components on a plane inclined at an angle of
45° to the plane of e:,,. {Ans. 350 X 10-6, 300 x 10-0.1,
3'7. MOHR'.S STRAIN CIRCLE
F ig. 3· 19 shows plane strains on an

element i.e., on plane AC, normal strain is e:.,.,
shear strain is y,,11/2, on plane BC, normal
e~ .
sirairi ii ; e: a~d shear strain is Y;v · Choose
· p, .
the x-y co-ordinate system . Normal stresses
are represented along the abscissa and shear y
strains_· are represented· along the ordinate.
Tak'e -to same suitable scale OA= e., AB
~2 C'-----.------!
= -y.,,/2 (because the shear strain on plane
""--+----
y..2 'f(
AC tends to rotate the body in the anticlock- 2 '' y
wise direction. Then take OC= e:11, CD =+ 'f- F ig. 3·19
(~eca1:1se the . shear. strain _on plane _BC tends t? rotate the body in the clockwise
direction). Jom BD, mtersectmg the abscissa at E. Wit~ E as centre and radius equal to EB or
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PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND STRAINS 143
· ED draw a circle as sh0wn in Fig. 3·20. This is called the Mohr's ·strain circle. The c ircle
intersects the abscissa a~ point Hand I, where shear strain is zero. i e,, these points represent
the principal strains.
She a r s t rain strain c,rclt
Norm al
0 I C H St r a ,n
OA =(x
Yxy
CD=+- QC =t.y
2 Ex- Ey N >'x y
CE:EA: - - - AB:- -
. z
2
Fig. 3"20
Principal strains
Ei = OH= OC+ CE+ EH= OC+ CE+Radius of the circle
Radius of the circle, R = .[ EA 2 + AB2 = ~l E;r; ; Ey y r;, r

+ (
= -Ea: +2--+
Ey ]
2
.((
'V e-.. -ey •
)·' + ( Yzy )'-
e 2 = 0l= OE- El = OE-Radius of the circle ( R)

Ea+ E,- 1
=~ .r( E z -Ey )2 + ('(.c y )•-
'V
2
Points L and N on the circle represent the maximum shear strain on the element of
the body.
. ~rincipal angle. To deterf!1ine the directions of principal planes carrying principal

strams wnh respect to the reference plane AC Consider angle BEH.
LBEH= 20 1 = tan- 1 AB = tan-1 y:11 y

· EA
·o1 = _!_ tan- 1 _ Y:!.._
2 Ex - e,
L BEI= 20 2 = 201 + 180°

Oi= ~i + 90°.
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}44
Strains on the indined plane. Plane AB is inoitned ~t an a11gte ,8 to the reference pl,ane
AC. Draw an angte BEK= 20-, i11te1·secting the M oh1•'s str.ain e<irc.le at K. Then O{N)1itfo1ates of
the point K determine the normal and shear strains on the inclined plane.
Normal strain on inclined plane,
Ee = OM= OE+EM
Shear strain on inclined plane,
y , = KM
Ee= OE+ EM =
= E•~Ey + R cos 28 cos 281 + R sin 28 sin 28 1
E.,+e,, + R 28 EA . e AB
= - -- cos . R +R sm 2 . R
2
= -Ez -f-
2
-Ey - + -Ez-Ey
- - COS 2
0.+ Yn Stn
2
.
20
•
2
ye = KM= R sin (20- 20 1 )
= R sin 20 cos 28 1 - R cos 20 sin 20 1
. EA AB
= R sm 28 . - R - - R cos 20 . - R -
Example 3·1-1. The normal and shear strains acting at a point are
e., = + 500µ cm/cm, e,,=-200µ cm/cm,
Y•y/2= ± 150µ cm/cm. Determine the (i) principal strains (ii) principal angles (iii) normal and
shear strain on a plane inclined at an angle of 25° to the plane of E,..
Solution. Iµ cm/cm = I X 10- 6 cm = J0- 6 strain

cm
e., = 500 X 10- \ Ey= - lOO X 10- s
_Y!.!._ = 150 X 10- 6 e2 + ey = I SO X 10- s

2 ' 2 .
E,r-Ey = 350 X 10- G

2
Principal strains
c;i,+E·y ( e»-Ey
E1= -2 - + ~\ - 2 -
)2 +( -Ylt'v )i
= [150+ .{ (3'50)2+ (150)2] X IQ- 6
= [IS0+ 380·79] X 1'0. n.= 530·79 x 10-6
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PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND STRAINS 14S
Principal angles
= 11° 36',
82=0d-90° = 101 ° 36'.
Strains on inclined p1ane
0= 25°
€o: + €y + €o:-€y cos 500.-__1 Yxy sin
• 500
2 2 2
= (150+ 350 X 0"6428 + 150 X 0'7660) X 10- 6
= ( 150 + 224"98 + 114"90) X 10-(;= 489"88 X 10 6
y11 = €a,-€, .
sm 50°- --y.,y cos 50°
2 2
= (350 X0"7660- 150 X 0"6428) X I0- 6 =(268 "10-96'42) X 10- 6
= 171 '68 X 10-o.
Exei·cise 3·7-1. The normal and shear stra ins acting at a point are €.=450 x 10-5.
f'y= 250 x I 0- 11, y,.,./2 = ±300 X J0-6 • Determine (i) principal strains (ii) principal angles (iii)
strains OH a plane inclined at an angle of 60° to the plane of Ex .
Ans. U) 666'22 X 10-6, 33'78 x 10-a; (ii) 35° 48', 125° 48' ;l
[ (iii) 559'8 X 10- 6 , 236'6 X 10- 0 j
3·s. PRINCIPAL STRAINS IN TERMS OF PRINCIPAL STRESSES
As we already know that at any point, there always exists a set of 3 orthogonal planes
on which the stresses are only the norm:.tl stresses. The n ormal stresses on these planes are
called principal stresses and the strains in the direction of principal stresses are called principal
strains .
Consider at a point, three principal 3
stresses Pi, p 2 , p 3 on three principal planes
OAFE, OEDC and OABC respectively as
shown in the Fig. 3·21.
Say the Young's modulus of the

F
materia l is E and its Poisson's ratio is IJm .
Linear strain due to p 1 in direction l
= ...LJ?..L
, E
Lateral strain due to p 1 in directic,n 2

:z
= - ..1!.L.
mE Fig. 3·21
Lateral strain due to p 1 in d irection 3
_ _ --1!.L
mE
Similarly the linear and lateral ~trains due to P2 and p~ in directions 1, 2 and 3 can be
geterminedi
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146 STRENGTH OF MA'I'ER.1!6:LS
Total strain in the direction 1,

E
1
= P1 _ _h_ _ --'2._
E mE mE
E _ P2 Pi Pa
2 -· y- mE - mE
Pa Pi P2
"a= E- mE- - mE ·
"i, " 2 and "a ar e the principal strains in the directions of principal stresses.
In a two dimensional case where p 3 = 0
E
1
= ..f!.l... _ --1!.L • E
3
= - Pi - .J!:L. •
E mE ' mE mE
Example 3"8-1. The principal strains at a point in a strained material subjected to

principal stresses p 1 and p 2 are 720x I0- 6, -560 x 10-0 • Determine the magnitude of t he
principal stresses if
1
E= 200 GN/m2 - = 0'29.
'm
Solution. Principal strain, E1 =·1i,-:,-1:=720 x l0-6
E2 = 7::-- !E = -560 X 10-0
or P1- 0·29 P2= 720 x 10-0 x 2oox l0 9 = 1420 x 105 • .. .(I J

I
P2- 0·29 Pi= - 560 X 10-0 x 200 X 109 = -1 120X J05. . . . (2)
Simu ltaneously solving these equations we get .
Pi = 1662'4 x 105 N/m2 = 166·2~ MN/m2
p 2 = -766'9 X 10P N/m 2 = - 76·69 MN/m2 •
Exercise 3'8-1. The principal stresses at a po int in a strained material are

+ 1200 kg/cm2, +800 k1;/cm 2 , -400 kg/cm 2. Determine the values of principal strains if
E --= 2 X 10- n kg/cm 2 , l /m =- 0· 3. [Ans. 540x 10- 0 , 280 x 10- 0 , -500 x 10- 6]
3·9, MODIFIED MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Whil e determining the Young's m odulus of elasticity of any m aterial, tensile test is
performed on,a specimen of standard dimensions (as in Fig. 3'22) the tensile force P is applied
I
~ G auge
Ten s il e t e~ t
~pec irn e n
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P.RI_NCIPA,L STRESSES AND' STRAINS 147
along the axis of the cylindrical specimen. The Young' s modulus of elasticity is determined
as the ratio of axial tensile stressp(=P/A) and the axial strain e. In this case there is only
one principal stress Pi =PfA in the direction of load, while principal stresses p 2 and Pa are zero.
ln actual practice a machine member or a structure may be subjected to_principal stresses Pi,
p 2 and Pa· In that case the ratio of actual stress .and actual strain in a direction is called as
modified modulus of elasticity in that direction.
So modified modulus of elasticity in direction 1 (see Fig. 3'21)

_ Pi_ EPi _
Em1 - -
El ( Pi- p,:i - pni)
Similarly
· . ~Jllfa:mple 3'9-1. The principal stresses at a point in a strained material are

100 N/mm2 ·and -70 N/111111 2 • Determine the modified modulus of elasticity of the m.aterial
in the directions of principal stresses. Given E= 2 X 105 N/mm2, 1/m= 0'3.
. 100 70 . 121
Solution. Principal strams, c 1 = E + T: x O 3 = - E
-10 1oo x o·3 - 100

E2= y - £ =~
p 1 100
modified modulus of elasticity Em 1 = ;; = l2l X E
= 121
lOO X 2 X 105 = l '653 X l 05 N/mm 2
P2 -70
Em z-- -Ez = --100
- XE
= 0'7 X2 X 105 = 1'4 X 10 5 N/mm2.
Exercise 3·9.1. The principal stresses at a point in a strained material are 900 kg/cm2
and 600 kg/cm2 • Determine the modified modulus of elasticity of the material along principal
stress. <;lire.9~i9J?.,S if £ = 2' l X 106 kg/cm 2 , I/ m= 0'28. [Ans . 2'58 x 10? kg/cm2, 3'62.x 10? kg/cm2]
Problem 3'1, In a piece of material, a tensile stress / 1 and a shearing stress q act on
a. given plane, while at tensile stress /2 and a sheanng stress q act on other plane perpendicular
to the first plane, and all the stresses are copla nar. Find the conditions for which both the
principal stresses will be of the same sign.
Solution. Fig. 3·23 shows a stress system, in wh ich plane BC carries the tensile stress
fi. and shear st11~ss. q. While the plane AC carries the tensile stress / 2 and a shearing stress q.
~l'.il].c_ipal st_resses are
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148 StRENGfiI OF MATERIALS
Now if the principal stresses are both tensile then
J(!1 :2 r+q2 < /11/2 A
Squaring both the sides
r
( f1i h + q2 < ( /1 ~/2
2
y q
/12 + /22_ /1/2 +q2,< Ji:+ /1 + /1 /2 B C
4 4 2 4 4 2 q
or q2<.fih condition for whi9h both the
principal stresses are of the
same sign. Fig. 3·23
Problem 3·2. Prove that the sum of the normal stresses on two perpendicular planes
is constant.
Solution. Let us consider a general A

case.
On plane BC
Normal stress
Shear stress =q q
On plane AC J_ BC
B
Normal stress =/2
Shear stress =q
Sum of the normal stresses on two
perpendicular planes BC and AC Fig. 3'24
=!1+h
Again consider a plane AB at an angle Oto the plane BC and plane DE perpendicular
to the plane AB or inclined at an angle 90° + 0 to the plane BC, as shown in Fig. 3·24.
Normal stress on AB, fn = k-t;_f + fi ;f

2 2
cos 20 + q sin 20. . .. (1)
Normal stress on DE, fn' = / d-/ 2 + fi - f~ cos 2 (90°+ 0) + q sin 2 (90°+0)

2 2
= 11 ;12 - Ii ;/2 cos 20-q sin 20. . .. (2)
or I'_
J11
+J,'-
n -
!1+!2
2 +f1+h
2 "+·"
JI J 2• ... (3)
This proves that the sum of the normal stresses on any two perpendicular planes is
constant
Problem 3·3. On tw~ perpendict~lar planes of. a bo?Y,.direct stresses of 15 N/mm2

tensile and 90 N/mm2 compressive are applied. The maJor pnnc1pal stress at the point is
not to exceed 200 N/mm2 , what shearing_ stress can ~e applied to the gi:7en planes ? What will
be the minor principal stress and the maximum sheanng stress at the pomt?
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PRINGIPAL STRESSE~ AND SrlAtNS i49
Solution. On two planes BC and AC, perpendicular to each other, the direct stresses
are as shown
i - . - - 90 Njmm 2
(Compressive)
.q
_____._ q
C
150 Njmm2 ( Tqnsile)
Fig. 3·25
Shear stress, q= unknown
Major principal stress = f 1 ~f2 +J(f ~f )2+q21 2
= l.50;-90 +J( 150:90 r +q2
200 = 30+ .{ (l20)2-f- q2

or .{ 020) 2 +q2 =110, 020) 2 + q2 = 110~
q2= 1702- J202 = 14500
Shear stress on given planes
q=± l20'416 N /mm t
Minor principal 1,tress = /1 1/i -J(J =;f r + q2.1 2
= 30- 170= -140 N/ mm2
Maximum shearing stress=±J ( f 1 ~h r+q2

=± 170 N/mm2
Problem 3'4. A piece of material is subjected to two tensile stresses at right angles
of values 120 N/mm2 and 50 N/mm2 • Find the position of plane on which the resultant stres~
is most inclined to the normal. Find the value of this resultant stress.
Solution. To draw Mohr's stress circle, take

OA = 120 N/ mm 2
OB= 50 N/ mm2 (to some suitable scale)
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LS.Q
Shear Mohr's stre~s

stress c 1rcle
Normal
- -+-"--f---4~ --=--1--...._-:-__..--'::-........_-1-_j...-+.-s tress
0 B E C A
Fig. 3'26
C is the eentre of AB, it is the centre of Mohr's stress circle ..
Radius of the Mohr's stress circle
120.- 50
= BC=CA "'-~ = 35 N / mm 2
2
The maximum angle ef, is obtained when OD is tang~nt to the stress citcle
OC= 50+35=85 N/mm 2
CD= 35 N/mm2
sin r/>,= !~ = 0'41176
ef, = 24° 18'
angle of inclination of resultant stress to normal stress
OD= OCcos ef, = 85 X0'9114
= 77"469 N/mm2.
The plane on which the resultant stress is most indined to the normal stress is
inclined at an angle 8 to the plane of normal stress I 20 N/ mro2
26 = 90 +24 ° 18' = 114° 18,
8= 51° 9'.
Problem. 3'5. ln a stressed l;>ody, on a plane AB, the resultant stress is 67 N/ mm2
inclined at an angle of 15° to the normal stress and an another plane. CD, tl:tc res.ultailt stress
Shear str.t, S,6t S.
No_rm_o l
D, . s ~ ri.:;.sr..s .,I
( erigin)
Fig. 3·27
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is 45 N/mm 2 inclined at an angle of 30° to the normal stress. Determine the angle between
the planes AB and CD. Find the magnitude of principal stresses and maximum shear stress
on the body. /
Solution. Take the co-ordinate axis with oxigin O as shown. T ake to some scale
OA = 67 N/ mm 2 at an angle of 15° with the abscissa and OB= 45 N/ mm 2 at an angle of 30°,
with the abscissa. The points A and B lie on the Mohr's stress circle. Therefore draw the
perpendicular bisector EC of the line AB, which meets the abscissa at the point C, which is the
centre of the Mohr's stress circle.
With C as centre and r:idius CB or CA draw the circle i.e., Mohr's stress circle.
Angle between the planes AB and CD
8= 1/2 LACB=3 1°
Principal stresses p 1 = OD = 72 N/ mm 2 (tensile)
p 2 = 0F= 23 N/ mm 2 (tensile)
Maximum shear stress, qma:.= CG = Radius of the Mohr's stress circle
= 24"5 N/ mm 2 •
Problem 3·6. At a point in a stressed
material, the normal stress on plane AB is 470
kg/cm 2 and the resultant stress on plane BC
is 850 kg/ cm2 as shown in the Fig. 3'28.
Determine the magnitude of principal stresses
and maximum shearing stress at the point and
directions of planes carrying these stresses.
Solution. N ormal stress on plane BC,
/ 2 = 850 cos 20°=85 X 0'9397
= 798'745 (compressive)
= - 798'745 kg/cm 2
Shear stress on plane BC,
q= 850 sin 20°= 850 X 0'342 Fig. 3·28
= 290'7 kg/cm~
So the shear stress on plane AB,
q --= 290'7 kg/cm~ (complem entary shear stress)
/ 1, Normal stress on the plane AB= 470 kg/cm2
Say the plane AB is the reference plane (on which the shear stress q is + ve).
Principal stresses P1 = .{.1__---t;_f2 +J( j~;r'!,_ Y+q2

470- 798'745 / ( 470+798'745 )~
= 2 + \J 2 + (290"7) 2
= -164'37 + .Y402428'46+84506"49
= -164"37+ 697"60= 533·43 kg/cm 2 (tensile)
f-12=- 164"37- ,V402428"46+84506"49
e::- 164"37 - 697"80 =- 862' 17 kg/cm2 (compressive)
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STRl:NGTH OF MATERIALS
152
Maximum shear stres5
qmax= ± ~ ( /1 2/2 r + q2
= ± 697·80 kg/cm2
Angles of principal planes

- ?q
tan 28 1= (!.:....!;> since the shear stress on reference plane is + ve
-2X 290"7
= 470 - 798 "745 = 1·7685
81 = 30° 15' w.r.t. plane AB
02= 01 + 90°= 120° 15'
Angle for the plane of maximum shear,
83= 0i-f-- 45°= 75° 15'.
Problexn 3·7. Passing through a point in a material, there are two planes XY and YZ.
Plane YZ is inclined at 45° clockwise t<.> XY. The direct and shear stresses on plane XY are
80 MN/ m2 tensile an~· 40 MN/ m_2 respectively. 01: the_ plane YZ ~here is a tensile stress of
magnitude 150 MN/m- and a sheanng stress. Determine (1) the magnitude of shearing stress
on plane yz (ii) magnitude of principal stresses (iii) maximum shearing stress (iv) directi ons 0f
principal planes with the respect to tlw plane XY.
X .---,
Solution. Let us take XY as reference
plane. Consider a p lane YM at right angles 'I
8.0
to plane- XY, then shear stress on this plane
will be 40 MN/m2
40
.
45
'',
<.
Say the direct stress on plane Y M q' 150MN/m2
y ------'M
=! 2
Fig. 3·29
Direct stress on plane YZ
= SO+J; + 80 - f 2 cos (- 90°)+ 40 sin (- 90°)
2 2
Since the angle of plane YZ w.r.t. XY is -45°
80
Therefore 150= + ! 2 + SO-f2 (0) -40
2 2
or 300= 80 + !2- 80
f 2 = 300 MN/ m2 ... (1)
Shear stress on plane YZ,
80
q'= ;-!2 ~in (- 90°)- ~0 cos (-90°)
=( 80 ; 300 ) (- 1)~ qo MN/ m2 ,
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PRINC.IPAL STRESS,ES AND STRAINS 163
Principal stresses
Pi= 801300 +J( 80~300 )2+(40)2
= 190+ .f (110)2 +(40) 2

= 190 + 117'05=307'05 MN/m 2
P2=
80+300
2
J( 2
802300 ) + (40);
= 1510- 11 7'05 =72'95 MN/m 2 •

Maximum shear stress
qmax= ±vf( 80-300

2
2
) +(40) 2
= ±117'05 MN/m 2 •
Directions of principal planes
2q
t_a n 28 1 = _
11 12
where q= 40 MN/m2
J1 =80 MN/ m2, f 2 =300 MN/m2
2X40 -80
tan 201 = _ - - =- 0'3636
80 300 220
201 = - 90° 54'
or 01 =- 9° 57'
82=-9° 57'+90°= 80°- 3'.
One principal plane is inclined at an angle of 9° 57' in clockwise direction and other
principal plane is inclined at an angle of 80° 3' in anticlockwise direction to the plane XY.
/
Problem 3'8. The m'inor principal stress at a point in the cross section of a beam is
30 MN/m 2 compressive and the magnitude of maximum shearing stress is 100 MN/m2.
Determine:
(a) the major principal stress if it is compressive and the direct aud shear stresses on
the plane making an angle of 60° in the clockwise direction with the plane of minor principal
stress and
(b) The major principal stress if it is tensile and the direct stress on the planes of
maximum shearing stress.
Solution. (a) When the major principal stress is also compressive
Say p 1 =major principal stress
P2= minor principal stress
Pi-P2= 2.X maximum shearing stress
Pi=Pd·2qmax=30+2x 100
= 230 MN/ m 2 (compressive)
Taking the plane of minor principal stress as the reference plane,
· 0= -60° (angle for the plane on which direct and shear
~tn1sses are to de determined,)
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154 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS '
Shear str-.z~s
I
1-
1
'( -) 80) I
-30
Di rte l
s: trtss
Fig. 3'30
Direct stress, Jn = P2iPi + P2~l'.! cos 20

-30;230 + -301230 cos (-1200)
= -130+ 100 cos (120°)=- 130-50

=- 180 MN/ mm2.
Shear stress, /, = P2 ~Pi sin 20
= - 3o + 23o sin (- 120°)=+100 (-0'866)

2
= -86'6 MN/ m2•
(b) When the major principal stress is tensile
P1-P2= 2 X qmax
P1 = P2 +2qmax= - 30+ 2 X 100
Major principal stress = 170 MN/mm 2 (tensile).
Direct stress at the centre of the Mohr's stress circle
2
"':'P 2 + qma:i: = -30+ 100 = + 70 MN/mm •
This is the direct" stress on the planes which carry the maximum shear stress.
$hear stress q
max
I
I
I
P2 crigln I Cen trt of P1
--3-=
0+-'"'.:Co-t---=--.,-,-0-M-o-h-,rs,-.-......,1.~N or ma l
I strizs!I st res s
I circl ~ l70
I
I
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·PRINCIPAL · STRESSES AND STRAINS ·l5S
Problem 3·9, At a point in a strained material, the stresses on the planes XY and XZ
at an angle 0 as shown in Fig. 3'32 are + 1·2 tonnes/cm 2 normal stress, o·s tonne/cm2 shear
stress on XY plane and - 2· 1 tonnes/cm 2 normal stress, 0'6 tonne/cm2 shear stress on XZ plane.
Determine
(a) The angle between the planes XY and XZ.
(b) Magnitude of maximum and minimum principal stresses.
(c) The directions of principal planes with respect to the plane XY.
Solution. Let us consider a plane
XZ' perpendicular to the plane XY.
Normal stress on the plane r'I
I
XZ' =/2 (unknown)
Shear stress on the plane XZ',
cDI
01 1 '
I
q= - o·s tonne/cm2 f --~
2 I I
(complementary shear stress) f I
Normal stress on the plane XZ, I
Jn = -2· 1 tonnes/cm 2
Shear stress on the plane XZ, 0·8
f t= - 0'6 tonne/ cm 2 t·2 • f1
(producing anticlockwise Fig. 3-32
moment on the body)
Now, I' -
J I! -
fi + f 2 +
2
I i 2 f z cos 20 - q sin 20
-2' 1= 1·2 ;r.h + 12

· ~12 cos 20 - o·s sin 2~
-2' l X 2= 1·2+ / 2 + 1·2 cos 20 - / 2 cos 20-1 ·6 sin 20. . .. (!)

J,= fi-;_f 2
sin 20 + q cos 20
1
. ,--0'6 = ; - /2 sin 20+ o·s cos 20
-1'2 = 1'2 sin 20-/2 sin 20 + 1·6 cos 20
/ 2 sin 20= 1'2 sin 20+ 1'6 cos 20+ 1'2
or / 2 = 1·2+ l '6 cot 20+ 1·2 cosec_20. ... (2)
Substituting the value ofJ~ in (1) we get .
-4'2= 1·2+ 1·2+ 1·6 cot 20 + 1·2 cosec 20 + 1·2 cos 20
-cos 20[ 1'2+ 1·6 cot 20 + 1 2 1cosec 20]- 1'6 sin 26
-6·6= 1'6 cot 20 + 1·2 cosec 26+ 1·2 'cos 20
- 1 ·2 cos 20 - 1'6 c~s
Sill
2
J: 1·2 cot 26-1 '6 sin 20
· 1·2 cos2 20 .
-6·6= 0'4 cot 2e + ---:-- - 1'6 ~ - 1·6 sm 26
SID 20 ., Sill 28
-- 0·4 cos 26 +
. 20 __!_1_
. f1. _,. / '1'6
•
[cos 2 26 + sm
. 2 2111
"'
. sm sm 2 · sm 2lj
_ 6 .6 = 0 . 4 cos,28·~ ~
sin 20 sin 26
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ts6 §fiENGiH OF M:ATERIA'.iS
6·6 1 cos 28 1-cos 28

0-4 - sin 26 sin 20 = sin 28
16. 5= 1-:- cos 29 2 sin 2 8
sm 28 2 sin 6. cos e
16·S= tan 8
6= 86°- 33 '
. 0 16 "5 cos 0= l
Sill = y273"25 ' y273"25
. 33 2 tan 8. 33
sm 28 = 273·25 ' tan 28 = 1-tan2 8 27)·25·
Substituting these values in the expression for /2
· = . _ 1·6x211·25 · 1·2 x 213·25
12 12
33 + ~3
= - 2·01 tonnes/cm 2 •
1·2 - 2 ·o 1 f (-1-·2_+_2---,·0--,-1-,
.,---2- -
Minimum principal stress, p mtn- . 2 + \/

2
J +(0"8)2
= - 0·405+ l '790= l "385 tonnes/cm 2 (tensile)
2q 2 x o·8 1·6
tan 281 = - (f1 /2) = - 1·2+2·01 3"21
=- 0"498 261= - 26"5°, 81=- 13° 15'.
. . .
Maximum prmc1pal stress, pmo~=
1"2- 2·01 . /( 1·2+ 2·01
- V +(O 8) 2
)2 .
2 2
=- 2·195 tonnes/cm2 (compressive)
82= 90 + 01= 76° 45'.
Graphical Method
Shear strJs~,
l.·
H Normol
stn SStS
Fig. 3·33
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t57
To some suitable scale take
0 A= / 1 = + 1·2 normal stress
AC= +o·s shear stress
OB= - 2· l normal stress
BD = - 0'6 shear stress.
Join CD and draw the right bisector of CD and produce so as to cut the abscissa at
the point E . Then Eis the centre of the Mohr's stress circle.
With E as centre and radius EC or ED draw a circle.
LCED= 26= 173°- 6.'
or 0= 86° 33'.
Maximum principal stress, p,,... ,,= GI= - 2'195 tonnes/cm 2
202= 153° 30', 02= 76° 45'.
Minimum pdncipal stress, Pmin'= OH= - l '385 tonnes/cm2
28u= -26° 30', Bi = - 13° 15'.
ProbJepi 3·10. A circle of 100 mm diameter is inscribed on a steel plate before it is

stressed. Then the plate is loaded so as to produce stresses as shown in Fig. 3·34 and the
circle is deformed into an ellipse. Determine the major and minor axes of the ellipse and their
directions.
Given £ = 2100 tonnes/cm 2 , l/m = 0·2s.
+120 0
- BOO - 600.
,I
.....~ ~ ~~......,...-'-~~~--'~00
A ll th e stresses Maj o ra xi,-: ao'
· in k g/cm 2 Min o r ax i s:: bb
Fig. 3·34
Solution. Stresses / 1 =+ 1200 kg/cm2

/2= -600 kg/cm"z
q= 400 ~g/cm2 • ·, I
The circle will be deformed into an ellipse, due t o .the applied stresses. The major
a~ds of the ellipse will be along the major principal stress p 1 and minoi 'a'.xis of the · ellipse will
be along the minor principal stress P2, ·· '
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. 158
·STREN~TI{ OF MATERIALS
Principal stresses, Pi = 11-;12 + v( 11;12 / +q2

1200;-600 + J( 1200:600 r + 4ooa
= 300+985 = 1285 kg/cm2.

P2= 300-985 =- 685 kg/cm2
2q 2 X400 .
tan 261= !1-!2 1200 +600 = 0 44
261 = 24°, (11= 12°
and 82= 90°+ 81 = 102°.
Principal strains
€ = 1285 + I . 685 = 1285+ 0'28 X ~85 _ . ..,

i E Ill E 2100 x 1000 - 0 702 X 10 3
Change in diameter = E1X 100= 0'702 x [0 - 3 x I00 = 0·o1o2 mm
Major ~xis of ellipse = 100'0702 mm
- 685 I 1285 - 685 - 0'28 x 1285
" -,, ---y;-- ,; x --g- =
2
2JOO x 1000
= - 0'498 x 10-3
Change in diameter = E2 X I00= - 0'498 x 10-ax 100= - 0'0498 mm
Minor axis of the ellipse = L00- 0·0498= 99 '9502 mm
Problem 3·11. Strains at a point on

a specimen are recorded in direction 0°, 45°
and 90° with the help of strain gauges. The
readings are given below :
€o0 = 400 µ cm/cm
€4t= +175J,1 cm/cm
E90°= - 300 µ cm/cm
,
Determine the magnitude of principal
strains and principal stresses! and principal o·-x
angles. ;s tr a in go gn
Given £ ~ 2x 105 N/mm 2 3 Element re c ta ngular rosette
;1 ' .J.._= 0'3 . . +-
. , ,n i
Solution. Electrical resistance strain gauges are used to record the normal strains in
any direction. The principal of operation of a strain gauge is that strain
b.. R ~ • . 1.
€= R X GF
where ~R= Change in resistance R of the gauge due to strain E
GF= Gauge factor specified for the gauge.

... ~ : 1
Let us,tak~· x a~is ~long 0° as showq in Fig. 3·35, .,,,

Eo = E..,=400 X 10-0
0 '• . ..·......'J)
<· , •r ... i,
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PRINCIPAL STRESSFS AND STRAINS 159
· cm
Since lµ cm/cm=l X 10- 6 - = l x 10-6
cm
... (2)
.. . (3)
From equation (2)
I
_y~= 175 X 10- 6 - ..!.!..__.!..!_ = (175-200 + 150) X 10- 6
2 2 2
= 125 X 10-6 •
*r
Principal strains
Ei= €xi€y +~ ( ? )2+(

= 400;-300 +J\ 400!300 r + (125)2 µ cm/cm
= 50 + 371 '65 µ cm/cm= 421"65 x 10-6

E2 = 50-371'65 µ cm/cm = - 32 l '65 x 10-G.
Principal siresses
= ~-=~-~: (421"65 - 0"3 X 321 "65) X J0- 6
2 x 105 •
- 0 .91 (325J6) x l0- = + 7 I ·46N/m m2
6
P2= ( l - ~ l ). ( €2+ : 1 €1 )
m2
2 X 10 5
1 _ 0 . 32 (- 32 1"65 + 0'3X 421 ·68)X 10-5
2x 105
0 .91 (- 195.16) x 10- 6 = - 42·&9 N / mm2
· Principal angles
tan 2, = - - -
1
y.,y
E:c - Ey
250
400+300 = 0· 357
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160 STRENGTH 0F MA TfRIALS
Probletn 3·12. For a d~Ita rosette, the following observations are made with gauges
mounted on an aluminium specimen
y
En°= - I00 µ. cm/~m
E60 °=+ 700 µ. cm/cm
E 120 °= -600 µ. cm/ cm
Determine the principal strains, the

principal stresses and the principal angles 01
and 92.
Given
o·-...x
E for aluminium = 0·7 x 105 N/m m 2 Strain gages
1 Delta rosettt
- - for a luminium = 0·3J .
m Fig. 3·36
Solution. In the case 0f delta-rosette, 3 strain gauges are available in a combination

along the sides of an equilateral triangle as shown in Fig. 3·36 and these are mounted on the
specimen.
Let us choose the x-axis along 0° direction, then
En°=E,,= - IOO x 10- 6 ... (!)
0 0
Eoo = ~ tEy + E,:~Ey COS )20°+ Y
2 Sill )2?
Y
or 700 X 10-6 = e., -\-E y + E" - Ey (- O'S) + _y .. y (0'866) . .. (2)

2 2 2
. .. (3)
Substracting equation (3) from equation (2) we get

!300 x 10-s = ~ (I '732)
2
... (4)
. the values o f
Putting E~, ,
Y,w m
. equation
. (2)
2
700 X ]0-ij=_ IOO x 1Q-S + ~ + 100 \ Jo ·fi + ~II + 750'58 X ~0-6 X (0°866)
2
3
:-' = (700 + 50 - 25 - 650) X JO-ft
e
1
= 100 X JO-\
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PR1'N€IPAL S'fRESSES AND STRAINS
Prinoipal strains
Ei = Ex1Ey +J( r+(_Y;y rE:,;~Ey
= [ - 100~ 100 +J( - 100 -100 )2+< 750 .58)2Jx 10-o

2
Ee=
= + 757.2 1 X 10-o
Ey
1 E1 _
=- 757'21 X J0-0 •
v( r+( Y;, r
Ey~Ey
Principal stresses
Pi = _ E_ 1_
1 m2
rLE1 + -m1 E2 J
5
= o· 7 xl0 (757'21 + 0'33 (- 757'2l)]X 10- 6
1- 0·33 2
7 X 105 (507'33] X 10-0 = 36'2 N/mm2
-- o·0'891
P2= £ l
1- -
[ E2+_!_
m
E1 J
,n2
0·1 x 105
= _ . [-757'2l + 0·33 x~7'2l] x l0-6
1 0 332
= - 36'2 N/mrn2.
Principal angles
tan201 = y.. y -
75 o· 5s x 2 -7·5058
E:,;- Ey - 100- lQQ
2!h=- 82° 24'
01=-41° 12'
02=61+ 90°= +48° 58'.
Problem 3'13. A rectangular bar of a material is subjected to an axial compressive
stress p 1 • In addition t o the axial pressure, the lateral pressures act on the bar in other two
( Axia l c ompressive
pressure )
f i~. 3·37
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directions such that the lateral strain in direction 2 is reduced to SO per cent and in direction
3 it is reduced to 40 per cent of the strain if the bar is free to contract or expand laterally
under the axial str ess. Determine the modified modulus of elasticity in the direction of the
stress Pi·
Solution. The free lateral expans ion of the bar is prevented and reduced to half in
direction 2 and 40 per cent in direction 3. Obviously with the help of compressive stresses Pi
and p 3 in directions 2 and 3 respectively as shown in Fig. 3·31.
(a) When the bar is subjected to p 1 only, strains in 3 directions will be
E1 - Pt E2 = + ..J!.L, E3 =+ _f!_J_
- -y• mE mE
(b) When bar is subjected t0 n 1, p 2 , p 3 stresses, strain in 3 directions will be
Ei'=-[P-L_ P2 + Ps
E mE
J
E2'=-[.1E!.:L- Pi+mEPs J
Es'= - [ 1;; _ p:n-+;:2 ]
(c) Now E2'= {)'S E2, E31 =0·4 E3
Therefore _h__=-[.h_-
2mE E
Pi+ Pa
mE
J
or P1 = -p 2 + J!1.. + !!.a.
!2m m m
or --fi = - p2+ h ... ( l)
2m m
0·4P1 __ r .f!L_ Pi+P2
mE - LE mE
J
or _Qih = - p3 + EL + P~
m m m
or _ 0'6 Pi = - Pa+ P2 ... (2)

m m
1
Multiplying equation (2) by - - and adding to equation (I) we get
m
_ P1 _ o·6 Pi = P2 _ p 2
2m m2 m2
_
Pi
( o·sm+ o·6
m2
)= ( 1-m
m2
P2
2
)
. .. (3)
Substituting the value of p 2 in equation ( l) we get

_ o·s Pi _ _ o·sm+0·6 Ps_ +
m - ,n2-1 Pi m
or .. . (4)
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PR°INCIPAL StRESSBS AND STRAiNS 163
Now strain ,_ P1 + -1?:L + -1!..L

€1 -- E mE mE
p1 0'5m+ 0'6 0'6m+0·5
=-m + m(m 2 -l) E XPi+ m(m 2 -l) E Pi
€1
,_
-+ E
P.1...[ - m(m2 - l)+o·sm+ o·6+0'6m+o·s
m(m 2-l)
J
€ ' = p 1 L- -ma+m j-_0m+ 1·1 J-,
1
E m(m2-l)
or · Modified modulus of elasticity,
SUMMARY
1. If / 1 and / 2 are the direct stresses and q is the shear stress on two planes perpendi-
cular to each other at a point in a strained material then (i) normal stress and shear stress on
a plane inclined at an angle II to a reference plane (say plane of direct stress / 1) are
Normal stress, 1Iii=

'
f 1 +h
2
+ f 1 -2 f 2 cos 28 + q sin 28
Shear str~ss, f, = ( f 1 ~f 2 ) sin 28 - q cos 20
and (ii) principal stresses at the point are
Pi, P 2 Jiif2 ± ;(J~~f2 )2+q 2
Pa= O
(iii) Principal angles with respect to principal planes are
l -1 2q
81 = 2 tan (/1 - h)
92= 81+ 90°
(iv) Maximum shear stress at the point is
ftmax = ± v( f 1 ~f2 )2+q2.

2. To draw the Mohr' s stress circle, direct stresses are taken along the abscissa and
shear stresses are taken along the ordinate of a co-ordinate system. Two points representing the
the state of stress on two perpendicular planes are located. Distance between these two points
is the diameter of the Mohr's stress circle. The two points on the circle along the abscissa give
the principal stresses. The maximum shear stress is equal to the radius of the circle.
. 3. If two principal stresses. at a poit~t are ~n~wn then an ellipse with major and
m inor axes equal to two t imes the maJor and mrnor prmc1pal stresses at a point, is drawn.
From this ellipse of stresses, normal and shear stresses on a plane inclined to a given principal
plane can be determined.
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4. If e ., E, and yzy are tbe normai and shear strain components on two perpendicular
planes at a point, then principal strains at the point are
Ei, E 2 = Ext Ey ± J(e.,-; Ey )2+( Y;Y r

and the normal strain on a plane inclined at an angle fJ to a reference plane (say the plane of
normal strain 1aa) is
El
Ez+e,
2
+ e.-e, COS 26
+ -
y.,y
-
. 28
Slll ,
2 2
5. If pi, p 2 and Pa are the principal srresses at a point, then principal strains are
E1 =Pl-~- Pa_ ; e2=1!.!.._-1!L _ _h_
E mE mE E mE mE
_ Pa Pi P2
ea-E- mE - mE
1
where E=Young's modulus and - - = Poisson's ratio.
m
6. Modified modulus of elasticity is the ratio of principal stress and principal strain
in a particular direction.
1. At a point in a strained material, planes AB and BC perpendicular to each other pass

through the point. The normal stress on plane AB is 80 N/mm 2 and on plane BC the
normal stress is 40 N/mm2 • On both the planes there is a shear stress 15 N/ mm2 • The
normal stress on a plane inclined at an angle of 45° to AB is
(a) 95 N/mm 2 (b) 80 N/mm 2
(c) 75 N/mm2 (d) 55 N/ mm 2 •
2. Planes AB and BC perpendicular to each, pass through a point in a strained material. The
normal and shear stresses on planes AB are 600 kg/cm2 and -200 kg/cm 2. The normal
and shear stresses on plane BC are 200 kg/cm 2 and +200 kg/cm 2 respectively. The plane
on which shear stress is zero is inclined to the plane AB at an angle
(a) 22° 30' (b) 45° I ;,
(c) 67° 30' (d) 90°.

3. On two perpendicular planes passing through a point the normal and shear stresses are
80 MN/m2, ...'....60 MN/t:12 ; . -80 MN/m2, 60 MN/m2 respectively. The maximum
principal stress at the pomt 1s
(a) 160 MN/m2 (b) 100 MN/m2
(c) 80 MN/m 2 (d) 60 MN/m2.
4. The major and minor principal stresses at a point are 120 N/mm2 and 40 N/mm2
respectively. If a Mohr's stress circle is drawn for the stresses, the radius of the Mohr's
stress circle will be
(a) 120 N/mm2 (b) 80 N/mm:.i
(c) 40 N)mm:.i (d) 20 N/mm2.
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htNCJPAL STR<ESSES AND STRAiNS
5. Two planes XY and YZ are passing through a p o int in a strained material. The normal
and shear stresses on plane XY are + 60 MN/ m 2 and - 30 MN/ m 2 respectively. while the
normal and shear stresses on plane YZ are - 60 MN/m:i and + 30 M N/m~ respectively.
The angle between the planes XY and YZ is
(a) 30° (b) 60°
(c) 90° (d) 135°.
6. The major and minor principal stresses at a i:oint are + 120 N/111111 2 and - 40 N / mm 2 •
A plane XY is passing tltrough a point on which the n ormal sti·ess is 80 N/ mm 2 and the
shear stress iii q. Another phi ile YZ perpendicular to tile p lane XY is also passing
through the same point. The normal and shear stresses on plane YZ are f and q
respectively. The magnitude of the stress/ is
(a) 60 N/ mm 2 (b) 40 N/ mm 2
(c) 20 N/ mm2 (d) 0 N / mm 2 •
7. The major and minor principal stresses at a l)Oint are 1200 kg/cm:i and 700 kg/cm2
respectively. On a plane passing through a point, the normal stress is 1150 kg/cm 2 •
The shear stress on this plane will be
(a) 250 kg/cmi (b) 200 kg/cm 2
(c) 150 kg/cm2 (d) 100 kg/cm 2 •
8. On two perpendicular planes passing through a point there are comp lementary shear
stresses ± 150 N / mmz. The normal stress o n these planes is zero. The maximum
principal stress at the point is
(a) 300 N /mm2 (b) 150 N/ mm 2
(c) 750 N/mm2 (d) None of the above.
9. In a strained material, at a point the strains are €2) = 600 f' cm/cm, 1:11 = 200 µ cm/cm,
y,,,,/2 = 150 µ cm/cm.
The maximum principal strain at the point is
(a) JOO µ. cm/cm (b) 800 f' cm/cm
(c) 650 µ cm/cm (d) 500 µ cm/cm.
10. In a r ectangular strain gauge rosette, the readings rccorJed are .,/=400 f' cm/cm,
0
1:4 r, = 375 µ. cm/cm , € 90°= 200 µ cm/cm ;
The maximum principal strain at the point is
(a) 775 µ. cm/cm tb) 600 µ cm/cm
(c) 525 f' cm/cm (d) 425 µ. cm/cm.
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (d)
7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) IO. (d).
E'.XERCISES
3'1. On two perpendicular planes of a body, direct stresses of 1200 kg/cm2 tensile
and 700 kg/cm2 tensile are applied. The major principal stress at the po int is not to exceed
1350 kg/cm 2 ; What shearing str~ss can be . applied to the given planes ? What will be the
minor principal stress and the maximum shearing stress at the point?
[Ans. 312"25/cm 2 ; 550 kg/cm2, 400 kg/cm2J
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STRENGi'H OF MATERIALS
3'2, ;.._ piece of materiai is subjected to two tensile stresses at right angles of magni-
tude 800 kg/c m2 and 400 kg/cm 2. Find the position of the plane on which the resultant stress
is most inclined to the normal. Find the magnitude of this resultant stress.
[Ans. 54° 44' ; 565 68 kg/cm 2 ]
I Jr
· 3"3. ln a stressed body on a plane AB, the resultant stress is 80 MN/m2 inclined at
an angle of 20° to the normal stress and on another plane CD, the resultant stress is 50 MN/111 2
inclined at an angle of 35° to the normal stress. Determine the angle between the plane AB
and CD. Find the magnitude of the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress on the
body. [Ans. 32°, 91 MN/m 2 , 27 MN/m 2 ; 32 MN/m 2 ]
50 N/mm2 ,·
y
0·7
Fig. 3-38 Fig. 3·39
3"4. At a point in a stresse~ material the normal st~ess on a plane AB is -50 N/mm2
and the resultant stress on plane BC 1s 90 N/mm 2 as shown 111 the Fig. J·38. Determine the
magnitude of principal stresses and maximum shearing stress at the point and direction of
planes carrying these stresses .
[Ans. 92" 18 N/mm 2 . 17° 33'; 64'24 N/mm 2, 107° 33'; n·21 N/ mm2, 62° 33' ]
3·5. At a point in a stressed material, the stresses on the plane XY and XZ at an
angle 105° are as shown in Fig. 3·39, i.e. 2 tonnes/cm 2 normal tensile stress, 0·7 tonnes/cm2
shear stress on XY plane and 0·5 tonne/cm2 shear stress on XZ plane. Determine :
(a) The normal stress on plane XZ.
(b) The magnitude of tke maximum and minimum principal stresses.
(c) The magnitude of the maximum shear stress and the direction of the planes carrying
the maximum shear stress. [Ans. (a) 2· 12 tonnes/cm 2 (b) 2·52 tonnes/cm 2, I '056 tonnes/cm2
(c) ±0"731 tonne/cm2 , 81 ° 33' and 126° 33' with respect to the plane XY]
3"6. The minor principal stress at a point in the cross section of a beam is 50 N/mm2
tensile and the magnitude of the maximum shearing stress. is 80 N/mm2 • Determine :
( a) The major principal stress if it is tensile and the direct and shear stresses on a plane
making an angle of 45° with a p lane of m inor principal stress.
(b) The major principal stress if it is compressive and the direct stress on the planes
of maximum shearing stress. [Ans. (a) 210 N / mm2 • 130 N/mm2, -80 N/ mm:
(b) - 110 N/mm 2 ; -30 N/mm 2 ]
3'7. A circle of I 5 cm diameter is inscribed o n an aluminium plate beftre it .is
stressed. The plate is then loaded so as to produce stresses as shown in Fig. 3·49 and the
circle is deformed to an ellipse. Determine the maj)r and minor axis of the ellipse ahd their
directions. Given E= 70 x 103 N/ mm2, 1/ m = O· 33.
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2
20 N/rnm
CO N/mm
2
(/\ 6.-0 N/mrn
2
~
I
20N/mm
2
t 100 N/mm
2
Fig. 3"40
Major axis 15'0195 cm
[Ans.
Minor axis 15'0034 cm
Major axis is itt an angle of 22° 30' to the direction of JOO N/mm 2 stress]
3·s. At a point in a strained material,

the stresses on the pl::i.nes XY and XZ at an z
angle a as shown in Fig . 3·41 are +75 MN/m 2
normal stress, 50 MN/m~ shear stress on XY
plane and - JOO MN/ m2 normal stress a nd
40 MN/m2 shear stress on XZ plane.
Determine:
(a) The angle between the planes XY
and XZ .
(b) Magnitude of maxi mum and mini-
mum principal stresses.
(c) The directions of pr incipal planes
with respect to plane XY.
X
-------
50 MNjm 2
75 MN/m2
y
Fig. 3'41
[Ans . (a) 86° (bJ - 108 MN/ m2 , + 89 MN/1112 (c) + 74° 30', - 15° 30'].
3·9 Strains on an aluminium specimen in 3 directions 0°, 45°, 90° are recorded as
follows :
Eo=-1- 400 µ. cm/cm
€4/= - 200 µ. cm/cm
E9 0°=+200 µ. cm/cm.
Determine the magnitude of principal strains, principal stresses and principal angles.
Given E = 0·7 X 105 N/ mm 2 , 1/m= 0'33 for aluminium.
[Ans. 810 µ cm/cm, - 210 µ.cm /cm; 58'2 N/ mm 2 , 4·5 N/mm2 , -38° 21', + 51° 39']
3·10. For a delta rosette, the following observations are made with the gauges mounted
on a steel specimen.
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168 STRENG'f.H: OF MA'FERIALS
e 0= + 600 µ cm/cm
E50°= - 200 µ Cffi/ Cm
e12/= + 200 µ cm/cm .
Determine the principal strains, principal stresses and principal angles. Given
E= 2 X 105 N/ mm2, l /m=o·3 for steel.
[Ans. 661'88 µ.cm /cm, - 261.88 µ.cm/cm, 128·2 N/ mm 2, -13·9 N / mm\ 15°, 105°]
3·11. A brass rod of 20 mm diameter encased in a sheath is subjected to an axial
thrust of 16 kN. The sheath raduces the lateral expansion to one-third of its value if free.
Determine:
(a) The pressure exerted by the sheath and
(b) The longitudinal strain in the bar.
Given E = 102,000 N/mm 2, l/m= 0·35 for brass.
(Ans. J 8'28 N/ mm 2, -o·0003738]
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4
Relations Between Elastic Constants
The deformations of a stressed body such as elongation, contraction, distortion etc.,

depend upon the values of its elastic constants. A bar having high Young's modulus of
elasticity E will elongate much less under a tensile force in comparison to the elongation of a
bar having low value of E. A block having high Modulus of rigidity G will distort much less
under a shear force in comparison to the distortion of a block having low value of G. Similarly
· a sphere having high value of bulk modulus K will have much less change in its volume under
hydrostatic pressure in comparison to the change in volume suffered by a sphere of low value
of K. All these elastic constants including the Poisson's ratio 1/m for a material remain
constant if the material is stressed with in the elastic limit.
These elastic constants can be determined experimentally and there is definite relation-
ship between them.
4·1. YOUNG'S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND POISSON'S RATIO
To determine the values of E and 1/m, a test piece of the material as shown in Fig. 4 · 1
is tested under tension. To record the change in length 'SL and change in diameter oD,
extensometers of high precision are used or the strain gauges (as discussed in last chapter) are
fixed on the test piece so as to find 1.he axial strain (linear strain) and diameter strain (lateral
strain). Tensile load P, vs. change in length 'SL or in other words!, stress (P/A ) vs. strain,
e (oL/L) is plotted as shown in Fig. 4· 1 (b). The slop of this curve i.e., the ratio f /1c is
called Young' s modulus of elasticity.
Another graph between change in diameter oD and change in length 8L is plotted or
in other words a graph between e' lateral strain ('SD/D) and 1c, linear strain ('SL/L) is plotted
as shown in Fig. 4'1 (c). The slope of this curve i.e., e'/e is called the Poisson's ratio of the
Fig.4·1
l~
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£
0
'-
,/>
.-;
,_
"
.J
E -- - - - · w•'"" ~
Strci,n
Linear strain
( b)
(c)
Fig . 4·1
material. Please note that 8L/ L is positive a nd 'SD/D is negative because as the length
gradually increases, diameter gradually decreases. .But Poisson's ratio is expressed only as a
ratio arid no sign is attached with this.
Example 4'1-1. A mild steel bar of 10 mm diameter and 100 mm gauge length is
tested under tension. A tensile force of JO kN produces an extension of 0'060 mm while its
diameter is reduced by o·OOJ8 mm. Deter mine
Eand for mild steel.

m
Solution.
Tensile force, P= IO kN
Area of cross section, A= ~ (10)2=78'54 mm2

4
Stress, f = _!_Q__!.N = 121·32 N/rnm 2

78' 54
Change in length, 8L= 0'060 mm

Original length, L = lOO mm
0 ' 060 = 0'0006
Linear strain, ta =
100
127 ' 32 -212·2 103 kN/
E -- -;-=
f 0·0006 - x mm
2
Change in diameter, 8D= 0·0018 mm (reduction)
Original diameter D, = IO mm
0·0018
Lateral strain, e' =
10
_.!:__ _ 0'00018 - 0·3
f9isson's ratio,
(11 - 9·900~ - '
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RELATIONS BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTAN1'S 171
Exercise 4·1-1. A brass bar specimen of guage length 150 min and diameter 12 mm
is tested under tension. A tensile forces of 14 kN produces an extension of 0"18 mm and
its diameter is reduced by 0"0046 mm Determine the values of E and 1/m for brass.
[Ans. 103· 15 X 10 3 N/mm2, 0"32]
4·2. MODULUS OF RIGIDITY
A round bar specimen as shown in Fig. 4.2 is fixed at one end and a twisting moment
T is applied at the other end through a Torsion Testing Machine. _Keyways are provided on
th~ ew.ts qf the spe9iroen so that specimen is firmly fixed iq the fixtures of the machine.
'.flw ~ngJe of the rotation pf one end with respect to the fixed end i.e. , angle of twist e is conti-
111,19µsly r~r;ord~d _as t~e twisting moment T is grs.dually increased. .
T = Res.isling twisting
moment T: Appliea tw, " ting
moment
-~
.
C
E
0
~
[]l
C
.___ _ _ L
~eyway -----~e
Gauge l ength
Angular twis c
(a) (b)
Fig. 4·2
Within the el~stic .limit angular twist e is directly proportional to the applied twisting
moment T. The relat1onsh1ps between shear stress q and T, between shear strain <f> and e are
discussed in chapter 13 on Torsion. However, the expression for relations are given as below :
16 T
Shear stress, q= TCds
where dis the diameter along the guage length of the specimen
Shear strain, r/, = dO

2L
where L = gauge length of the specimen.
Modulus of rigidity is obtained by the ratio of -:- at any point within the elastic
limit.
Modulus of rigidity, G= _!J_ = 32 TL

"' n;d48
~x?,µip\e 4'2-1. An aluminium specimen of gauge length 200 mm and diameter 25

mm is. tested u11der t~mion. J:"- t orque of J6'5 x 1~3• ~mm produces an angular .twist of0'2
degree 111 the specimen. D!!termme the Modulus of ng1d1ty of aluminium.
Solution. Torque, T = l6'5X 103 N/mm
Gauge length, L= 200 mm
Sp~cimien d:if!.!ll~ter, d= 25 mm
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tii. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Angular twist, B=O·i 0
0"2 X 1t re rad"ian
180
= 900
32 TL 32X ]6"5 X 103 X 200X900
Modulus of rigidity, G 4
n:d 8 - 1tX 25 4 X re
= 24"65 x 1Q3 N/mmz.
Exercise 4·2-1. A mild steel specimen for torsion tests has guage length 250 mm and
diameter 25 mm. A torque of 52 Nm produces an angular twist of 0·25 degree. Determine
the modulus of rigidity for mild steel. [Ans. 77·69 X 103 N/mm 2 ]
4·3. RELATION BETWEEN E AND G
Consider a cube ABCD subjected to shear stress q at the top, while the bottom face is
fixed. The cube is deformed as shown in the Fig. 4'3 (a) and at the same time a comple--
mentary shear q, at an angle of 90° to th~ applied shear stress is induced. The angle of shear
r/,, within the elastic limit is very much less (much less than even 1 degree for most of the
metals) and not so large as shown in Fig. 4·3 (a). Therefore, angle AB'D is taken as 45°. Due
to the shear stress applied as shown in the figure, the diagonal DB is increased in length to DB'
and the diagonal AC is reduced in length to A'C.
Fig. 4·3 (a)
Taking the sides of the cube as 6x = 6 11= I::,.. limiting to zero, we can consider that the
stresses are acting at a point in a strained material. Mohr's stress circle can be drawn for this
point, taking OP = + q an~ OQ= -q, the shear stresse~ acting O!]- the planes AB and BC, right
angle to each other. W_1th_ 0 as the centre of Mohr s stre~s ~rrcle, the circle is drawn. From
the diagram OR= +q= pnnc1pal ~tre~s Pi and OS= --:-- q=ynnc1pal stress p 2 • In other words
diagonal DB is extended due to principal stress Pi which 1s equal to +q, a tensile stress.
Change in the length, DB= DB' - DB
Since angle i is very small DBet.DE where BE is perpendicular to the line DB'.
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R.ELAtIONS BEi°WEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS
Shear stress
+q
p
,,r Normal
s tre: s s
-q s 0 R +q
p ,Principal stte:ss = + q
1
p ,Principal stre:ss::-q
2
a.
-q
Fig. 4'3 (b)
or change in length = EB'= BB' x cos 45°= !!.!!_

v2
Change in length
"• strain along DB
Original length
BB' BB' BB'
../2 DB = v 2\12 BC 2BC where DB = v12 BC
as DB is the diagonal of the square ABCD.
Strain along DB in terms of principal stresses
1, = l!.1..._..J!:L _ .!L+ __g_

E mE - E mE
1,= _!J_ ( I+ .l..)= BB'

E m 2BC
or q(l + 1/m) BB'
E = 2BC
BB'
Shear strain, l>= -BC
or .!L( 1+ -1 )=1.
E 2 m
or !q_( l+ ~ )=E
but ..!L""" Shear stress - G mouulus of rigidity
t/, Shear strain - '
or E = 2G ( l+ ~ )-
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.,. :. . ;· .·
174
ExaIDple 4'3-1. On a steel bar specimen of 15 mm diameter and 150 mm gauge
length, when tested as a tensile test specimen, a force of 15 kN produce an extension of 0'063
mm. When the specimen is tested under torsion, a twisting moment of 6 94 Nm produces an
angular twist of o· 15 degree. Determine the Poisson's ratio for the material of the bar.
Solution. Diameter of the bar,

d = 15 mm
Arca of cross section, A= ~ (15)~ = 176·7 111111 2

4
Tensile l_o ad, P = l5 x 1000 N
Stress, . f
= 15000
. 84'89 N/mm2
176 7
Extension, 8£ = 0'063 mm
0 3
Strain, € = 3J: = ·1~~ = 0·00042
E= _j_ 84 . 89 - 202·1 103 N/

- o·00042 2
E - x mm
Twisting moment, T = 6'94 Nm= 6940 Nmm
0'15 X 1C
Angular twist, ra.difln
180
Gauge length, L = l50 mm • ,· .~ 1' . ..
Modulus of rigidity, G= 32 TL
rcd4B
32 X 6940 X 150 X 180
= 80·004 x 10a N/mm2
n x J 54 x 0·15 x 1.
As per the relationship between-Q. and E

1 ) E 202' l X 103 ·
( l+ m = 2G = 2 x 80'004 X 10ll=:= l' 263
.,
1 .., : :
or Poisson' ratio - - = 1'263-1 =0'263.
m
Exercise 4'3-1. A brass bar of · gauge . length ·100 mm and diameter 10 mm, when
- subjected to a load of 400 kg extends by 0'024 mm. What will be angular twist produced in
this bar by a twisting moment of 0·5 kg-m. The Poisson's. ratio for brass is 0'32. .
[Ans. 0'363°]
4·4. RELATION BETWEEN MODULV~ OF ELASTICIT)'

. .. AND BULK MODULUS K
Consider a rectangular block of dimensions :. l~ngtp L, llreadth Band depth D subjected

to the three principal stresses p each in the direc~ipns 1, ·2 and 3 as-shown in the Fig. 4'4. ~·
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-RELAt'iONS l3ETW~' EL:ASTIC CONSTANTS 17S
Volume of the block, 3

V = LBD p
Taking the partial derivatives of V

oV=LD oB+LB BD+ BD oL
or
av LDoB + LBcD + BDoL
V V V V
cB · aD ?L
= -B- +D- + - L
Volumetric strain,
€~=€1+<=3+ €2
= sum of the strains along
3 directions of co-ordinate Fig 4·4
axes.
When the rectangular block is subjected to volumetric stress pin each direction, this
stress acts as principal stresses in 3 directions.
p p p
Principal strains . "1 = - - - - - - - contraction
E mE mE
-=2= .l!_ _ _f!_ _ _f!__ contraction

E mE mE
- p p p
"~- y- mE - mE contraction
Volumetric strain, -=•= ~[ 1- ,! J reduction in volume
pE
Bulk modulus, K= _p-
3p [ 1- ; J
or Modulus of elasticity. E= 3 K [ I - ~
n1
l·
~
Example 4"4-1. What change in volume would a 20 cm cube of steel suffer at a depth
of 4 km in sea w:ater ?
Given E for steel = 2"05 x 106 kg/cm2
_.!_ for steel = 0'29.

m
Solution. For steel, E = 2·os x 106 kg/cm2

I .
Poisson's ratio, -- = 0·29
m
Bulk modµlus ,- E 2~5 x l~ .

K= -(- --2- ) = 30 _ 2 x 0 .29) = 1·627 x 106 kg/cm 2
3 1--
m
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STR-,GTH Of MAl'iRIAlS
Depth of the cub:: in sea water,

h=4 km=4 X 101 cm
Density of sea water, w= t ·02 g/cm3 ,,_Q·00102 kg/cm3
Hydrostatic pressure on cube,
p = wh= O·OOI02 X 4 X 105 = 4~8 kg/cm2
408
Volumetric strain , - P =
Eu-y - 2·sos x 10-,
)'627 X JQff -
Original volume of cu be,

V= 203 = 8000 cm 3
Change in volum ~,
Exercise 4'4-1. What c;1ange in volume a brass sphere of 10 cm diameter would suffer
at a depth of 2 kilometer in sea wat'Cr.
E for brass = 1000 tonnes /cm~
J_
m · for brass= o·32
Density of sea water = 1·02 X \03 kg/ms [Ans. o· Jt 5 c.c.]
Problem 4' I. Derive the relations hip between modulus of elasticity E, modulus of
rigidity G and Bulk modulus K
Solution. We know)hat
1
E = 2 G ( I +m- .)
E= 3 K( 1- 2..),
111
where -
m
I
is the Poisson's ratio
E 2
or - = 2+ - ... ( I')
G m
~ = 1-}_ .. (2)
3K m
Adding the equations ( I ) and (2), we get
E E
cf+3K = 3
or 3EK+ GE =
3
3GK
9GK
or E= 3K+ G
Problem 4'2. At a point in a strained material the principal stress.es are Pt, P2 and
p~; and the principal strains are E 1 ,
E 2 and E 3 • Show that the principal stress p1 is ~iven bf
OI P +70 Et
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RELATIONS BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS 177
mE
where
(m + l)(m- 2)
Eo= Volumetric strain
G= Modulus of rigidity
- 1 = p 01sson
. ' s ratio.
.
m
In a certain test, the principal strains observed are 700, 1400 and - 1800 microstrain.
Determine the three principal stresses.
Given E=205 x 103 N / mm 2
and Poisson's ratio ...!_ = 0"28 .
m
Solution. The principal strains in terms of principal stresses are
P1 P2 Ps
" 1 =E- mE- mE ... (I)
e2= h.. - l!L - Pa ... (2)

E mE mE
_ Pa Pi P2
"s- y- mE - mE ... (3)
Volumetric strain, ev= E1+E 2+ e3 =( Pi+; +Ps )( 1-

2
!)
mE
or Ev (m - 2 )= Pi+ P2 + P3 .. . (4)
From equation (1)
(p2+ P 3 )=( f 1
- E1 ) mE= Pi m - E1 mE
Substituting the value in equation (4)

mE
' Eo. (m-2) = p1 + P1 m - EJ mE
mE
or E• - - + E1 mE= Pi (I +m)
m- 2
or _e.,_
m-2
+E1 = &..(
E
1-l-m )
m
1
But E=20( 1+ ~ )=2o(m: )
So - ~ - + E1 = (
m-2 Pi
m+ l
m
)x2G(m+
m _ .J!..L
I) - 2G
or
2G Ev
P1= --2- +20
m- Ei,
again 2G-( 1+E--1 ) - ,;r;.1
m
mE
Pi = Ev. (m+ l)(m-- 2r+2G E1
,= ex "11+2v "1·
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178
mE
where CX = •
(m + l )(m- 2)
(b) E = 205 x 10s N/ mm2
1
- = 0'28
m
205 X ]03 205 x 103 - 80·0 ios N/ ll
G 2( l '28) - X !Jl~
2(1 + ~?)
E1 = 700 µ mm/mm , E2 = 1400 µ mm/mm
E3 = - 1800 µ. mm/ mm
Ev= Ei+"2 +E 3 = + 300 µ. mm/mm ..
Em E 205 x 10s
1
(m+ l)(m- ) = ( I +-- ) (m- 2) = (I + 0·28) ( - 1 - 2 )
2
m • · 0'28
cx= I01'94 X 103 N/mm2
Principal stresses
Pi= '1i 1:,+2G " 1
= 101 '94 X 103X 300 X 10-6 +80 X 103 X 2 X 700X 10-o
= 30'58+ Ll2 N/mm 2 = 142'58 N/ mm 2
p ~= r1- n+2G " 2
= 30' 58+80 x 103 x 2 x 1400 x 10- 6 = 30'5& + 2~4
= 254'58 N/ mm 2
p3= CX 1:.+2G € 3
= 30'58-80 x 103 x 2 x 1800 x 10- 6 = 30'58-28&
=- 2:>7'42 N/mm 2 •
Probletn 4·3. The materials A a nd B have the same bulk modulus, but the value of
E for A is 2% greater than that for B. Find the value of G fo r the materia l A in terms of E
and G for the material B .
Solution. Bulk modulus,
Young's modulus, EA = l'02 En
9GK
Now E= G+ fK-
9 G,1 KA
or .PA GA + 3 K ..'
or EA (GA + 3KA)= 9 GA ((A

K A- __EAGA_
or - 9 GA- 3 EA
Kn = EnGn
. .
Similarly 9 Gn - 3 En
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RElATJONS BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS 179
But KA = Kn
EA GA En Gn
9GA-3EA - 9Gn - 3En
But EA = 1·02 En
So
(62 EB GA En X GiJ
9 G,1 -3 ·06 EB 9 Gn - 3 En
1·02 GA Gs
or
3 G,1-1 ·02En - 3 Gn- En
306 Gn En
or
GA - 102 En-6Gn ·
Problem 4··4. T he determination of E and G for a particular thateria l gives ihe values
as 208000 N/ mm 2 and 80,000 N/ mm 2 respectively. Calculate Poisson's ratio and bulk modulus.
If both the moduli are liab le t o an error of ±I%, find the maximum pfaceri.titge error
in the derived value of Poisson's ratio .
Solution. £ = 208000 N/111 11,2
G= 80,000 N/mm2
I E
Poisson's ratio, -;j ==- 2G - 1
208000
= -2 X80000 - l = 0· 3o
K= E 208000
Bulk m odulus,
3 ( l- ~ )= 3(1- 0'3 X2)
= 173,333_N/mmz
1 E
Now m=2G - l
Error in the determination of E and G is ± 1 %

1 268000
So the maximum value of - - = x l 'O L - l = 0'326
m 2 X 80000 X 0'99
1 208000 X 0·99 - l = 0. 274
The minimum value of m - 2X8000 X 1'01
0·026·
So Error in the calculation of _!_ = + 0·026 to -0·026, %Error = o - 3 x 100
m
% Error = ± 8·66.
p'robl~m 4'°5. A ste~l bar . 5 cm diameter, 1 metre _lo~g is s~pj'ected W an.fi~i~~
compressive lol!c\ of !O kN What will be the percentage _ch a~ge m its ~olume ? \_\'hat change
in volume would a 10 cm cube of steel suffer at a depth ot 5 kilometres m sea water
E = 208,000 N/mm 2
G= 83,000 N/mm2
Wt. Density of sea water= 1030 kg/m3 •
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180 stitENotfl op MA iBR1Ats
Solution. £ = 208000 N/mm2

G= 83000 N/mm 2
1 E
Poisson's ratio, m = 2G-l
208000
J = 1·253 - 1= 0·253
= 2 x 83000
Diameter of steel bar, d= 5 cm= 50 mm
Area of cross section, A -- 2!..

4 x5oi= 1963'5 mm
2
Compressive load, P= lO kN
10 X 1000 .
Axial compressive stress, f - 1963 .5 = 5·093 N1mm 2 (compressive)
-5·093
Axial strain, ea=- 208 000
'
0·253 X 5'093
Lateral strain, ED= + 208 000
'
Volumetric strain, ev=ea+2eD
__ S-093 X 0·494 = 1. 2 X l0- 6
- 208,000
% change in volume = evX 100
= 0'0012% (reduction)
E
Bulk modulus,
K= 3 ( 1-..3__ )
m
208000 _ . i
= 3(1_ 2 x 0 .253 ) - 140350 87 N/mm
Pressure at a depth of 5 km, p = wh-= 1030 x 5000 kg/m2

= 5'15 kg/mm2 = 50'47 N/mm2
p 50·41 _ . _5
Volumetric strain, Ev= y = 140350·87 _ 35 96 X 10
Original volume, V= l03 = 1000 cm3
Change in volume, dV= e 0 X V
= 3S-90 X 10- 6 X 103 = 0·3596 ctt12.
Problem 4'6. A small piston of area 150 mm2 compresses oil in a rigid container
of 20,000 cm 3• Wheo a weight of 90 N is gradually applied to the piston its movement is
observed to be 27 mm. If a weight of 50 N falls from a height of 100 mm on to the 90 N
load, determine the maximum pressure developed in the oil container. Neglect the effects of
friction and loss of energy.
Solution. Piston area, A= l50 mm2
Original volume of oil, V-=20 ,000 cm3 = 20 x 10s mma
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RELATIONS BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTAN!S ' '
18]
Weight on piston, W=90 N
Pressure on piston or on oil, p = {~o = 0"6 N/mm 2
Change in volume of the oil, av= 'i xV
av= o·6 x;o x 10°

Change in volume of the oil, 8V= Ax S
= piston area x piston displacement
= 150x27=4050 mm3
I
06 106
So Bulk modulus, K= · ~~~ x = 2"963x 10s N/mm 2
0
Say the additional pressure developed on oil due to the falling load is p' N/mm 2
W',changeinvolumeoftheoil = { XV=
2~ 6{; 103 X20Xl06
3V' p' X 20 X l 0 6 _ ,
S', displacement of the piston = A = 2"963X 103 X 150 - 45 P mm
Strain energy absorbed by the oil
p'~ p'i X 20 X 106
= 2K X V= 2 X2"963 X 103
Loss of Potential energy by the weight
= W'(h+S') = 50(I00 + 45 p')
= Strain energy absorbed by the oil.
2 6
p' x 2ox l.0 5000+2250 p'
2 X 2"963 X 103
,
2
2 X2250 X 2"963 p' 2 X5000 X2'963X 103 = 0
p - 20,000 20 x 106
p'~-0"666 p' - l '481= 0
, /0'666 + ..f (0"666) 2 + 4x l 481
p= 2 --
0"666+ 2"5234
1·595 N/mm2
2
Maximum pressure developed in the oil container
= 0·6o+ l "595 = 2·195 N/ mm 2 •
Problem 4"7. A round bar IO mm in dia meter and 100 mm long is tested in tension.
It is observed that the longitudinal strain is 4 times the lateral strain. Calculate the modulus
of rigidity and the bulk modulus if its elastic modulus is 200 G Pu. Find the change in volume
when the bar is subjected to a hydrostatic pressure of 100 MP,,.
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, ,~'\~., .. . ;-; .. .. ... ~!'~ · ·
Solution. Longitudinal strain = 4 X lateral strain
Poisson's ratio, 1 Lateral strarn = O·is

m Longitudin·a1 strain
Young's modulus, E = 200 G Pa
9
Modulus of rigidity, G - .___ E _ .. - 200 X 10 P u = 80 G Pa
l 2 (1 ·25)
2 ( 1 +-
ml~
Bulk modulus, K= E = 200 G P a = 133'33 G Pa
3 ( I - ~ ) 3 (l-0·5)
I Pa= l Pascal= I N/m 2

M P .. = 10" N/ m 2 = L N/mm 2
p, hydrostatic pressure = !O J M P ,.= lOOx 106 N /m i= lOO N/mm2
Bulk modulus, K= 133'33 G Pa
= 133.33X 10° N/m 2 = 133 33 x ]03 N/mmt
p 100
Volumetric strain, €·=·K = 133'33 X 103 o· 75 X rn-a
Change in volume, 8V= ev. V= 0'75 X 10- 3 x : (10)2X 100
= 5'89 mm3
Problem 4·8. The modulus of rigidity of a material is 380 tonnes/cma. A l'O mm

diameter rod of the material is subjected to an axial tensile force of 500 kg and the change in
its diameter is observed to be 0·0002 cm. Calculate the Poisson's ratio and modulus of
elasticity of the material.
Solution. Modulus of rigidity,
G= 380 x 1000 kg/cm2
Diameter, d= 1 cm
Tensile force = 500 kg
500 x 4 2000
Tensile stress, - - kg/ cm2
f = TC X(l)2 TC
Change in diameter, 8d= 0'0002 cm
Lateral strain, e'= O'OOOl = 0·0002
l
Say (axial) linear stra~:fr
Young' s modulus =E
2000
Axial strain,
"=Tx .E
Lateral strain , ~ E
1
= _!__ ,
m
E=
200
2.. = 0'0002
wE m ... (1)
G= - -E - = 380 X 1000 ) ; '

... l2).
2+-2_
m
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~EL!TJONS BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS 183
From equation (I), E= 2000

n X m X 0'00022...
From equation (2), E= 3t0 X 1000( 2 + -1_ )

111
2000 = 380 X 1000 ( 2+2)

So
rem x 0·0002 m
~1 [ lOrtOO ]=[ 1+ ,!1 ][ 760 J

1
- [3183 ' 1-760] = 760
m
760
m= 2423:-i-
or Pois son's ratio, __!_ = 0· 31)6
m
I 2000 _ .
Young's m odulus, E= -m - 998 2 X 1000 kg/cm 2 .
X
rc x O·0002
SUMMARY
J. In a tens ile test performed on a bar of diameter d and gauge length L , a force p
ptoducing, change in length oL and change in diameter - 8d.
. . 4P L
Young's modu.Jus o fEI ast1c1ty, E = rcd 2 X oL
Poisson's ratio, m1 = odc( X L

8£ ·
2. In a Torsion test performed on a bar of di a meter d and gauge length L subjected t o
twisting moment T producing the angular twist (}
3
Modulus of rigidity, G= - rr~-.,_~L.
3. E= 2G I+ _!_\
m '
2
4. E= 3K ( I - - -) wher e K is the Bulk Modulus.
\ m
MUL ':PPL~ CHOICE QUESTIONS
I. The modulus of elasticity for a material 208 x I 03 N/ m m2 and its Poisson's ratio
is o·J. The modulus of rigidity for the material is
(a) 160 x 103 N/ mm 2 (b) l04 x [03 N/ mm2
(c) 80 x 10 3 N/mm~ (d) None of the above.
2. For a material, the value of Bulk JT\Odulus is 170 x I 03 N/ mm 2 and the Poisson's ratio
is o·J. The Young's modulus of elasticity for the material is
(a) 200 X 103 N /mm 2 (b) 204 x 103 N/ 1111112
\c) 208 x 103 N/mm2 (d) 212 x )03 N/ mm2,
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3. For a material E = IOOO x 108 N/mm 2 G=375x 103 N/mm 2 • The value of its Poisson'i
ratio is
(a) 0·25 (b) 0'30
(c) 0·33 (d) 0'35.
4. For a material when tested within the elastic limit, the value of Poisson's ratio is 0'35.
When the same materia l is tested in the plastic stage, its Poisson's ratio in the plastic
stage will be
(a) 0·35 (b) 0'4
(c) 0·5 (d) 0'6.
5. The ratio of Young's modu lus E and modulus of ri gidity G is given by-
(a) I+ -n11 (b) 2( 1-_!_)
ni
(c) 3 ( I - ~ -) (d) 2 ( I + ~ - )
11 1
1
where - - is the Poisson 's rat io of the material.
m
6. The r ,io of Young's modulus of Elasticity E and Bulk modulus K for a material is
given by
(a)2( 1+,;t) (b)3( 1- ; )

1
(c) 3 ( I - -) (d) None of the above.
Ill
7. The value of Young's modulus E i11 terms of modulus of ri gidity G and Bulk modulus K is
9KG 9 GK
(a) K+G (b) K-t-3G
(d) None of the above.
8. The principal strains at a point are +800 µ. cm/cm, + 400 µ cm/cm and -1200 µ. cm/cm .
The vo lumetric str ain will be -
(a) 2400 µ. cm/cm (b) - 2400 µ. cm/cm
(c) 1600 µ.cm / cm (cl) o·o µ. cm/cm .
9. A body 1s subjected to a hydrostat ic pressure of 100 N / mm 2 • Young's modulus fo r the
material is IOO X 1000 N / mm 2 :1nd Po isson's ratio is 0' 33. The volumetri c strain on the
b ody is
(a) 340 µ. cm/cm (b) 680 µ cm/cm
(c) 1020 µ cm/cm (d) o·o cm/cm.
10. Which of the fo llowing materials has the value of Poisson's ratio approximately equal to
0 '33-
(a) Cast iron (b) Aluminium
(c) High carbon steel (d) Glass.
ANSWERS
l. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c)
9. (b) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. \C)
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RELATIONS BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS 185
EXERCISES
4·1. Express the value of Poisson's ratio 1/m in terms of the modulus of rigidity. G and
Bulk modulus, K .
[ Ans.
1
;; 3K-2G
= 6K+ 2G-
J
4·2. At a point in a strained material, the principal stresses are p 1, p 2 and p3 , while
the principal strains are e-1, e-2 and e- 3 respectively. Show that
Principal stress, p 1=2G [{3. e-o+E 1]

w~ere G= modulus of ri gidity
1
{3=-' - 1 = p01sson
. ' s ratio
.
m-2 m
The principal strains observed are

e- 1 =+800 µ. cm/cm, e- 2 =+ 600 µ. cm/cm,
e-3 = -500 µ. cm/cm .
Determine the principal stresses at the point.

Given G= 380 tonnes/cm 2 and J /m = 0'32.
[Ans. 1216, 1064. 228 kg/cm 2]
4'3. The two ma~eria_ls A and B have the same modulus of rigidity but the value o f E
(Young's m odulus) for A 1s 5% greater than that for B. Find t he value of Bul k modulus K
for the material A in terms of E and K for the materia l B.
[ Ans. 7 Es Kn
7 Es - 3 Kn
J
4'4. The determination of modulus of elasticity and modulus of rigidity for a
particular material gives the values as 1000 tonnes/cm 2 and 380 tonnes/cm2 respectively .
Calculate Poisson's ratio and Bulk modulus for the materi a l.
If both the moduli are liable to have an error of ± 0·5 %, find th e maximum
percentage error in the derived value of Poisson's ratio.
[Ans. 0'316, 679·35 tonnes/cm2; 4· 1 !fo]
4'5. A bar of steel 100 cm long, 2 cm diameter is subjected to a n axial compressive

force of 2 tonnes. Determine the percentage change in volume.
What will be the change in volume of a spherical steel ball 10 cm in diameter when
submerged in sea water to a depth of 5 kilometers ?
Given E for steel= 2 100 tonnes/cm 2
G for steel = 820 tonnes/cm2
V{ei?ht densitr of sea water = 9·00105 k~/cm 3 • fAns. 1·33 x 10- 3 ~. 0·173 cma~
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186 STRENGTH OF-MATERIALS
4·6. A small piston of area l '2 cm2 compresses oil in a rigid container of 15000 cm 3 ,
when a weight of 12 kg is gradually applied to the piston.
Now a weight of 5 kg falls from a height of 15 cm on to the 12 kg load. Determine
the maximum pressure developed in the oil containter. Neglect the effects of friction and loss
of energy.
K for oil=35000 kg/cm2 · [Ans. 33·33 kg/cm2 ]
4·7. A round bar 16 mm in diameter and 150 mm long is tested in temion. It is
observed that the ratio ot lateral strain to longitudinal strain is 0'32. Calculate the modulus
of rigidity and Bulk modulus if its Young's modulus of elasticity is 100 GP u. Find the change
in volume when the bar' is subjected to a hydrostatic pressure of 80 MPa.
[Ans. 37'88 GP(I, 92'59 GP.; 26'06 mm 3]
4'8. The modulus of rigidity of a material is 78 x 1000 N/mm 2 • A 15 mm diameter rod
of the material is subjected to an axial tensile force of 10 kN and the change in its diameter is
observed to be 0'00126 mm. Calculate the Poissons's ratio and modulus of elasticity of the
material. [Ans. 0·3, 202'1 x 103 N/ mm 2 ]
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5
Thin Cylindrical and Spherical She11s
The thin cylindrical shell when subjected to internal fluid pressure or gas pressure,
circumferential and axial stresses are developed in its wall. If the ratio of thickness t and
diameter D i.e., t /D is less than o·os, it can be assumed with sufficient accuracy that the hoop
stress and the axial stress are constant throughout the thickness of the cylinder wall and such
a cylinder is classified as a thin cylinder. Sim ilarly in the case of thin spherical shells, hoop
stress or circumferential stress is developed in its wa ll and this stress is assumed to be constant
throughout the thickness.
5·1. STRESSES IN THIN CYLINDERS
When the pressure inside the cylinder is developed, the volume of the liquid or gas
pumped inside the cylinder is more than the initial volume of the cylinder. This additional
volume of the liquid or gas will exer t pressure on the cylinder wa ll which increases the volume
of the cylinder and in turn cylinder wa ll offers equal resistance and compresses the liquid or
gas inside the cylinder a s shown in Fig. S- J.
(y l ,n df r
Fig. 5·1
Mathematically it can' be written

8V=8V1 +8V2
where 8V=additional volume of liquid pumped inside the cylinder
8V1 =increase in the volume of the cylinder
8V2 =decrease in the volume of liquid or gas .
On any element of the cylinder, three stresses orthogonal to each other are acting as
shown in Fig. 5·2.
fc=circumferential stress
Ja=axial stress
p=radial pressure
pa=atmospheric pressure on outer surface.
187
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The Fig. S-3 shows a thin cyiindet subjected to internal pressure p. The internal
diameter is D and length is I.
f CJ'I
-lttt:~~F ~r '1
plato
Fig. 5·2 Fig. 5·3

Considering the axial bursting force
tending to break the cylinder along the
circumference as shown in Fig. S-4. p
Axial bursting force, Pa=p x : DZ

Fig. 5·4
Area of cross section resisting the axial bursting force

=rcDc
Say axial stress developed = /u
1C
f a . rcDt = p X DZ
4
fa = pD
4t . .. (1)
To determine the bursting force along

a diameter, tending to break the cylinder
along its length, consider a small length di
of the cylinder and an elementary area dA as
shown in the Fig. s·s.
Pressure on the inner surface
=p
8F, Force on elementary area
= pdA= p Rd0 di
D
=p dedI
2 Fig. 5·5
Vertical component of dF= p i di. sin 6. dB
Horizontal component of dF
D
- p 2 di . cos 8 . d8
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' .
TH}N-C\'i.INDRTCAL AND SPHERICAL SHELtS ·189
The horizontal component of the force is cancelled out when the force is integrated
over the semi circular portion.
Therefore total diametral bursti.n g fore~,
r;
PD= r p ~ dl. siii 6 d9

0
*
_ Pf dl I-cos 8 j
0
= pD dl= p X projected area of the curved surface
Area of cross section resisting the diametral busting force
=2X d[ X t
Say circumferential stress developed
f,
For equilibrium f• x 2t x dl = pD di
pD
/c = 2 f ... (2)
The circumferential stress/. and axial stress J., are quite large in comparison to the
radial stress p, therefore, in the calculation of strains the radial stress p is not considered.
Circumferential strain, e:.= 1- ! t

where E= Young's modulus of elasticity of the material
an d 1 p .
- = b1sson s rat10
, .
m
pD pl)
e:c = - -- - - -
' 2/E 4mtE
=-1!.!2_(
4tE
2- _l )
m
... (3)
= diameteral strain
Change in diameter, SD = ec X D
pD2 ( 2 1 ) ... (4)
= 4tE - -;;-
fa Jc
Axial strain, Ea= y - mE
_ pD _ _PE_ _ pD ( l - _! ) ... (5)

- 4tE 2mtE - 4tE m
Change in length, 6/= ea X L
__ pDI(·
- 4IE
l-.1_)
m '
... (6)
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StkENGTH OF MATERlALS
Final volume- Initial volume
Volumetric strain
Initial volume
rc/4 (D+8D) 2 (1+81)- rc/4 D2 l
- rc/4 D 2l
2
= ~ + ~I (neglecting higher order terms of 8D and 8!)
=2 Ee+Ea
= 2pD ( 2_ _1 )+-1!!!._( 1 _2)

4tE m 4tE m
= ..J!.!2_
4tE
( 5- _i_ )
m. ... (7)
Change in volume of the cylinder,
oV1 = pDV 1 5- __±_)

4tE \ m
where Vis the initial volume of cylinder
= rcpD3/ ( 5_..±_ '\ ... (8)
16tE m I
Change in volume of liquid,
8V9= L X V= _n_ XpD2/

~ K 4K
where K is the bulk modulus of the liquid.
Example s·t-1. A closed cylindrical vessel made of steel plate 4 mm thick with plane
ends carries fluid under a pressure of 30 kg/cm 2 • The diameter of the cylinder is 25 cm and
length is 75 cm,-calculate the longitudinal and hoop stresses in the cylinder wall and determine
the change in diameter, length and,volume of the cylinder.
£ = 2100 tonnes/cm2
..l. = 0'286.
m
fiiolution. Internal pressure
p=30 kg/cm 2
Diameter, D==25 cm
t · .. 1 Wall thickness, t= 0'4 cm
Length /= 75 cm
Longitudinal or axial stress,
pD · 30 x 5
fa = 4 ,= 4 X 0 .4 = 468 '75 kg/cm2
Hoop or circumferential stress,

J. = pD - 30 x 25 937·5 'kg/cmz
C 2( - 2~0'4
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THlN .CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL SHELLS 191
Cha nge in diameter, 8D = pD

4tE
2
( 2- L)
m
30 X 25 X 25
(2- 0·286)= 0 ·01 cm
= 4 x 0·4 x 2lOO x lOOO
Change in length, ~l= pDl(

4t E
1-2.)
n;
30 X 25 X 75
4 X 0·4 X 2100 X 1000 ( l - 2 X 0' 286 1
= 0"007165 cm
Change in volume-, oV= ::_PD3f ( 5- ~ )

16t E m
~ x30 x 25 3 x 75 . _ . 3
16 x 0·4 x 2 1oo x iooo (5 - 4 x O 286) - 31 68 cm .
Example s·t-2. A thin cyli ndri cal shell made of copper plate 5 mm thick is filled
with water under a pressure of 4 N / mm2 • The internal di ameter of the cylinder is 200 mm
and its length is o·s m. Determine the add itiona l vo lume of the water pumped inside the
cylinder to develop the required pressure.
E copper= 104,000 N/ mm 2
l
for copper = 0'32
m
K for water = 2 100 N / mm 2 •
Solution. Dia meter o f the cylinder,

D= 200 mm
Length of the cylinder, 1= 800 mm
Wall thickness t= 5 mm
Pressure p = 4 N/1111112
Initial volume of t he cylinder ,
V:-:, : D-J/= ; X (200) 2 X 800
= 2S"l328 X 106 mms
Vo lumetric strain, 1:, = ..E2-.(

4tE
5-~)
m
4 x 200
= 4 X 5 X 104,000 (5 - 4 X 0'32) = l '430 X 10-s
Change in volume of the cylinder,
8V1 = 1:,, XV= l"430 x 10- 3 X 25"1328 x 106
= 35"94 x )03 mms
Say the compression in the volume of water ,
. = o~
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Then total volume of water,
V' = V+W1 +8V2.
This has been compressed to V+8V1
So 8V2 =...£_ XV'
K
= 2 too X (25' 1328 X 106+ 35'94 X 103 + ~Vi)
= 2 ~ 0 (25' 16874 X 106 + 8V2 )

8V2 =48'03 x 10 3 mm3
Additional volume of water pumped in,
8V=8V1 +8V2 =(35'94 + 48'03) x I0 3
= g3·97 x I 03 mm3.
Exercise' 5·1-1. A thin cyl indrical shell made of copper plate is subjected to an
internal fluid pressblre of 3 N/mm2 • The wall thickness is 2·5 mm, diametei; of the cylinder
is l;§(i) mm and length o·s m . Determine (i) axial stress Ui) h,oop stress (iii) cha.rig~ i_i.1 diamet~1\
length· and v.olume. ·
E for copper = 104,000 N/mm 2
1/m for copper=0'32.
[Ans. 45 N/mm 2 (ii) 90 N/ inm 3 (iii) 0·109 mm , 0' 1246 mm, 22755' 5 mm 3]
Exercise 5·1·2. A thin cylindrical shell made of steel plate is 3··~ mm thick and is
filled with oil under a pressure of 50 kg/cm2 • The internal diameter of cylinder is 17·5 cm
and its length is 60 cm. Determine the modulus of compressibility of oil· if the total volume
of oil filled in the cylinder i3 14482 cm 3 .
E for steel= 2100 tonnes/cm2
1/m for steel= 0'28. fAns. 25000 kg/cm2]
s·2. THIN SPHERICAL SHELLS
A thin spherical shell of internal diameter I) a.n d waH thickness t subjected to an

internal fluid pressure p is shown in F ig. 5'6. Due to the bursting force,. th~ ~Ph.erici;t:l. shell is
I
th.i c; kness
going to fail along the circumferential area as sh.own i·u the fig.ui;e-breaking into two hemis-
spheres. Diametral burstfn'g force,
Po=px projected a're'a of die-hemisphere
D2
=p 4
X re
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THIN CYLINDRlICM, ANO SPHERICAL SHELLS
Area of cross section resisting the bursting 'f.oFce

= n Dt
Say the circumferential str ess developed
=Jc . 1• .
ff 2
/ctcDt=p X
For equilibrium,
4 1)
pD
Jc= 41·
The stresses acting on an element of
the spherical shell are sh own in Fig. s·7.
Wher e pa is the a tmospheri c pressure on the
outer surface and p is the radial pressure on
the inner surface. Since the value of p is very
sma:11 in cornpa'.rison to the 'value of J. , its effect
1
on the calc'ufation of diametral strain is not

considered.
Circumferential strain, Fig. 5·7
E,=f~_J2.._ =_pD(l--1) ... (9)
E mE 4tE m
= Diametral strain
V, 1nitial volume of shell = nf 3
I
If 8D is the change in ctiameter due top then final volume of shell

'It .
= 6 W+oD) 3
TC ff
6 (D+oD)3 - 6 Da
Volumetric strain, Eo=--------
rcD3
6 . ~ .
3
c tD (neglecting hi gher order· terms of oD).
= 3 x diametral strain
= 4pD ( 1 _
4tE m
.J..:) · .. . (10)
Change in volume, ( 1 -m1- i)
= rcpD4 ( 1- _!_). . .. (11)

8tE m
I
. _ Exam.p~e 5·2-1. A th(n .spher!cal sh.ell of wall th_ickncss 4 '!'m and ?iameter 30 cm is
subJected to an internal pressure 'p. Detcrmmc the magnitude of p ,f the d1ametral strain is
1 (I
2000·
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E = 205,000 N/mm2
1
- = 0·3.
m
Solution, Internal diameter,
D = 300 mm
Wall thickness, t = 4 mm I i p'
Diametral strain, Ee=

l = pDE ( 1- m1 )
2000 41
1 p x 300
or 2000 = 4 X 4 X 205,000 (1 - 0· 3)
p = 7·81 N/mm2.
Exercise 5·2-1. A thin spherical shell of wall thickness 5 mm, and diameter 30 cm is
subjected to an internal pressure of 50 kg/cm2. D etermine (a) hoop stress (b) diametral ·~train
(c) volumetric strain. '
Given E = LOSO tonnes/cm 2
_!_ =0'32. [Ans. ( a) 750 kg/cm2 (b) 0'472 x 10-a (c) 1·4 I 6 X 10-sJ
m
5'3. CYLINDRICAL SHELL WITH HEMI·SPHERICAL ENDS
A thin cylindrical shell with hemispherica l ends as shown in Fig. S-8, is subjepted to
internal fluid pressure p.
/
---- --•-------r---
-, P o
t +p
y f',
' - - l _rI_ _ __ LI'',.1· __ _ t_I ___} _P_---,
--v
'---------·- -- - - - -----
Fig. 5·8
The internal di ameter of the cylinder, =D

Wall thickness of cylindrical p ortion,
Wall thickness of hemi spherical p ortion,
Circumferential stress developed in
Cylindrical portion,
Axial stress in cylindrical portion,
Circµmf~rential strain in cylindrical portion, = ~ 1 - ~~
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. ffi1N CYLINDRICAL ANb SPHERICAL SHELLS 19S
Circumferential stress developed in hemispherical portion
pD
' /.2= 4!2
Circumferential strain in hemispherical portion,
Eo2= ·J:R._(
4t E
1-_!_
m
)
2
N ow for no distortion of the junction under pressure,
1 )
pD ( pD (
4t1 E 2 -"""in = 4t2 E l-m1 )
1- -1
t m
or -2= - -- ... (12)
t1 2-_!_
m
For maximum stress to be the rnme in both cylindrical and hemispherical portions
fc1 = fc2
or ... (13)
Example 5 '3-1 . A thin cylindrical steel shell of diameter J 50 111111 and wall thickness
3 mm has hemispherical ends. Determine the thickness of hemispherical ends, if there is no
distortion of the juoction under pressure.
Estee1= 208qoo N/mm 2
1
- = 0·3.
m
Solution. Thickness of cylindrical portion,
t1 = 3 mm
Thickness of hemispherical ends= t 2
For no distortion of the junction under pressure,
1-_!_
t2 _ m 1- 0·3
ti - 2- 1 = 2-0·3
m
0'7
!2= n x 3.
Thickness of hemispherical ends= 1·235 mm.
Exercise 5'3-1. A thin cylindrical shell with hemispherical ends is of diameter

2 metres. It is subjected to an internal pressure of 4·5 N/ mm 2 • Determine the thickness of
cylindrical and hemispherical portions if the maximum a llowable stress is 90·0 N/mm 2 •
[Ans. 50 mm, 2S mm]
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5'4. WIRE WINDING OF THIN CYLINDERS
We have observed in the. previous ariticles that the hoop stress developed in a thin
cylinder is twice the axial stress and therefore, the chances of bursting the cylinder longi-
tudinally are more than those for circumferential .failure of the cylinder. Thus to increase
the pressure-carrying capacity of the cylinder and t o reduce the chances of longitudinal burst,
the cylinder is strengthened longitudinally.
In order to achieve the above objective, the cylinder is wound with layers of wire kep1
under tension. In other words the cylinder wall is put under diametral compression, initially.
When this wire wound cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, farther hoop stress developed in
' I
(; I
tVI 1 4
! fc
(
Fig. 5·9
the cylinder and wire is tensile. The resultant h oop stress in the cylinder is the sum of the initia
compressive stress due to wire winding and further tensile stress du~ to internal pressure. Th,
resultant hoop stress in the wire is the sum of two tensile stresses developed due t,
wire winding under tension and interna l pressure in the cylinder. Thus the pressure-carryin,
capacity of the cylinder is increased.
Consider a thin cylinder of diameter D , wall thickness t wound with a single layer c
wire of diameter d. The wire is wound with an initial tf;\lSion f w,
Number of turns of wire per unit length, n= 1/d
Say f• is the compressive circumferential stress developed in the cylinder.
Tensile force exerted by wire per unit length,
Tt
= 2n X - d2 f w
4
Compressive force developed in the cylinder,

= 2fo X t
,;
2fe. t = 2 , n .
4 d fw
2
For equilibrium,
I
or (putting the value of n) ... (l·
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THIN CY°LI'NDRICAL AND SPHERICAL SHELLS 197
Now when the wire wound cylinder is subjected to internal ·pressure P,. say the axial
and circumferential stresses developed in the cylinder areJ,/ and// and the stress developed
in wire is Jul.
Tt .
Longitudinai bursting force =p X · Di
4
=fa' X rcDt (for equilibrium)
or l •' = pD
4t · ... (15)
Diametral bursting force per unit length,

= p XD X 1
'It
-f.' x 2x t+J,.,,' x 2n x 4 d 2 (fur equilibrium)
or pD= f, 'X 2t +Jw' 1r; .·...,(16)
Moreover the circumferential strain in the cylinder

= circumferential strain in wire
(for compatibility)
If B,= Young's modulus for cylinder
Ew= Young's modulus for wire
1
Then - - = Poisson's ratio for cylinder
m
Jc' pD _ fw'
-E-;-- 4tmE - Ew · ... (17)
From the equations ( 16) and (l 7) stresses Jc' and /w' can be determined.
Resultant stress in wire
Resultant hoop stress in cylinder =J.'-/c ... (18)
Example 5'4-1. A thin cylindrical shell of diameter 30 cm is closely wound

around its circumference by a 2 mm diameter steel wire under a tension of 800 kg/cm2. The
cylinder is further subjected to an internal pressure of 20 kg/cm2 • Determine the wall thickness
of the cylinder if the resultant hoop stress in the ·cyljnder wall is 200 kg/cmi (Tensile) and the
cylinder is made of copper.
E for copper = 1050 tonnes/cm2
1/m for, copper = 0·31
E for steel = 2100 tonnes/cm2.
Solution. Initial tension in wire,
/..,= 800 kg/cm~
Diameter of the cylinder, D= 30 cm
Wall th_ickness-, t=?
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Internal pressure, p = 20 kg/cm 2
Wire diameter, d = 0·2 cm .
f., initial hoop compression in cylinder
nd n x o·2
= 41 XJ10= 4 Xt X800
125"6
= -- kg/cmi
1
Due to internal pressure, axial stress developed in the cylinder,

• I
,_ pD _ 20 X 30 150
·J," - 4/ - 4t t
Now pD= ;d J10'+2fc'. t
f.,,' f,' l fa '

. ·ab.a E 10= E~- ~ E0
'I
where Jc' hoop stress in cylinder

f 10' hoop stress in wire
Ew Young's modulus for wire
E, Young's modulus for cylinder
1/m Poisson's ratio for cylinder
So 20 X30 = rt Xi°" 2 XJ,/ + 2Jc' . t. . .. (1 )
J,v' J,' . 1so

0 31 ... (2)
2100 X 1000 = 1050 X 1000 - X t X 1050 X 1000
Moreover Jc' - Jo= 200
Jc'- 125·6 = 200. . .. (3)
. t
From (2) Jw'= 2 [ Jc'- 4~·5 J

4 5
60') = 0·3t4 x 2[ Jc'- ~· ] + 2/c'. t
But fe'=(200+ 1;5·6)
Substituting above
1 56 4 5 1 56
600= 0'628 [200+ ~ · - ~· ]+2{200 + ; ' ]
or 400 t 2 -348"8 t + 49.615 = 0

t = 0·693 cm.
'.txerdse 5'4-1. A thin cylind rical shell of internal di a m eter 40 cm and wa1i thickness
10 mm is closely wound around its circumference by a 3 mm diameter steel wire under an
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THIN CYLIN DRICAL AND SPHERICAL SHELLS 199
initial tens ion o f JO N / mm 2 • The cylmder is further subjected to nn internal pressure of 2·4
N / mm2 • Determine the resultant hoop stress deve lo ped in the cyl inder and the wire. The
cylinder is also made o f steel.
E sreet= 208 ,000 N / mm 2
I / 111 for steel = 0" 30. f An!<i,. 37"864 N / mm~, 43·02 N/ mm 2]
Problem s ·t. A stea m bo iler 150 c m interna l di a meter is subjected to an internal

pr ess ure of 12 kg/cm~. What wi ll be the tl.! nsion in the b 1J ilcr per linear cm o f the longitudina l
j oint in the bo iler sh ell. Calculnte the thi ckness of the p late if the max imum tensile stress in
the plate section is not t0 exceed 1000 kg/cm 2 , taki ng the eflkiency of the longitudinal riv eted
joint as 75% .
Solution. Interna l di ameter of bo iler s hell,
D = l 50 cm
Wa ll thickness, t= ?
lnternal pressure, p = 12 kg/c m!
Circumferential stress developed,
I' pD _ 150 x J2 =- 900 kg/cm2
J c= 2t - 2 X t t
pD 12 X 150
Axial stress developed ,/11=
41- = 4
Xt
= 4-~ kg/cm 2 •
t
T ension in th e boi ler per l int'ar c m o f the longitud inal joint
= /eX 21 X I
900
=
1 -- X 2t X I = 1800 kg.
E ffici ency of the lo ngitudina l jo int = 75%
Ther efore a llowab le circum ferential stress
= 0·75 x 1000 = 750 kg/cm2
900 7~0
- t -- = :, or / = 1·2 crn.
Problem s·2. A cylindrical tank 2 m inside d iameter and 20 m high is fi lled with water
of specific weight 10000 N / m 3 • The material of the tank is a structura l steel with a yield
strength o f 250 N / mm 2 • • What is t he necessary thickness at the botto m o f the steel tan k, if the
efficiency o f the longitudinal seam is 80% ? Take factor of safety as 4.
Solution. Weight d ensit y, .. ." '
T
w= I 0000 N/ m3 p
\ I
or w= 10-s N / mm 3
The h ydrostatic pressure at the bottom h
o f t he tank
p= wh
= 10- 5 X 20 X 1000 N
J
I ~
--v' I
t.. ~ . . ...... - · -· - -· -
l
= 0·2 N/mm2 Fig. s.io
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200 :STRENGTH .O,.F MAil'.ERIAllS
Diameter of the tank, D=2000 mm

Yield strength of the material
= 250 N/ mm 2
Allowable stress in the materi al
250
= - -=62·5 N/ mrn 2
4
Efficiency of the longitudina l seam, '1) = 0·8
Allowable stress in the joint
= O·Sx62'5 = 50 N/rnrn 2
Now the maximum stress developed
= Hoop stress= pD
2t
< 50 N/111111 2
_ 0·2 x 2000 400

or 50 or t = ---
2 :x t 2X50
Thickness of the steel tank at the bottom = 4 mm
Problem 5·3, To what dept h would a copper fl oai' 30 cm 'in diameter and , 31mm thick
has to be sunk in sea water in order that its diameter is decreased by 0·003 cm_?
E for copper= 1050 tonnes/cm2
J_ for copper ==f' 0 '32
111
Density of sea water = l 025 kg/ m 3

Solution.
w, density of water = 1025 kg/ m3= I 025 x I 0-,6 :kg/ems
Say depth through which float is sunk= h cm ·
' '
Pressure on the float, p= wh
= 1025 x 10-~x h kg/cm2
Diameter of float, D= 30 cm
. ;wall thi~,R~e'ss, t = 0·3 cm ,,,·.
. pD
= 1025 X J0- X 30/z
r . ' 6
C 1rcum1erent1al stress,J. =
41 4 x 0·3
= 1·025h
40
Diametral strain, €c= ~ ( 1- ~)
1·025/i
- 40 X 1050 X 1000 ( I -o·32)
0'68 X ] '025/z
40 X I 05010QO
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tttlN ChJNDiUCAL AND SPHERiCAL SHELLS
Decrease in diameter, 8D=e 0 XD

0'00 3= 0'68 X 1 '025 h X 30
40X 1050,000
h=6025'8 cm =60'258 metres
Problem 5'4. A thin copper pipe 8 cm internal diameter, 2 mm wall thickness and 150
cm long is closed at the ends with plugs. The pipe is filled with water under pressure . . Deter-
mine the increase in pressure when an additional 10 c.c. of water is pumped into the pipe.
E for copper= 1050,000 kg/cm 2
1
- for copper= 0'32
m
K for water = 2IOOO kg/cm2 •
Solution. Initial volume of pipe
R
=4 (8)2 x 150= 7539'84 cms
.. Let the increase in fluid pressure,

=p kg/cm 2
Additional volume of water pumped in,
IW=IO cm3 =&V1 +0V2
oV1 = increase in volume of cylinder
oV2 =decrease in volume of water
[5-~J m
_ p X8X 7539'84
- 4 X 0'2 X 1050,000 [5-4 X 0'32] = 0·267 p
oV = (10-
2 0'267 p) c.c.
Bulk modulus of water, K= oV2 /C/+oVi)

10-0'267 p = _]!__
7539'84+0' 267 p 21000
p= 15'96 kg/cm2.
Problem s·s. The dimensions of a steel cylinder are length 200 cm, internal diameter
25 cm and wall thickness I cm. The cylinder is initially filled with water at atmospheric
pressure. Considering this to be a thin cylinder, find the increase _in v.olume. when the water
is pumped in so as to raise the internal pressure to 60 kg/cm 2. If the quantity of water which
has to be pumped in so as to produce the required pressure is 350 c.c., determine the
modulus of compressibility of water. Neglect the deformation at the ends.
E for steel=2100 tonnes/cm 2
1
- for steel = 0'28.
m
Solution. Initial volume,
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- 202 STRENGTlj OF MATERIA~..S
Volumetric strain in cylinder,
Ev= J!!l.._ ( 5-
4tE
_i_)
m
60x25
4 X 1 X 2100 X 1000 (5-4X0'28)=0'693XI0-S
Increase in volume of cylinder, •,,.

8Vi= 0·693 x 1.o- 3 x 31250 r. = 68·03 cma
8Vi= 350-68"03 = 281"97 cm 3
Modulus of compressibility,
K= _ _P_ _ = 60x (312501t + 68"03)
8V2/CV+ 8V1) 28l"97
= 20905 kg/cm2.
Problem s·6. A steel tube having a bore of 10 cm, wall thickne1;s 1·5 mm is plugged
at each end to form a closed cylinder with internal length of 30 cm. The tube is completely
filled with oil and is subjected to a compressive load of 6 tonnes. Determine
(a) the pressure in kg/cm 2 produced on oil
(b) the resulting circumferential stress in tube wall.
K for oil =28000 kg/cm2
E for stee1 = 2100 tonnes/cm 2
1
- for steel = 0·28.
m
Solution. Say the pressure developed on oil,
= p kg/cm 2
p P:6 Ton n\':S
~30cm ---I
Fig. 5 11
I I j
Circumferential stress developed in cylinder,

pD p x 10
f, = 21 = -2 x o·15 33 ·33 P
Say the axial stress developed =/u

TC
4 , D +Ju.
2
For equilibrium pX TC Dt = 6000 kg
p X ; X 102 + /a XTC X I0 X 0"15= 6000 kg
f a= 1i73"23-
•16' 66 f
QT
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)
· ·mrn·cY1.1NbRicA1. AND sPHERicAt sHEHs . iO~
fa Jo
Axial strain, E:" a= - -- -
E mE
. fi . l . fr fa
C ircum erentia straw, eo = y - mE
Volumetric strains,
_ 2/c _ 2j,, f,, _ Jr_
- E mE + E mE
= ~ [ l '72 f ,+0"44 f,]
Now bulk modulus for oil,

K= L
Since Ell in this case is negative
- ~= ~ [l '72 J. + 0·44 f ,]
- ~
28 00
= 2100
! 1000
[ l'72 x 33 '33p+ 0·44 (1273'23-l6"66p)]
(fa is negative)
-75 p = 57'327 p - 560'22+ 7'33 p
p 560"22 - 4'01 k / 2
139"657 - g cm
Ci1cumferential stress, J.=33"33 p
= 133'699 kg/cm2 (Tensile)
Problem s·1. The ends of a thin cylindrical shell are closed by flat plates. It is
subjected to an internal fluid pressure under the following conditions :
(i) The ends are free t o move axially (alo ng the axis of the cylinder).
(ii) The ends are rigidly stayed and no axial movement is permitted.
Determine the ratio of the increase in the volume of the shell under the above condi-
tions. Take Poisson' s ratio=0·2s.
Solution. Say interna, diameter of cylinder =D

Wall thickness · =t
Internal pressure =p
Young's modulus of elasticity =E
1
Poisson's ratio, - - = 0·25
m
V= Initial volume of the cylinder.
(i) When the ends are free t o move axially
lnqrease in volume of shell,
8V'= pD (
4t e
5-...i_)
m
V
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= :it (5 - 4 x 0'25) V
pD . .. (1)
= tE V.
(ii) When the ends are stayed and no

axial movement is permitted i.e., axial strain=O.
This is possible only when compressive
force P acts axially on the shell
/a'=axial compressive stress due to P
p
... (2)
Fig. S·l~
Circumferential stress due top,

pD
fc=2t
pD
Axial stress due top, fa = · 41
; (.
Axial strain, €a=-

l (fa-Ju') -
E mE
L
pD P 0'25 x pD
':"' 4tE - rcDtE- ~ -
pD p
= 8tE - ;DtE = O
1r.pD2
or P=~-. ... (3)
~ fr 1
; ' ' •
Circum1erent1al Stram,
•
€c ==If-
I
mE ( f a-J u')
pD 0·25( pD P
= 2tE -E- 4t- - r;Dt 1
1
pD pD P
= 2tE - 16tE+ 4rcDtE
1 pD 1 ( rcpD2 )
= 16 tE + 4rcDtE -8-
7 pD pD 15 pD
= 16 tE +321.E = 32 -TE
15 pD
Volumetric strain , ev= 2e 0 +ea=
16- tE as ea= O
Change in volume, SV"=E pD

16 tE
xv ... (3)
8V' 16
Ratio 8V"= 15·
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-TI-iIN-CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERIC.AL SHELLS :- zos
Problem s·s. A closed pressure vessel of length 40 cm, thickness 5 mm, internal
diameter 12 cm is subjected to an internal pressure of 80 kg/cm\ Determin~ th~ nor~al and
shear stresses in an element of the cylin.der-wall on a plane at 30 to the long1tudmal axis.
Solution. Fluid pressure,
p = 80 kg/cm~
Internal diameter, D = l2 cm
Wall thickness, t = O·s cm
. , .
CJrcumferent1al stress,
pD
J.= 2t X 12
- 280xo·s = 960 kg/ cm·~
pD 80 X l2 _
Axial stress, fu = 4t = 4 xo·s -480 kg/cm 2
Jn = f• i a + Jc-:;f a COS (2 X 30°)
fn
- 9601"480 + 960;480 cos 600
= 840 kg/cm 2 Longitudinal

axis
Tangential stress on inclined plane,
/,= f.-;fa sin (2 X 30°)
960- 480 .
=
2
x O 866= 207'84 kg/cm 2. Fig. 5·13
Problem 5 9. A thin spherical shell made of copper is of 30 cm diameter with

_1·5 mm wall thick~es~. It is ~ull of water at atmospheric pressure. Find by how much the
mternal pressure will increase 1f 20 c.c. of water is pumped inside the shell.
E= I 00,000 N/ mm2
1 .p .
--;;;, 01sson's ratio = 0·29.
Bulk modulus of water = 2200 N/mm2
Solution.
Diameter, D= 30 cm = 300 mm
Wall thickness, 1= 1·5 mm
Say, due to additional pumping in of water, the increase in iuternal pressure
= p N/mm 2
rtD 3 rt X303
Initial volume of shell, V = - - = . = 14137·2 c.c.
6 6
Additional volume of water pumped,
. 8V=20 c.c.
Total volumetric strain,
20 .
(wat.er ~nd shell) tao = 1413ii = 14· 147 X 10-4
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-
STRENGTH 011 MAhtltA:ts
Volumetric strain on shell,

, 3pD ( 1 ) 3p X 300 .
€o = 4tE l-m = 4Xl'5Xl0,000 (l-0 29 )
= 10'65 pX 10- 4
Volumetric strain on water,
€'"- _p_ -~ 4·545x 10-4 P

- PK -- 2200
Now c.'+€.*= €•
(10·65 p+4'545 p) X 10- 4 =14'147 X 10-4
14'147
or p = 15'195
,.
Increase in internal pressure

= 0'931 N/m m2.
Problem 5'10. A copper tube 30 mm bore and 3 mm thick is plugged at its ends.
It is just filled with water at atmospheric pressure. If an axial compre~sive load of 8 kN is
applied to the plugs, find by how much the water pressure will increase. The plugs are
assumed to be r igid and fixed to the tube.
E= 100,000 N/mm 2
Poisson's ratio, _!_ = 0 '33
m
Bul~ modulus, K = 2200 N/mm2
Solution. Internal diameter of the the tube,
D=30 mm
Wall ~hickness, t= 3 mm
. i·
Axial force, P = 8 kN = 8000 N • J 1 ·:
Area of cross section of tube,

A= nDt = rc X30 X3= 282'744 mm 2
Axial compressive stress,
f -- ..!__ 8000 - .
A - 282 .744 -28 29 N/mm
2
,.
Ea, axial strain, = - { (compressive)
· 28'29 _ · . ~s
= -lOO ,OOO - -28 29X 10
E e, diametral strain =+L

mE
= 28;29 x 0·33 x 10-s
Total volumetric strain = 2 diametral strain + axial strain

= 2 x 28'29 x o·33 x 10- 5 - 28'29X 10-~
= -0'34X 28'29 X 10-11 .. . (1)
Now say the increase in internal pressure due· to axial compressiv~· force = p
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THIN CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL SHELLS 207
Volumetric strain in cylinder
h' = ft (5-
1 ~ ) = 4 x /:i~~,ooo (5-4 x o·33)
= 9·2 x 10-5 p .. . (2)
Volumetric strain on liquid,
"••" = K
P = 2200
P = O'4545 x : 0- a p
= 45'45 X 10- 5 p . . . . (3)
Now due to the axial compressive force, there is compressive strain of
-0·34 x 2s·29 x 10- 5 i.e. if V is the original volume of water, then it means that V
has been co mpressed to the volum~ (V- 9'6188 x 10- 5 V)
So from equations (1), (2) and (3)
9·2 X 10- 5p + 45'45 X I0- 5p=9 '6l88 X 10-5
54'65 p = 9'6188
- 9'6181 - . 2
P- . - 0 176 N / mm
54 65
Increase in internat pressure
= 0' 176 kN/ m2 •
Problem s·n. A solid cylindrical p iece of Aluminium 75 mm long and 50 mm

diameter is enclosed within a hollo w pressure vessel. With th.:: piece inside the vessel,
20 x 10 3 mm3 of oil is required just to fill the pressure vessel. Measurement sho ws that 50 mms
of o ii h as to be p umped into the vessel to raise the oil pressure to 7N/mm 2 •
The experiment is repeated using the same pressure vessel and o il, but without the test
piece inside the vessel. This time, after initia lly filling the pressure vessel, a further 364 mms of
o il is needed to raise the pressure to 7N/mm 2 • Find the bulk modulus of oil.
E for aluminium= 70 GN/m 2
Poisson's ratio of aluminium = 0'3 (P.U.)
Solution. Length of a luminium piece= 75 mm
Diameter of al um inium piece = 50 mm
V2 , Volume of aluminium piece
= -7: (50)2 x 75 = 147262'5 mms
4
Additional volume of oil to fi ll the vessel,
V1 =20 X 103 mm 3 = 20,000 mms
Therefore volume of vessel,
V1 = 147262' 5+20,000
= 167262'5 mm 3
Oil pressure, p= 1 N /mm 2
Say the expansion in volume of vessel
= Wi
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208. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Compression in volume of aluminjum piece
sv'.l= Kal11mi1dum
P xv~
•
Bulk Modulus,
E 70 GN/ m2
Kal11111i11i 11111~ 3((- 0·6)
3(1 - 2/m)
= 58'333 GN/111 2
= 58.333 x 103 N/ mm 2
7·
8V2 = 58'333 X I oa X 147262'5= 17'67 mm8
Compression in volume of the oil ,
oi'a= -Koil
P_ XV
s
= ~ X 20000=
140 00
} mms
Now oVi+ oV2 +oV3 = 50

14
8V1 + 17·67 + •~.QQ_ = 50 ... (1)
Using t_!le vessel without aluminium piece

Expansion in vo lu me of vessel
= ~Vi
Compressio n in volume of oil
= _fl_ x p= 167262'5 x 7
Ko;! Kou
or
oV + 167262'5 X 7 364 ... (2)
i Koil
From equation (2) and (1),

1030837'5 = 38 1'67
Ko;/
K . _ 1030837'5
oil - 38 1'67
Bulk modulus of oil= 2700 N / m m2
Problem s ·12. A gun metal tube of 5 cm bore, wall thickness I /8 cm is closely wound
externally by a steel wire 0·5 mm diameter. Determine the tension under which the wire must
be wound on the tube, if an internal radial pressure of 15 kg/cm 2 is required before the tube is
subjected to the tensile stress in the circumferential diTection.
E for gun metal = !020 tonnes/cm2
_ l_ for gun metal= 0'35
m
p for steel = 2100 tonnes/cm 2
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THlN. CYLINDRICAL AND. SPHERICAL SHELLS
Solution. Internal diamete1· of the

tube, D=5 cm
Thickness of the tube, t = O 125 cm
Wire diameter, d= 0'05 cm,
Number of wires per cm length,
l
n= - = 20
0·05
Say the ,lnitial tension in wire = Jw
"Initial compression in tube due to. wire
winding =Jc ·
Fig. 5·-14
rtd
Jr. = 4t. fw
= tJ'31416/w (compressive)
When the tube is subjected to internQI pressure
p= \?. l.<g./c;m2
·Jo' = circµ,n:i.ferei:iti~l. stre.s.s developed
in (~be
f w' = further tension developed in steel wire
For equilibrium p x D= fc' x 2t +- 2n x ~ d 2 / , /
So 15 X 5=f /X4X 0'125.+2X20X : X(0'05) 2 fiv' ... (1)
5
Axial burstin_g
-
stress J,a ' -- .E.!2..
4(
=-• f. ~
4x o·125
= 150 kg/cm 2 (tensile)
For compatibility of strain

f.' _ fu' _ Jw'
·i f; mE.~- Ew
Jc' ...2.12-0 -2_ - f.,,'
1020 X 1000 I0,20 X IOQQ 2100 X I QCO
OJ: /.'-52'5 = 0'4857 f ..' ... (2)
or 1:= 52·5 + 0·4857 fin'
Substituting in equation ( I )
75 = 0'25 (52'5 -l- 0'4857 /111'). + 0·0185 fw'
15-13' 125
f,.' = co· ·1214+ o·o785)
= 309'53 kg/cm 2
fc' = 52·s + o·4857x 309·53
= 202'84 kf/cm2 teqsi\~
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21-0 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
But f.'-J. = 0 (as given in the problem)

J. = 202'84 kg/cm 2 (compressive)
_ fc _ 202'84
f,. - o·3J4]6 - 0"31416 I
Initial tension in wire = 645'66 kg/cm2
Problem 5'13. A thin cylinder made of brone 250 mm internal dia meter and 6 mm
thick is wound with · a single layer of steel tape I ·s mm thick under a tensile stress of I 00
N /mm 2 • F ind the maximum internal pressure if the hoop stress in the cylinder is not to
exceed 50 N/mm2 • Determine also the final stress in the steel tape.
Po isson's ratio of bronze= 0·33
E for bronze · = 1 17000 N/ mm2
E for steel = 208,000 N/mm 2 •
Solution. Internal dia. of cylinder, D= 250 mm
Wall thickness of cylinder, t = 6 mm
Steel tape thickness, tw= 1·5 mm
Init.al tension in tape, f w= 100 N/ mm2
Initial compressive stress in cylinder due to tape tension= / (say) 0
Now Jc. t = f w . tw .. . (I)

/c X0'6= 1'5X 100
lOO x 1·5 .
f, = = 25 N / mm 2 (compress!ve)
6
Say the internal pressure of liquid in cylinder=p
Axial stress due to p=Ja' = pi = P=~~Q_ = 10'4167 p

Circumferential stress in cylinder =Jc'
Additional stress in tape =f.o'
Now 2fc'Xt+2Jw'X t w = pD ... {2)
(considering unit length of cylinder)
or fc' x 6 x 2+ /.,,'x 1·s x 2 = p X 250
12/e'+ 0'3 fiu' = 250 p ... (3)
Now diametral stra in in cylinder = diametral stra in in tape
/.' 1 / «' f w'
E. -m y; = E,.,, .. . (4)
1
where - = 0'33
m ,l '
2
Ee =--= 117000 N/ mm (bronze cylinder)
E .. = 208,000 N/ mm 2 (steel wire)
_fr_' _ _ 0'33 X 10'4167 p f.,,'
117000 117000 - = 208000
fc'-3'4375 p = 0'5625f,.,,'
or fe ' = 3·437s p+ o·s62Sf 10' , •. (5)
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hirN CYLINDRICAL ANb SPHERICAL SHELLS 211
Substituting in equation (3) above
12 (3"4375 p+0·5625fw')+3fw' = 250 p
9·75 /w' = 208"75 p
fw' = 21"41 p ... (6)
Moreover f.+fc'=50
-25-f.'= 50
/e'=75 N/nuni
From equation (5) 75 = 3'4375 p+0"5625 fw'
or /w' = 233"333-6"1 I l p ... (7)
Equating equation (6) and (7)
21'41 p=l33'333-6"111 p
Maximum internal pressure
_ 133·333 _ .
p- . - 4 844 N/mm 2
27 521
fw' = 133'333-6' I I 1 X 4' 844 = 103'731 N/mm2
Final stress in steel tape =J.. + f w'= 100 + 103'731
= 203'731 N/mm2 .
Problem 5'14. A brass cylinder 120 111111 outside diameter, wall thickness IO mm is
strengthened by a single layer of steel wire 1·5 111111 diameter wound over it under a constant
stress of 50 N/mm2 • If the cylinder is then subjected to an internal pressure of 18 N/mm2
with rise in temperature of the cylinder by 80°C. Determine the final values of
(i) stress in the wire (ii) radial pressure between the wire and the cylinder, (iii) cir-
cumferential stress in the cylinder wall. The cylinder can be assumed to be a thin shell with
closed ends.
Estee/= 208,000 N/mm2, <Xsteet= 11 '8 X 10- 6/°C
Ebrass = 90,000 N/mm2 ocbrass= 18'6 X 10- 6/°C, Poisson's ratio for brass=0'32.
Solution. Outside diameter of cylinder = 120 mm
Wall thickne'>s, t = IO mm
D, Inside diameter of the cylinder =100 mm
Wire diameter, d=I'5 mm
Initial tension in wire, /111 = 50 N/mm2
Say initial compressive stress in cylinder -fc
Thus considering length l of the cylinder
2/c XIX t =2 ( ~ .)( : d 2 ) fw
or fc . t = :d . fw , putting value
/ . x lO= 1t x i· 5 x 50
4
/. = 5'8905 N/111m 2 (compressive) ... (I)
Now internal pressi.ir'e p = 18 N/mm 2
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212
Rise in temperature = 806 C

Ct.brass = l8'6 X 10-6 /°'C
a steel = 11 '8 X 10- 6 /°C.
Considering the equilibrium
2Je' x l x t+2 XJw' ( ; )( ~ d~J =pDl ... (2)
. rr.d 'r,.
2fc' X1+2 Jw'X = pv
I, '
4
2XJ/Xl0+2x/,.' X 1-X J· 5 = f8 X'f00 ... (3)
4
20/c' -f-2'3562Jw'= 1800
or Jc' + o· t 178 /,,; = 90 ... (4)
Equating the strains in cylinder and wire
J/
£. m
f, '
E; + (/ brass X 80 -- · Jw' .
Ew + atstee[X 80 ... (5)
where Ja'=axial stress

= pD = 18 X 100 = 45 N/ 2
4t 4 x 10 mm
or O~~::oi5 + I8·6 x 10-6 x80 = { w~OO + 11·8 x l0- 6 X80

2 8
:r·
_ f/ - 14'4 + 133'92=0'4326J.. ' + 84'96
Jc' = 0'4326 fa'-J4'5\5
•S'ufisf!ifiltiill:g Ure vlalue of Jo' in equ·afio':iJ. (2)
0'4-316 fw' + 0' 11 78 J..' ....:....34'56='9'()
fw' =
I :,
~~f;i1 = 226'308 Njmm 2 ·(tension)
(i) Final stress in the wire

= Jw+Jw' = 226' 308 + scrooo
j •
= 276'308 N/mm2 {tension).

lii) Final circumferential stress i'n cylinder b /c+/o'
where Jc' = 0'4326 Jw'-34'56
= 0·43i6 x 276.308 - 34'56
= 84'9708 N/mm 2 •
Final circumferential stress in cylinder
= 84'9708-5'8905 = 79'0803 N/mm2.
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fuIN CYL!NfiR!CAL AND SPHERICAL SHELLS .21.3
Say the radia l pressure Wfween tfie
wire and cylinder= pr ·
(This is due to wire winding and
temperature rise)
Final circumferential stress
_ pD _ pr D0
- Tt 2 t
.
79 0803
= 18 X 100 _ pr X 120 Fig. 5·15
2 X 10 2 X l0,
or 6pr = 90-79'0803
F ina l radial pressure between wire and cylinder.
p r=
10·9191
6
= 1. .82 N'./ mm·..,
Proble:rn s·1s. A bronze sleeve of 20 cm internal diameter and 6 mm thick is pressed

over a steel liner 20 cm external d iameter and 15 mm thick with a force fit a llowance of
o·os mm on diameter. Considering both the bronze sleeve and steel liner as thin cylinders,
determine:
(a) radial press ure at the common radius, (b) hoop stresses in both, (c) the percentage
of fit a llowance met by the sleeve.
Given Ebronze= 120,000 N/ mm t
Poisson's ratio for bronze = o·33
Estee/= 208,000 N / mm 2
Poisson's ratio for steel= 0'30.
Solution.
I
~ . -- --t---=- - ·- ' -
I ~ 1 7 c m ~~sj-
- --+ --· ..
f----·- ZO c. m----t l..-----20~ L
0 16
Fig. 5'16
Say the radial pressure at the common surface

= p, N/mm2 •
fli1>nze slee'\re. C ircun1fere'iitial strefS,
pr D , _,
f•'a= - 2tb- tensile
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' STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
where .b= inner dia of sleeve = 200 .mm

tD= wall thickness of bronze sleeve.
. .
.,.:,1
So /
f,o = P;\
2
io
16'667 pr N/mm 2 (tensile) rI j · ; • 1~
Steel liner. Circumferential stress,

~
prD I •
f,.=-u.
where t, = wall thickness of steel liner.
I'
JCs-
- + prX 200
2 X 15 + 6'667 pr (compressfve)
Now radial strain in bronze sleeve

_ j,b + { _I ) X .P!._
- Eo '\ m bronze E o
= 16.667 pr + 0'330 p , 16'997 pr
. . .I I )
Eb Eb Eb J
Radial strain .in steel liner '.

_ J.. -( I ) Pi:_
E, m • E,
6'667 pr
=- .. . (2)
E,
Total radial clearanc.: = 0'04 mm
Common radius = 100 mm.
Therefore ( 16.997 p , + 6 ' 367 pr ) X 100= 0'04 ', ,~

Eb E,
16'997 X~ + 6__)67 pr = 0'0004
or 120,000 208,000
pr (1'4164 + 0' 3061) = 4 .. .(3)
4
p r= 1·122s·
(a) Radial pressure at common radius = 2'32::! N/ mm2
(b) Hoop stress in sleeve = 16'667 p,= 2'322 X 16'667
= 38.70 N /mm 2 (tensile) ,
Hoop stress in liner = 6'667 pr = 15'480 N/mm2 (compressive)
I '4164 _ . o;
% of fit allowance of sleeve - l '4164+ 0·306 ! X l00- 82 23 %
(From equation (3) above).
Problem 5'16. A brass hoop of 40 cm inside diameter and l' cm walL thickness fits
snugly at 180°C over a steel hoop which is 1·5 cm thick. Both the hoops are 5 cm wide. If
the temperature drops to 20°c , determine the · circumferential stress in each hoop and the
radial pressure at the common radius.
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THIN CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL SHELLS 215
Estee1= 20 X 10 5 kg/cm 2
Ebrass= !O x 105 kg/cm 2
rl.steel= 12 X I 0- 0/°C
rJ.brass= 20 X 10-r. f°C.
Solution. Say radial pressure at common radius = p kg/cm 2
Temperat11re drop = 180 - 20 ---~ 160°C
Inside diameter of brass hoop, D = 40 cm
Wall thickness of brass hoop tb= l cm
fen,. tJoop stre$S in brass hoop = P/2 = P X 40 = 20 p kg/cm 2 (tensile)

2to 2X I '
Outside diameter of steel hoop = 40 cm
Wall thickness of steel hoop t ,-= 1·s cm
fe., Hoop stress in steel hoop

pD pX40
=u, = 2X 1'50
=13"33 p kg/cm 2 (co mpressive)
Now, ( {: +~; )D
= (20- 12) x L0- 6 x 160
20 p 13·33 p
!O x 10'5 + 2ox 1or.
= 8 X 160 X 10- 6 Fig. S·J7
20 p + 6·665 p = 1280
1280
P = 26·665
Radial pressure = 48"00 kg/cm 2

Circumferential stress in brass hoop,
feb = 20 p= 960 kg/cm 2 (tensile)
Circumferential stress in steel hoop,
Jc ,= 13·333 p= 640 kg/cm 2 (compressive).
SUMMARY
I. Additional volume i!V of liquid pumped inside the cylinder is equal to the sum of
increase in volume of the cylinder av1 and decrease in the volume of the liquid llV:i.
2. _In a thin cylindrical shell of diameter D, wall thickness t subjected to internal
pressure P! . . ! ••
hoop stress, f , s-=- ~ ; axial stress, f a= ~~
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216 STREN.O.TH 0.F ~,\Tl:'RlAT,.$
C ircumferential str a in, €c = : ~ ( 2- ~i ) . Axial str a in, €a = :/~ ( 1- ; )

1
where £ =--= Yo ung's m oduh,1s, 1/m = Poisson's r ati o
Change in diameter , oD = €, D, Chan ge in le_ngth , 8/= €a . /
Volumetric strain, €, = 2 €c+Ea,
Change in volume of the cylinder, oV1 = n. V
Change in volume of the liquid, oV2 = Kp . V

•11 ·1
where K= Bulk modu lus, :,, .

V= Origin al volume of cylinder.
3. Tn a thin spheri cal shall of di ameter D, wall thickness t suhjected to internal flu id
pressure p
pD
Hoop str~ss, f, = -41-
Circumferential s.:train €. -d:._pD__ ( 1- - 1 -)

· 4t~ m
Volumetric strain,
Change in volume of shell,
4. If a wire of diameter dis wound over a t hin cylindrical shell, under tension f w,
f ro Initial compressive hoop stn;ss in cylinder
1td
= -4t- . f,,,
where t = wall thickness of cylinder.
ff the cylinder is now subjected to internal pressure p anct / / a1'.d fit/ ,,re the tensi le
hoop stresses developed in cylinder anct wire respectively, th<;n
pD = fc' X 2t +fw' X ~d
Jc' pD f,,,'
E,. - 4tmE. = JI;;
where D = diameter of cylinder
Ee, Ew= Young's modulus fot cyli nder a od wire respectively
Resultant stresses in cylincler= /c + /c'
in wire =Jw+J,a' .
MULTlPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
· ·L Thin cylinclrica·l shell of dia 100 mm, watl thickness 2·5 mm, is subjected to an ii;t.t~.xn~l
flui d pressure of 1·5 N / mm2 • The maximum stress developed in cylinder wall is
(a) 15 N/ mm 2 .(bl 30 N/ mm!
(c) 60 N/ mm2 1(1) 120 N/mm2,
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. '
lHiN CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL SHELLS 217
2. A thin cylindrical shell of dia D , ,, a ll thickness t is subjected to an internal fluid pressure

p. If E is the Young's modulus and 1/m is the poisson's rat io for the material of the
cylinder, the expression for volum etric strain of the cylinder is
(a) pD
-
4tE
( 5- -
m
4) (b) pD ( 4
4tE
5 )
m
D l' 5- -4 )
(c) .P_
2tE \ m
(d) pD ( 4-
2tE m
2-) ·
3. A thin spherical shell of diameter 200 mm, wall thickness 5 mm is subjected to an internal
fluid pressure p. If the maximum a llowable str ess in the shell is not to exceed 120 N /mm2,
the magnitude o f p-
(a) 3 N/mm 2 (b) 6 N/mm2
(c) 12 N/mm2 (d) 24 Nimm2
4. A thin spher ical shell of d iameter D, wall thickness t is subjected to an internal fluid
pressure p. If Eis the Young's modulus and 1/m is the Poisson 's ratio for the material
of the shell, the expression fo r the change in d iameter is
pD2
(a) 4tE (
• 2 )
l-m (b) ~~; ( 2- !)
pD2( l )
(~), 4tE l- m (d) None of the above.
5. A thin cylindrical steel shell o f di ameter 400 mm and wall thickness 10 mm has spher ical
ends. If there is no distortion of the junction at pressure and Poisson's ratio for steel is
J/3 the thickness of the hemispherical end wi ll be
(a) 6 mm (b) 5 mm
(c) 4 mm (d) None of the above.
6. A thin cylindrical shell of diameter 250 mm, wall t hickness 6 mm is closely wound
around its circumference by a 1·s mm thick steel tape under a tensi on of 100 N/mm2.
The circumferential stress rleveloped in the cylinder wall is--
(a) + 25 N / mm 2 (b) - 25 N/mm 2
(c). +so N / mm 2 (d) -50 N / mm 2 • •
7. A steam boiler of 150 cm internal diameter is subjected to an internal pressure of 20 kg/
cm2 • If the efficiency of the longitudinal riveted joint is 80% and the maximum tensi le
stress in the plate section is not to exceed 1250 kg/cm 2, the thi ckness o f the p late wi ll be
(a) 6·d cm (b) 3·0 cm
(c) 1 ·s cm (d) 0·75 cm.
8. A cylindrical tank I m inside d iameter and 20 m high is filled with water of specific
" weight 1000 kg/ m 3 • lf the thickness of the tank is 2·5 cm, the maximum stress developed
in the wall of the tank is
(a) 40 kg/cm2 ,. (b) 20 kg/cm 2
(c) 10 kg/cm2 (d) 5 kg/ cm~.
9. A thin cylindrical shell of volume 2000 cm 3 is filled with oil at atmospheric pressure. An
additional 1 c.c. of oil is pumped inside the cylinder to produce an interna l pressure of
10 kg/cm 2 • If the effect of the expansion of the cylinder is neglected, then modulus of
compressibility of water is
(a) 200 kg/cm2 · (b) 2000 kg/cmi
(c) 20,000 kg/cm? (d) 200,000 ks/cm2,
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STRENGTH OF MAT~RIALS
2\8
10. A clps~cl pressure ve.ssel of len~th 40 cm, wall thickness 5 mm interi:ial diameter 10 cm is
l•' ~41:>Jr ctep to ari iMernal PJ essure of 8~ kg{cm 2. _Th~ n ormal stress Ill an elemei;i.t 9 f the
cylinder on a plane at 30 to the lo ng1tud11,1al a.xis will be
(a) 1400 kg/cm2 (b) 700 kg/cm2
1
(c) 350 kg/cm 2 (d) None of the above. ' ·1 ;.
ANSWERS
,.,
1,1 •
' i
1. {b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (c) ·
6. (b) 7 . (c) 8. (a) · 9. (c) 19. (b).
't
EXEl\CISES \ ' I •,1
" ~ ,' 'JI i
5·1. A steam boiler 1 m internal d jameter is subjected to an internal pressure of

1 N /mm2. What will be the tens io n in the boiler per linear cm of the longitudinal\joint ·of the
boiler shell,
Calculate the thickness of the plate if the maximum tensi le stress ii;1 the pla.te sedion is
not to exceed 120 N/mm2 taking the efficiency o f the longitudinal riveted joint a s 80 % .
·:.· ·. ,, , . , , " · ,i fAns·.· 20000 N ,-1 1'0'417 mm]
, , ! I . , • J"1 ,,.
A cylindrical tank 3 rn insid~ diameter and 24 m h igh is fj lled with .qil, of, specific
5·2.
weight 9000 N/m3. _The m ateri al o f th_e_ tauk is a structural steel with a Y_i ~f1 1 ~trr.,ngth 0 f
300 N/mm2. What 1s the necessary thi ckness at t he bottom of t he steel tank ; if ~He e:fflciency
of the longitudinal seam is 75% ? T ake factor of safety as 5. [An!'i! 1 '-s·64 mmJ
. . 5'3. . To what depth would a copper float 250 mm d iam eter and 3. mm thick h hs I to "l:Jc
s11nk in sea ·w.ater in,order that its d iameter is r educed by 0·012% ? .1 . ' • ·,
E for copper= 105000 N / mm2 · ' 1

' '' • ' I
l j ,n for copper = o·32 · · · 11 • ,
D ensity of sea water = 10250 N./m3 • [Au;: i86'77 metres]

s··4. ~ ~h\~): copper._ pipe ' lOO_mm intff.~i}l''. 1.i~m~ter, 2·5 ··)11m.. ,J~11 fhr~~-fl{~s and
1
• '. 1'.'..
200} tn . lon,( 1~ · ·ctpcd. aLt};le :e nds wit h plug~·.,. ,Th,e pipe 1s filled ';Vl!h wn~er :1;19.F/~r.p~;tssure.
Deten h tne t He increase m pressure when an add1t1 o'nal 20 cm 3 of water IS pumped mto the; ,pipe.
(l f\ t ~
E for copper = 105,000 N /mm2 · ·

' ,l
1/m for copper = 0'32
11:1
! ,
• ,Kf'Or water ,l!i t ·· = 2100 N/miµ
t\l , 11 !I•,
2
J
' ·
•
[Ahis.
• 111
i
I
l'\3' N/m·in2]
f•,• ,
1
1
5·5~ The dimensio ns of a copper cylinder are length 2'5 m, interna l d iameter ·· 200 mm
and wall thickness 8 mm. The cylinder,is initially filled with water at atm,osph~ri~ IDmssure.
Considering this t o be a thin cylinder, find rhe increase in volume when the water is pumRed i11
so as to r a ise the internal pressure ·to 3 N /mm 2 • If the quantity o f water which' h as to be
1
pumpy~ iD: is qq
c.c. determi ne the modulps of ~9tnPres~~bility of ·water. D{~gl~~t . th.e 1defor-
-P1a;fRt~t j li~ en,,9,~. • EcopN rJT' l.0500p N/m1~ 2, . lf.m= q·n. . [AJJ.~. 52' 173 c~, ZOQl'. ~ (mm 2:
·11 ,J·5··6'. •ksteei'tube h l:1-v ing a ? Or~ of 150 mm, wall thicknes~ iwlfl (~ pl,~~~F,d ~; eacli
end to for~ a c!osed cylmder with ~nternal length of 400 mm . . The tube is co,nir,I~t7iy1 filled
with oil and 1s subJected to a compressN0 fore~ o f 40 kN. D t:teqmn,e , , ' , • ·.- ·
(a) the pressure :produced ,o il oil n,, ·' \ •· · ' ,·
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THIN CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL SHELLS 21~
(b) the resulting circumferential stress in the tube wall.
Given K for oil = 2200 N/mm2
E for steel=210000 N/ mm2
1/m for steel= o·3 [Ails. 0·112 N/mm2, 4' 2 N/mm2]
5·7. The ends of a thin cylindrical steel shell are closed by flat plates. It is subjected
to an internal fluid pressure under the following conditions- ,.
(i) The ends are free to move axially (along the axis of the cylinder).
(ii) The ends are rigidly stayed and no axial movement is permitted.
Determine the ratio of the increase in volume of the shell under the above conditions.
Take Poisson's ratio of stecl=0'30. [Ans. l '044]
5·s. A closed pressure vessel of length l m, thickness 4 mm and internal diameter
160 mm is subjected to an internal pressure of 10 N/mm 2. D etermine the normal and shear
stresses in an element of the cylinder wall on a plane at 60° to the longitudinal axis of the
cylinder. [Ans. 125 N/ mm2 , 43·3 N/mmz]
5'9. A thin spherical shell made of copper is of 0·5 m diameter with 5 mm wall
thickness. It is full of water at atmospheric pressure. Find by how much the internal
pressure will increase if 25 cm 3 of water is pumped inside the shell Take E = 205,000 N/mm2
1/m= 0'30, for the material of the shell.
Bulk modulus of water =2 100 N/mm2. [Ans. 0·52 N/ mm2]
5·10. A steel tube 55 mm bore and 2·5 mm thick is plugged at its ends. It is just
filled with water at atmospheric pressure. If an axial compressive load of 2 tonnes is applied
to the plugs find by how much the water pressure will increase. Tt·.e plugs are assumed to be
rigid and fixed to the tube.
Estee/=2000 tonnes/cm2, 1/ m for steel=0'3
Bulk modulus for water, K= 21000 kg/cm 2 • [Ans. 1'783 ,kg/cm2]
5·11 . A solid cylindrical p iece of copper 8 cm long and 4 cm diameter is enclosed
within a 'hollow pressure vessel. With the piece inside the vessel, 500 c.c of oi'l is required
just to fill the pressure vessel. Measurement shows that 1·5 c.c. of oil has to be pumped into
the vessel to r aise the oil pressure to 60 kg/cm 2 •
The experiment is repeated using the same pressure vessel, and oil but without the test
piece inside 'the pressure vessel. This time after initially filling. the pressure vessel, a further
J '65 c.c. of oil is needed to raise the pressure to 60 kg/cm Z, F md the bulk modulus of oil.
E for copper= 1050 tonues/cm2 1/m for copper = 0'32.
[Ans. 23068 kg/cm2)
5·12. A gun-metal tube of 60 mm b ore and wall thickness 1·5 mm is closely wound
externally by a steel wire of 1 mm diameter. Determine the tension under which the wire
must be wound on the tube, if an internal radia l pressure of 2 N/mm 2 is required before the
tube is subjected to the tensile stress in the circumferential direction.
E for gun metal = 102 '!<. 103 N/mm2, l /m for gun mctal= 0'35,
E for steel= 210 x 103 N/mm2 • [Ans. 43'69 N/mm2]
5·13. A thin cylinder made of bronze 30 cm internal diameter and 6 mm thick is
wound with a single layer of steel tape l mm thic~ under a. tensil~ stress of 150 N/ mm2 • Find
the maximum internal pressure if the h oop stress m the cylinder 1s not to exceed 120 N/mm2.
Determine also the final stress in the steel tape.
Given Poisson's ratiocfor bronzc= 0'33.
E for bronze = 117000 N/mm2, E for steel= 208,000 N/mm2•
[Ans. 7·t5 N/mm2 ; 3S2'96 N/mm2]
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220.
\-
STRENGTH OF MAfElUAL~
5'14. A copper sleeve of.15 cm lnternal diameter and 5 mm thick is pressed over a
steel liner 15 cm external diameter and 2·0 cm thick with a force fit allowance of 0·05 mm on
diameter. Considering both the copper sleeve and steel liner as thin cylinders, determine
(a) radial pressure at the common radius
(b) hoop stresses in both
, ,. , .(~) the p~rcentage of fit allowance met by the sleeve.
Given Ecopper= 102,000 N/mm 2,
.Poisson' s ratfo for copper= 0'32
Esteel= 208,000 N/mm 2
Poisson's ratio for steel = 0'30.
[Ans. 1 N/mm 2 , + 15 N/mm2, - 3'75 N/mm2, 90%]
5'15.· A' bronze cylinder 100 mm outside diameter and 5 mm wall thickness is
strengthened by a single layer of steel wire I mm diameter wound over it under a constant
stress of 105 N/mm2. lfthe cylinder is then subjected to an internal pressure of 20 N/mm2
with rise in temperature of the cylinder by 50°C. Detmm,ine the final values of
(i) stress in wire
(ii) radial pressure between the wire and the cylinder
(iii) circumferential stress in the cylinder wall
The cylinder can he assumed to be a thin shell with closed ends. Given
Estee/= 208,000 N/mm 2 , Ebro11ze= 104,000 N/mm2,
ex steel"'.'° 12 X 10- G
(C ~bronze= 12 X 10-r.j°C.
Poisson's ratio for bronze = 0'32.
[Ans. (i) 367'373 N/mm2, (ii) 7'272 Njmm 2, (iii) 107'276 N/mm2 )
5·1~. A thin steel cylinder of inner diameter 42 mm and outer diameter 44 mm just
fits over a copper· cylinder of inner diameter 40 mm. Find the tangential stress in each
cylindrical shell due to a temperature rise of 60°F.
Neglect the effects introduced by longitudinal expansion.
Given Estee/= 208,000 N/mm 2, Ecopper= 90,000 N/mm2
«steet= 6 '8 X 10- 6/°F °'copper= 9'3 X I0- 6/°F.
[Ans. - 9'408 N/mm2, + 9'408 N/mm2]
·,
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6
Thick Cylinders
In the last chapter on thin shells, we determined the hoop stress in the section of the
shell on the assumption that the st1ess remains constant across the thickness of the shell. For
thin shells the ratio of D/t is large, or in other words the thickness is much smalkr than the
diameter ; variation of the hoop stress along the thickness is neligible and one can safely
assume uniform hoop stress. But when thickness is considerable as in the case of thick shells,
hoop stress can not be assumed uniform along the thickness and expression for hoop stress is
derived which shows that the stress varies along the radial direction of the shell.
61. LAME'S EQUATIONS
Stresses in the section of the thick cylinder are determined on the basic assumption
that sections which are perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the cylinder before the appli-
cation of the internal fluid pressure remain perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder after the
cylinder is subjected to internal fluid pressure. Consider a cylinder of inner radius Ri, outer
radius R2 closed at the ends. This is filled with fluid at atmospheric pressure. Nbw additional
ENO PLATE
FLUID AT
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE AXIS OF
CYLINDER
Fig. 6·1
fluid is pumped inside the cylinder so as to develop the internal fluid pressure p as shown in
Fig. 6·1. A plane section X-X perpendicular to the axis is shifted to the new p::isition X'-X'
after the cylinder is subjected to internal pressure p. X' -X' is also one plane perpendicular
to the axis of the cylinder. · · .. ·· ·
Considering the overall len_gth, t~ere ~s increase in length di which is uniform through-
out irrespective of the radius. This assumption also means that there is no distortion of the
end plates. Thus the axial strain in the cylinder is the same at any radius of the cylinder.
· 221
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222 S!RENGTH OF MATERIAtS
Consider a transverse section of the cyiinder (as sh own in Fig. 6'2) subjected to internal
fluid pressure p. This pressure acts radially on the inner surface of the cylinder and at the
• i
'.I
1,I
ii
,.
I•
F ig. 6·2
_,
outer surface of the cylinder this radial pressure is zero, showing there by that radial stress
(or pressure) varies across the thickness of the cylinder .
When the cylinder is subjected to i:::ternal pressure p , it will try to expand the cylinder
resulting in increa.se in length and increase in diameter. i.e., axial and circumferentia·l stresses
are deyeloped in the wall of the cylinder and both these stresses ar:e tensile. Now
copsider a small elementary ring of radial thickness '8r at a r~dius r from the axis of the
cylinder say the stresses on an element of this ring are
(1) le , circumferential stress (tensile)
(2) fa , axial stress (tensile)
(3) pr at radius r and p,+'8pr at radius r + 3r as shown in Fig. 6·3, radial stress
(compressive).
Slrtss)
Fig. 6·3
1
Taking E as the Young's modulus and - - as the Poisson's ratio of the mater,ial @'f the
m
c'ylinder.
A.xiaJ strain - / a - _,f_ + J!!_

- E mE mE
... (I)
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TijJC::~. CY.LIJ:,lDER,S , i23
where - p X 1tR12 pR12

f,, axial stress
- rr.(Rl-R1 ~) = R?-R 12
i.e.,fa is constant across the thickness of the cylinder
]
E and are elastic constants of the material
m
So (f.-pr)=a constant
=2A (say). . .. (2)
Now let us consider the equilibrium of the elementary ring under consideration.
The bursting force per unit length
= pr . 2 , r - 2 (pr+8pr)(r.+8r)
= 2J.x8r
or pr . 2r-2pr. r- 2opr r-2p,or-28p,'iir
= 2Jc. 81'
where 28p,or is a negligible term.
So -op, . r-pr. or= fc. or
-r8pr
or ~ - fc+p,. ... (?.)
From equation (2) and (3) i.e. subtracting w1uation (2) from equation (3)
'tlpr
2p,=- r3r - 2A
2A+2pr = - r op,
'iir
or - 2 'iir - --3.l!.!_
,. -- A+ p,
_ d, _ dpr
or in the limits 2 ... (4)
r - tA + p ,)
\"'. It/ 1 •1
·:
ln(A + p , )=- 2/n r+ln B
where ln B is a constant of integratipn
B
= ln - ,.2
B
or p,+ A = -2
I'
B
Radial stre\ _s, ,~
p, = -o -A . ... (5)
From equation (2) circumferential stress, or hoop stress

B ..
.. , (())
f• = ",:2 + A.
In these equations A and B are called Lame's constants aT\d these equations are calleq
the Lame's equations. ·
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STRENGTH" OF MATERI.A.LS
The values of the constants are determi ned by using boundary conditions. Note that
units of B will be those of force a nd units of A will be those of stress.
Boundary conditions
At radius r= R 1 , radial pressure= p

At radius r= R 2 , radial pressure = O
'. U sing these conditions in equation (5)
' I ' ! •~ ' ·B
So P -- R
-12
-A
or
B B
P= R 1 2 - R 22
) R12Rl ... (7)
or · B=p R22-R12 .
., •J•"• r.,
B ·p Ri2 'I
and ... (8)
A = RQ2 = RQ2-R:,.
The expressions for J c and p, can now be written as

p R12R22 p R12 .. . (9)
Jc=,2 . R22- R12+ Rl - R12·
I
_ P R2:__ ... (10)

R 22- R 1 2 .,
, ....
As the obvious from equation (9) J c will be m aximum . at inner radius R1 and is
m inimum at outer rad ius R 2
p Ri2R 22 p R12
Jc ma:11= R2
1
X -R 2 R2
2 - 1
+ -R 22 _Rl 2 • I ,
R 22 + R1 2 ) ·1
=p( R22 - R1 2 tens, e
b
p , Ri2R 22 p R12
Jc mfo = R---;;-
2·
X R 22 - R 1 2 + -R 2~
- 1
2
=p( Ri;~ 1
;/ ) tensBe
Similarly pr is maximum at inner

ra'dius R 1 and minimum at outer rad ius R2 ,S tr,ss d is tribution ocros·
~y l if'dtr thick n ess ·
lf·· Prm"-• = .P ~omp,y,e1s~iy~:•. , ·r · . ' ·r , I
pr mtrt = 0 6ompressiv~ .,,
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· THICK CYLINDERS 225
Fig. 6"4 shows the variation of fc and pr along the thickness of the cylinder
oa=Jc ma~
bd=Jc m !fl
OC=p
Exa:mple 6"1-1. A cylindrical shell of inner radius 60 mm and outer radius 100 mm
is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 64 N/ mm2 • Draw the distribution of stresses
f c and pr along the thickness of the cylinder.
Solution. Inner radius , R 1= 60 mm

Outer radius, R2= 100 mm.
Boundary conditions. p, = 64 N/mm 2 at r= 60 mm
=0 at r= 100 mm
B
or 602 - A = 64
B B
1002 -A = O, A= 1002
64= 6Bo2- lOBo• ; B= 64 X 602 X 1002 360000 N

- 1002-602
A=36 N/mm2.
Circumferential stress. Jc = ~ +A= 360000 + 36
r· ,.2
At radius 60 mm, 360000
[ c so= ( 60P +36 = 136 N/ mm2
Similarly 3
J. 10= 70 1°~?0
+ 36= 109'47N/mm2
360000 . •
Jc so= (80) 2 +36 = 92 25 N/mm-
360000
l o 110= ( 90 )2 +36=80.44 N/mm2
360000
Jc 100 = (I00) 2 + 36= 72 N/mm2
Radial stress
Pr= _!!_ - A= 360000 _ 36
,.2 ,.2
360000 _
p, r.o = ( 0'12 -36 - 64 N/m m2
6
Pr 10= 360000
( 0) 2
7 -
36-
-
37·47 N/mm-•
360000
pr so= ( 0) 2 36= 20"25 N/mm2
8
P• oo= 360000
( 90)2 -
36 = 8"44 N/ mm-•
360000
pr 100= (I00)2 - 36=0,
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-226 STRENGTH OF MATl,RIAl,.S
The Fig. 6'5 shows the distribution of circumferential and radial stress along the radius
60 mm to 100 mm.
Exam.pie 6'1-2.' A thick cylinder of inner radius R 1 is subjected to internal fluid
pressure p. If the maximum hoop stress developed is 2·5 p, determine the external radius R 2•
Solution. Inner radius = R1
Outer radius =R2
Internal fluid pressure =p
R2 2 +R1 2
Maximum hoop stress, Jc mao:= 2 .5 p = p R 22 _ R 12
or , 2'5(R?-R1 2 ) = R 22 +R 12
1'5 R.2= 3'5 R12
R3 =.J; R 1 = 1'527 R 1 •
Exercise 6·t-l. A cylindrical shell of inner radius 50 mm and outer radius 80 mm is

subjected . to an internal fluid pressure of 500 kg/cm 2. Dra-w the distribution of hoop and
radial Stresses along the thickness of the cylinder.
2
[Ans. Jc 50 , 60, 70 , 80 = 1141'02, 890'3 1, 739'14, 320'51 kg/cm
2
pr 50> Go, 70, so=500'0, 249'29, 98' 12, 0'00 kg/CID ]
Exercise 6'1-2. A thick cylinder of 120 mm internal diameter is subjected to an
internal fluid pressure of 80 N/mm2. If the maximum stress developed in the cylinder is not to
exceed 270 N/mm2, find the th ickness of the cylinder. [Ans. 21 '43 mn1J
6'2. THICK CYLINDER SUBJECTED TO EXTERNAL FLUID PRESSURE
If a thick cylindrical shell is subjected to exiernal fluid pressure as shown in Fig. 6'6,
the effect of p will be to reduce the diameter of the shell or in other words compressive hoo p
or the circumferential stress will 1:,e developed in the cyli_nder.
p
Inner Radius= R1
®uttr Radius:R 2
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rn1ck cYi.1Nf>EM 221
Let us again consider Lame's equations taking A, B constants
f,, hoop stress = 2rB + A
B
pr, radial stress = -2 - A.
r
Boundary conditions
At
or
R zR 2
From these equations B=-p R}- ~-;_i
R 22
A=-pR2
2 -
RZ"
1
~sing these values of the constants, hoop stress can be determined
Fig. 6·7, shows the distribution of hoop and radial stresses across the thickness of the
cylinder. Both the stresses are compressive. oabd-stress distribution for hoop stress
while acd-stress distribution for radial stress.
~ ·~.1 tf. ~
~-··
· St_re ss dis tributi on along the c,1.lind'er
thickn ess
Fig. 6•7
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228 STRENGTH OF MAt ilkIALS
Example 6·2-1. A thick cyiinder with inner dia meter 14 cm and outer diameter
20 cm is subjected to a pressure of 200 kg/cm 2 on its outer surface. Determine the maximum
values of the hoop stress developed.
Solution. Inner radius, R1 = 7 cm
•
Outer radius, R2 = IO cm
External pressure, p = 200 kg/cm2
2Rz2
Maximum hoop stress, f cR1 =-pR22- Ri2
2 X 102
= -200 X _ =-784'31 kg/cm2
102 72
R22+ R12
Minimum hoop stress, f cR2 =- p R 22- R/
102
=- 200 x 102 +?.:
_ 72 =- 584'31 kg/cm
2
Example 6'2-2. A thick cylinder with external diameter 240 mm and internal
dian1eter D is subjected to an external pressure of 56 N / mm2 • Determine the dia meter D if
the maximum hoop stress in the cylinder is not to exceed 220 N/mm2 •
Solution. External radius, R 2 = 120 mm
D
Internal radius, R1 =
2
External pressure, p = 56 N/mm 2
Since maximum hoop stress occurs at inner radius and is compressive so
f cR = - 220 N/mm 2
1
2 X 120 2
- 220= -56 X 1202- R12
220
(120 2- R i2)= 2 X 120a
56
R1 = 84'08 mm
Diameter, D = 168'16 mm.
Exercise 6'2-1. A thick cylinder with inner diameter 110 mm and outer diameter
200 mm is subjected to an external fluid pressure of 60 M N/m 2 • Determine the maximum and
minimum hoop stresses developed in the cylinder. [Aus . - 112·04 MN/ m2, - 112·04 MN/m 2]
Exercise 6'2-2. A thick cylinder with internal diameter 22 cm is subjected to ah
external pressure of 300 kg/cm 2. D etermine the external diameter of the cylinder, if the
maximum hoop stress in the cylinder is not to exceed 800 kg/cm 2 • [An!i. 44 cm]
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Tli1c.K. dnta6BiS
6'3. COMPOUND CYLINDERS
In the article 6' 1, Fig. 6'4 we observe that maximum hoop stress occurs at the inner
radius of the cylinder and the stress varies across the thickness of the cylinder i.e., whole of
the material, is not put to use uniformly. The pressure bearing capacity of the cylinder is
Tensile
Compound cyl,nd<H lnn~r cylindH Outer cy l,nH
Fig. 6·8
limited by this maximum hoop stress which should not exceed the allowable stress for the
material. Firstly to increase the pressure bearing capacity of the cylinder and secondly to
reduce the variation in hoop stress across the thickness, two cylinders are compounded together.
One cylinder is shrink fitted over another cylinder developing compressive hoop" stress in the
inner cylinder and tensile hoop stress in the outer cylinder. When this compound cylinder is
subjected to an internal fluid pressure, hoop stress at the inner radius developed due to internal
fluid pressure is tensile while the hoop stress due to shrink fitting is compressive. Thus the
resultant stress at the inner radius is Jess than the hoop stress developed due to internal pressure
only and consequently the pressure bearing capacity of the cylinder is increased, if the allowable
stress in the cylinder remains the same as in a single cylinder.
Consider a compound cylinder as shown in Fig 6'8 . . A cylinder of inner radius R 1 and
outer r:i.dius say R3 ' is compounded with another cylinder of inner radius say
Ra" and outer radius R 2 . Initially the inner radius of outer cylinder i e., R/ is smaller
than the outer radius of inner cylinder i.e., R 8'. The outer cylinder is now heated so
that its inner radius becomes equal to the _outer radius of the inner cylinder i.e., R 3 " (after
hcating = R 3 ' ) and then outer cylinder is pushed over the inner cylinder. After cooling down
to room temperature, the outer cylinder tries to contract and exerts radial pressure over the
inner cylinder and the inner cylinder offers equal and opposite reaction. The final radius at
the juncti on of the cylinders is R3 which is less than R 3 ' and greater than Ra". Due to the
shrink fitting radial pressure p' acts on the outer surface of the inner cylinder and on the inner
surface of the outer cylinder. Let us determine the hoop stre·sses developed in both the
cylinders due to shrinkage fitting. Let us take A1 , Bi and A2, B2 Lame's constants for the inner
and outer cy tinders respectively.
Inner Cylinde1·. Boundary conditions :
At r=R 1 , radial stress p,=0= R:,

B
-Ai
1
1·= R3 , p,=p' = : 2 -Ai
3
From these equations
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230:
C f . 1 I' ' B1 + A p' R12R32 , Ra2
:ircum erent,a stress, 1• = - .
r• 1= - ~ (R .
r· 3 ~- R1
2) - p .( Ra'-~~2)
"-
, , 2Ra2
. -i t ra<;iius Ri; f r' R1 =-pR2-R 2 compressive
3 1
, , Ra2+ R12 •
At radius R8 , ' . f.c 11,
3
=- P R 2_ R 2 compressive.
8 1
Outer Cylinder. Boundary conditions :

. 1 stress, p, = p ' = RB2
r = R 3 , rad ia . A2
At 2 -
8
At
From these equations B2= +p' : 2:~ 1;~3 2
2
A
2=
+p ,R22_RaRaz .
B p' R ZR 2 R 2
,.2 + A.=
Circumferential stress • f c "= _2. 2 3
- -,.2 (R.2- R.2) + p' - ~3-R2)
(R2- -,-
:u - 3 2 8
At radius R 8 ,
At radius R2 , \
h ns ile
s tr es s
·-
S TRE$$1::S
.1 .. ab = fc' .
,
'If'
R'
'
C~ & fA
. Q1
I • I ~ , ( ~. .
Hoop s.tress di• s trib• .ut,ion -le _ /' II
•l .~ : " ~ ~ Jc Ra
due to sh r inkag11 fitting .
fg = fc"R~
Pig_. 6·9
Fig. 6·9 shows the distribution of hoop stress in the inner_and out~r cylinc:lers across the
thickness. · 1 '
Now the compound cylinder is subjected to the internal fluid pressure p. Let us take
4 and B as Lame's constants.
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,THICK CYLINDERS 231
Boundary conditions are p, = p at r= R 1 , inner radius of compound cylinder

p,= 0 at r= R 2 , outer radius of compound cylinder.
B
or P= R 2 - A
1
or Constants
, B
Hoop stress at any radius, ',=-+A
J ,r2
Hoop stress at R 2 ,
Hoop stress at R 3 ,
2p R?
R? - R 12
Resultant Stresses
Inner cylinder.
Outer c ylinder.
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Fig. 6· 10 shows the stress d istributioP. of the resultant h oop st ress across the thickness
of the compound cylinder.
abcde f-Hoopstress
due to
s hrinkage
pressure p'
a b'c' - Hoops tres s due
to lntcrri al
pre ss ure p
,, 1, '11,
a b c d e- Res ulta nt
h oo p stre s<.:.
dist r i bu ti on
/
out er
cylin der
Fig. 6·10. Hoop stress distributio n across the thickness of compound cylinder.
Example 6'3-1. A compound cylinder is obtained by shrink fitting of one cylinder

of outer diameter 20 cm over another cylinder of inner diameter 14 cm, such that the diameter
at the j unction of the t wo cylinders is l 7 cm. If the radial pressure developed at the junction
is 50 N /mm2, what are the hoop stresses at the inner and outer radii of both the cylinders.
Solution. Inner radius, R1 = 70 mm

outer radius, R2= 100 mm
Junction radius, R3 = 85 mm
Junction pressure p'= 50 N/mm 2 •
Inner cylinder. Hoop stress,

2R 2 2 X 85 2
f/Ri =- p'X R 2_ aR 2=- 50 X 852- 502
3 )
=- 152·91 N / mm2.
fr' R3 =- p' x R:2 -R>=--sox

R 2+ R z 85Lf-- 50S
852- 502
= - 102'9 1 N/ mm 2 •
·+ R 2 2
100 + 85 2
Outer cylinder. Jr''R a = + p' X-.RR:;- R:2 = 50 X1002-852
=+ 310' 36 N / mm~
2R 2 2 X85 2
1r ',"R-.·=- + p' X R 2 -3 R 2 = 50 X 1 002 - 85 2
3 3
=+760'36 N/mm 2 ,
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THICK CYLINDERS 233
Example 6"3-2. A compound cylinder is made by shrinking a cylinder of outer

diameter 200 mm over another cylinder of inner diameter 100 mm. If the numerical value of
tJie maximum hoop stress developed due to shrink fitting in both the cylinders is the same, find
the junction diameter.
Solution. Inner radius, R 1 =50 mm = 5 cm

Outer radius, R 2 = 100 mm = -10 cm
Say Junction radius = Ra
Junction pressure = p'
Maximum hoop stress in inner cylinder
I
I
Maximum hoop stress in outer cylinder
-+ 'R22+Rs2
-- p R 2_ R 2
2 3
or as given in the problem

' 2Ra2 ' R22+ R32
p X Ra2- R 12 = p X R22 - Rl
c,r 2R32 X 100 - 2R34 = iOOR3L 25R 32 + R/ - 2500

3R84 -125R/ - 2500 = 0
R/ = 125 + ../I 25 2 ±J 2. x_;so_o = 12s + 2 13·6 = .

56 433
6 6
R3 = 7"512 cm.
Junction diameter = 2X7"512
= I 5·024 cm = 150·24 mm.
Exercise 6"3-1. A compound cylinder is made by shrinking a cylinder of outer

iiameter 240 mm over another cylinder of inner diameter 160 mm such that the junction
Jressure is 60 N / mm 2 • If the di ameter at junction is 200 mm determine the values of hoop
;tress at the inner and outer radii of both the cylinders.
[Ans. - 333'33, -273" 33, + 332'73, + 272·73 N/ mm2 ] ,.
Exercise 6"3-2. A compound cylinder is made by shrinking one steel cylinder of

,uter r ad ius 100 mm o:ver another . steel cylinder of inner radius 50 mm. The shrinkage
,llowance provided is such that the maximum hoop stress developed in both the cylinders is
10% of tht. yield strength of the material. If the yield strength of steel is 270 N/mm 2, find
(i) junction pressure
vn wall th ickness of ~oth the inner and o uter cylinders.
[An s . Go- 6 N/ mmz; 25· 12 mm, 24"88 mm]
,I • • ' • • • • ~
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6. 4. SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE
Before the two cylinders are compounded, the inner radius of the outer cylinder Rs" is
less than the outer radius of the inner cylinder R 3 ' (as shown in Fig. 6"11). The outer cylinder
I .
Outer cylinder Com pound cyl1nd.er
'l
R3 < R3
,, R
3
< R
3
R3 > R'3
Fig. 6·11
is now heated upto a temperature such that R 3" increases to Rs' and then it is pushed ove1
the inner cylinder. When the outer cylinder is allowed to cool down to room temperature, i1
tries tQ contract exerting compressive radial stress p', on the outer surface of the inne1
cylinder. The inner cylinder, in turn, offers equal and opposite reaction exerting compressive
radial stress p' on the inner surface of the outer cylinder. The final junction radius is R 3 whict
is smaller than Rs' and greater than R/.
Now, hoop stress in inner cylinder at R 3 ,

' _ _ , Rs2+R 12
f.C R3 - p Rs2 - Ri2
Hoop stress in outer cylinder at R 3 ,

,, - + , R22 + R3 2
f c R3 - p Rl-Ra2
Say £ 1 = Young's modulus for inner cylinder '

1
- - = Poisson's ratio for inner cylinder
m1
E 2 = Young's modulus for outer cylinder
1
- - = Poisson's ratio for outer cylinder
m2
"·
Then circumferential strain at R 3 in inner cylinder
1
p'(Ra2+ R1 2 ) p'
~c = - ·E (R 32 - R/ )
1
+m1 E; '
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THICK' CYLtNf>ERS
Circumferential strain at R 3 in outer cylinder
e." = + J!.._ I ( 2+R ~

-R~--a~_\+ ___£_ I
E2 2
R 2 - R 3 2 I m2 E2
R3'-R3 =ec' XRa,
contraction in the outer radius of inner cylinder.
Ra- Ra" =ec'' x Ra,
~xpansion in the inner radius of outer cylinder.
Now e.' is the compressive strain and ec" is the tensile strain, so
'
The total shrinkage allowable
p'( R : + Ra: )+LJ+Ra [L( Ra +R1 )-LJ

2 2 2
8Ra=Ra[
E2 R2 - Ra m E E R 2 R mE
2 1 3
2-
1
2
1 1
In case E1 = E 2 =E
1 I 1
- = -- = -
8R = R
a a
[LE ( -R1 + Ra2 )+L(
E
2
R 2+ R
R22_ Ra2 R12
3
Ra2_
12 ) ]
aR = Rap' ( R22 +Ra2 + Ra2+R12)

a E R22_ Ra2 Ra2_ R/
Or ~8R 3 = E1 (numenca
. I sum o f t he hoop stresses at the common
a surface of two cylinders)
= k (algebraic difference of the hoop stresses at the

common surface of the two cylinders)
·Example 6'4-1. A co'mpound cylinder is formed by shrinking one cylinder on to another,

the final dimensions being internal diameter 12 cm, external diameter 24 cm and diam eter at
junction 20 cm. Afte.r s~ril}king ~n t~e radial pressure at the common surface is J 00 kg/cm 2.
Calculate the necessary difference m diameters of the two cylinders at the common surface.
Take £ = 2000 tonues/cm2 • What is the m inimum temperature through which outer cylinder
should be heated before it can be slipped on ? ix =o·oooo 11 per c. 0
Solution. Inner radius, R 1 = 6 cm

Outer radius, R2 = 12 cm
Junction radius, R 3 = 10 cm
2
Di,ffer. ence . 1·1.1 radii, 8R = Ra X p' (. _R?+ Ra2 + Ra + R 12 )
.,, .,· a E R22 -Ra2 Ra2 - R12
Io I '• fl
= 2d6ox/~ioo ( ~;:~ ;~: + !~:~~:)
= 20~0 (5'545 + 2·1 25)= 3"835 x 10-a cm •
. \' ·~: ·Differerice!in Dia'meter, 8Da=2X3"835X 10-3 =0'00767 cm
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236
Coefficient of linear expansion,

a.= 11 X ,l0- 6 /°C
Say the temperature rise = T °C

8D3 = D 3 X a.x T
0'00767 =20 X 11 X 10-o X T
T = o·oo767 x 106 = 7670 = 34.86 oc
Or 220 220
Example 6'4-2. A cylinder of outside diameter 350 mm is heated by 40°C !i_bove th€
room temperature, before it is slipped onto another cylinder o'f inside dia~ter t50 mm. II
the junction diameter is 250 mm, what radial pressure is developed at the common surfac€
after the outer cylinder cools down to room temperature.
,..
, Given l 8 x 10-0
(!:= rc
E=lOOx 10a N/mm2.
Solution. Inner radius,
R1 =75 mm
Outer radius, R2= 175 mm
Diameter difference, sp ~ D x a. x T
8 3 · where T=temperature rise
= 250x 18 x 10- x 40= 0'18 mm
6
or 8R3 = 0'09 mm
Say the radial pressure at common surface
.· j ' = p'
o
o:-R _
s-
1
Ra P I Rl+Ra + R3 +R 1
B !._ R2 - R a2 R2-
2 -
2
s, R l2-
2 2
J
0·. 0.9.-~ 125 p' [ 1152+ 1.252 Jts2+1~2 J·
If!:' .
--: 10o x 1000 1152-125 2 + 12521 75 2. , /;.
I '' I { 1 ...,: Ii 'i/ • I

9 0
1~5° =:=p' ~3 '083+ 2·125)
,,,1 . ;I
9000
p' = - J2_5_x_5-
.2-08- =l3'825 N/mm2. ,,
· Exercise 6'4-1. · A ~\::om.pound cylinder is formed by shrinking one cylinder ont

another, the final dimerrsi€111s b ~ing internal·diaineter 100 mid, external diamefer·18'o mm an
diameter at common sut;face 1 4o·· np11, the1radial pres~ure developed at the common surface
15 N/mm2 • Calculate the riecessar)'. differ ence in diameters of the two cylinders at the commc
surface. Take E= 102000 :N'/mm2 • What is the · minimum temperature through which tl
outer cylinder should be hea~ed before it can be slipped on ? Take
·' ..·
• I,
I{'• J
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TMICK CYLINDERS""
Exercise 6'4-2. A cylinder of o utside diameter 25 cm, is heated by 35°C above the
room temperature before it is slipped on to ano ther cylinder of inside diameter · 15 cm. If
the diameter at the junction after shrinking ts 20 cm, what radial pressure is developed at the
common surface ?
a= 11 X 10- 6/°C
E=2000 tonnes/cm 2 LAns. 94·757 kg/cm 2]
6'5 . HUB AND SHAFT ASSEMBLY
Generally the hub of a gear, a pulley or a flywheel is fitted on the shaft with the help of
key inserted in the keyways provided on shaft and hub. But a , keyway cut o n a shaft or a hub
reduces its strength, introduces stress concentration and the material bece mes weak. To avoid
these defects, the hub can be either force fitted or shrink fitted on the shaft as shown in
Fig. 6'12.
Fig. 6·,12
. . "•i .
Let us consider that a hub of outer radius R is force fitted over a shaft and the final
radius at the junction of the two is r. Due to fo r~e fitting or shrink fitting, say the ·radial
pressure developed at the common surface is p'. Assume Lame's constants A 1 , B1 for shaft and
A 2, B2 for hub. '
Shaft. Bou11dary conditions ar e, ,a t
r= R1 , pr = p , = R~-
B1
1"
A
1·
.,
. '.
,•r ",···
Since it is a solid shaft? i.e.! at the centre, radius is zero, and the radial or c jrcuq1ferential
stress at the centre cannot be mfi111te. Therefore, . ·· . · · ,'. ,. , · .1 · .,JJI ,
Constant , .' B1 =i O ,\
\ p' = - A1 ; or ,A1 ='.p'i '
• ,.· I j i j f; : • ' • ~
Circumferential stress at any radius
Jc= !!:
I'
+Ai
But B1 = 0
fo =+ A1 =-p' (coni~ressi've)
i.e., in the solid shaft, both ra dial and circum(~r'en:tial stre~~es are compressive and are constant
throughout. ·
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St'RENGTH bi:' MATEkIALS
· Circumferential strain in shaft at common radius

. e.'=- Ep' + pE' (compressive strain)
1 m1 1
where E 1 = Young's modulus of shaft material
1
- - = Poisson's ratio of shaft material.
m1
Hub. Boundary conditions are at
, B2 A
r= R i, pr = p = Jfz- 2
1
I j'
R12
A2=p' Rl-R12
Circumferential stress at any radius
B2
r +A,
= -2
Circumferential stress at radius R 1,

' R +R
22 12
• - tensile
J•-P R22-Ri2
Circumferential strain at radius R 1,
"•iJt ~! ,. ! •
I
'i:d ·• eo"= _E
p' X ~
2 1
:~; : + 'p~ (tensile strain)
J >! ~ j J I I
· 2 2 1 m2 2
where E2= Young's modulus of hub-material

1
= Poisson's ratio of hub-materia l.
-
m2
Shrinkage allowance on radius, !
l>R 1 =_ e/ X R 1 - ea' X R 1
,J- ' ;,·JI l.J iJ.J 'J )t:: ; ' I ., •i •,t I i •' I; .JI
·· :since ec' is compressive and e .'' is tensile 'strain
l>R = p'R1 ( R2
2
+Ri2 +- 1-)+ p'R 1 (
1__m11_)
i E2 . ·, R22-R1a . m2 E1
In a particular case where .. ~
E1 = E 2= E
I I 1
-m1 =-=-
m2 m
8R 1 = PR1 ( R/+R 1 2
2
+l)
,./;, \. Rl- R 1
! ,rn tw , ,;.-,,: \JJt'D , .·',··,:i 1 .'·,· ·~ · , =·!'.} :R~;!.~2 ·'
1
: .,. · JI :.,1· ,,[
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THICK CYLINDERS 239
Example 6·5-1. A steel shaft of diameter 10 cm is driven into a steel hub. The
driving allowance provide d is I / 1000 of the di ameter of the shaft. Determine the thickness
of the hub if the maximum bursting stress in the hub is limited to 130 N / mm 2 and
£ = 208,000 N/ mm 2 •
Solution. Radius of the shaft,
R 1 = 5 cm = 50 mm
Say the outer radius of hub = R 2
Junction pressure = p'
SD 1 '1 ~R 1
-D-: = I000 = -R-:
So SR1 l p' ( 2Rl )
T = 1000 = E- R22- Ri2
p '=O·oo1 X E X (R22-R12)
2R 22 - ·
2
p' = O·oo1 X 208000 X ~~: -2500)
= 104 (R 2
2 -
2
2500)
... (1)
R2
Now the maximum bursting stress in the hub
' R.2+ R12
=- p X R:2- R.2 = 130
2
' x Rt + 2500 = i~o .... . ,
p R} - 2500 .)
p ' = 130 (R 22 - 2500) '·' '!1 ... (2)
R22 +25oo
From equations (I) and (2)
104 (R2L· 2500) 130 (R22 -2500)
Rl R22 + 25oo
104 (R22 + 2500) = 130 Rl, o·s R?+2ooo= Rz2
or 0·2 Rl= 2000, R 22 = 10,000
R 2 = 100 mm
Thickness of the hub = R2 - R 1 = 100-50 = 50 mm.
Example 6·5-2. A steel shaft of 12 cm diameter is forced into a steel hub of 20 cm

external diameter, so that the rad ial pressure developed at the common surface is 120 kg/cm 2•
Jf £ = 2100 tonnes/cm2 , determine the force fit allowance on the d iameter. What is the maxi-
mum hoop stress developed in the hub.
Solution. Shaft radius,
R 1 = 6 cm
Outer radius of hub, R 2= 10 cm
Junction pressure, p' = 120 kg/c m2
Younts modulus! E= 2 100 X 1000 k~/c~ 2
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240 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS·
2
Allowance on radius, 8R1 = p'R1 (-2R2 _ 'I
· . £ . Rl - R/ )
:. 6
= llO x 21·oo x JOoo(
= J '07x 10-3 cm
So Allowance on diameter,
8D 1 = 2'14 X 10 3 cm
Maximum hoop stress in the hub
_ , R}+ R1 2
- p X R 2 R 12
2 -
102+62
= 120x 102_ 62 = 255'0 kg/cm2 (tensile).
Exercise 6'5-1. A steel shaft of 80 mm diameter is driven into a steel hub. The
driving allowance provided is 0'06 mm of the diameter of the shaft. Determine the thickness
of the hub if the maximum bursting stress in the hub is limited to 100 MN/m2.
£=208 GN/ m2
Note 100 MN/m 2 = 100 x 10 6 N/ m2= 100 N/mm2
208 GN/m 2 = 208 x 109 N/ m2 = 208 x 10s N/mm 2 [Ans. 35'317 mm]
Exercise 6'5-2. A steel shaft of l40 mm d iameter is forced into a steel hub of 200
mm external diameter , so that the radial pressure developed at the common surface is 25
N/mm 2 • If E = 210 X 1000 N/ mm 2, determine the force fit allowance on the diameter. What
is the maximum bursting stress developed in the hub. [Ans. 0'064 mm, 73·04 N/mm2 ]
Problem 6'1. A steel cylinder I m inside diameter and 7 m long is subjected to an

internal pressure of 10 MN/m 2 • 1: Determine the thickness of the cylinder if the maximum
shear stress in the cylinder is not to exceed 40 MN/1112 • What will be the increase in the
volume of the cylinder ?
E=200 GN/m 2
Poisson's ratio = 0'30.
Solution.
Inside diameter, D= lm
Length of cylinder, L= 7m
Internal pressure, p = IO MN/ m 2
. ' I.
.. Maximum s,tiear stress = 40 MN/m 2
f, .,,n,.+p / 0 mu,.+ JO
- 2 - 2
or f• m 0 ,,= 70 MN/m 2
where/. m11:z, the maximum circumferential stress which occurs at inner radius
Say outer radius = R2
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'THTCK · CYLINDERS
24.l
Now ,!
.1 j,:.
7R2 2 -1'75= R 22 +0·25

6Rl= 2'00, R 2 = 0'577 111
Wall thickness = 0'577- 0'500= 0·077 m.
Now at the inner radius
Jc ona•= 70 MN/111 2 . te,nsi le

p = 10 MN/111 2 compressive .
Axial stress, R12 lO x 0·52 _

j .. = p R2 2 -R12 = (0'577}2 - (0'5) 2
10 x o·25 . .. , J •
= 0'333 - 0'250 = 30 12 MN/111~
Jc
Diameter strain, ED = E - ml j7., .+m] p
E
-- -70 o·J x 30·12

E - -----·+
E
0·3 x 10
- --
E
63'964
E
. f,, f, p
Axial strain ,
""= E - mE + mE
~ ~
30' 12 0'3 X 70 0'3 X 10 • r •'
=~ -: E + E
12·12
~ -E -
Volumetric strain, Ev= 2,;v + "''
2 X 63'964 12' 12 140'04·8
= E + - E= E
7T
2
Original volume, V=
4 (1) X 7= 5'4978 .i;n~
Increase in volume, 8V= "vx V
-rr _!:l0'0 48 5'4978 MN/ 111 2

E .. X ,
140'048 X 5'4978 MN/m2

200 X GN/ 1112
140'04£_x 5'4978.. ~ .
0 00385 3
200 X IOOO
i,' • • ~
m :
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P1·oblem 6'2. A pressure vessel 20 cm internal radius, 25 cm external radius, 1 metre

lung is tested under a hydraulic pressure of 20 N/mm 2. Determine the change in internal and
external diameters, if
1
E = 208000 N/mm2 - - , Poisson's ratio= 0·3.
m
Solution. Pressure, p = 20 N/mm2

Internal radius, R1= 200 mm
External radius, R 2 = 250 mm.
Hoop stress at inner radius,
Rz2+ R 1 2
Jc, = p. R 2 2- R
1
2
-- 20 x 2502+
_ 2002
"-_ 91 · 11 N/ mmz (tens1·1 e)
2502 200
Hoop stress at outer radius,
2R12
J,"c.. = p X ---=---
R22-R12
2 x2002
= 20x _ 71"11 N/mm2 (tensile)
2502 2002
- pR12
Axial stress, J:,- R22-R12
20 X (200)2 . ~ .
= 2502_ 2002 = 35 55 N/mm~ (tensile)
Diametral strain at inner radius

_ f c1 fa p
EDi - y - -mE + mE
91 ·11 0 ·3 x 35'55 2o x o·3 86'445
= -y- - E + E E
• !,
Change in internal diameter

86'445
= ED1 x 400 = -208000- x 400 = 0'166 mm
Diametral strain at outer radiu s,

ED2 = f c2 _L<:.
E mE
- 71"
_E__l1 _ _
0"3_
XE_
35'55__ 60'445
E
(:h~nge in external diameter

_ X 500 _ 60'445 X500 .
- ED ~ - ;w ~OOQ = 0 145 mm,
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Problem 6·3. Strain gages are fixed on the outer surface of a thick cylinder with
diameter ratio of 2·s. The cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 150 N/mm 2 • The
recorded strains are :
(i) Longitudinal strain= 59·87 X 10-o
(ii) Circumferential strain = 240·6s x 10-o.
Determine the Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of the material.
Solution. Say the inner radius of cylinder=R1

Then outer radius of cylinder = 2·5 R1
Internal pressure, p = 150 N/mm 2
pR12
Axial stress, f a Rl-R12
150 x Ri2
2s· 57 N/mm 2
=6·25 R1 2 -Ri2
Hoop stress at outer surface,
2R12
· f.=p R 22 -Ri2
R1 2
= 2 X 150 X 6·25 R12 ~ jff
= 57·14 N/mm 2
Say Young's modulus=£
. . 1
P01sson's ratio= -
m
/ u 1 /c
Longitudinal strain, "a= -y - ;- E
28"57 1 57· 14
= -y- - ,;; x ~ •. (l)
Circumferential strain,
J. 1 /,,
"
0
=E- m E
57·14 1 28"57
=-y- - ,:;:; x -y- •.. (2)
or 59·87 X 10- 6 =
2 57
~ ( 1- !) ... (1)
28·57 (
240'65 X 10- 6 = ~ 2-_
1 )
m ... (2)
Dividing equation (2) by (1)
240'65 ( 2- !)
59'87 = ( 1- !)
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i
or
; ·1' m
4"02--2= - _1 + 8"04
m m
2·02 l
, ,;
?"04=m
or Poisson's ratio=0"287
1
Substituting the value of - - in equation ' (I)
m
. x - = 28'57 _ x . )- 0'428x28 57
59 87 10 0 E 0 2 287 E
or E =0'428X28'57
· ·. 59'87 x
lQG
'
N/
mm
2
= 0'204 X 106 N/tnm2

Young's modulus, E=204,000 N/mm2 ',
Problem 6'4. A thick cylinder 120 111111 internal diameter and 180 mm external diameter ·
is used for a working pressure of 15 N/mm2. Because of external corrosion the outer dia-
meter of the cylinder is machined to 178 mm. Determine by how much the internal pressure
is to be reduced so that the maximum hoop sttess remains the same as before.
SolutionInner radius, .R1 = 60 mm
Outer radius, R 2 = 90 mm
Radial pressure, p , = 15 N/mm2
Maximum hoop stress occurs at the inner radius
R22+ Ri2
Jc rn,u = p,. Rl- R12
902+602
= l5 X 902 _ z:- .= 39 N/-mm2
60
When the external diameter is turned to 178 mm due to corr.osion, ·s'ciy •the. 'pressure
required is pr'.
Inner radius, R 1 = 60 mm
Outer radius, R2' = 89 mm
• :.1 (as above)
Maximum hoop stress developed=39 N/mm2
I 89 2 + 602
39= pr . 892 - 602
89 2 - 602 ) .
or pr' = 39 ( 892 + 602 = 14:627 N/mm2
Reduction in internal pressure = p,-p,'

= 15- 14'627 N/mm 2=0'373 N/mm2 .
.
Problem 6'5. Two thick cylinders A and Bare of the-s~~e dimensions. The external
diameter is double the internal diameter. A is sulbj¢cted to internal pressure Pi, while B is
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mic:t· cY.t1NhEit-s
subjected to external pressure Pz only. Find the ratio of Pi and p 2 if the greate~t circumferential
strain developed in both is the same. Poisson's ratio of the material of both cylinders=0'3.
Solution, Cylinder A-subjected·to ·internal ,pressure p 1 only. Greatest circum-

ferential stress occurs at inner radius
2 2
R.2 + R1
Jcma~= P1. R 22- R12
where R 2 = exter-nal radius
R 1 = inter-11al radius
R2 = 2R1 (as given)
So Jcma" = ; p 1 (tensile)
Axial stress in cylinder,

nR 12 Pi ( , ·, ,1 )
.r.u=P1 X '1t(R 22 _ Ri2) =+ 3 tens·ne
Greatest circumferential strain at R 1 ,

Jc max Ju Pi
Ei - E - mE+ mE
1"867 Pi {tensile Mra:ih)

E
\
- -Pa
.,
F ig. 6·13
Cylinder B-subjected to external ' pressure Pz only. Greatest circumferential

stress occurs at radius R1
8
= - Ps (compressive)
3
Axial stress,
,
fa =-P2
' nRl
R 2 R12 - ·34 p~ (compressive)
'It 2 -
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s'fRENGrH ofi MATEkIALs
Greatest circumferential strain,

Ju'
f .'m ae P2
€ 2 -=: -E- - mE - mE
8 P2 4 0·3 p 2 x o·3
= - 3--y+3x 7 + -E-
(all the stresses/.' ma•,fa', p 2 are compressiv,e)
€2= PE ( - ~ +0A+o·3 ) ·
1 '967 p 2
= - E (compressive strain)
l '967 P2
(numerical value)
E
1·867 Pi 1·967 p 2
So = E
E
or ..J!.L = 1'967 = L·053

p2 I ·867
Problem 6·6. The maxi mum stress permissible in a thick cylmder of 5 cm internal
diameter and 20 cm external diameter is 200 kg/cm 2. If the external radi al pressure is 40 kg/
cm 2, determine the intensity of the internal radia l pressure.
Solution. Fig. 6' 14 shows a cylindri-

cal section subjected to external and internal
radial pressures. Say the internal pressure = p.
Boundary Conditions
at radius r= 7·5 cm, pr = p
at radiu5 r= IO cm, p = 40 kg/cm2 -
t.Okg/ mi
Taking A and Bas Lame' s ~ontants
B
p / 7·52 -A ... (i)
B
40 = - - A . .. (ii)
102 Fig. 6·14
Solving the equation (i) and (ii) for A, B we get

5625
B = (p - 40) 43·75
: ~.
A=( 56'25 p-4000 )

43·75
Circumferential strbss at any radius r,
B
/, =~+ A
_ (p- 40)(5625) (56'25 p- 4000)
- 43·75 rZ + 43·75
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THICK CYLINDERS ,241
r is in the denominator and to get the ma ximum value off,, r should be. minimum i e.
7"5 cm for the given case. .
0
(p-40)(5625) ( 56'25 p-4000 )

So f, .,, •• = 43·75 X (7'5)2 + 43·75
= ( -40) __!QQ_+ 56'25 p-4000
p 43·75 43•75
=( 156'2543·75
p -8000 )
or 200 = 156'25 p-8000

43·75
Internal pressure, 200 X43"75+8000 = 107"2 k / 2

P 156"25 g cm
Problem 6·7. A thick cylinder of internal diameter D and wall thickness t is subjected
to an internal pressure p. Determine the ratio of ; if the maximum hoop tension deve-
loped in the cylinder is 2·5 p.
D
Solution . Internal radius, Ri = -
2
External radius, R2= ( i +t )

Maximum hoop tension,
. R22+R12
}c mac= p , R}-R12
. R22+ R12
or 2 5 p = p . R z_ R z
2 l
or 2·5 (R 22- R 12 )=Rl+R1 2

or 1·5 R22 = 3'5 Ri2
Substituting the values of R 2 and R 1
1·s ( t+ ~ r = 3·5 : i y
or t+2=2
D D
X
J3·5
~
t+ _!2
2
= !}___ X l '526
2
D ividing throughout by D we get
..!....+
./) .
0·5= 0·163' ~ = 0'263 ,
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Problem 6·8. A cylinder of internal diameter D and wall thickness t is subjected to

internal pressure p. If it is assumed to be a thin cylindrical shell, what is the maximum
value of ~ if the error in the estimated value of maximum hoop stress is not to exceed
by 10%.
Solution. Internal diameter = D

Wall th ickness = t
External radius= ~ +I
f. "'""" Maximum h ocp stress as per L 9 me:s theory
D )z+._2
( -2-+ 1
I D )2
= pX ( i +t Y- ( ~ r
J., Hoop stress (considering thin shell)= ~~
Now Jc ma.,,-/. = O" l (as given in the problem)

J c m'la,
or 0"9 Jc ma.,=Jc
n2 n2
-4+Dt+t 2 +- 4
or 0.9 px n2 Dz
r - + Dt +t 2 - · -
4
( n2
4
°"
I' -2-+Dt + t2 \ D
or 0·9 L Dt +t2
I =2t-
j
2
or 0"9 X 2t ( ~ + Dt +t 2 ),= D2t+ Dt2
0·9 1D 2 + l "8 Dt 2 + 1"8 t3= D 2t+ Dt2

- 0· 1 ,n2 +0·3 Dt 2 + 1·3 t3=o
or l 08 t 2 + 0·8 Dt - o· L D 2 =0
- 0·8 D+ ,J o·64 n 2 + 0·12 n 2

t= - - - -- --
3"6
- 0·8 D+ 1·166 D 0"366 D = 0"1016 /J
= 3"6 3'6
,P.atio, ~ = 0"l016,
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THICK CYLINDERS 249
Problem 6·9. A thick cylinder of internal diameter D and wall thickness t is subjected
to the internal pressure p . If the maximum hoop stress developed in the cylinder is 1·5 times
the internal pressure, determine the ratio of t/D.
Find the increase in the internal and external diameters of such a cylinder with 160 mm
internal diameter subjected to internal fluid pressure of 50 N/ mm2 • •
E=200X 1000 N/mm 2

1
- =0'28.
m
Solution.
D
(a) Internal radius, R1 =
2
D
External radius, R2 =
2 +t
Internal pressure =p
Maximum hoop stress = 1·5 p
(Maximum h oop stress is developed at the inner radi us of the cylinder)
- • - R22+R12
fc maz - 1 5 p - p R 22 _R 12
D
( - +t
)2 +-
n2
1·5 2
or
= D
( .f +t
2
) -
(D·22) 2
2 D D
or 0 ·5 f\ D- -H ) = 2 ·5 .'\ D )~, - - + t= - XJ5
2 2 2 2
D
2
+ 1= 2·236 X D
2
D
f= J "236
2
t .
or - = 0 618 .
D
(b) Inner radius, R1 = 80 mm
Wall thickness, t = 0·61 8x 160= 98"88 mm
Outer radius, R 2= R 1 +r = L78"88 mm
Internal pressure, p= 50 N/mm2
R 2 +R 2 178"88 2 + 80 2
Hoop stress at R 1 , f •R1 = 50 X R:2- /;- = 50 X !78 '882- 802
= 75"00 N/ mm2 (tensile)
2Ri2 2 X 802
floop stress at R 2 , /eR2 = 50 X R 22 - R12 = 50 X 178·882- 802
;= 75·00 N/mm2 (tensile)
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1tR12 802
Axial stress, f~ = p x n(R?- R 1 2) = SO X (178'88 2 - 80 2)
= 12·5 N/mm2 (tensile)
Radin! stress at inner radius
= 50 N/mm 2 (compressive)
Radial stress at outer radius
=0
Circumferential strain at inner radius,
, 75 12·5 50
£o = 7 - mE + mE
= ~ (75 - ]2'5 X0'28 --J-50 X0'28]
85'5
=- r
Change in internal diameter,
85'5
X 1000 X 160
= 0'0684 mm
G rcumferential strain at outer radius,

,, 25 12·5
Er = £ --;,;E-
l
=-" E r2s - 0·28 x 12·5J
2l'5
=-y-
Change in external diameter,
'aD2 = £/ X D 2
21 ·5 (2 x 178'88) = . mm
0 038
- 200 x 1000
Problem 6'10. A thick cylinder of internal diameter 160 mm is subjected to an

internal pressure of 5 N/mm 2 • If the allowable stress for cylinder is 25 N/mm2 , determine
the: wall thickness of the cylinder. The cylinder is then strengthened by wire winding so that
it can be safely subjected to an inter("Jal pressure of 8 N /mm 2 • Find t he radial pressure caused
by wire winding.
Solution. Say the outer radius of the cylinder

= R2
lnner radius of the cylinder,
µ.i = 80 mm.
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THICK CYLlNDEilS
Wall thickness,
Internal pressure, p = 5 N/mm 2
The maximum hoop stress occurs at the inner radius of the cylinder, which is
Jc moir,=p
So 25 = 5
or R22 + 802 = 5 Rl- 5 X802 or 4 R 22 = 6 X802

R 2 = 97'98 mm
Wall thickness, = R 2 -R1 = 97'98 -80
= 17'98 mm
Say the radial pressure developed after

wire winding is p r as shown in Fig. 6' 15.
Using lame's equations
B
p, = R 22 - A ... (1)
... (2)
B
f• ma<ll = R12 +A ... (3)
Fig. 6·15
~ 25 N/mm 2
where A and B are constants
or 8+25= i~ From equations (2) and (3)
B= I6'5 R 12 = I05600
A=25- _!!_ = 25- 16'5=8'5

R12
Substituting the values of the constants in equation (1)

Radial pressure,
105600
pr 8'5= 10'999- 8'5 = 2'499 N/111m 2•
(97'98) 2
Problem 6'11. A compound cylinder is made by shrinking a tube of-150 mm outer

diameter over another tube of 100 mm inner diameter. Find the common dlariieter if the
greatest circumferential stress in the inner tube is numerically 0·70 times of that of the outer
tube.
Solution,
Say the common radius = Ra
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252 , , • : • '
\' I
Junction pressure (due to sluinking)

=p
Inner radius, R1 = 50 mm
Greatest circumferential stress in the inner tube occurs at its inner radius, R1
... (1)
The greatest circumferential stress in the outer tube occurs at its inner radius R2
p(Ra2+ R 2 2 ) p(75 2 + R 22)
(Jc ma,.)outer tube Ra2- R 22 = 752_ ji 2-
2
... (2)
2p R22 - [ P (752+R22) J x o·7

Now R22_ 502 - 752_R22
or 2R22 (75 2 - R 22)= 0·7 (75 2 + Rz2)(R 22 - 50Z)

R 24 -3356'48 R 2 2 - 3647076'4= 0
R 22= 4220'59
Common radius, R 2 = 64'96 mm
Common diameter, = 129'92 mm.
Problem 6'12. A steel cylinder of outer diameter 180 mm is shrunk or a nother

cylinder of inner diameter 120 mm, the co~mon diameter being I. 50 mm. If at:ter shrinking
on the radial pressure at the common surface 1s 12 N/mm2, determme the magmtude of the
int~rnal pressure p to which the compound cylinder can be subjected so that maximum hoop
tensions in the inner and outer cylinders are equal.
Solution.
Inner radius, R1 =60 mm
Junction radius, R 3 = 75 mm
Junction pressure, p'= I2 N/ mm2
Maximum hoop tension due to shrinkage pressure p ' and internal pressure p occurs at
the inner radius of both the cylinders. Let us first determine shri nkage stresses.
Shrinkage stresses. Hoop stress at R1 in inner cylinder,

I', ' 2Ra2
JC R1= -p X Rs2 - R12
2 X75 2
=- 12 x - 2- - 2 = - 66 67 N/ mm2
1s - so
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t1-Iick cvL1NDERs 253
Hoop stress at R3 in outer cylinder,
f/Ra =+p' ;~:~ ;::
90 2 +75 2
= 12X 902_ 752 = 66'54 N/mm2
Stresses due to internal pressure p. Say Lame's constants for compound cylinder
are A, B
Boundary conditions, at r=R,, p,= p = t 2 -A
B
at r=R 2 , pr = O= RT-A
2
Hoop stress at any radius,

B p R 12 Rl R 12
fc=--;:z-+A = r2 X R22-Rt2 +p R22 - R 12
p 60 2 X 90 2 602
= ,.2 X 902- 602 + p X 902- 602
,.
= 4-x6480 + 0·8 p
At r = R1··· . .Jc R,== :02 -x6480+ 0'8 p

= i ·8 p + o·8 p = 2·6 p
At r= R 3 ......fc R3 =
7 ~2 X 6480 + 0·8 p
= 1·152 p + o·8 p= 1·952 p

Now resultant hoop stresses at the inner radius of both the cylinder
Jc'" R1= fc' R1 +/c Ri=-66'67+2'6 p
Jo"' Rs--'fc" Rs+/. R3 = 66'54+ 1'952p
Now as per the condition given
- 66'67 + 2'6 p = 66'54 + 1'952 p
or 0'648 p= 133' 21
Required internal pressure,
p=205'51 N/mm2
Problem 6'13. A compound cylinder has a b ore of 120 mm, the outer diameter is
200 mm and the diameter at the common surface is 160 mm. Detsrmine the radial pressure
at the common surface which must be provided by the shrinkage fitting, if the resultant maxi-
mum hoop stress in the inner cylinder under a superimposed internal pressure of 50 N/mm 2 is
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2.54 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
to be half tile va1ue of the maximum hoop tension in the inner cylinder if this cylinder alone
is subjected to an internal radial pressure of 50 N/mm 2 •
Determine the resultant h oop stresses at the inner and outer radii of both the cylinders.
Sketch the variat10n of resultant hoop stress along the thickness of the cylinder.
Solution.
Inner cylinder. Inner radius, R 1 = 60 mm
Outer cylinder. Inner rad ius, R 3 = 80 mm
Outer radius, R 2 = 100 mm.
A . Inner cylinder alone is subjected to internal pressure of 50 N/111111 2
.
J. ma"' at inner rad'IUS R1= 50 Ra22_
X R
+RR122
3 l
80 + 60 2
2
) 1250 .
-= SOX (
80 :i _ 602 = - -N/mm 2 (tensile)
7
B. Let us say the junction pressure cl ue to shr inkage is pr at the commo n radius R 3
in the case of compound cylinder.
Hoop stress due to pr at radius R 1 in the inner cylinder
, 2Ra2
f • R1 = -p ,. Ra"· - if;_2
2X 80 2 32p, .
=-pr. _ = - y (compressive)
802 602
c. The co mpound cylinder is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 50 N/mm2 •
Hoop stress at radius R1,
• " R1 -- 50 X .!Y
JC
+ R1~
R 22-R12.
1002 + 602 425

= SO X _ - - N/mm2 (tensile)
1002 602 4
Resultant hoop stress at radius R 1 , (due to shrinkage and internal pressure)
/eR1=/ / R1 + f e''R1
= - ;2 pr+ 4~5
--- 21 ( 1_2750 ) as given in the problem
32 425 625
or - -r p, + -4- =-·r
425 625 32
4 - - -7- = 7 P,.
475 7
3'7 1 N/mm 2
pr=
28 X
32 =
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THICK CYLINDERS 255
i.e. Radial pressure at the common surface provided by the shrinkage fitting is
3·71 N/mm2.
Now let us first determine the shrinkage stresses in both the cylinders.
Inner Cylinder. The junction pressure p, is acting as the external pressure on this
cylinder. The hoop stress developed wi ll be compressive in nature.
2R 2
f•R1= - pr Rl-R12
2x802
=- 3·71 x _ = -16'96 N/mm2
802 602
R 2+ R 2
j,Ra= -pr. R\-R\ J
3 1
. 80 2 +602 •
=- 3 71 x _
802 602
= -13 25 N/mm2.
Outer Cylinder. The ~unction pressure pr is acting as the internal pressure on this
cylinder, the hoop stress developed will be tensile in nature.
f'cR 3= + pr .
1002 +80 2
= 3'71 X _ =+ 16°90 N/mm2
1002 802
2R 2
f.R2= +p, . R22-~a2
= 3'71 x 1 g;~~~ 2 =+ 13·19 N/mm2
Now consider the compound cylinder with inner radius 60 mm, outer radius ioo mm
subjected to internal fluid pressure of 50 N/ mm 2 • Let us take A and Bas Lame's consta:n.ts.
Boundary Conditions
B
p, =50 N/mtn 2 = -2 - A
6r
B
At r= R 2 = 100 mm, p, = 0 = 10()2 -A
From these equations, the values of constants are
B= 28 1250 N
A= 28 ' 125 N/ mm2
Hoop _stress at any radius r,
f. == ~.
/' "
+ A=--= 281250 + 28 '125
/' 2
at radius R 1 , j.'"R1 ~i;

28 0
+28 ·125 = 106·250 N/mm 2
= ~!~
5
at R 3 , f.'"R3 0 + 28' 125 = 72'070 N/mm 2
281250
/ C " 'R 2= 1Qu2 + 28'125 = 56°250 N/mn1
2
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256 STRENGTH OF MA TERI ALS
Resultant Stresses
Inner cylinder //R, ~ f, R1 +-f.' "R1 =· - 16·96+! 06'25 = 89'29 N/mm2
at R 3 , / r1R ~ ~.f,R 2+ .fr.'"R2=--c - l3'2 5+ 72·07 = 58'82 N/mm 2
0
Outer cylinder /c°R3 =.f.'R 3 + / c'" R3 = I 6·90 -1-72'070 = 88'97 N/ mm 2

at R 2 / c°R2=.f,R2+/c'" R2.,....,,; 3· 19 + 56'250= 69·44 N/mmi.
Fig. 6·16 shows the sketch of the d istr ibution of resultant hoop stress across the thick-
ness of the compound cylinder.
ab: 89 -29 N/m m2

Ce: 5 8 ·82
Cd: 8 8 -97 ; g
tg: 69 44
Fig. 6· J6
Problem 6·14. A compound cylinder consists of a steel cylinder 18 cm internal and

25 cm external diameter and a bronze liner of L8 cm external and 15 cm internal diameter.
Assuming the liner to be thin cylinder and that there is no stress in the compound cylinder
due to fitting, determine the maximum direct stress and maximum shear stress in each material
due to an internal pressure of 100 N/mm2 • Ignore t he longitudinal stress and strain.
For steel E=208000 N/ mm2
1
- = 0·2s
m
For bronze E= 112,000 N/ mm2
J_ = 0'30
m
Solution.
Internal radius, R1 = 75 mm
External radius, Ra= 125 mm
Common radius, R 2 = 90 mm
For the compound cylinder radial
pressure,
B ,.
p= 7- A Bronz e cyt, nde r
Hoop stress,
B Ft~. 6· 17
/c= ,. 2 +A.
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THJCK CYl,INDERS 257
where A and B are Lame's constants.

Now p = lOO N/ mm 2 at r=75 mm
p= O at r = l25 mm
B
So 100= - -A ... (!}
752 As t here is no shrinkage stress
B
0 = 1252 - A ... (2)
I00 X 7 52 X 1252
From these equations B= ( 125 2 - 75 3)
100 X 752
A = ( 125 2 - 75 2)
Radial pressure at the common radius,
B
p, = 902 - A
JOO X 75 2X 1252 100 X 752

- 902 (125 2 - 75 2)(125 2- 75 2)
= !08'50-56'25 = 52'25 N/mm 2
Treating the liner and cylinder separately. Liner is to be treated as thin
cylinder.
Circumferential stress developed
Jc' = pD 1 _ prD.:L
2, L.(
I 00 X I 50 52. LS X 180
== 2 X 15 2>< 15-
= 500-313'5= 186'5 N/ mm 2
Pr= 52· 25 Njmm2 '
Bronzr lin
• f4- 75 --j D1 = 150 mm

90~ D2 = 180 mm
t = 15 mm
Fig. 6·1 8
Maximum direct stress = 186'5 N/ mm 2 (tensile)

186'5 + 100
Maximum shear stress --· -- - - - = 143. 25 N/111111 2 As p is c;ompre~~iy~
6
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258. .STRENGTH OF MAlERIALS
Steel cylinder
p, = 52'25 N / mm 2
M aximum hoop stress occurs at the inner radius R"
~:o :1--::~ d ia . D2 :~ 80mm

Outer d ia o3 :250mm
jfig, 6· 19
r ,, Ra2 + R22
J • = p r• Rs2- R2'!
,, . (12s 2 + 902)
/ . = 52 25 X (1252- 902)
52'25 X 23725
= 7525
Maximum direct stress = 164'73 N/mm 2 (tensi le)
M a ximum shear stress = 164'73

- --2+ 52'25 = 108'49 N/ mm 2
Problem 6'15. A steel tube of outside diameter 220 mm is shrunk o n another tube of
in~ide di a meter 140 mm . T he diameter at the junction is 180 mm after s,hrinking on . The
shrinkage allowance provided on the radi us of the inner tube is o·os mm. Determine
(a) junction pressure
(h) hoop str ess at the outer and inner ra dii of the inner tube
(c) h oop stress at the outer and inner radii of the outer tube.
E = 2l0 X 10a N /mm2.
S.~~~ion. After shrinking on of the outer cylinder over the inner •cylinder, radial
pressure ~9ts_ on the outer surface of the inner cylinder and radial pressure of same m agnitude
acts on the inner surface of outer cylinder . •
Inner radius, R1 = 70 mm
Junctio n radius, R 3 = 90 mm
Shrinkage allowance, 8R 3 = 0'08 mm
Sa~ junction pressure = p'
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·tmct<. C\'LfNDt~S
259
Now 8R = p'Ra [- R22+ Rs2 +

a E R22- Ra2
Ra2+ R12
Ra2 - R12
J
0 .08 p' x 9o [ 1102+ 902 902 + 1oi
210 x 1000 1103 -902 + 902-102
J
0 08 X 210 X I ('00
90 p'
[
5·05 + 4·0625
J
186'67 ,
9·112s = p
Jur,iction pressure, p '=20'485 N/mm2
Hoop stresses
Inner tube ,
f.,R1= 2R 3 2 , 2 X 902 •
R32 _ ·i1° Xp = -
-
902 _ 702 X20485
at inner radi us, = -103'705 N/ mm2
at the outer radius r' - Ra2+ R12 '
r R3 · - - R 2- R 2 Xp
3 J
90 2 + 102
/,JI
=- _ x 20'485 = -&3·22 N/ mm!
902 702
Outer tube
,, R22+ Ra2 ','

at the inner radius R 8 , J. Ra= R22- Ras X p
1102 + 902
= 1102 _ 902 X20'485= 103'45 N/mm 2
at the outer radius R2 , f.e ,, R2= + R22_

2R3
2
Ra2
p'
0
=+ ~; ~ ; 02 x 20'485 = +& :r96 N/ m$8
1
Problem 6'16. A steel cylinder 10 cm internal diameter and 15 cm e,cternal diameter

is strengthened by shrinking a11other cylinder onto it, the internal diameter of which before
heating is 14'992 cm. Determine the outer diameter of the outer cylinder if the pressure at the
junction after shrinkage is 200 kg/cm2 •
Given E for steel= 2100 tonnes/cm 2 •
Solution.
Inner radius, R 1 = 5 cm
Outer radius = R2 (say)
Junction radius, R 3 = 7·s cm
Junction pressure, p' = 200 kg/ cm2 ,
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~69 STRENGtH OP MA'rERIALS
Shrinkage allowance, 8D3 = 15- 14.'992= 0'008 cm.

or 8R3 = 0'004 cm.
2 2 2
0 .004 = R 3p' ( R2 2+ R3 2 + Ra2 + R12 )
E R2 - R3 • Ra2- R1
. 7·5 X 200 ( R 22 + 7·5 2 7·52 + 52 )
ooo4 = 210o x 1000 ·R22 - 1·52 +7.5 2 - 52·
o·oo4 x 21oo x 1000 Rl + 56·25 + .
26
7 5 X 200 R22 - 56'25
. _ . = Rl + 56' 25
56 26 2 R2 - 56'25
or 3R 22 - 3 X 56'25= R22 + 56'25
2R22= 4 X 56'25
R?= ll 2·5
R 2 = 10'60 cm
i.e. outer diameter of outer cylinder = :o·60 X2= 2 t ·20 cm.
Problem 6'17 . A thick steel cylinder of inner diameter 120 mm and outer diameter
160 mm is subjected to an internal flu id pressure qf 200 N/mm 2 • A cylindrical jacket 20 mm
thick of the same material is shrunk on to the cylinder so that the maximum hoop stress
developed in the cylinder is not to exceed 280 N/ mm 2 • What should be the initial difference
between the internal diameter of the jacket and externa l diameter of the cylinder.
1
E = 200 X 1000 N/mm2 , -=0'3,
m
Solution.
Inner radius of cylinder, R1= 0'60 mm
Then outer radius of jacket = 100 mm
11
Internal pressure, p = 200 N/mm2
Say junction pressure = p'
Maximum hoop stress in the cylinder due to internal pressure, at R1
R22+R12
,. = p X R22- R12
(<
1002 + 602 ' ,·i.

= 200 X 1002 _ 602- = 425 N/mm2.
But the miximum hoop stress is not to exceed 280 N/mm2.

So hoop stress provided at R1 by shrinkage
= 280- 425=- 145 N/mm 2 (compressive)
2
= p' X - 2Ra
Ra2- Ri2
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or p' X 2 X802 = 145
802 -602
145 x 28
p' = = 31 '72 N/mmll
128
Jacket and cylinder are made of the same material.
. I II R
Sh rm :age a owance, 8 3 =
p' Ra
-r [R2
Rl-+ R?
2
R/ -+ · R
3 + Ri2
R/_: Ri2
2
J
= 31·12 x so [ 10oi+80 2
200 X 1000
so2..1- 602
100 2 -80 2 + 802 -602
J
= 12'688 x 10- 3 [4'555 +3·571] = 0'103 mm
8D 3 = 0'206 mm.
Initial difference between internal diameter of the jacket and external diameter of the
cylinder = 0'206 mlli .
Problem. 6'18. A high tensile steel tyre of thickness 25 mm is shrunk 0 11 a cast iron
rim of internal diameter 500 mm and external diameter 600 mm. Find the inside di ameter of
the steel tyre , if after shrinking on, the tyre exerts a radial pressure of 5 N/mm 2 on the cast
iron rim.
Estee/ = 210 X 10 3 N/mm 2 Ec1 = lOO x 103 N/ mm 2 •
Poisson's ratio for steel = 0'30
Poisson's ratio for C/= 0'25
Solution.
Inner radius of rim , R1 = 250 mm
Outer radius of tyre, R 2 = 325 mm
Junction radius, R 3 = 300 mm
Radial pressure, p' = S N / mm 2 •
Hoop stress in rim at R3,
f 'X R 3 2+ R I 2
'R = -p R 32_ R 1 2
3
3005 + 250 2
=- 5 x 3002 _ =- 27'72 N /mmt
2502
Hoop stress in tyre at R 3 ,
~ , + , R22 +Ra2
J CR
3
= p X R 22- R :i2
325 2 + 3002
= 5X 3252 _ 3002 62'6 N/mm 2.
Circumferential strain at R 3, in rim

"•'=- 21·12 + -~x o·25
Ee£ Ee,
I,
I
- lOO x [ ---- 27·72+ J·25] = -2Q·47 1. (compressive)
1000
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.262 STRENGTH OF MATE1liALS
Citcumferentiai strain at R3 1n tyte,

E "= 62'6 + 0'3 X5 64'1
• Es Es 2l0 x iOOO
Shrinkage allowance, oR = e o'' x Rs- e .' X Rs
3
64"1 26"47
= [ 210 X 1000 + IOOx 1000
Jx 300 = 0"l? mm
Inside diameter of the steel tyre
= 600-:- 2oR3 = 600- 2 X 0'17
= 600-0'34= 599'66 mm.
Problem 6'19. A compound cylinder is formed by shrinking one cylinder over the
another. The outer diameter of the compound cylinder is 24 cm, inner diameter is 16 cm
and the diameter at the common surface is 20 cm. Determine (a) shrinkage allowance (b) the
·t emperature rise of outer cylinder so that it passes on the inner cylirider, if the junction
pressure after shrinking is 50 kg/cm2 •
Given £=2100 tonnes/cm2
(/.= 6·2 X 10-8/°F
'•_ The comr.ound cylinder ~s i:ow subje~ted to an internat' fluid p1:essure of 500 k'g/~11)2,
determine the maximum hoop tens10n m the cylmder. How much heavier a single cylinder
of internal diameter 16 cm would be if it is subjected to the same internal pressure in order to
withstand the same maximum hoop stress.
Solution.
Inner radius, R 1 = 8 cm
Outer radius, R 2 = 12 cm
Junction radius, R 3 = 10 cm
Junction pressure, p '= 50 kg/cm2 •
(a) Shrinkage allowance
Shrl.nkagc allowance, oR= Rap' ( Rl+ Ra2

E Rl'- Ra2
+ Ra2
R
+R
2
Ri"·
12
)
_
3 -
10 X 50 ( 12 + 102
2
102+ g2 )
.= 2100 X 1000 122- 102 + 102 - 82
= J
4 00
(5'545+4·555) = 0'0024 cm on radius ·
(b) Temperature rise

8R3 = R 3 X<XX T
0'0024= ]O X 6'2 X 10-sx T
106
or Temperature rise, T o·oo!~x =38'7 °F
Now the cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 500 kg/cm2 • To find out the
maximum:hoop tension, l,e t us first find out the hoop stresses due to shrinkage pressure p' at the
inner radii of both the cylinders.
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THICK CYLJNDFRS 263
Hoop stresses due to shrinkage pressure

2
. der at R 1, f.c,R1=-p , R _2Ra
In I nnercyItn R
32 12
2 X 102
= - 50 x 102 _ 82 - 277 ·77 kg/cm2
In Outer cylinder at R3 ,
122 + 102
= 50 x 122_ 10t +277'27 kg/cm2
Hoop s tres s due to the internal pressure
N ow the compound cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 500 kg/c'm2. Let

us assume A, B as Lame's consta nts.
Boundary conditions
Radial stress, p r=p = 500 kg/cm 2~a t r= R 1
pr = O at r= R 2
B B
or 500= R 1 2 -A = gi -A
B B
0= R 22 -A = i 22 - A
B= 500 X I 22 X 82 = 57600 k
12 2 - 82 g
500 8
·A= x- ~ = 400 kg/cm2 ,. • I
122 - 82
H oop stress at any radius r,
B
f.,=-+ A ,.2
Hoop stress at R1, f, R1 =
57
:~o + 400
= 900 + 400 = 1300 kg/cm~
57600
H oop stress at R 3, f. R3 = ~ + 400
= 576+ 400 =- 976 kg/cm2 •
Resultant hoop stress e s
R
at R1J •R1 = fr' R1 +f,R1 = -277'77 + 1300,- + 1022·23 kg/cm2
R
;,t RaJcRa=f "Ra-f-/cR 3 = 277'27+ 976
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In this particular case, maximum hoop stress occurs at the junction radius and it .is
equal to 1253'27 kg/cm2 •
Single cylinder. Single cylinder of inner radius 8 cm and outer radius say R 2 , is
subjected to internal fluid pressure of 500 kg/cm 2 such that the maximum hoop stress is 1253'27
kg/cm 2 • In the case of a single cylinder maximum hoop stress occurs at the inner radius and
it is equal to
2'506 Rl+8 2
R2 2 -2'506 X 8 2 =
or 1'506 R = 3'506 X 82
2
2
R2 = 12'20 cm
A,, Area of cross section of single cylinder

= 1t( l2'20 2 -8 2) = 84'84,. cm2
A c Area of cross section of compound cylinder
= ,;(122 - 82)= 80,. cm2
Weight of single cylinder 3A .L A, 84'84 n 1'0605
Weight of compound cylinder= 3A,L = T. = 80 .,,.
where £ = length of the cylinder
a = density of the material.
Therefore single cylinder is about 6'05% heavier than the compound cylinder.
Problem 6'20. A bronze liner of outside diameter 60 mm and inside diameter 39·94
mm is forced over a steel shaft of 40 mm diameter. Determine (a) the radial pressure between
shaft and liner (b) the maximum circumferential stress in liner (c) the change in outside dia·
meter of the liner.
Es = 208000 N/mm2
Steel, _l__= 0'29

m
fa = l25,000 N/mm 2
1 .
Bronze, -,n = 0 33.
Solution. Diametral allowa nce between shaft and liner

= 40- 39'94 = 0'06 mm
Say the radial pressure at the common radius
= p N/mm 2
S_haft diameter, D1= 40 mm
Shaft radius R1= 20 mm
Liner outer radius, R2= 30 min
<;::ircumferential stress in shaft
=p (compres~ive)
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THTCK CYLINDERS 265
C ircumferential stress in liner at inner radius,

R22+ R12
fc = p R22- R12
302 +202
·':./ ·-
= pX 302 _ ~ = 2'6 p (tensile)
20
Diametral strain in shaft (at common radius)
1 P_= ..!?_ {1-0 29)
= ...f!.._- - -
E, m E, E,
0 ·11 p
= (compressive)
E,
Diametral strain in liner (at common radius)
/. I p
= Eb +m
Eb
2 93
= Ep-: (2'6+0·33) = · P (tensile)
u Eo
Total diametral allowance,
0' 7 l p X40 + 2 ·93 p X40 = 0'06
E, Eb
o;~8~~4o + 2·ii5~;040 -=0·06

p (0' 1365+0'9376)= 60
(a) Radial pressure, p = __ __§Q_ = 55'86 N/mm 2

1'0741
(b) Maximum circumferential stress in liner occurs at inner radi us
Jc maz= 2'6 p = 2'6 X 55'86 = 145'23 N/111111 2
(c) Circumferential stress at the outside radius of the liner,
- 2R12
Jc mtn - p X R 2 R 2
2 - 1
2 x 202 •
= p X 302- 202 = I 6 p
= l '6 X 55'86 = 89'376 N/mm2
Change in outside diameter of liner
= f "e:'" X 60
89'376 .
= 125 OOO X 60 = 0 043 mm
'
Prohlein 6'21. A steel sleeve 1·5 cm (radial thickness) thick is pressed on to a solid
steel shaft of 5 cm diameter, the junction pressure being p ' . An axial tensile force of 10 tonnes
is applied to the shaft. Determine the change in (a) radial pressure at the common surface
(b) hoop tension in sleeve. If
p' = 250 kg/cm 2
_!__= 0'285 for steel,
m
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266- STRENomH<DF, MsltlEl!b\LS
Solution.
Radius of shaft, R1=2· 5 cm
Outer rad)us of sleeve, R2 = 2·5 + t ·5 = 4 cm
Radial pressure at com m.on surface,
p'=250 kg/cm 2
~ SI" I ' ' " "
~F-~;--t I
.. ..._. . . . ~..__.,z....,._
~alOto~:/.:-s
Steel shaft
Fig. 6·2()-·
p.
Axial tensile stress, fa=--
TR{2
IO X 1000
= ... x 2·52 ·
509"29 kg/cm 2 (tensile)
Tensile stress in shaft introdµces a lateral strain and.its diameter will tend to decrease.
Consequently the pressure at: the:..c ommon surface decreases. Say the decrease in rad ial pressure
is p".
Change in circumferential-stress :it outer surface of shaft
= -p "
Change in circumferential stress at inner radius of sleeve
R}+R1 2
II 4~+2·5 2 II
= -p R 22 - Ri = -p X 42,- 2·52
=- 2'28 -p"
Change in circumferential strain in shaft at R1.
p" p" Ja •
€i=- E + mE -~nE
Change in circumferential strain in sleeve at Ri,
2'28 p " p"
€2 E + mE·
But € 1 = € 2 (strain compatibility)
p" p" f,, 2'28 p" p"

- E! +-niE; - mE_• = E +mE
- p "-0'285 X 509'29 = 2'28 p"
or 3'28p"=-0·285 X 509'29
p"=- 44'25 kg/cm2 ,,
i.e., Radial pressure is reduced by 44'25 kg/cm 2
Change in hoop tension in sleeve
=-44'25 x 2"28 = -100'8~·-kg/cm2
j.e. 1 the hoop tension in ~leev~ is decreased by 100'89 kg/cm2 ,
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,267
Problem. 6'2:2. A steel sleeve is pressed on to a steel shaft of 5 cm diameter. The

radial pressure between the steel shaft and sleeve is 200 · kg/cm 2. and the hoop stress at the
inner radius of the sleeve is 560 kg/cm2. If an axial compressive force of 5 tonnes is now
applied to the shaft, determine the change in 1he radial-pressure.
E=2100 tonnes/cm 2
1 .
-- = 0 3
m
'•·Solution. 1Radius bf steel shaft,

;,Say outer radius of steel sleeve = R 2
Junction pressure, . p' = 200 kg/cm2
Shaf t
P: S ton nu
Fig. 6·21
Hoop stress at inner radius of sleeve= 560 kg/cm2

p
Axial stress on shaft, fa= n x 2·52
5 X 1000
= i. x . 254'647 kg/cm 2 (compressive)
6 25
This axial compressive stress. intro.duce~ -l~teral stra_in whi~h is positive i.e. the radius
of the shaft increases. But sleeve will resist this· mcrease m radms and radial stress at the
common surface1 :incruases.
Say the increase in radial pressure= p"
Due top", increase in circumferential stress at t he inner radius of sleeve
- 56Q_ Xp"= 2'8 p"
- 200
Additional circumferential strain in sleeve at inner radius
2'8 p" p"
€a = -E- - + rhE
Additional circumferential strain in shaft at radius R1
p" p" ' fa
Ei=- y + mE + mE
where p" = circumferential ·s tress in· shaft ' (c6tt1pi"es~ive)
, p" = r adial stress in shaft (compressive)
fa= axial stress in shaft (compressive)
But ~9 = £1 (for strain compatibility)
_ Ef!_+_PmE_ -__ ·E
2'8 " " -+-..mE
p".- +-,f .,
p"
··mE
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1
' 268 STRENGTH OF MATERIA.1
2'8 p " =-p" + 2$4'647

m
.'
3'8 p"= 0'3 X 254'647
p" = 20' 10 kg/cm2
i.e., radial pressure at the common surface is increased by 20· 10 kg/cm2.
Problem 6'23. A steel rod 50 mm in diameter is forced into a bronze sleeve 80 m

outside diameter, thereby producing a tension of 40 N/mm2 at the outer surface of the sleev
Determine (a) the radial pressure between the bronze sleeve and steel rod (b) the rise
temperature which would eliminate the force fit.
E,=E,1 ,e1= 210 x 10s N/mm2
Es= E&ronu = ll4 X ]03 N/mm 2
1
- - for steel = 0'28
m
1
for bronze= 0'33
m
0
0Catee1= 11 '2 X 10-0/C
0
e<bronzc= 18 X 10- 6/C
Solution. Radius of steel rod, R 1 = 25 mm

Outer radius of bronze sleeve, R 2 = 40 mm
Hoop stress at the outer surface of sleeve
I 2R12
= p X R 22-R12
where p' = radial pressure between the sleeve and rod
I 2 x 25 2
40 = p X 402-252
'= 40 X975 = 31 .2 N/ 2
P 1250 mm
Hoop stress at the inner surface of the sleeve,

f. "R = p' X R 22+ R12
C 1 R 22- R 12
402 - 25 2
= 31 '2 X _ 71·2 N/mms
402 252
Circumferential strain at R1 , in sleeve,
,,_ Jr''R1 + p' 11·2 31 ·2xo·33
eo - ~ msEs = 114 x 10s+ 114X 10a
= ('624 + '090) X 10- 3 = 0'714 X 10-a
Hoop stress at outer surface of rod
=-p' =- 31'2 N/mm2
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THIGK! CYLINDEltS 269
Circumferential strain at R1 , in rod
I p' p'
€0 =- - · + - - -
E, m,Es
31·2 0·23x31 ·2 . _3
= - 210 ;< 10 3 + 210 X l 03 = - O l 07 X JO
Force fit allowance, 8R1 = •• "xR1 -.o'XR1

= (0'714 x 10- 3 + 0·107 x 10- 3) X25
= 0'821 x 10-3 x 25 = 0'0205 mm.
Temperature Rise
Say the temperature of rod and sleeve is raised by T °F, the sleeve will expand more
than the rod as a.s><1.s. When the differential expansion at radius R 1 equals the force fit
allowance, then force fit will be eliminated.
8R1 = R 1 (rJ.s - as)T
0'0205 = 25(18-11'2) X 10.. 6 XT
or Temperature Rise = '0205 X lOH= 120 .59 C 0
95 X 6'8
Problem 6'24. A bronze sleeve of outside diameter 80 mm is forced over a steel

shaft of diameter 60 mm. The initial inside diameter of the sleeve is less than the diameter
of the.shaft by 0'06 mm. This compound rod is subjected to external pressure of 25 N/ mm2 and
the temperature is raised by 80°C. Determine :
(a) radial pressure between the sleeve and shaft,
(b) maximum hoop stress developed in the sleeve.
Given for steel Es=20800 N/mm2 ;
_!_ = 0'30 ; rl = ll x 10-6/°C.
m
For bronze Eo= 105,000 N/mm2 ;
! = 0'33 ; rA = 19 X 10-6/°C.
Solution. Let us first determine the junction pressure developed due to the forcing-
fit of sleeve over shaft.
Say pressure at common radius = Pr
Shaft diameter =60 mm
Shaft radius, R 1 =30 mm
Outside radius of sleeve, Rf=40 111111
Circumferential stress developed in sleeve;
R22 +R1 2 40 2 +30 1
Jci - P1 X R22 - Ri2 - Pi >< £!02- 302·
= ; 5 P1=3'57 P1 (tensile)
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.210
2Ri2 .2 X-302
.f,2 = P1 X Ri- R/ - p1 X40·2_302
= 2'57 Pi (tensile)
Circumferential stress developed •in shaft
= Pi · (compressive)
. l . . l f · 0·3 Pi
/?
D iametra stram m s 1a t = -E.,1 - -Es - =· -0 '7.p
E,
1
(comra"ction)
. I . . I ~/ ,1 · 0'33p1-
D iametra strain ms eeve = - + -
Eo Eb
3·57 p 1 + 0·33 Pi
= - · fa
3'90 P1
= ~ (expansion)
7 90p~) x 40 = ·06
Now ( o·E,Pi ..) x 4o+ ( -3 'Eb .
0·1 P1 X4 0 _ 3:9o x 40 Pi = ·o 6
208000 I- . 105;000
p 1(0·t346+ l '4857) = 60
60 2 2
'Ra diat 'p rcs'S ure, Pt= t:'G:20:3 N/mm = 37'03 N/mm
Circumferential stress in sleeve,

/. 1 = 3·57 x 37 ·03 =--- 132· 19. N/n.11nt
f 2= 2'57 X 37.03~ 9S-l•67>Nf m2
Stresses due to external pressure a nd rise in teu11>eratu1·e
Say the pressure at the common

radius = p2
Circumferential stress in sh aft
..,= - p 2 \ .(oomp;-ess.ivc)
Using Lame's equations for the sleeve

B
25 = 402 - A
B
p2 = - A (given in problem)
302
where A and B are constants.
Fig. 6·22
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THICK,. CYLINDERS '· 211 ,;
30 2 X 402
or B~ - (25 ~ JJ2) 402~ 302
B, 302
A= 402 ·- 25 =- (?..5-p2~ 402 - 302. - 25 ,
Circumferential stress, at inner radius
Jci'= 3 g +A2
402 30 2
= (p2-25) 402-302+(p2-25) 402- 302 - 25
5
= (p2- 25) ; -25 = 3·57 p 2 - l 14'28
At outer radius, fc 2'=4i +A

30l 302
= (p2- 25) 4QL 302· .+ (JJ2-;- 25) 402-302 25
2
2 x 30
=(p2- 25) r,_ - 25 = 2·57 p 2 -89·2s
40 30 2
Equating the 1strams at the common radius
p 2 - o· 3 p~
E, E, .
J I X I0- 6 X 80 +
?, 57 J'J., - 114'28 0·33 f'J.,
= - - - -E,. -I - E,, .. + 19-X 10-fi X 80
o~~P2 .+ 11 ,o-G 80 - 390~ ..!._1 4'2_8_.J_ J9 10- r; 80
208000 x x - I 0 5000 - l 05000 ' x x
0 ·336 p 2 = 3·71 p 2 - I08·8J+ 64.I
44' 83 = 3·374 P2
p 2 = 13 '287 N/mm 2
(a) Final radial pressure bet ween s leeve and sha ft
= l 3'28'H - 37'03 •= 50·3n N/mm~-
Resultant ci1cumferential stress at the im10r ·radiuS: of the sleeve
= 132· 19 +3 ·57 p 2 - I J4·28
132"19 + 3"57 x 13"28:l "-- J 14"28
CCC
-.~ 132· 19 + 47°434 - 114°28

= 6S-344 N/mm2
Resultant circumferentia l stress at d1e outer radius o f th e sleeve
= 95' 167 + 2· 57 1J2...,- 89 '28 ..
" 95"167 + 2·_57 x 13·2s1-s9·2s
=95· I 67 + 34' 148 - 89'28
0
= 40°035 N/ m m 2 .
So the rn;:\.ximum h oop stress developed in sleeve
c= 65".344 N/111111 2 ,
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Problem 6"25. A steel ring of internal radius r a nd external rad ius R is shrunk on t o
a solid steel shaft of radius r +dr. Prove that the intensity of pressure p at the mating surface
is equal to ( 1- ~: ) E -;; where E is the modulus of elasticity of steel.
Solution. Radius of shaft = r

Outer radius of ring =R
Junction pressure =p
The mating surf:~ce between ring and shaft is at radius r. The r ing and shaft are made
of the same material.
Hoop stress in shaft at junction = - p (compressive)
. . R 2+r2
Hoop stress in ring at Junct10n= p R 2 _,. 2 (tensile)
Shrinkage allowance, dr= ~[ J

p ~ :~::: + p
dr = .J!.!_[R2+,-2+R2_ ,.2 ]=2pr [_B:._ J

E R 2- r 2
E R -r 2 2
or p-
_ ±:_
2r X E
[ R R2-,-2 ] -- E
2
E.__[
2r l
_..!:_]
R2
Problem 6"26. A steel plug 80 mm in diameter is forced into a steel ring 120 mm
external diameter and 50 mm wide. From a strain gage fixed on the outer surface of the ring
in the circumferential d irection, the strai n is found to be 0·41 X 10- 4 • Considering that the
coefficient of friction between the mating surfaces, µ = 0·2, determine t he axial fo rce required
to push the plug out of the ring. £ = 210 x 103 N/ mm 2 •
Solution.
Inner radius, R 1 = 40 mm
Breadth of the ring, B=50 mm
Say junction pressure = p'
Hoop stress or circumferential stress at outer surface of r ing
2Ri 2
I
=+p X R 2·- • R 1 2··
, 2 X 402 _ l. ,
=p X 60 2 -40~ - 6 p
Radial stress at outer surface of ring = O

So circumferential stra in o n outer surface of ring
= t ·1 p' = 0"41 X 10-4
J ·6 p' = 0"41 X 10-~X 210 X 103

p ' = S-38 N/mm 2 •
FR , Radial force acting on the plug
= p 'X2TtR 1 X B
=~-3~x7n x 4() X~0= 67607·23 N
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Coefficient of friction, µ = 0 '2
Axial force, F,1 = µ FR = 0'2 X61607'23 N
= 13521 '446 N
Axial force required to push the plug out of the ring= l 3'521 kN.
Problem 6'27. A cylindrical steel plug 8 cm in diameter is forced into a brass sleeve
.. of 14 cm e.x ternal.diameter and 10 cm long. If the greatest hoop stress developed in the sleeve
· · is 600 l<g/c·m2, 'determine·the torque required to turn the plug in the sleeve assuming , µ = 0' 18,
i.e., the coefficient of friction between steel plug and brass sleeve. · ·
Solutiqn,.
•. .
Inner radius, R 1 = 4 cm F = ,UR IP =Radial torce
Outer radius,
Length of sleeve,
R 2 = 7 cm
Say juncti on pressure = p'
/ = lO cm
,.......
, . ... .>
.
l
---·
~ - Br ass s,l ~evt
Greatest hoop stress in sleeve occurs I

at radil!ls R 1 and is equal to
I' _ 1 R2 2 +R1 2
J' m""' - p R22-R12
•·· I • 72+42
.. 600 =:=p .x 72_ 42
Fig. 6·23 .
6 33
n' = 00 x = 304 '6I kg/cm2
65
T otal radial force P acting throughout the mating surface
= 21t R 1 X / Xp'
= 21t X4 X lO X 304 "61 = 76557'0 kg
Tangential force, F= µ R
= 0' 18 x 76557= 13780'26 kg
Torque required to turn the p lug in the sleeve
T = F X R 1 = 13780'26 X4 kg-cm
= 55 1'21 kg-m
• I
SUMMARY
1. Single thick cylinder of inner radius R 1 , .outer radi us R 2 subjected to internal

pressure p
Rad,ial
.
st,:ess
. . . . ., p,=. _!!_-A _ (co mpressive)
.,
~
r2 ' :• JI i
••. •I• , ' ••.
B
Hoop,strf)s~, fo == ,:-i' + A (tensile)
I:•,
B=p. (
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274 STRENGTH OF MATERlAU
,. -t #• • "';
\('
Maximum hoop stress at R 1 ,
Minimum h ~op ,s~;e.:ls at R.?.,

2
2R 1 )
Jc mtn=_p. ( R 2_ R- 2
· 2 1
t:r:
2. ~i n,gle t~i,c1k cylinder subjec~~d t o externa_l w e~sure p , :i.~~e.r r¥1.i,~.s Ji, _9L~ter
radius R 2
Lame's constants
Maximum hoop stress at R 1,

2p R?
Jc m •1111 = - R22- R12
Minimum hoop stress at R 2 ,
3. A cylinder Qf outer _r adius R2 is shrunk over another cylinder of inner radius R1 ;

junction radius R 3 and junction pressure developed is p'. C,q mP.9.und cylinder subjected to
internal pressure p. J-l<?OP stresses due to shrinkage.
Hoop stresses due to intern;;1J pressw e p

_
J ,Ri - p
( R 2
2
1
R 22- R12
+R
2
)
Jc R3= p Rs2
R1
2
( .82+F,s~ )
R22-R/
2
2pR12
JcR2
Rl - R12
Resultant hoop stress at any radius is obta ine_d by combining the stresses due to
shrinkage and internal pressure.
4. Shrinkage allowance at common r~(iijus in a ,c_ompo,u nd cylinder where
R1 = Inncr radius, R 2 = outer rl,ldiu s, R 3 = jw1cti on radius and p ' = junction pressure.
l · ' 1'
E l , - - and £ 2 , :a tf ,t he cl a~tic <;:oPsta nts foJ inner and outer cylinder ~ respectively,
m1 m~
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: .. ,. • ,; • •~ 1~
THICK CYLINI>EkS 21s
. p' ( R 2+ R 2 ) p' j
8R3= Ra [ E1 R:2-R:2 - m1E1J
2 2
p ' ( R2 + R3 ) p' ]
+ Rs [ E2 R22-Ra2 + nt'2E2 '
when both the cylinders are of the same material
8R 3 = Rap' [ Ra + R12
E Ra2-R1
2 2
+ 2
R2 + R 3
2
R2 -Ra2
2
J
8R 3 = ll R 3 T wher~ ex = coefficient ·of llnear expansion of' outer
cylinder
T = Temperature rise.
5. A shaft of radius R1 forced into the hub or liner of outside ra'dius R2 , junction
pressure developed p'.
Hbop stress' iri shaft = -p' (compressive)
Maximum hoop stress in hub at Ri,
, R22+R12
/cR1 = P X R22-R1a
Minimum hoop stress in hub at R 2 ,

I' I 2R12
J•R2 = P X R 2-R i
~ 1
Force fit allowance on hub,

2
p'R1 ( 2R 2 )
8R1 = ~ R22- R12
when hub and shaft are of the same material.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
l. A thick cylinder of inner diameter 60 mm and outer diameter 100 mm is subjected to an

internal fluid pressure of 64 N/mm:1, the maximum hoop tension developed in the
cylinder is
(a) 32· N/mm2 (b) 64 N/mm2
(c) 12s' N/mrri2 (d) 136 N/mmz.
2·. A thick cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 50 N/mrri2, which produces
maximum hoop tension at the inner radius of the cylinder and is equal to 90 N/mm 2 •
If the inner radius of the cylincer is 40 mm, the maximum ~hear stress developed in the
cylinder is
(a) 140 N/mm2 tb) 70 N/ mm2
(c) 45' N/mniz (d) 20 N/mmz.
3. 1;1 a thick cylinder or"inner radius R 1 , wall thickness t, an internal pres.s ure p' produces
maximum hoop tension 1·25 p. The magnitude of wali thickness will bo
(a) 2 R 1 (b) 1·5 R 1
(c) R1 (d) o·s R1•
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STRENGTH OF MATE"lllAL~
... ·,: .. /• ... ·. ...
4 . The variation of hoop stress across the thickness of a thick cylinder is

(a) Linear (b) Uniform
(c) Parabolic (d) None of the above.
'
5. A thick cylind)lc<!l \'.~hell of -inner radius 4 ~m a nd outer radius 6 cm is subjected to
external pressure of 20 N/mm2 • T he maximum •
h oop stress
• .
developedI is •••
2
(a) - 72 N /mm 2 (b) - 52 N/mm
(c) + 72 N /mm 2 ; , · • · (d) + 52· N/mm•.
6. The purpose of com,pounding cylinders is.

· (a) To increa~e the pressure bear_ing capacity of a single cylinder
(b) To make th~ hoop stress distributi on unifo rm
(c) To increase the strength of the cylinde1
~, • I
j' ·' (d)1 Alitheabove!,: ·;· · · '.f
•• t •• •
7. A compound cylinder is made by sµxin king a cylinder of outer R 2 over another. ~ylinder
of inner radi us R 1 such that the junction pressure is p at the ' j unction ·r ~dius R 3• The
shrinkage allowance over the diameter is given l;,y · ··
( a) 2Ra p [
E
+R
R 2
2
Rl - Ra
3
2
2
2R1
2
+ Ra2- R 12
J
( b) 2Ra P [
E
2Ra
Ra2- Rl
2
+ _Ba2+R 2
2
R3 - R 1
1:_ J , r
(d) 2R3 p [ __R?+ Ra _ _ Aa + Ri2

E R 22 - Ra2
2
Ra2- R 1 2
2
J·
•• 1
where E is the young' s modulus.
8. A compound cylinder is obtained by shrinking on one steel cylinder over another steel
cylinder . The circumferent ial stresses developed at the junction in the outer and inner
cylinders ar e + 840 kg/em2 and - 660 kg/cm 2 • 1f E= IOO x 1000 kg/cm 2 and junction
radius is 10 cm , then shrinkage allowance on di a meter is
€a) · 0·3cm -:.. (b) o·I5cm
(c) o ·036 cm (d) 0'018 cm.
9. A compound cylinder is obta ined by shrinking on o ne cylinder over another, the
dimensions of the compound cylinder are inner rad ius 3 cm, outer radius 5 cm and
junction radius 4 cm. If the hoop stress developed in the outer cylinder at the junction
radius · ill · Q~7 kg/cm 2 • The n the hoop stress developed · in .the inner cylinder at the
· junctioJJ. radius is
· · (a) ·'7 287 •kg/cm'l (b) - 225 kg/cm 2
I•"!•,
(c) - 162 kg/cm 2 (d) None of the above.
JO. A bronze sleeve of outer d ia meter 10 cm is forced over a solid steel shaft of' 8 cm dia.
lf the maximum hoop tension developed in sleeve is 164 N/mm 2, maximum hoop stress
' . . tension"developed in steel shaft is . . .. ' .
(a) +36 N/111m 2 (b) - 72 N/mm 2 •i'
(c) - 3.6 N/mm 2 (d) - 18 N/mm 2 •

I '
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TltlCK CYLINDERS
11. A steel sleeve of outer diameter 10.cm ishforced over at ts olid stteei sld1~ft ofrd iamet~r 6 cm .
If the junction pressure is 32 N/mm\ the oop stress a 11e ou er ra ius o s1eeve 1s
2
(a) 68 N/mm2 (b) 36 N/mm
2
(c) 32 N/mm2 (d) 16 N/mm .
ANSWERS
I. (d) . 2. (b). 3. (a). 4. (c). 5. (a).

6. (a). 7. (c). 8. (a). 9. (b). 10. (c).
11. (b).
EXERCISES
,,
6'1. A steel cylinder 50 cm inside dia meter and 3 metre long is subjected to an internal
pressure of 200 kg/cm 2 . Determine the thickness of the cylinder if the maximum shear stress
in the cylinder is not to exceed 450 kg/cm2 • What will be the increase in the volume of the
cylinder.
E=2000X 10a kg/cm 2
1
- = 0'285. [Ans. 8'54 cm, 435'6 c.c]
m
6'2. A pressure vessel 40 cm internal diameter and I00 cm external diameter is subjected
to a hydraulic pressure of 500 kg/cm2 • Determine the change in internal and external diameters.
Given E=2100 tonnes/cm2 ,
1
- -=0'30. [Aus. o ·Ot546 cm, 0'00771 cm]
m
6'3. Strain gauges are fixed on the outer surface of a thick cylinder with diameter
r atio of 2. The cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 1000 kg/cm2 • The recorded
strains are
Longitudinal strain = 560 X 10- e
Circumferential strain = 120 x 10-u
Determine the Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of the material.
[Ans. lO X 105 kg/c1112, 0'32]
6'4. A thick cylinder 150 mm internal diameter and 200 mm external diameter is'
used for a working pressure of 200 kg/cm2 . Because of external corrosion, the outer diameter·
of the cylinder is machined to 197 mm. D etermine by how much the internal pressure is to
be reduced so that the maximum hoop stress developed remains the same as before. ··
[Ans. 10 kg/cm2)
6'5 Two thick cylinders A and B made of brass have the same dimensions ; the
outer diameter is 1'8 times the inner diameter. The cylinder A is subjected to a n internal
pressure while Bis subjected to a n external radial pressure only. Determ ine the ratio of these
pressures when the greatest circumferential strain is of the same numerical value for both.
Take Poisson's ratio of brass = 0'32.
[ Ans. PA = l'l 8 .·]

'I
PB .
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6·6; 'Ph:e· maxirrnim. pernHssil51e stress· in. a' tnick cylinder· of 5d' mm inteirial' radius
and 80 mili' exfefrial1 radius is· 30;N/nim2 • If the· exterrilil raoiaFpres'sute is 5 N/rhm2, determine
the intensity of internal radial pressure. [Ai:ts: 20"337 Ntmm2J
6·7. A think cylinder of internal diameter D and wall thickness tis subjected to an
internal pressure p. Determine the ratio of t/D if the maximum hoop tension developed in the
cylinder is 3·8 p. [Ans. o· 1546J
6'8. A cylinder of internal diameter D and wall thickness t is subjected to an internal

press\ire p. Considering'this to be a thin cylindrical shell, what is· the maximuh1 value of
t/D ifth(; error in the estimated value of maximuh1 hoop stress i!r not' to exceed 5%? .
[Ans. 0·050J
6'9 A thick cylinder of internal diameter D and wall thickness t is subjected to the
internal pressure. It is maximum hoop stress developed in the cylinder is 2·6 times the internal
pressure, determine the ratio of t/ D .
Find the increase in the internal and external diameters of such a cylinder with 12 cm
internal diameter subjected t o internal fluid pressure of 600 kg/cm 2.
£ = 2100 tonnes/cm 2
~ = 0·3 [Ans. 0·5, 0·00912 cm, 0'00699 cm] '

m
6·10. A thick cylinder of internal diameter 18 cm is subjected to an internal pressure

of 80 kgj cm2. lfl the allowable stress for the cylinder is 350 kg/cm 2 , determine the wall
thickness of the cylinder. The cylinder is now strengthened by wire windi ng so that it can be
sa'fely subjected t o an internal pre,;sure of 120 kg/cm 2 • Fiild' tHe rndia1"ptessure,exehed by
wire wioding: [A'rlM: 2·3 53 cm ; 32' 56 k'g/cm 2 J
6'11. A compound cylinder is made 'by shrirrkini a cylinder of 18 cm outer diameter
over another cylinder of 11 cm inner diameter Find the common diameter if the greatest
circum:fete·ntial stress in the inner cylinder is numerically 0'81titnes ·of that of the outer cylinder.
[Ans. 15'2 cm]
6·112~ A stee1 cylirider · of outef dianietei-' 20 'cm is slirunlc ori'ah othe r cylinder of inner
d-ia-i11eter· 10 cm, the common diameter' being 16 cm If a fte"f' shfin'k'iri'g on·; the radial pressure
at the common surface i~ 150 kg/cm 2, de~erminc the. n:i,a~,~it~d~ of th~, .!~lt~i;n~l pr~ssure p t o
which the compound cylmder can be subJected so thai ·tHe ·maxrmum IMop- tensions m t)J.e inner
and outer cylinders are equal. [Ans: 14'46'22 kg/cm 2 ]
6'13. A compounfiPcylinder"l1a's 1a bore' of 16. cn.'r., tlie' outer diaiiieter is 24 cm and
dt~nieter' a-t : the· common; surface which is 20 cm. Determine the radial pressure at the
common surface which must be-provided by the shrinkage fitting, ·ifth:e· reshltant hoop· stress in
the' i\'i'i1~r·cylinder'p nder..a sup~ri_~P.~~_ec(i1:i-.tern~l pr~ssure ?t 4~0 kg/cni. 2 is -to ~e 40% of the·
v··atue·'of the'max imilm hoop teP.s1on m the rnner cylmder, 1f thrs·cyl1nder alone 1s subjected· t o
aii h'iteri~ar"pressufe of 400 kg/cm2:
Determi11e· the resultant hoop stresses at t he inner and outer radii of both the cylinders.
[Ans. 56 kg/cm 2 , inner ·cyli'n-der 728'89, 525'69 k'g/cm2 : outer cylinder H191 '345,
894·545 kg/cm2].
6·1~. A cort1po1.ind cylinder cdnsists of' a ste~t cylin1e1: 20 _c1~? ii1t~n_1al piameter and
30 cm external diameter and a bronze liner of 20 cm; external diameter and 18 cm internal
diameter. Assuming the liner to be a thi? cylin~er and that there is .no stress in the compound
eylinder due to fitting, determine the maximum direct stress and maximum shear stress in each
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.
.THICK CYLINDERS
,., .279
material due to an internal pressure of 400 kg/cm 2. _Ignore the longitudinal ~tn;s.s and )ongi-
tli'dinaJ strain. . ..
~.1.,,=2100 tonn~s/cm2 E~ronu = 1050 .tonnes/cm 2
_!. steel= 0·30 l
111
- brouze = o·32
m
[Ans. liner 1280, 840 ~g/cm 2,
cylinder 605' 176, 418'97 kg/cm2
J.
6"15. A steel tube of outside diameter 30 cm is s hrunk an another tube of inside
diameter 22 cm. The diameter .at the junc\io:i;i is 26 _cm after shrinking on. The shrinkage
allowance provided on the radius of the outer tube is o· 1 mm. Determine
(a) Junction pressure
(b) J:Ioop stre,sses at ~he out~r and inner radii of the ,i1;mer tube
(c) Hoop stresses at the outer and inner radii of the outer tube
E= 1050 tonnes/cm2 •
2
[Ans. (a) 61'81 kg/cm (b) - 435"24, -373·43 kg/~m 2 (c) + 434"88, 373"07 kg/cm 2 ]
(>",1.6. A steel cylinqer 80 mm internal diameter anc;l 120 ~m ex~ernal .d i~merer is

strengthened by shrinking another steel cylinder onto it, the interna:1 diam1:rter of which before
heating is 119·9 mm. Determine the outer diameter of the outer cylinder if the pressure at the
junction ~.fter shrinkage is 25 N/~m2.
Eforsteel = 2_1-0X.10 3 N/mm 2 [Ans. 144"72.mm]
6"17. A thick steel cylinder of inner diameter .15 cm and outer diameter 20 cm is
subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 1600 kg/cm 2 • A cylindrical jacket 2·5 cm thick vf
the same material is shrunk on to .t he cylinder so that -t,hc .n,[l.x imum hoop stress deve lc.ped in
the cylinder is not to exceed 2400 kg/cm 2 • What should be the initial difference between the
inner diameter of the j;1cket and the outer difLrneter .Q-f t)1e ~y lil\~er.
E = 2000 tonnes/cm 2
..!._=
m
0"28 [Ans. 0"0589 cm]
6"18. A high tensile steel tyre 3 cm thick is shrunk on a cas~ iron rim of internal
diameter 60 cm arid (external diameter 80 cm. Find the iqside ~iameter of :the _steel tyre i,f
after shrinking on, the tyre exerts a radial pressure of 100 ~g/cm 2 • Given :
- E,tee1= 2100 tonnes/crn 2 Ec.,. = 1000 tonnes/cm 2 •
1 1
- for steel = 0·3o, - - for C.I. = 0·25 [Ans. 79·92 cm]
m m ·
6"19. A compound cylinde.r is formed by shrinking one cylinder over another. The
outer diameter of the compound cylinder is 200 mm, inner diameter l40 mm and the diameter
~t the common surfa~e is 170 mm. Determine: .
.(a) Shri.n k.age allowance.
(b) Teipperatu_re r~se of ou_ter cylinder ~o ~ha_t it passes on the inner cylinder, if the
junction pressure after shrinking is 5 N/mrn2'.
f:?= 210 X 10s N/mm 2
a: = 6"2X 10- 6/°F.
the compound cylinder is now s ubjected to an internal fluid pressure of 40 N/mm2 , determine
the maicimuni 11oop te.nsion in the cylinder. How much heavier a single cylinder of inn,er
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280 STRENGTH OF MATERiA.LS
diameter 140 mm would be if it is subjected to the same internal pres~ure in order to witl1stand
the same maximum hoop stress.
[Ans. o·046 mm, 43.64 °F ; maximum hoop stress at inner radius of inner cyl inder
= 85"785 N /mm2 ; 67 ·8% heavier]
6·20. A bronze liner of outside diameter 100 mm and inside diameter 69'92 mm is
forced over a steel shaft of 70 mm diameter. Determine (a) the radial pressure b etween the
shaft and liner (b) the maximum circumferentia l stress in liner (c) change in outside
diameter of the liner.
Es toe ,=2080 tonnes/cm\ Eo,on ze= 1200 tonnes/ cm 2

1 . I
- steel = 0·29 - bronze= o·32
m m
[Ans. (a) 376·77 kg/cm 2 (b) 917.284 kg/cm2 (c) 0'060 mm]
6'21 . A steel sleeve 10 mm thick is pressed on t o a solid steel shaft of 60 mm diameter .

The junction pressure being p ' . An axial tensile force of 50 kN is applied to the sha ft.
Determ ine the change in (a) radial pressure at the common surface (b) hoop tension in sleeve.
. l
If ,p' = 30 N/mm 2 , - for steel = o·30 [Ans. (a) 2·s2 N/ mm 2 (b) S-996 N / mm,2]
m
6"22. A bronze sleeve is pressed on to a steel shaft of 80 mm diameter. The radial

pressure between steel shaft and sleeve is 15 N/mm2 and the hoop stress a t the inner radius of
of the sleeve is 50 N/mm 2 • If an axial compressive force of 60 kN is now applied to the s haft
determine the change in radial pressure
E,iee1= 208 X ]03 N/mm2 J_ steel = O·Jo
m
1
Eorou,e= 120 X l 0 3 N/mm2 bronze = O· 33
m
[Ans. o·ss N / mm2J
6·23. A steel rod 80 mm in diameter is forced into a bronze sleeve 120 mm i 11 di a-
_m eter, tl).ereby producing a tension of 200 kg/cm2 at the outer surface of the sleeve. Determine
(a) the radial pressure between the bronze sleeve and steel rod (b) the rise in tempernture
which would eli mi nate the force fit. · ·
E, = 2100 tonnes/cm 2 Es= l 140 tonnes/cm 2
1 1
- - for steel= o·2g - for bronze=o·3 3
m ,n
e1.o,011 . . = 18 X J0- 6/°C
[Ans. 125 kg/cm2, 53·54°q
, ... , 6'24. A bronze sleeve of outside dia meter 12 cm is forced over a steel·shaft of di a. meter
8 cm. The initial inside diameter of the sleeve is less than jhe diameter of the sltaft by
o· 1 mm . This compound rod is subjected to external pressure of 160 kg/cm 2 and the te mpe-
rature is raised by 50°C. Determine (a) radial pressure between sleeve and shaft (b) maximum
hooN,str1ess dcv_eloped in sleeve. ,
· E, = 2080,000 kg/cm 2, Es= 1050,000 kg/cm2
1 1
- - steel= O· JO - bronze = o·33
m m
,, ~B=19 X lQ-6/°C
f...\ns. 460·41 k~/cm2, 621·0~6 k~/rn12 J
I,
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THICK CYLINDERS 281
6"25. A steel plug 10 cm in diameter is forced into a steel ring 12 cm external

diame,er~and 10 cm wide. From a strain gauge fixed on the outer surface of the ring in the
circumferential direction, the strain is found to be 50 microstrains. Considering that the
coefficient of friction between the mating surfaces, ,u = 0·22, determine the axial force required
to push the plug out of the ring.
E = 2100 tonnes/cm1 [Ans. 1596.56 kg]
6·26. A cylindrical steel plug 60 mm in diameter is forced into a brass sleeve of
100 mm external diameter and 5 cm wide. If the greatest hoop stress developed in the sleeve
is 80 N/mm2, determine the torque required to turn the plug in the sleeve assuming µ.=0 '2 i.e.
the coefficient of friction between steel plu~ and brass sleev~. [Ans. [2'128 k NrnJ
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7
~h~~r For9y and Bending Moment Diagrams
In chapters 1 to 4 we have studied the effect of axial forces applied on machine
members, producing tensile or compressive stresses and elongation or contraction along the
length of the member. ln this chapter we will study the effect of forces applied transverse to
the axis of the member, producing bending in the member.
Any structural member sufficiently long as compared to its lateral dimensions,
supported along the length and subjected to loads (forces) transverse to its longitudinal axis
is called a beam. The applied transverse loads are such that they lie in the plane defined by
an axis of symmetry of the cross section. Generally the beam is horizontal and the applied
loads are in a vertical plane.
7·1. VARIOUS TYPES OF BEAMS

The ends of a beam can be simply supported, fixed or free as shown in the Fig. 7·1,
W·
8
A
wall
~-L - - --j
(
A - F r ee end
A ·and B are si rn p I y
B · F,xed end
suppofted ends.
Conti lever
Simp l y supp ·orte d beam
( b)
(a) w
E C
E
A~-- - ~ ~8 --.1+-- L2
c' D
A,B an d Care simply
A and Bore fi xed ends suppe r e d ends
Fixed Beam Co ntinuous Beam_
Cc ) ( d)
F ig. 7·1
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Slte.\R FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS 283
Fig. 1· 1 (a) shows a horizontal beam with longitudinal axis ACB supported ort ends A
and B subjected to vertical point loads br concentrated loads W1 and W 2 . After the application
of these loads transverse to the axis, the beam bends and takes the shape AC'B. At the end
A, the slope of the beam has changed from zero to iA , but the vertical displacement of the
point A is zero. Similarly at the end B, the slope of the beam has changed from zero to in
but the vertical displacement of the point B is zero. The ends where slope changes but the
vertical displacement or deflection remains zero, are called supply supported end.s. With two
simply supported ends, the beam is said to be a simply supported beam. The distance between
the two supports A and B is called the span of the beam.
Fig. 7' l (b) shows a horizontal beam with longitudinal axis ACB subjected t9 a ver,ical
concentrated load W and a uniformly distributed load of intensity w per unit length on the
portion CB. The end A of the beam is free a nd the end B is fixed in the wall. After the
application of the loads, the beam has bent and axis has taken the shape A'C'B. . At the
end A, there is vertical displacement or vertical deflection AA' and slope has changed from
zero to iA. Such an end which is free to take any slope and any position is called a free end.
At the end B, there is no vertical deflection and slope remains unchanged i.e., slope remains
zero before and after the application of transverse loads, such an end is called a fixed end i.e.,
an end whose position and direction (i.e., slope) remain unchanged.
A beam with one end free and the other end fixed is called cantilever.
- -- --- -
Fig. 1·1 (c) shows a beam with both of its ends A and B fixed . ACDB is the longi-
tudinal axis of the beam before the application of transverse load W at point D and a
uniformly distributed load w over the portion AC, which changes to AC' D' B after the
application of the loads. At ends A and B, there is no deflection and slope remains zero.
Such a beam is called a fixed beam.
Fig. 7'1 (d) show a horizontal beam with longitudinal axis ADBEC, subjected to
uniformly distributed load of intensity w per unit length over portion AB and a concentrated
load W at point E. The ends A and C of the beam are simply supported . This beam is also
supported at the point C. Such a beam which is supported on more than t wo supports is
called a continuous beam .
. 111 this ~hapter we will discuss the bending of simply supported beams and cantilevers.
Ther.e will be detailed discussion on fixed and continuous beams in chapter 11 .
7·2. SHEAR F.ORCE DIAGRAM OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM SUBJECTED

TO CONCENTRATED LOADS
Fig. 7'2 shows a horizontal beam ACDB, of rectangular cross section, of length L add
carrying a vertical concentrated load W at the centre of the beam and js simply s,upportcd at
the ends B and D. T o determine the reactions at the supports, let us take motnen:til of the
forces about the point B. .
w
l
- - t'7,;! 8eo rn
0
_{&I sec t ion
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Wx ~ ) - .ifoxL )=o ... (l)
Wt =Rn t +Rv t ... (2)
For equilibrium, the vertical forces must balance and resultant moment of forces at
any point is zero_.
From equation (1)

w
RD= - t
2
From equation (2) RB = W-RI>

w w
=W- 2 =2 t
Consider a small element of the beam (abed) of length 8x, at a distance of x from the
end A. After bending, the element is distorted to the shape a'b'c'd', which is the result of the
application of a shear force.
Resultant force on the left side of the element

w
=2 t
Resultant force on the right side of the element
. w w
= W-2=2 ,I,
This type of shear force which tends to rotate the element in a clockwise direction is
called a positive shear force.
Consider another small element pqrs of length ox in the portion EC of the beam .
After bending, the element is distorted to the shape p'q'r's', which is the -result of the
application of a shear force on the element.
Resultant force on the left side of the element
= W ,I, - ~
2
t =..!f..
2
,I,
Resultant force on the right side of the element

w
=2 t
This type of the shear force which tends to rotate the element in an anticlockwise
direction is called a negative shear force. In the limit ox -+O, the shear force is defined at a
certain cross section of the beam at a certain distance x from any end of the beam.
. From thi~ discussion, we can ~efine that the magnitude of the shear force at any cross
section of a beam 1s the unbalanced vertical force to the left or to the right side of the section.
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SHBAR FORCE AND BEN DING MOMENT DIAGRM,I S 285
Considering any cross section of the
beam in the p')rtion AE, the shear force on the
left side of the section is W/2 t . Sim ilarly
considering any cross section of the beam in
the portion EC, the shear force on the left
side of the section is W/ 2 t or in other words,
shear force in portion AE is + W / 2 and sh ear
~A
2
r=- L
-
2
force in the portion EC is- W/ 2.
Fig. 7·3 (a) shows a beam of length L,
simply supported at ends and carrying a
concentrated load Wat its centre. Reacti on')
at both the ends = W/ 2 each.
Generally the depth of the beam is S . F O,ogram
not shown while showing the transverse loads
on any beam. Fig. 7·3
Fig. 7·3 (b) shows the shear force diagram of the beam. To some suitable scaks take
AE= EC= L /2 and AA'= + W/2 and CC' = - W/2. The shear force remains con~tant along the
portion AE and then along the portion EC. Then section lines are shown a long the boundary
of the shear force diagram as per the general convention.
Example 7·2-1. A beam 6 metres long simply supported at ends carries two con-
centrated loads of 4·5 tonnes and 3 tonnes at distances of 2 metres and 4 metres from one
end. Draw the shear force diagram for the beam.
Solution. Fig. 7·4 (a) shows a beam ABCD, 6 m long supported at A and D. To
determine support reactions let us take moments of the forces about the point A
4·s x 2;> + 3x 4--;)-RD x 6, = 0
RD= 3·5 Tonnes
Ro+ R A= 4·5+ 3 T
RA= 1'5 - 3'5= 4 T
45T 3T
A D
A
~ ~~:=] -+
J
B
s''
C D
- 5T
- 0 5T ....1.-
( b)
(1 d
S F o·, ogram
Fig. 7'4
Consider any section in the portion AB, and taking the resultant of the forcee only
on the left side of the section.
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Portion AB. Shear force F 1 = RA = +4 T "t

Portion BC. Shear force F2 = +R,1 - 4'5 = + 4- 4'5=-0'5 T t
Portion CD. Shear force F 3 =+4-4'5- 3= - 3'5 T t.
Note that if the shear force on the left side of the section is vertically upwards t , It tends
to rotate the element in a clockwise direction, it is a positive shear force . Similarly if the
resultant vertical force on the left side of the section is downwards t, it tends to rotate the
element in the anticlockwise direction, therefore it is a negative shear force. Fig. 7·4 (b) shows
the SF diagram for the beam .
-· .
Exercise 7·2-1. Fig. 7·5 shows a beam 6 meters long supported at ends, carrying
transverse loads of 600 kg and 400 kg at distances of l m and 3 m respectively from the end
A. Determine the support reactions and draw t he SF diagram.
60 0 kg 400 kg
A B C D
1m ~ 2111 + 3m
Fig. 7·5
[Ans. R,1=700 kg, RD =300 kg, FAn=+700 kg, Foc=+ lOb kg FCD=- 300 kg]
7·3. SF DIAGRAM OF A SlMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM SUBJECTED TO

UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
Fig. 7·6 (a) shows a beam AB of length L simply supported at the ends and carrying
a uniformly distributed load of w per unit length.
For reactions let us take moments of the forces about the point A.
Total vertical load on beam = wL
C.G. of the load wL lies at a distance of L/ 2 from the end A .
..__ X X
L - - - -.-, Rs:wl
2
( 0. )
: . · •, j ( b)
Fi&. 7·6
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SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS .28.7
So wL X
L
2 ")-RA. L ,=0
wL
or R»=2
and RA+R»=wL
1vL wL
RA=W L - 2 =-2-
Consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the end A.
Shear force £,.= RA - WX
wL
= - wx
2
wL
F~ =
2 atx= O
=+ 4wL L
at x= 4
L
= 0 at x=
2
wL 3L
=- - at x=
4 4
wL
= - atx= L .
2
The shear force diagram for this case is shown in Fig. 7·5 (b).
Exarnple 7"3-1. Fig. 7·7 (a) shows a
beam 7 m long supported at a distance of
1 m from left hand end and at the other end.
The beam carries a uniformly distributed load
of 1·2 tonne/ metre run over a length of 4
metres starting from left hand end.
Draw the SF diagram for the beam.
Solution. In this case there is an
overhang of 1 metre of the beam from the
left hand support.
Total vertical load on the beam= 1·2 x A
4= 4'8 tonnes.
C.G. of the uniformly distributed
load (udl) lies at a distance of 2 m from the S F O,og r om
end A or 1 m from the support B. ( b)
To find out reactions, let us take Fig . 7·7
mom~nts of the forces a.b out the point B.
4'8 X l") -6X RD, = 0
Of Rn= 0'8 tonnes
flo = 4"8- RD= 4 tonnes,
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STRENG i'H OF MATERIALS
288
Let us consider the portion s AB, BC and CD separately taking x positive in the right
direction and origin at A .
Portion AB. Considering resultant of the vertical forces on the left side of the section
only .
Shear force F~ = - wx
= 0 at x = O
= - 1·2 x o 5=- 0 ·6 tonne at x = O·s m
=-- 1·2 x I :c-·- 1·2 tonne at x = I m
Portion BC. Shear fore..:
F11= - wx+ R B= - J ·2x + 4 tonne
= - 1·2-r-4= + 2' 8 tonne at x = l
= - 1'2 x 2+ 4=+ 1·6 tonne at x= 2
= - 1'2 X 3+ 4= + 0·4 t onne at x = 3
= - 1·2 x 4+ 4= - 0·8 tonne at x= 4
Portion CD. Shear force
F.,= - 4'8+ 4=- 0·8 t onne
(constant throughout the portion CD)
= - 0'8 tonne at x = 4 to 7 m.
Note : T stands for tonnes.
Fig. 7·7 (b) shows the SF diagram.
Slope of SF diagram in portion AB,
dF.,
dx = - W
Slope of the SF diagram in portion BC,
dFx
dx = - W
The slope of SF diagram in any portion ' of the beam gives the rate of loading win
that portion.
Exercise 7'3-1. A beam ABCD, 8 m long, supported at B and D carries a uniformly
distributed load of 0·8 tonne/metre run as shown in Fig. 7·8. Determine the support
reactions and draw the SF diagram.
,--w =o~Jlmet er run

· ~:,m=r F ig. 7·8
[Ans. FBc=
RB= 4'0 t onne, RD= 0'8 tonne, FAB= - 0'8x to.nne, 'j
- 0'8x + 4 tonne, FAD= - 0' 8 tonne
7'4. SF DIAGRAM OF A CANTILEVER SUBJECTED TO A CONCENTRATED

LOAD
A cantilever AB of length L , free at end A and fixed at encl B 9arries a concentrate<:l
lo~d W at th~ fr~e end 1 as ~hown in the Fi~. 7·~, · · · ·· ·
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SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS 289
There will be a reaction RB= W at the

fixed end and a fixing couple WL ;:> exerted by
the wall at the fixed end B, for equilibrium .
f-x-r
A ~ x L -----,8~ Wo ll
tWL
At any .section X - X at a distance of x from
end A , there is a vertical force W t on the left (a) RB• W
side of the section and a vertical force Wt on
the right side of the section. This shear force
is a negative SF tending to rotate the element A 8
of cantilever at {he section in an anticlockwise
direction.
Shear force is constant throughout the

length L of the cantilever, as shown in the SF S K O,ag rom
diagram Fig. 7·9 (b) . .
Fig. 7·9.
Example 7'4-1. Fig. 7' 10 (a) shows a cantilever ABC, 5 metres long, free at end A
and fixed at end C . A concentrated load 4 k N acts at A and 8 kN acts at B. Draw the SF
diagram.
L. k N 8k N
l X F,x ,ng
~ x
A x-jx 8
couple
C Woll
I . :< I X
l-- ?. rn --r-- 3 m
(a) Re= 12 k N
j_A B C
L. k N ~~: 7 J 7 ) l Tl1T
TA B - 12 k N
'I
8 / ( ( < ( ( J " _J__
(bJ c'
SKO ia 9r am
Fig. 7·10
Solution. For equilibrium , there will be reaction

Rc = 4 + 8= 12 k N
and fixing couple offered by the wall
M c~ 4 x 5+8 x 3= 44 kNm at the fixed end C.
Shear force in p ortion AB, Fx = -4 kN
Shear force in portion BC, Fx = -- 4-8 =- 12 kN
Fig. 1· 10 (b) shows the SF diagrnm.
· Exercise 7'4-1. A cant ilever ABC 6 m long free at end A and fixed at end C carries a
concentrated load 400 kg at A and 500 kg at B (at a distance of 2m from end A). Dr;w the SF
~ia~ram: · [Ans . FAs = - 400 kg, FBc= - 900 kg"I
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290 STRENGTH OP :r.,A,TERJ.\L$
7·s. SF DIAGRAM OF A CANTILEVER SUBJECTED TO UNIFORMLY

':H~:~~UTED Lq~~ f;
A ca ntilever AB 9.f length L, free at
end A and fixed· af end B carries a uniformly F,x,ng
distribu'ted load w per unit length as shown in .;,ouptqwL!
Fig. 7· 1l (a)~
,. =2
Total vertical load on cantilever = wL
CG of the load lies at a distance of L

'
from the fixed end B.
l I
1
2
~~ , - 8
- Wl
l
For equilibrium, reaction at B, (b > a'. •
Rn= wL
Fig. 7·11
L wL2 "\
Fixing coup~e offered by the wall at B=wL X
2 = -2- ,;
Consider a section X-X at a distance x from the end A
Shear force, F,.=-wx
=0 at x= O
wL L
= - -- at x=4
4
wL L
= --- at X= 2
2
= -wL at x= L
SF diagram is shown in the Fig. 7'11 (b).
Slope of the SF diagram, dl'F., =- w, i.e., rate of loadi ng.

ex
Example 7·s-t. A cantilever 5 m lon g carries a uniformly distributed load of
200 kg/metre run from t he free end upto the middle of its length as shown in the Fig. 7·12 (a).
Draw the SF diagram.
Solution. Total load on the cantilever
=200 X2'5= 500 kg F,x ,ng
C.G. of the load lies at a distance of l 25m C OU pte
from the end A or 3·75 m from the end C.
A I B X
For equilibrium
Reaction at fixed end, R. = 500 kg l - 25 m + 25m
(a )
Fixing cou'ple offered by the wall
= 500 (3'75) Al IB C
= 1875 kg-m.
For the SF diagram, consider a section
X-X at a distance of x from the end A, in
~::J}o, s' c'
9
portion AB• SK D , a gro m

• l,
~J
Shear force 1 Fi~. 7 ·12
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~ ,< .._ • • ' I '. • - ' • • •
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
Fz= -wx= -200 x

=0 at x = Om
= -200xo·s=-100 kg at x=o·s m
= -200 kg at x= I m
= -400 kg at x = 2 m
=- 500 kg at x=2·s m
Again consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the end A in the portion BC.
F~=-500 kg.
This SF remains constant in the portion BC, i.e., from B to C.
Slope of SF diagram, ~F/ =- w (rate of loading) in portion AB.
Slope of SF diagram in portion BC, ~1;"' = 0.
Exercise 7'5-1. A cantilever ABC 7 m long carries a uniformly distributeJ load of
2 kN/m run from the free end A upto B, 5 metres from end A. Draw the SF diagram.
[Ans. F,u=-2x kN, Foc = -10 kN]
.; • I:.. ..:t ; I ~ ~. I • \ • • • ., ..
r·6. BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM OF A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM CARRY-
ING A CONCENTRATED LOAD
A beam AB of length L simply supported at ends A and B carries a concentrated load
¥ at its middle as shown in the Fig. 7· [ 3 (a). Initially the beam ACB is straight and after
he application of the load the beam bends to the shape AC'B (showing concavity upwards
liroughout the length of the beam.
W ( L -x)
"!!.x t~•Vj_ xT f t Conc avity u·pwards
.2 f I 2 W ( L - x)
+-X-j
X
W
T
A .Mxf x_! _ ~!~~ 8
Fig. 7'13
To detetmine support reactions, let us talce moments of the forces about the point A
wx !::_
2
;) - Rn XL :, = o For equilibrium
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292 SfRENGTH OP MATE~.JAtS
But for equiiibrium

w w
RA=W -
2 =2 t
Now consider a section X - X at a distance of x from the end A in the portion AC o'.
the beam.
Portion AC. Bending moment at any section
M. = <!._ + }x (clockwise)
(taking moments of the forces on the left of the section).
Taking the moments of the forces on the right side of the section,
M-.=} (L- x) , - W ( ; -x )J
w
=+ 2x'
A small length considered at the section will bend showing concavity upwards. (Se,
the top of the Fig. 7· J3 a).
Portion CB. Consider a section X - X at a distance of x from the end A in th,
portion CB.
Bending moment (taking moments of the forces on the left side of the section),
MA = <!..~ (x)- (;: w (rx- ~ )
= <!..
w (L-x)
2
Similarly taking moments of the forces on the right side of the section,
Mz = ~ (l-x),
A small length considered at this section will bend showing concavity upwards. (Se
the top of the Fig 1· 13 (a) ).
A bending moment which tends to bend the beam producing concavity upwards is said t
be a positive bending moment, or in other words, if the resultant moment of the forces on th
left of the section is clockwise, it is a positive bending moment.
Conversely a bending moment which tends to bend the beam producing convexity UI
wards is said to be a negative bending moment, or in other words, if the resultant moment c
the forces on the left side of the section is anticlockwise, it is a negative bending moment.
Portion AC. Bending moment at any section,
w
M~ = TX
= 0 at x=O
WL L
=s:- at x= 4
WL L
1:: - - . at x=
4 2
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·~HBAk FOicE AND BENDING MOMENT DiAGRAMS 293
Slope of B.M. diagrams,
dM., =+~ (shear force in portion AC)
dx 2
Portion CB. Bending moment at any section,
M. =
w (1-x)
2
WL L
at x= y
4
WL 3L
==; -8- at x=-4-
=0 at x= L
Slope of the B.M. diagram,
dM., W
dx =- 2 (shear force in portion CB)
Fig. 7· 13 (b) shows the bending moment diagram. In this case max imum bending
moment occurs at the centre of the beam and is equal t o ~L
Example 7'6-1. A beam ABCD, 6 m long supported at A and D carries a concentrated

load 3T at B, 2 metres from A , and another concentrated load 6T at C, 4 metres from end A.
Draw the BM diagram.
-·· - · - X ----......i
3T 6T
X X X
A 1- - - i - --"-=---+---4~_...- D
X
2m ~ 2m
X C IB X
+ 2m Re =5T
.
/
' a)
C
, I
·&=hi
A B
8 .M D i agram
C D
Fig. 7· 14
Solution. To determine support reactions let us take moments of the forces about
the point A
3 X 2 Tm;> +6x 4 TmJ-RD X6, = 0
where Tm stands for tonne-metre
30
RD = = 5 Tonnes t
6
But RA + RD = 3+ 6= 9 Tonnes
RA = 9- 5= 4 Tonnes
For bending moment, consider any sectiou X- X at a distance of x metre from the end A
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294
Portion Ai
Benct·m g moment, .M.,=-f-4x tm (a clockwise moment on left of section)
=O at x=O
= + 4 Tm at x= l m
= + 8 Tm at x= 2 m
Slope of BM diagram,
dM. = 4T (_SF in portion AC).
dx
Portion BC
Bending moment, M .. =+ 4x- 3(x- 2) Tm
= 8 Tm at x= 2 m
= 9 Tm at x= 3 m
= 10 Tm at x=4 m
Slope of the BM diagram,
dM~; = I T -(SF in portion BC)
dx
Pori'ioi\ Co; Be11diil1g 1honient at any sectloh,
M~ = + 4x- 3(.x-- 2)- 6(x - 4)
= Jo Tm at x= 4 m
= 5 Tm at x=5 m
~"'o Tm at x ~ 6 1\1
Slope of the BM diagram,
dM., = 4- 3- 6= - 5 T onne (SF in portion CD)
dx
It can be verified by t he reader that SF ii1 portion AB it is + 4T, in portion BC is + IT
and in portion C D it is - 5 T , by drawing the SF diagram. '
Fig. 7· 14 (b) shows the BM diagrain where A B", B'C' and C'D ar e the straight lines.
Exercise 7·6-1. A beam /f. BCD, ~ metres· long; ~imply supported at A and D , carries
a concentrated load of 2 1 kN at B, I metre from A and· 28 kN at C, 5 metres from end A.
Determine support reactions a nd draw the BM,diagi·am.
[Ans. RA. = 26 k N, Rs= 23 kN, 'vls = + 26 kNm Mc = + 46 kNm]
7·7. BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM OF k. S.S . BEAM SUBJECTED TO UNI-

FORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
A beam AB, of length L , simply
supported (S.S.) at ends A and B ; car ries ~
uniformly distributed load of w per u111t
length throughout its length. The bea111 !s
initially straight as AC B but after the apph- wt c' wl
cation of the load, the beam bends showhrg X
1 z
conGavity upwards .-
,. (-a) I j
T otal load on the beam = ivL
2
· C.G. of. the load· lies· at a· distance of
L from the end A.
To determine support reactions, fitkP.·

C~'~ 8.M Diagram
{b)
momen!s of the forces about the point A_
Fia--. ns·
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SHEAR -FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
wL . ~ ;) - Rn . L J =0
wL
Rn= -
2
t
But
wL wL
RA= wL- - -
2 =2
Now consider any section X-X at a distance of x from the end A
Bending moment, M ,=+ RA . x - wx . ( ; )
Note that C.G. of the load w.x lies at a distance of ; from the section X - X
nending moment, Mz = + 2wL wx2

x- - -
2
=0 at x =O
L
&t X=4
at x=yL
at
3L
~= 4
at x=L
Slope of the B.M. diagram,
dM,, wL
~ =2 -wx (SF ~t any section, see article 7'3)
dF d 2M
dx = d x2 =- w (rate of loading)
Fig. 7·15 (b) shows the B.M. diagram for th_e IJeam.
Example 7'7-1. A beam ABCD, 1 metres long, supported at B, 1 m from end A and
at D carries a un!formly distrib,u~~d load of 2 tonnes/metre run starting from end A upto the
point 5 metre from end A. Draw the B.M . diagram. ·
Solution. The beam AB.CD initially
straight bends to the shape A.'.89' b after tli.e
appl ication of the transverse load. ·
Total load on the beam
c -
~x~--~~
: a2T/m con
( C X
wx5 = 2X 5=10 tonnes
The C.G. of the load lies at a distance
8 X ( X f0
ofi 2'. 5 ni from end A or 1·5 m from the

point B.
4m - --r-2ml
Rs= 7· 5 T RO : 2 5 T
For support reactions, let us take the
pioments of the forces a bout the· point B, Fi~ 1'1~
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lO X 1'5-;) -- Ro x 6:) = 0
or Ro= 2'5 tonnes
But Rn+ Ro = 10 tonnes
So R u= 10 - 2'5 = 7'5 tonnes.
For bending moments, consider portions AB, BC and CD separately taking x pos1t1ve
towards right with origin at the point A. Take moments of the forces only on the left side
of the section.
Portion AB
Bending moment, M& = - WX ( ; )
( i.e. load = wx and its C.G . lies at ; from the section X-X )
Mz -
-
- ~xz
2
=-x2 since w= 2Tm

=0 at x= O
=-0'25 Tm at x=0'5 m
= - 1 Tm at x=l m
Portion BC
wx 2
Bending moment, M.=- +Rs (x-I)
2
xz
= -2. T + 1·5 (x--1)
= -x2+ 1·5(x-1) T. m
= -lT.m at x = lm
= + 3·5 Tm at x=2 m
=+ 6 Tm at x = 3m
=+ 6·5 Tm at x=4 m
=+ 5 Tm at x=5m
Portion CD
Behding moment, M: = - IO(x.- 2'5) + 7'5(x - 4) m

(total udl= 10 tonnes and its C.G. lies at a distance of 2·5 m from
end A)
=+ 5 Tm at x=Sm
=+2·5 Tm at x=6 m
=Q at X= 7m
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~J:lf!.'.'-R. fORCp .ANp, Bl:NDJNG MOMENT DIAGRAMS 297
Fig. 7' 17 shows the BM diagram for

the beam. At the point E in the BM diagram,
BM=O and BM changes sign from nega tive
to positive. Such a po int is called the point
of contraflexure.
Point of contraflexure in this case lies
in the portion BC
where M.=-x 2 +7·s (x-1) =0
or x 2 - 1'5 x+1·5=0
7'5--.f (7'5) 2 -4 X 7' 5
x= 2
Fig. 7·17
7'50-5'12 = l . 19 m
,r' ";
2
) ., ·
. i.e. point of contraflexure lies at a d istance of 1·19 m from the end A .
Exercise 7·7-1. A beam ABC, 5 m long is supported at B, l m from end A and at C.

The beam carries a uniformly distributed load of 10 kN/m run, throughout its length. Draw
the BM diagram and determine the position and m agnitude of maximum bending moment.
Find the position of the point of contraflexure, if any.
[Ans. Mmaz= 17'578 kNm at 3' 125 m from A
Point of contraflexure lies at l '25 m frcm end A]
7'8. BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM OF A CANTILEVER SUBJECTED TO CON-

CENTRATED LOADS
Fig. 7'18 (a) shows a cantilever AB of length L subjected to a concentrated load W

at the free end A. Initially the cantilever
AB is straight, but after the application of Wx
~ rx·
J~_' '
the load W, the cantilever is bent to the
shape A' B, showing convexity upwards.
Fixing couple
For equilibrium, the reaction at B WL
X
i.e. RB= W and fixing couple offered by the
wall is wL. ~ - - -L
(a)
Consider a section X-X at a distance Ai B
of x from the end A . Taking m oments of
the forces on the left side of the section,
M.,= - Wx (the
negafive'.)
resultant anticlockwise
moment . o~ the left side of the section is
I• , I • ,t f . •
~ 1 ... -,
B.M. Di a gram . _9 ' .- ./ ' :.
• : .: ·:· , . : ·, ! . . 1.,·., .: ( b)
Taking moments of the forces on the Fig. 7·18
right side of the section
M., = + W(l-x) , - wL-;)
=- Wx (the resultant clockwise moment of the forces on the
right side of the section is a negative BM).
A small element considered at this section will bend with convexity upwards.', As per
t4e 9onventjon the
.
BM which tends to produce
'
convexity upwards is said. to be a negative
...
BM 1
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298 STRENGTH OP MATJiR~AU
Now BM at any section,

M.=-Wx
=0 at x= O
wL L
=- at x=-
2 2
= -wL at x=L
The slope of the BM diagram,
dM., =- W (shear force)
dx
The BM diagram for the cantilever is shown in Fig. 7'18 (b).
Example 7'8-1. A cantilever ABC, 6 metres long, fixed at C, carries a point load 10 kN
at free end A and a_nQther point load 20 kN at B, 2 metres from A. Draw the BM diagram.
Solution. For equilibrium. Reaction at C, R. - 30 kN
') I ')
Consider section X-X at a distance of x from the free end A and taking momenta of
the- fore.es only on the left side of the section.
10kN 20kN ~all

I •
·~x'4 t>\=-140kNm
AC1x-t~8-
!...- ,/~ (a )
~m 1 c
R dOkN
C
A C
T
-140 k Nm
I
B . M Diagram
( b)
'_j_
Fig. 7·19
Portion AB
BM at any section, M., = - 10 Xx kNm (anticlockwise moment on the left side,:af th~
section is negative and produces convekiiy
upwards)
M. = O at X= O ,rt
= -10 kNm at x=lm
=- 20 kNm at x = 2m
Portion BC
..·/, J3.M,at any se~~ion,

II 1 'ii
M.,=- 10 x - 20 (x - 2) kNm
=-20 kNm at x = 2m
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SH.BA-R·'.PD.B.GB AND BEN~NG MOMENT DIAGRAMS
=-50 kNm at x=3m

=- 80 kNm at x =4m
= -110 kNm at x=5m
=- 140 kNm at x=6m
The BM diagram for the cantilever is shown in Fig. 1·19 (b).
Exercise 7·8-1. A contilever ABC 5 m long carries a point load of 800 kg at its
free end A and 600 kg at the middle of its length, B. Draw the BM diagram for the cantilever.
[Ans. MA=O, Mn =-2000 kg/m, Mc = -5500 kg-m]
7'9. BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM OF A CANTILEVER CARRYING A

UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
A cantilever AB of length L, free
at end A :and fixed at end B carries a
uniformly distributed load w per unit length Fi xin g coup.le
throughout its length. The beam is initially A
'MB : - wt2·
straight and· bends ,showing convexity upwards 2
after the application of load. R = wL
B
Total load .o n c_a ntilever = wL
For equi1ibrium, reaction at B,
Rn=wL
Bending moment at B, 8 .M. Diagram
MB = - - -
wL 2 ( b)
2 Fig.7-20
Moment of the forces on the left side of the section,
M~=-(wx) ( ~)
= - -wx2- . 1ockwise
(antic . moment)
2
Moment of the forces on the r ight side of the section,
w(L-x) 2
M~ = - + Rn (L- x) + Mn
2
- - wLa - w(L-x)2 +wL (L-x)
- 2 2
wx 2
=- 2 (ol.ockwise moment)
Slope of the EM diagram,

dlvf~
'cfx = - wx (SF on t he cantilever J
A slila-11 element ' .c0nsidered at the section will bend showing ·[email protected]\'·e~it:y upwards,.as
·~ ~-Ii -en the ,t 0p of the P ig 1·20 (a~.
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Now bending moment at any section,
wx2
Mx = - --
2
=0 at x=O
wL2 L
- -8- at x= -2
., wL2
=- at x=L
2
Fig. 7'20 (b) shows the BM diagram of the cantilever.
Exam.pl~ 7'9-t: A beam ABC, 5 m
long, free at end A and fixed at C, carries a
uniformly distributed load of 1·5 tonne/metre
run from the point B, l m from end A, upto
the point C. Draw the BM diagram for the
cantil_ever. ·
Solution. In this case, the cantilever
does not carry any load between A to B, even (a) ~
if this part of the cantilever is removed, it
A IB 3 Tm IC
will not affect the BM on the cantilever at any
section. ------=~.---T
-12 Tm
Consider a section X-X at a distance
of x from the end A, and taking moments
of the forces on the left side of the section 8. M D1 agram
C
,i
only. { b)
Portion AB. BM at any section, Fig. 7·21
M.:= 0
=0 at x=O
=0 at x=l m
Portion BC. BM at any section,
M.:= -w(x-1) (x-l)
2
. •/,.;
=- ; (x-1) 2 (an anticlockwise momen~)
1'5
=- 2 (x- 1)2
=O at x= l m
=- 0'75 tonne-metre at x = 2 m
= -3'0 tonne-metre at x = 3 m
=- 12'0 tonne-metre at x=S m
The BM diagram is shown in Fig. 7'21 (b).
Exercise 7'9-1. A cantilever ABC 1 m long, free at end A and fixed at end C carries
a uniformly distribu.ted load of 500 kg from the point B, 2 m from end A and upto the point C.
Draw the BM diagram. [Ans. M.f=Ms= O, M 5 = -'-2250 kig-m, ¥c = -62SQ kg~pi]
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"SHEAR. foRCE AND.BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
7·10. SF AND BM DIAGRAMS OF A BEAM WITH VARIABLE LOADING
A beam AB of length L simply supported at ends A and B carries a varying load
increasing from zero at A to w per unit length at B as shown in the Fig. 7'22 (a).
wL
Total load on the beam =
2
CG of this load lies at a distance of 2L/ 3 from end A or L/3 from end B (as is obvious
for a triangle). To obtain support reactions take moments of the forces about the point A
wL X 2 L - Rn.L= O
2 3
or
.... : ...
wl
SF Di agram
-_L
J:..---j
ff (c)
BMD1agrarr,
Fig. 7·22
wL
But R,1+ R n=
2 f'
•= wL _ wL _ wL
So Rn 2 3 - 6
Consider any section X-X at a distance of x from the end A.
wx
Rate of loading =y
Vertical load upto section
wx · wxa
X-X = 2L . x= 2L .
wx2
Shear force, P.,= RA- 2l
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(upwards force to the left side of th<'! i::P.r.ti""' ; r ... ~ .. :+: ...,
Joi S:r.RENGTH OF ,MATEB.iA.i;,s
=
wL - wx 2 wt
£ = - - at x= O
6 2 6
wL L
=9 at x=
3
L . ' ' !:
= wL at x=
24 2
wL 2L
=- 18 at x= - -
3
wL
=-- - at x= L
3
' l
BM at any section, wx2 ( x )

M,, = + RA. x- 2£ T
(clockwise moment on the left side of the section is positive)
where 'V: =rate of loading at X

1wx2 ·
L = vertical load upto X
2
; = distance of CG of this load from section X-X
wLx wx3
M,, = -6- - 6L
=0 at x=O
4 L
= wL at x=
3
81
wL L
= at x=
2
16
5 2£
=sr wL at x= 3
=0 at x=L
To obtain maximum BM, put
dM.,, = O
dx
2
I.e., wL _ wx = 0 (a point at which shear force is :zero)
6 2£
wL wx 2
or 6 = 2£
.. . t2 1L
xz= or x= .f
or 3 3
Mma,, = wi (13 )- 6~ (;3 r

wL2 · w , L2 wL3 ( 1 J 2wV
- 6v3 - 6 ,>i: 3.f3 - fil 1 3 - 3x 6v3
wL2 L
= 9v3 at X= .,/3
; ,c,.• ,',I • ~ ~- ,,.· : J ,•
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SHEAR FORCT ·AND 0-ENDrNG MOMENT DIAGRAMS
Maximum bending moment occurs at the point where shear force is zero.
Fig. 1·22 (c) shows the B.M. diagram for the beam.
Example 7'10-1. A beam 6 m long, simply supported at ends carries a linearly

varying load with maximum rate at the centre of the beam i.e. , 1·5 tonne/ m run as shown in
Fig. 7·23 (a). Draw the SF and BM diagrams for the beamJ
Solution. Total vertical load on the beam
1·5 - • •. ·...t . ...,
= X 6=4'5 tonne
2
The beam is symmetrically loaded so the reactions
4·5
RA = Ro= - - = 2·25 tonnes
2
t
run
Mmoi . :i. . 5 Tm
8 M Diagram
( C)
Fig, 7·23
SF diagram. Consider a section X-X at a distance of x. from tl~_e end A . .

Rate of loading at the section
1·5 x _ . _
= - 3- - 0 5 X ·1
·,
Vertical load upto x = 0'5 ; . X = 0'25 x2
Takin$ the resultant of the forces onl~ on the left side of the sectio~.
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304: STRENGTH OF MAl.:ERl"'l,S
Portion ~C. S.F. at any section,

F.,=2'25-0'25 xz
= 2·25 tonnes at x=O
= 2·00 tonnes at x=l m
= 1·25 tonnes at x= 2m
= 0 tonnes at x=3 m
There is no necessity of determining SF in the portion CB, since the beam is symmetri-
cally loaded .
(See article 7'2)
SF=-1 ·25 tonnes at x=4m
= -2·00 tonnes at x=5 m
= - 2·25 tonnes at x=6 m
Fig. 7·23 (b) shows the SF diagram .
BM diagram. Taking moments of the forces on the left side of the section X-X.
Vertical load upto x =0·25 x 2
Distance of CG of this load from section XX
M.= +RA . x-0·25 x2

X
BM at any section,
3
xs
= 2·25 x- T-m
12
=0 at x= O
13
= 7T-m at x = lm
= ~T-m at x=2 m
12
= 4·5 T-m at x=3m
Again there is no necessity. of dete_rmining bending moments in the portion CB, as the
beam is symmetrically loaded about its centre.
46
x=4 m
M.=
12 T-m at
13
M., = - T-m at x= Sm
6
M., = O at x=6m
Maximum·bend·i ng moment occurs at the centre where SF is zero.
Fig. 7'23 (c) shows the BM diagram of the beam.
Exercise 1 ·10-1. A beam AB, 6 metres long carries a linearly variable load from one
end to the other end. At the end A the rate of loading is 1 tonne/m run and at the end B the
rate of loading is 3 tonne/m run. Determine (i) support reactions (ii) magnitude and position
of the max imum bending moment. ·
rAns. RA= 5 tonnes, .Rn= 1 tonnes, Mma.= 9'062 T-m at 3'245 m from end A]
J • • ., • • • • • • • ~ •
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HEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS 305
'·H. SF AND BM DIAGRAMS OF A CANTILEVER WITH VARIABLE LOADING

A cantilever AB, free at end A, fixed
t end B, of length L, carries a li nearly
ariable load with rate of loading zero at A
11creasing to w at B. X
Total load on cantilever

A
=-wL -1, ----L
2
( a)
.l~r,'
For equilibrium, reaction at B
wL
Rn=
2- t
Consider a section X-X at a distance of ( b)
from the end A.
Rate of loading at x = Lwx

WX X
Vertical load upto x = L - .
2
wx2 F ig. 7·24
2L
F Diagram
At any section, F =_ wx 2 ( downward force on the left side of the )

x 2L secti on is negative
=0 at x=O
wL L
8 at X= l
wL
·- at x= L
2
Shear Force diagram is shown in Fig. 7 ·24 (b).
M Diagram
2
The CG of t h e Ioa d lL
wx 1·1es at a d.1stance o f x f rom t h e sectwn XX
- .
3
BM at any section, M _ wx 2 x ( ~ Clockwise moment on the left side of )
x - · - 2L · 3 the section is negative
wx3
-rr-
=0 at x=O
= -
wL 2
L
48
at X= -2-
wL2
= -
Q
at x= L
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306 STRENGTH OF MATERIAL!
The BM diagram is shown in Fig. 7'24 (c).

Example 7'11-1. A cantilever ACB,
5 m long carries a linearly varying load
starting from zero rate of loading at A to 600
kg/m run at C, 4 m from the end A as shown
in Fig. 7'25 (a). Draw t he SF and BM dia-
gram. Total vertical load on cantilever
= 600 X 4= 1200 kg
2
For equilibrium, reaction
Rs = 1200 kg t A~__,.._,'"'"T"'.r-r--r-t?C~~
Consider a section X-X at a distance -1200 kg
of x from the end A.
, _J_
6 0
Rate of loading at X = ~ x
SF Diagram s'
( b) I8
= 150 X
A C
t-
i--=-,,--r-r-r--'.M'7'....,...., _,,.--....
-1600 kg- m
Vertical load upto X= l50 x x
2 BM Diagram
__
, ~-2sJo kg -m
= 75 x 2
{ C ) t
SF Diagram
Portion AC Fig. 7·25
SF at any section X, Fx= -15 x2 (downward force on the left side of the sectior
is negative)
=0 at x=O m
=- 300 kg at x=2 m
=- 1200 kg at x= 4 m
Portion CB
SF at any section, F.,= - 1200 kg at x = 4 m to 5 m.
The shear force diagram is shown by Fig. 7'25 (b).
BM Diagram
CG of the vertical load upto X lies at a distance of ; from the section X-X.
Portion AC
2 x ( anticlockwise moment on the left side)
BM at any section X, M. = -15 x • J. of the section is negative
=-25 x3
= 0 at x= O m
= -25 kg m at x= l m
= -200 kg m at x = 2m
:=;= - 1600 k~ m at ~= 4m
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HEAR FORCE ANh BBNbING MOMENT bIAGRAM§
Portion CB
8
CG of the total vertical load lies at a distance of 3 m from end A.
BM at any section X-X,
Mz=-1200 ( x--}) kg-m
=- 1600 kg-m at x=4m
= - 2200 kg-m at x= 4·5 m
=-2800 kg-m at x=5 m
Fig. 7"25 (c) shows the BM diagram for the cantilever.
Exercise 7·11-1. A cantilever 5 metres long carries a linearly varying load starting
om zero rate of loading to 2·5 tonnes/ metre run at the fixed end. Determine the shear force
1d bending moment at the fixed end of the cantilever.
[Ans. F=-6·25 tonnes, M=-30·416 tonne-metres]
12 . SF AND BM DIAGRAM OF A BEAM SUBJECTED TO A MOMENT

A beum AB of length L hinged at both the ends is subjected to a turning moment M
its centre. The hinged ends will prevent the lifting of the end A due to the application of
e moment, Mand the beam can take any slope or any direction at the hinged end.
T o determine support reactions. Let us take moments of the forces about the point A
M;> - Rn X L' = 0
Rn= 1t t
For equilibrium, R A= Mt as shown in Fig. 1·26 (a)
L
c' c': M
BM Diagram
cd
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Fig. 7·26
~08 S'fRENGTH OF MATERIAL
SF diagram. Consider any section in the portion AC or CB.

Shear force = - RA (downward force on the left side of the section i
negative)
M
= -T
Fig. 7"26 (b) shows the SF diagram of the beam,
BM diagram
Portion AC. BM at any section,
M.,, = - R A . X (anticlockwise moment on the left of th
section is negative)
M
=- y x= O at x=O
M
at
at
Portion CB. BM at any section,

M~ =- RA.x+ M
M
=- y x+ M
L
=+ 2M at x= - -
2
M 3L
=+ 4 at X= 4
=0 at x= L
Fig. 1·26(c) shows the BM d iagram for the beam.
Ex:iinple 7·12-l. A beam 5 m long,
hinged at both the ends is subjected to an Rg "i 2T
anticlockwise moment M equal t o 6 tonne-
metres. At a point 3 m away from one end
A. Draw the SF and BM diagrams .
Solutio n. Taking moments of the A j 11 , 11 1

forces about the point A
A~·- .
6Tm = 5 X RB SF 01ogro m1
or · Rn= l '2 T ,I,
For equilibrium
R11=1·2 T t
Fig. 7·27
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I .-.
SHEAR fORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS 309
SF diagram. For por tion AC or CD,

Shear force, F,,=+1·2 T (tend ing to rotate the body in the clockwise
direction)
Shear force is constant througho ut the length of the beam. F ig. 7'27 (b) shows the SF
diagram.
BM diagram. Consider a section X- X ut a distance of x from the end A and taking
moments of the forces on the left side of section only.
Portion AC. BM at any section,

Af.,=+1·2 xx
=0 at x =Om
= 1·2 T-m at x= l m
= 2"4 T-m at x == 2 111
= 3"6 T-m at x= 3 m
Portion CB. BM at any section,

M.,=1·2 x-6
=-2'4 T-m at x= 3m
= -1 ·2 T-m
0 at x -= 4 m
=-0 at x = 5 rn
F ig. 1·21 (c) shows the BM diagram for the beam .
Example 7·12-2. A cantilever AB, 6 m long, free at end A, fixed at the end B is
subjected to a clockwise mo ment 8 kNm at the end A. Draw t he SF and BM d iagram .
Solution. For equilibrium, fixing couple,
or BM at B = 6 kNm
Bending moment is constant throughout,
M.,=6 kNm
Shear force, dM"' = O at any section.

dx
Fig. 7"28 (b) shows the BM d iagram of the cantilever .
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Fig. 7-2.8
7'13. RELATIONS BETWEEN RATE OF LOADING, SF AND BM
In the previous articles we have learnt about SF and BM diagrams of cantilever and
beams (with and without overhangs) subjected to concentrated and distributed loads and we
have observed that
(i) the portion in which SF is constant, BM curve is a straight line.
(i;) the portion in which SF is varying linearly, BM curve is parabolic.
(iii) maximum bending moment occurs at a point where either the SF is. zero or
the SF changes sign.
In other words, the curve for bending moment in any portion 0f the beam is one degree
higher than the curve for S.F.
Fig. 1·29 shows a beam with a con-
centrated load W and a distributed load w. w M M+bM
Any other beam or cantilever with any type of w=roteof
loading can also be considered. Consider a loadi n g
small section of the beam of length ox at a
distance of x from the end A. A
8
Say on the left side of the section, F+fr
SF= F and BM = M. -.-- X --~bX
On the right side of the section,
SF=F+ RF and BM= M+ oM.
Considering the equilibrium of forces
F= F+ oF-1- wox
or oF=- w ox
In the limits, F ig. 7·29
dF ... (i)
- = -w
dx
i.e. rate of change of SF at a section is equal to the rate of loading at the section.
Now taking the moments of the forces about the right hand end of the section,
M+ oM= M + F8x - w.8x. - ,

ox
n
the value of n is 2 if the rate of loading is uniform
= M + Fox - w/x 2
neglecting higher order of small quantities ox

oM= Fox
In the limits dM = F ... (2)

dx
i.e. the rate of change of BM at a section is equal to the shear force at the section.
Now (i) if rate of loading is zero, then
dF = - w= O
dx
F = a constant
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or
SHEAR FORCB AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS 311
dM
and dx = F (a constant)
I dM= j F dx
M = Fx+ C which is the equati on of a stright line
(ii) If the rate of loading is uniform ,
dF
dx =- w
8F=- w8x
Integrating we get F= - wx-J-C1 where C 1 is the constant of integration
or - =- wx +c1
-dM
dx
wx2
Integrating further M =--,- - -
2
+ c 1 x+C2
where C 2 is another constant of integration
The BM curve is a parabola in this case.
Now for a maximum value of BM,
dM = 0 but dM = F or the shear force is zero.
dx dx
Examp!e 7'13- 1. A beam 10 m long simply supported at the ends carries transverse
loads. The SF diagram for the beam is shown in Fig. 7'30(a). Draw the BM diagram for
the beam.
Solution. Let us consider 3 portions of. the beam i.e. A.[], BC and CD separately. Jn AB,
SF is constant and equal to + ST. In BC, SF 1s constant and 1s equal to IT. In CD, SF is not
constant but varies linearly as shown. This shows that portion CD of the beam carries a
uniformly distributed load.
Since the beam is simply supported at A and D,
BM at A=O
BM at D= O
dM
Now -- = F or dM = F dx
dx
B
Integrating M=JFdx
A
BM at B-BM at A = area of SF diagram between B and A

or Mn-0 = 5 X 2=I0 Tm
or Mn = IO Tm
... (I)
SiJnilarly Mc-Mn= area of SF diagram between C and B
f.1c = Mn + 2 x l = !O+ J = Ii Tm ... (i)
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Say C' is the centre of the beam.

Mc'-Mc=arca of SF diagram between C' and C
Mc'=I2 + }x IX 1= 12'5 Tm
f
+ ST
t A
0
f
- 5T
t
o·
Fig. 7"30
Now in lhe portion C'D. SF is negative .

Let us take a point Eat a distance of 7·5 m from A or 2·5 m from C'.
Now SF, EE' = - ~ =-2·5 T (in SF diagram)
M£-Mc'=area of SF diagram between E and C'

2·5
=-2'5 X l
Me= 12'5-3' 125 = 9'375 Tm
Similarly Mn-Mc' =,trea cf SF diagram between D and C'
s·oxs
=- - -2
MD=-12'5+ 12'5= 0
The BM diagram is shown in Fig. 7·30(b).
Exercise 7'13-1. Fig. 7·31 shows SF diagram of a beam 8 m long, supported over a
span of 6 mat Band E. Draw the BM diagram and determine the position of the point of
c<:mtraflexurc.
Ms=-20 kNm, Mc = +llO k Nm, M;=+10 kNm
Point of centraflexure lies at a distance of 2'307 m from
end A]
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However for the sake of explaination of a graphical method which may be useful in certain
cases, the method is detailed as below (Consider a beam of length/, simply supported at its
ends and carrying concentrated loads W1 and W 2 at distances of /1 and / 2 from one end of the
beam. We have to draw SF and BM diagrams for the beam).
(i) To some suitable scales say 1 cm= S 1 m of beam length draw the load diagram
for the beam as shown in the Fig. 7·32 (a).
(ii) Give Bow's notations to the spaces. AB represents load W1 , BC represents load W2
then, CD represents reactio n R e and DA represents reaction RA.
(iii) To Sl'me suitable scale say 1 cm = S2 tonnes take ab = W 1/S 2 , be= W2 /S 2 • Choose
a pole O at a horizontal distance of S cm from the load line. Join oa, ob and oc as shown in
Fig. 7·32 (b).
(iv) Draw vertical lines along reactions R A, Re and loads W1 and W 2 ,
(v) Draw lines Y 1 Y 2' parallel to ao, Y2 ' :f3' parallel to bo and Y3 ' Y4 parallel to co.
(1,i) Join points Y 1 and Y 4 • Then the funicular polygon drawn gives the BM diagram
to some suitable scale.
(vii) From the point O draw a line od parallel to the line Y1 Y4• Then cd represents
the reaction Re and da represents the reaction RA.
m &=~-~
RA= S 2 • da
(viii) Draw a horizontal line from the po int d which gives the base of SF diagram.
Draw horizontal lines from the points a, b and c which intersect the vertical lines drawn from
the reactions and the loads intersecting at X 1 ', X2', X\, X3 ' , Xs", X 4 as shown in Fig. 7·32 (d).
The figure as shown gives the SF diagram for the beam.
SF in the portion of length J,
F1= S2.X1 X1' = S2 RA
SF in the portion of length /, to /2 ,
F2= S2.X2" X2 = S2 (R A- W1 )
SF in the portion of length, /2, /,
F 3 = S 2 • X3 X3" = S2 x Re
(ix) The funicula, polygon Y1 Y 2 ' Y3 ' Y 4 gives the BM diagram . Let us consider a
section X-X at a distance of x from the end A.
BM at the section, M.,=RA x-W1 z
where z is the distance of the load W1 from the section
then M .,= (Y., Y.,') S1 S2 S
where Y., Y.,' is the vertical projection along the section X-X. on the BM diagram.
or (Y.. Y.,') S1 S2 S=RA . x - W1 z
= S1 S2. da. x- S1 S2 . ab. z= S1 S2 (da. x-ab. z)
or (Y.. Y./) .S = da. x-ab. z
Extend the line Y1 Y2 ' to Yo:" so as to meet the projection thro~gh the section X-X.
11 Y1 Y.," Y., = !:::,.oad
(similar)
da od horizontal projection of od S
Y.,Y.," = Y., Y1 = horizontal projection of f.Y1 = x
9f f/a I x= S. y\l' r~t . ... ~l )
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j1S
Similarly
6. Y1 ' Ya• Y.' = !::,. oab
(similar)
ab ob horizontal projection of ob s
Y ..'Y,. 11 = Y 2'Y.,' = horizontal projection of Y2 'Y..' z
or abz=S. Y.,' Y.," ... (2)
From equations (1) and (2)
da. x-abz=S(Y., Y:io"-Y.,' Y..,") = S. Y2: Y.,'
So the bending moment at any section
= (vertical intercept through the section on the funicular
polygon) x length scale X load scale x S
S is the horizontal distance shown for the pole of the force polygon.
Example 7'14-1. A beam 10 m long, simply supported at the ends, carries concen-
trated loads of 4 tonnes, 5 tonnes and 3 tonnes at distances of 2 m, 5 m and 7 m from one end.
With the help of graphical method determine the bending moments under the loads.
Solution. Let us take scales for length of the beam and for vertical loads as
1 cm = 1 metre length of beam
1 cm= 1 tonne load.
Draw the loading diagram as shown in Fig. 7·33 (a). Give Bow's notations to the
spaces i.e., AB, BC, CD representing loads 4 tonnes, 5 tonnes and 3 tonnes respectively. Draw
vertical .load line taking ab = 4 cm, bc= 5 cm and cd= 3 cm. Choose a pole oat a horizontal
distance of 5 cm from the vertical load line abed. Join ao, bo, co and do.
Draw vertical projection lines through the reactions and loads. Draw lines y 1 Y2 '
II ao, Y2 ' Ya' II bo, Ya' Y4 ' II co and Y,' Y 5 II do intersecting the projection lines at Y1 Y2 ',
Y' Y 4 ' and Y5 • Join Y1 Yu. Then the diagram Y1 Y2' Y3 ' Y,i ' Y5 is the bending m~ment
di1gram. In the force polygon draw a line eo parallel to Y1 Y5 • Then
Reaction, ea= RA = 6·6 cm= 6"6 tonnes
de = RD= 5"4 cm=5·4 tonnes
Length scale, S1 = 1 cm for 1 m length
Load scale, S 2 = 1 cm for 1 tonne load
Distance S=5 cm
BM at the point 2, M2 = Y2 Ya'. S 1 S2 S
= 2·6xl mxl tonnex5
= 13 tonne-metres
at point 3, M 3 = Y3 Y3' . S1 Sa S= 4"1 X i X l X 5= 20' 5 tonne-metres
at point 4, M,= Y, Y,' S1 S2= 3"15 X l X 1 X 5= 15·75 tonne-metres.
;l •
By Analytical Method. Reaction,
RA=6·6 tonne, RD= 5·4 tonne (by taking moments)
BM at point 2, ·
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M:1=6·6 X 2= + 13'2 tonne-m~tres
~16
BM at point 3, .M3 =6·6 x 5-4 x 3= 21 tomie-metres
BM at point 4, M 4 =6·6x 7- 4 x 5-5 X 2= 16·2 tom;1e-~etres
This shows that there are slight graphical errors in the answer.
4T ST 3T
B C 0
A I
5
2
E 3 . R0:5 -4T
RA= 6· 6 T
2m 3m 2m 3m
Y5
0 ea :6 - ~cm
: 5 ~Cm
v,
Loa d scale IT • 1 cm
dea54cm:5-4T :Ro
ea =66cm:6- 6T:RA
e
Vertical in ter cep ts
.,
v3 v3 = 4,1, cm C
v4 Y~ = 3 -15cm
Di s tanc e S :Scm
Sco les 5 1 = 1m per c m

s 2 = 1T percm ·r--
d
S: 5cm
Fig.7-33
Exercise 7·14-1. A b~am 12 m long si1pply s~ppo~ted aJ the ynds carries 3 concentra•
ted leads of 60 kN each at distances of 3, 6 and 9_ m from one end. Draw the load diagram,
force polygon, SF diagram and BM diagram graphically and indicate the bending moments
under the loads. [Ans. M2= 270 kNm, M3 = 360 kNm, M,= 270 kNm]
Problem 7·1. A beam ABCDE, 14 m long supported over a length of 10 metres,

over hang on both the sides being equal, carries a lo~~ 40 kN a.t one end, 40 kN at the other
end and 80 kN at its centre. Draw the SF and BM diagrams. State the positions of the poi11ts
of contraflexure and the maximum bending moment.
(b) Determine the position of the supports if the maximum positive BM is equal in
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ma£nitude to the maximum negative BM when the position of ~e. loads rei;nains unchanged.
S8iEA,P, :RO~CE AND BE]'! DING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
Solution. Total vertical load

= 40+80+40= 160 kN
Since the beam is symmetrically loaded
about its centre, reactions, ·
160
Rs= RD= - - = 80 kN
2
Consider a section XX at a distance

of x from the end A and taking upward forces
to be positive.
SF diagram.
Portion AB. F,, = - 40 kN

(constant from x = O to 2 m)
Portion,c.
Fx = - 40 + 80 = + 40 kN
(constant from x = 2 m t.o 7 m)
Portion CD.
F.. = -40 + 80-80= - 40 kN e.M. Diogro"'
(constant from x = 7 to 12 m) Fig. 7·34
Portion DE. F,= -40+ 80- 80 -1- 80 =+ 40 kN (constant from x = l2 m to x= l4 m)
The SF diagram is shown in the Fig. 7·34 (b).
BM Diagram. Taking the clockwise moment s on the left side of the section to be
positive.
Portion AB. BM at any secti on,
Mx=-40 X
= 0 at x = O m
= - 80 kNm at x= 2•m
Portion BC. M., =- 40 x+80 (x- 2)
=- 80 kNm at x=2m
= + 20 kNm at x=4'5 m
= +120 kNm at x = 7 m.
Portion CD. M .,= -40 x+ 80 (x-2) - 80 (x-7)
= + 120 kNm at x = 7 m
= +20 kNm at x=9'5 m
=- 80 kNm at x= I2 m.
Portion DE. M., = - 40x+ 80 (x- 2)-80 (x -7) + 80 (x -1 2)
= -80kNm at x = l2m
= 0 kNm at X= I4 m
Maximum bending moment 120 kNm occurs at the centre of the beam.
Points of contraflexure lie in the portions BC and CD.
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318 Sti.ENGTH OF MATEitJAis
For portion BC, M. = -40x+80 (x-2)=0
40x= I60
x= 4m
For portion CD, M., = -40x+80x- I60-80x+560

= -40x+400= 0
x = IO m.
Fig. 7·34 (c) shows the BM diagram and points of contraflexurc.
(b) We have seen that maximum

negative BM occurs at the support B or D
and maximum positive BM occurs at the
centre C.
Say the beam is supported at a
distance of a metre from both the sides as
A r: 80:N O
I R8~-:0- kN_-1-_ _R_o_;=;...8_0k_N.JI
:O kN
shown in the diagram 7'35.

jO 14- 20 0 .,
Since the beam is symmetrically loaded
about the centre. Fig. 7'35
Reactions, RB = Rn = 40 + 80+ 40 = 80 kN
2
Mn = BM at B= -40 X a kNm
Mc = BM at C= -40 x 7+ 80 (7 - a) = 280 - 80 a
But M c= -Mn
280- 80 a = 40 a
280
120=a
Of a = 2'333 m
Problem 7·2. A beam ACB, hinged at the ends A and B, carries a uniformly
distributed load of intensity w1 per unit length acting downwards from the end A upto
its centre C. Rest of the portion of the beam is covered with an upward unif0rmly distributed
load of intensity ~ 2 per unit length.
(a) Draw the SF and BM diagram if w2 = 2111i
(b) Locate the position of the point of contrafl.exure.
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Solution. Total vertic al load on the

bea m ----)\ --~ R - 5 w,t
- 6
W1/ W2f W1f 2W1/
= -2- - 2 = 2 - 2
(as w2 =2w 1 )
= 2W1f - w1/= -
2
W1f
For support reactions, take moments

of the forces about the po int A
w1[ X _!__ ""'\ _ W2/ X
2 4 ¥ 2 4
B._'
+ Rn X f°-;) = 0
w1 /
2
-
3'.!! 1~ + Rn X l = O
8 4
5
Rn= w1 l ,I,
8
But R A+ Rs= -
2
W1/ {c) J_
5 w1 / • -
RA - -
8 W1l= - - 2 Mmax .
B .M. Dia gram
RA= Wil t ' ,,..
8 f ig. 7'36
Consider a section X- X at a distance of x from end A and take up ward forces on
the left of the :.ection to be positive and clockwise moments on the left of the section to be
positive.
SF Diagram
Portion AC. SF at any section,
F,,= ,.!!!11 -W1 X
8
at x=O
I
=0 at x= s
W1l
=-
8 at x= 4/
3w 1/ I
=- - at x=
8 2
Portion CB F .. =+ -W1/
- - W1l +w ( x- ] )
8 2 2
2
= -
3
;i£
+ 2w 1 ( x-; )
I
at x= -
2
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3i6 StREN'GtH OF MATERIATS
5/
at x=s
-+
-
W1/
8 at x= 4
3/
=+ 5w 1 / at x=l
8
BM diagram
Portion AC, M =
X
+ ~L
8
x- w1x2
2
= O at x=O
I
at x=r
I
=0 at x= -
4
3 /" 3/
=- 128 IV1. at x=-
8
I
at x= z
Portion CB.
3 5/
=- 12 W1/2 at X= -
8
3 3/
=- - w1/2 at X= -
32 4
= -
i
64 W1 •
r at x=
7l
8
=0 at x= I
F ig. 7'36 (c) shows the BM diagram . The point of contraflexure lies at a distance of
I
from the end A.
4
Problem 7·3, A beam 6 m long carries a uniformly distributed load of 2 Tm run.
Counter clockwise moments of 4 Tm and 8 Tm are applied at the two ends. Draw the SF and
BM diagrams. Find the magnitude of greatest BM and the position of the se~tion where it
099µr§, · · ·
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':SHEAR .FORCE- AND- BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
Solution. Fig. 7'37(a) shows the load

on the beam AB, 6 m long.
Taking moments of the forces about the
point A.
t: w:2T/m run I aTm
2x6x 3= 6 Rs+ 4 + 8
36-12 = 6 Rs
Rs = 4T
But R A+ Rs= 2X6 = 12 T
RA = l2 - 4= 8T
For the SF diagram
Consider a seccion X -X at a distance
of x from the end A - 4T
Shear force at any section,
F., = 8-2x
T
= 8T at x = O _j_
= 4T at x= 2 m BTm
=0 at x = 4 m
= -4T at x = 6 m
BM diagram. Fig. 7·37 (b) shows
-Hm . 8 .M. Diagrom T
( C)
:he SF diagram .
Fig. 7·37
Taking moments of the forces on the
eft side of the section and clockwis-:: moments
o be positive.
w(x) 2
BM at any section, Mz = RA.x-4 - - - wher e ll' =- 2T/m . · and
2
M, = 8x- 4- x:1
= - 4 Tm at x=O m
= + 8 Tm at x =- 2 m
= + 12 Tm at x= 4 m
= 8 Tm at x=;: 6 m
Mma,, = 12 Tm at x = 4 m, where F,, = 0 as is obvious
from the SF and BM diagrams
· Problem. 7·4. A beam ABCD, 10 m long supported at B, 1 m from end A and at C,

· m from end D. The beam carries a point load of 1000 kg at end A and a uniformly distri-
·Uted load of 400 kg per metre run throughout its length. Determine the value of x if the
entre of the beam becomes the point of contraflexure. Draw the BM diagram.
Solution. Total vertical load on beam
= l000 + 4QO X 10 = 5000 kg.
Reactions R s + Rc= 5000 kg
Taking moments of the forces about th e point A
400 X IO X 5= Rn X l + Rc( lO-x)
20,000 = Rn + (5000 - R n)(l0 -x)
= !~0 + 5000 ( 10 - x) - RB(IO -x)
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322 STRENGTH OF MATERIAL:
W:400 kg/m
1000 l(y
X
X C X 0
RB
X
( 9- X)
Re
.,.
( 0)
-1800 kg -m
8. M. Oia·gram
( b)
Fig.7-38
20,000 = Rs+ 5000( 10- x)-Re(lO - x)

= Rs+ 5000(IO - x) - 10 Rn+Rs.x
= - 9Rs+ Rs.x+ 5000(10-x)
R _5000( 10 -x)-20,000 ...(I
B- (9 -X)
BM at the centre of the beam = 0

x2
= - 5 X (000 + 4 X Rn-400 X
2
4 52
=- 5000+ 4 Re- 00;
0 =- 5000+ 4 RB-5000
or 4 Rn= l0,000
[ 5000(10-x)-20000 ] = 10000 (Putting the value of Rn in equation 1
4 (9 -x)
2(10 -x) - 8= 9- x
20 --2x- 8= 9-x
- x=-3
x = 3 metres.
5000(1 o- x)- 20000
So reactions, Rn= (9-x)
5000 X 7 - 20000 = 2500 kg
= 6
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,1-iEAR FOllCE AN'I'.> BEN6ING MOMENT DIAGiAMS 323
BM diagram
Portion AB. At any section,

wx2
M.= - 1000 x - --
2
= -1000 x- 400 x2
·2
=- 1000 x-200 x 2
=0 x=O m
at
=- 550 kg-m at x=o·s m
=- 1200 kg-m at X=l 111
2
Portion BC M.. =- 1000 x+Rn (x-1)- -wx-
2
=- 1000 x+ 2500 (x-1)-200 x2
~- I200kg-m at x = lm
= + 200 kg-m at x= 3 m
=+300 kg-m at x=4 m
= Ok~m ~ x = 5m
=-700 kg-m at x= 6 m
=-1800 kg-m at x= 1 m
Portion CB. M,,=- 1000 x-200 x 2 + 2500 (x-1)+2500 (x-7)
=- 800 kg-m
= at x= 8 m
= - 200 kg-m at x= 9 m
=0 at x= lO m
The BM diagram is shown in Fig. 7·38 (b). In this case there are two points of contra-
:xure lying in portion BC. To obtain the position of the second, let us put M,, = O for
.e portion BC.
-1000 x+2500 (x - 1) - 200 x 2 = 0
1500 x- 2500-200 x2 = 0
2 x2- 15 x -25= 0
15 ± .f225 - 200
x= 4
=
15
i 5
= 2·5 m, 5m
Second point of contraflexure Ii.es at a distance of 2·5 from end A.
Problem 7'5. A beam ABCDE, 12 m long, cantilevered over the portion AB= 4 m
1g supported at points Band E, BE= 8 m long, carries a concentrated load 2 tonnes at end
3 'tonnes at C, 2 m from Band 4 tonnes at D, 2 m from E In addition it carries a uniformly
:tributed load of 1 tonne/metre run over the portion CD. Draw the SF and BM diagram.
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:tennine the position of point of contraflexure if any.
STRENGTH OP MATEltlAL:
Solution.
Calculation. The transverse loads on
the beam are shown in Fig. 7'39 (a). 2T
For equilibrium
Rs + &=2+3+ 4+4 x 1= 13 tonnes E
For support reactions let us ta ke

moments of the forces about the point A.
4 x Rs, +12 &, - 3x 6::>
- 4 (6+ 2>~ - 4 x .JO~ = O
or 4Rs+ l2 Ri,;= 18+32+40 = 90 joo,;;::;~-,+,-<J~-"'-'-~<t-,-,"71 .L
-~-75T
Rs+ 3R1~= 22·5
But Rn+ RE= 13

RE=13--: RB
So Rn+3(13 - Rn) = 22'5
-2Rn = 22'5 -39
Rn =8'25 tonnes,
Rs = 13- 8'25 = 4·7s tonnes
SF diagram . Considering forces on - 8 Tm
the left side of the section and taking upward B M. Oiagrarn
forces (tending to rotate the body in the
clockwise direction) to be positive. Fig. 7·39

Portion AB. F1J=·-2 tonnes (constant in the portion)
Portion BC. F .. = -2+8 '25 = + 6'25 tonnes (remains consta'nt)
Portion CD. Fx =- 2+8'25-3 - w (x - 6) where w= i tonne/ m
= 3'25- (x-6)
= 3'25 tonnes at x=6 m
= l '25 tonnes at x = 8 m
= - 0·75 tonnes at x= 10 m
Portion DE. F.:= - 2 + 8'25 - 3- 4- 4
= - 4'75 tonne (constant in the portion DE).
Note that at ·x = 4 m, there is shear force - 2 tonnes and t-hen + 6·-25 tonnes i.
considering a section very near to ~oint. B bu~ on its left side, SF= - 2 tonnes, then anoth
section verv near to .the point B b.ut on its n ght side, .SF=+ 6'25 tonnes. Similarly there r
two vah1es ·or SF at each of the poin'ts C and D: · ·. ~
BM diagram. Considering the moments of the forces on the left .s ide of the secti
and taking clockwise moments to be positive.
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~HE~i· FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGJ1AMS
Portion AB. · BM at any section,

M ~=- 2x
= 0 at x= O m
=-4 Tm at x = 2 m
= -8 Tm at x = 4 m.
Portion BC. M:z:=-2x+8·25 (x- 4)
=- 8Tm at x=4 m
=- 1·75 Tm at x= 5 m
=+4·5 Tm at x=6 m
2
Portion CD. .
M., = - 2x+8 . .
25 (x- 4)- 3 (x- 6) - w (x- 6)
2
where iv = 1 tonne/m
=-2x+8"25 (x - 4) -3 (x- 6) - 0·5 (x - 6)2
=+ 4"5 Tm at x= 6 m
=+ 9 Tm at x= 8 m
= 9·s Tm at x = io m
Portion DE. M. =- 2x+s·25 (x-4)-3. (x-6) - 4 {x-8) - 4 (x- 10)
(Note that 4 (x-8) is the BM due to the uniformly distributed load)
= 9"5 Tm at x = 10 m
= 4'75 Tm at x = 11 m
= 0 Tm at x = l2 m.
Point of contraflexure ·lies in the port ion BC, as is obvious from the BM diagram,
i.e., Mx = -2x+ 8·25 (x- 4) = 0
-2x+ 8"25x- 33 = 0
6"25x= 33 m
33
X= . , , 5'28 m.
6 25
i.e., Point of contraflexure lies at a distance of 5"28 m from the end A.
BM d iagram is shown in F ig. 7·39 (c).
· · Problem 7"6. A beam 8 m long, supp orted over a span of 4 in 1fri.d ha\l{ng equa,1
overhang on both the sides, carries a concentrated load of 60 kN at one end a nd 'ariotliet
concentrated load of 40 kN at the other end. In addi tion there is. a uniformly distributed
load of 20 kN/m run over 4 metres length starting from a point 2 m away from the end
carr ying the 60 kN load . Draw the SF and BM diagrams. Determine the magnitude and
position of the greatest bending moment. What is the posit ion of the point of inflexion ?
Solution. Total vertical load on the beam
= 60+ 40+20 X4= 180 kN
Support reactions,
Rn+ Re= 180 kN
(as shown in the Fig. 7·40 (a)].
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326 STRENGtH OF MATERIALS
For support reactions, let us take moments of the forces about the point A.
RB Re
f--2rn
1
4m
(a )
2rn1
_i__' _J_
_j_~ 1 5 0 k N ~ H ' ; ,'_,'j t 40kN
- 60k N
T <
: t
t
l
L ~ ~ 1ogrom I
IT
J_
T
-120kNm
-80 kNm
l B M.D109rom
(C )
Fig. 7•40
'
2o x 4 x 4;> + 4o x s;> - 2 Rn,-6 Rc: , = O
or 640=6 Rc+ 2 Rn
But RB+ Rc= 180 kN
RB= (l80- Rc)
or 640= 6 Rc+ 2 (180- Rc)
640- 360 = 4 R e
Rc= 10 kN
RB = l80- 70= 110 kN
· . . . SF Diagram. Take a section at a distance of x from the end A and vertically upwards
forces on the left side of the section to be positive. .
Portion AB. SF at any section,
F,,=-60 kN (constant at x = O to x = 2 m)
Portion BC. Fx= - 60+ 110-w (x - 2) where w= 20 kN/m

= 50- 20 (x-2)
=+ 50 kN at X= 2 m
= + lOkN at x = 4m
= -30 kN at x= 6m
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SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS 3-27
Portion CD. F,, = -60+ 110-20x 4+70
= +40 kN (constant at x = 6 m to x = 8 m)
The F ig. 7"40 (b) shows the SF diagram.
BM Diagram. Taking clockwise moments on the left side of the section to be
positive.
Portion AB. BM at any section,
M., = -60 x
=0 at x= Om
- - 60 kNm at x = I m
0
= - 120 kNm at x = 2 m.
IV
Portion BC. M,, = - 60.x+ 110 (x- 2) -:- (x-2) 2
2
= -60x+ ll0 (x-2) - 10 (x- 2) 2
= -120 kNm at x=2 m as w= 20 kN/m
= -80 kNm at x=3 m
=-·60 kNm at x = 4 m
= -60 kNm at x= 5 m
= - 80 kNm at x=6 m.
Porti001 CD. M,, = -60x+ 110 (x-2)-20x 4 (x- 4)+70 (x-6)
= -60 x + 110 (x-2) -- 80 (x-41 + 70 (x ~ 6)
[Note that at (x-4) C.G . of uniformly distributed load lies].
= - 80 kNm at x = 6 m
= -40 kNm at x = 7 m
=0 at x = 8 m.
. Fig. 7'40 (c) shows the BM diagram. In this case the maximum bending moment
occurs at the point B, where the SF has changed sign .
Mmu = - 120 kNm
The section where SF j5 zero, there is maximum bending moment.
Portion BC. Considering again,
F,,= 50-20 (x- 2)
= 50-20x + 40
or x = 4·s m, where SF= O
M,, = -60 x+ 110 (x-2)-10 (x- 2)2 at x = 4'5 m
Mm111= -60x4·s+ 110 (4'5 - 2)-10 (4·5-2) 2
= -270 + 275 - 62'5
= -57'5 kNm.
Note that there is no point of contra.flexure or the point of inflexion in this case.
Problem 1·1. A propped cantilever ABCD 10 m long, carries the transverse loads as
shown in Fig. 7'41 (a). Draw the SF and BM diagrams. Find the position and magnitude
of the maximum bending moment. Determine also the position of the point of contraflexur~
if any, · ·
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3.Z~ ~TRENGTH OF MAFERIAL~
Solution. Total vertical load on th.e cantilever

= 3+ 5+ J·4 x 7= J7·8 tonne
Propping force at the end A
= 5 tonnes
Reaction at D , Rn = t7·8 - 5= 12'8 tonnes.
3T 5T
F "ed end
D
5T
, ..
T
-12 8 T
-25·3Tm
Fig. 7 41
· ··· · Consider section )!-X at a dis~ance of x from the end A . Considering
SF diagram.
the forces only on the left side of the section, the vertica lly upward force is positive. ,
Portion AB. SF at any section,
F.,=+5 tonnes at x = O to 3 m
(Constant throughout the portion AB).
Portion BC. SF at any section,
F.. = 5-3-w (x- 3), where w= 1·4 tonne/ m
= 2- 1'4 (x- 3)
= 2 tonnes at x = 3m
= +o·6 ron11e at x=4m
= -0'8 tonnes at X= 5m
= - 2·2 t onnes at x = 6m.
Fortion CD. SF at any section,
F., = 5- 3-5-w (x- 3)= -3- 1·4 (x-3 )
' !':?· ·:.•. · = - 1·2 tonnes at x= 6 m
I -• • •_.
1·., . = - lO tonnes at X= 8m
;;= - q·~ ~onne~ at x = IO m
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SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
BM Diagram. (Taking clockwise moments on the left side of the section as positive).
Ma:=+5x
=0 at x=O
= 15 Tm at x = 3 m.
2
Portion BC. M., = 5x-3 (x-3) - ~ x - 3) • \Vhere w= 1·4 Tm
2
=5x- 3 (x-3) - 0·7 (x-3)2
= 15 Tm at x=3 m
= 22'5-4'5- J ·575 Tm at x=4·5 m
= 16'425 Tm at x = 4'5 m
=14'7 Tm at x = 6 m.
Portion.CD . M., = 5x-3 (x-3) - 5 (x-6)-0·7 (x-3) 2
= 14·7 Tm at x= 6 m
=-2' 5 Tm at x=8 m
=-25·3 Tm at x=lO m.
Mma,., BM. Occurs at the section "'1here SF=O i,t portion BC
i.e., i~ 1·4 (x~ 3)= 0, x=~~·43 m
Putting the va~ue of x in the expression for M,,,
Mma.,=5X4'43-3 (4'43-3) - 0'7 (4'43-3)2
=22'15-4'29 - I '43 = 16'43 Tm
The BM diagram is shown in Fig. 7·4_1 (c).
The point of contraflexure lies in portion CD.
l !,·: So :. ,,M.x in ·portion CD = 5x- 3 (x-3) -5 (x- 6)~ 0·7 (x-3)2= 0 ,, .
• J
·, .. 5x- 3x+ 9-Sx+30-0·7 (x - 6x+9)= 0

2
-3x+39-o·7x2+_4·2x-6'3 = 0
0'7x2- l '2x-32'7= 0
or x = 7'745 m
Problem 7·8. A beam 6 m long, simply supported over a span of 5 m ; carries .tqe
transverse loads as shown in the Fig. 7'42 (a). Draw the SF and BM diagrams and find the
position of the point of contraflexure if any. ·
Solution. A force of 50 kN can be applied at the point B, both in downward and

upwards directions, so as not to disturb the equilibrium of the beam. In other words, a
:force of- SO kN acting at a lever of I m length (at point B') can be replaced by a force of 50 kN
at Band a couple 50 kN x l m at B, as shown is the diagram 7·42· (b) . . The transverse
loads shown on the beam are equivalent to the transverse loads and couples shown in
Fig. 7'42 (b).
Total vertical load on the beam
= S0+.10 X3=80 kN .
Reactions RA+ RD=80 kN
Taking moments of the forces about the point A
?9 X 1;> + 50;> + 10 x 3(3+1's);> - s RD., = O
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330 STRpNqT-H Qf MA!fl;~I~J.S
50kN
I 50kN (W:10kN/m Wz10k Nm
B'
B
D
E - A
m lrn 1m 2m 1m
I ( b)
50kN ( Cl )
It> ;
5.F Oi,agram
I
_e I
l C)
'.
~ .M.O iagram
( C )
Fig. 7·42
Note that total u .d.l = 10 x 3= 30 kN (udl=uniformly. distributed load)

its CG lies at a distance of 3+ 1'5 = 4'5 m from end A
or 235= 5 RD
Ro = 47 kN
RA = 80-47=33 kN
~9nsi~.e~ a secti9'1 at a distance of x from the end A and taking tlw forces onJy on the
\tft S,\q~ of ~µe &_~cti.91',,
SF diagram
f~ffi?D AB.. SF at any sec~ion,
F. = +33 kN (at x = O to. 1 m)
(upward force on the left side of the section is po~,Wy.e)
Pcu:tion.AC:. SF at any section,
F.. =+ 33-50
=- 17 kN at x= I to 3 m
J>ortion CD F.. = 33-50- w(x - 3) wliere w.= 10.k Nj,m
= - 17- IOtx- -3.J
=- 17 kN at x=3 m
= - 27 ~N at X= <\ m
r.r-'n ~N at -t= ? m
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-SHEAR fP0RCE AND BENDING MOMBNT DIAGRAMS 33i
l'drtionDE. F11= +33-50+47-w(x-3)
= 30- lO(x-3)
=10 kN at x = 5 ni
=0 kN at x=6 m
BM diagram. Taking the clockwise moment~ oii the left side of the section to be
positive.
M,.=+33 x
=0 at x = Om
= 33 kNm at X=l tn
Portion BC. M:r=33 x+S0-50 (x - 1)
= 83 kNm at x= 1 m
= 66 kNro at x=2 m
=49 kNm at x= 3 m
w(x-3)3
Portion CD. M.,=33 x+50-50(x-1) - where W= 10 kN/m
2
=33 x+50-50(x-l)-5(x-3) 2
= 49 kNm at x=3 m
=27 kNm at x=4 m
= -5 kNrn at x=5 m
w(x-3) 2 ••
Portion DE. Ma: = 33 x + 50-50(x-1)- · + 47(x- ·5)
2
=33x+ 50-50(x - l)-5(x - 31 2 + 41(x -5)
= -5 kNm at x = 5m
=0 at x = 6m
Note that maximum bending moment occurs at the point B where SF changes sign i.e.
from +33kN to - 17 kN and Mma:s = 83 kNm.
Point of contta\flexure lies in the portion CD
where M .,= 33 x+50- 50(x - l) - 5(x-3) 2
= 33 x+50 - 50x+50 - 5(x2 - 6x + 9)
= - 17 x- 5x2 +30x+55
= - 5x2+13 x + 55
= 0 for point of contraflexure
or 5x2-13- 55 = 0
13.+ V 169+ 4 X § X §§
x= 10
= 13 +1tS'62 = 4'862"rn
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Point of contratlexure lies at a distance of 4°862 m from etid A.
Problem 7·9, A cantilever 7 m long, carries a unifotm1y distributed Joad of 100 kg/m
run and a concentrated load of 700 kg at the end of a lev~r at B, 2 m ~rom free end A, as
shown in Fig. 7·43 (a). Draw the SF di.agram and BM diagram. Determine
(i) magnitude and position of maximl}ID bending moment
(ii) position of the point of contraflexure. , __,,; i
• I· •'. , •
Solution. The loading on the cantt- 700 kg
lever shown in Fig. 7·43 (a) is eq~ivalent t_o
that shown in Fig. (b). The portion AB ts
ineffective.
Consider a section X - X at a distance
of x from the end B. Take downward for?es
on the left side of the section to be negat!ve
and anticlockwise moments on the left side
of the section to be negative.
SF diagram X
Portion BC. SF at any section, X
F.. =-700 kg.

(constant from x=O to x=l m)
( b)
..
Portion CD
F.,=-700-w(x-: 1)
= -700- lOO(x - 1)
= -700 kg at x = l m
= - 900 kg at x=3 m
= -1100 kg at x = 5 m
BM diagram. Fig. 7·43 (c) shows the
SF diagram. - 5000
kg - m
Portion BC. BM at any section,
Mz = - 700-100 X
BM D iagram
I
= -700 kg-m ·a t x= O -~ .·(!
( (l >
=-1400 kg-mat x=l m Fig. 7i·43.,, , "
Portion CD. M.. = -700-700 x- ; (x_:.l)a where w=lOO kg/m

= -700-700 x-50(.x-1)2
= - 1400 kg-m at x=l m
=-3000 kg-m at x=3 m
=-5000 kg-m at x= 5 m
Fig. 7·43 (d) shows the BM diagram. The maximum bending moment - 5000 kg-m
Dtcurs at the fixed end and there is no point of contraflexure in the cantilever.
Problem TlO. A simply supported beam ACB carries a linearly varying distributed
load as shown in the Fig. 7·44. The maximum intensity of loading is w at each end of the
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beam,. Determine the magnitude and position of the maximum bending moment. 1'' '
SHl!AR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
Solution. Total vertical downward
load on beam
wl x-1 - ~ 1
2 2 - 4 ,..
Total vertical upward force on the
beam
_ wl X _!_ _ wl t
- 2 2 - 4
CG of •;l + lies at a distance of f 2
' · wl
from end A and CG of
4 t lies at a dis- Fig. 7'44
5/
tance of from end A.
6
For support reactions, take moments of the forces about the point A
wl x J_ , _!)!]_ x ~ , - Rs x l) =O
4 6 Y 4 6
or Rs= •~I +
For equilibrium, R..c= wl t
6
Consider a section X- X at a distance of x from the end A.
Rate of loading, w'= 27 (+ -x )

w
=T a -2x) ... (1)
Total load upto x can be considered in two parts,

X
with CG at X-X
2 from
W2 = (w - w') ~ with CG at ;x from X-X
So'
and
Portion AC. Taking clockwise moments on the left side of the section to be positive.
BM at any section X-X,
. ··. ·,.
or
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STRENGTH OF MAhiuAi,s
wix wx 2 2wx3
= -6- - 2T" ([-ix) :._ 31 .,, ..
w/x wx2 wx3 2 wx3
=6 --2-+ -,-- 1" -1
wlx wx 2 wx 3
= -6- - -2-+ 31
l w/2 w/ 2 wZZ
Taking
)
X= 2, Ma = 12 - -8- + 24 = O
i.e., the point of contraflexure lies at the centre of the beam. For maximum bending moment
in the portion AC
dMz = O= w/ wx 2
- wx+ - =0
dx 6 I
I x2
or - -x+ -,=o
6
12
or x~- lx+ =0
6
x=
l±J /2 - ~
2
-
' l
1- -
,{3
2 2
= 0'211 I.
Maximum bending moment
wl w w
M maz = (0'21 l /)- (0' 211 /)2+ 3/ (0'211 /)3
6 2
{l) .
= w/2 [0'0351 - 0·0222+ 0·0031]
= 0'016 w/2 •
The beam is symmetrically loaded about its c~ntre, though in the opposite direction.
The maximum negative BM will occur at a distance of 0·211 / from tM end B.
Problern 7·11. A beam ABCD, 8 m long, supported at Band D 6 m apart carries

a concentrated load of 16 kN at end A and 96 kN load distributed over a length of 4 m from
C to D. Point C is at a distance of_ 2 m from B. Rate of loading varies from pat C to q
at D. Determine p and q such that reactions at B and D are e~ual. Draw the SF ··imd BM
diagrams. Find the position of the point of contrafl.exure.
Solution, · Total 'Vertical load on the beam
= 16+ 96= 112 kN
· · il. 12 ..
·, ·· · :. Sup~ott reactions · Rn= Rb= - = 56 k N
2
(as given in the problem).
Taking moment of the forces about th~ paitit A
56 x 2+ §6 X 8= p X 4 (6) -'.- (q-p) ( ~ )( 4+ -~)
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S'EiEA-g .IIQRCE AND. BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS 336
112+ 448= 24 p+ (q - p) ( ~o )
40 40
560 = 24 P+ 3- q- T p ... (I)
But ( p+q) x 4= 96 (as given)

2
or p + q= 48, q= 48 - p ... (2)
Substituting the value of q in equation (1)
4 4
24 p- 0 p + 0 (48 - p)= 560
3 3
40 40
24 P- 3 p + 640 - T p = 560
8
- - p=- 80
3
p = 30 kN/m, and q= 18 kN/ m.
l );
, hf
T
- 56 kN
S.F. Diagram
J_
Mmox .
f--2 Bm ( C )
Fig. 7·45
SF diagram, Taking resultant of the forces only on the left side of the section.
:Portion AB. SF at any section,
Fx=- 16 kN at x = O to 2 m.
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'336 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Portion BC. SF at any section,

F= = - 16 + 56 = + 40 kN at x = 2 to 4 m.
Portion CD. Rate of loading at the section,
= p+ q- p ( x-4)
4
18 30
= 30+ - (x- 4) = 30-3 (x-4)
4
Downward distributed load
, =( p + 30 -{ (x - 4) ) (x- 4)
= ( 30 + 30 ~3 (x- 4) ) (x- 4 )
= [30- - J ·5 (x- 4)] (x- 4)= 30 (x-4)- 1'5 (x-4)2

F:= -16+56-[30 tx- 4)-1'5 (x- 4) 2]
= 40-30 (x-4)+ 1·5 (x- 4)2
= 40 kN at x = 4m
= - 14 kN at x = 6m
0= .:__ 56 kN at x = 8m.
BM diagram. Taking moments of the forces only on the left side of the section.
(Clockwise moments are positive).
M. = -16xkNm
=0 ac x = O ro
= - 16kNm at x= lro
= -32 kNm at x = 2 m.
Portion BC. Mm= -1.6 x + 56 (x- 2)
= - 32 kNm at x = 2 m
= + 8 kNm at x = 3 m
=+ 48 kNm at x = 4 m.
Portion CD . M .. = - 16x -+ 56 (x-2)- p (x-4) (3~ 4 ) i-
- (q - p~x- 4) ( x;4 )
Note that moment of the distributed load is considered in two p arts as shown in
Fig. 7-45 (a).
M,.= -16x+56 (x-2)-l!.. (x- 4)2- (q-i)_ (x- 4)2
2 6
Pqtting the values of p and q as 30 and 18 respectively
'= - 16x+56 (x- 2)-15 (x-4)i+2 (x- 4)2 .. . (1)
.= +48 kNm at x = 4 Pi
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SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS ;337
=+76 kNm at x = 6 m
=0 at x=8 m.
Maximum bending moment occurs where F.,= 0, i.e., in portion BC
Fro= 40-30 (x-4)+ 1·5 (x-4)2 =0
40-30x+ 120+ I '5x2 -12x+24=0
1'5x2 -42x+l84= 0
x 42- ~(42)2~4x 1·5x 184 42~25'69 = 5.43 m
Substituting the value of x in eqn. (1)

Mrna.. = -16 X 5"43+56 (543-2)-15 (5 '43 - 4)2 + 2 (5'43-4)2
= -86'88 + 192'08-30'67+4·09= 78'62 kNm
Point of contraflexure lies in the portion BC as is obvious from the BM diagram
So -16x+ 56x- I 12= 0
40x= 112, x=2'8 m .
The BM diagram is shown in Fig. 7·45 (c).
Problem 7'12. A horizontal girder IO m long is hinged at one end and rests freely
on a roller support at a distance of 7 m from the hinged end. The beam carries a uniformly
distributed load of intensity 1000 kg/m run from the end A for a length of 5 metres, a point
load 2000 kg inclined at 30° to the vertical at a point D , 6 metres from end A and a point load
of 3000 kg inclined at 45° to the vertical, at the point E, L m from the hinged end as shown.
Determine the support reactions. Draw the SF and BM diagrams.
Solution. Let us first resolve the inclined loads into vertical and horizontal com-
ponents
Vertical component of 2000kg load.
= 2000xcos 30°= 1732 .t
Horizontal component of 2000 kg load
-+-
= 2000 Xsin 30°= 1000 kg
Vertical component of 3000 kg lood
= 3000 cos 45°= 2121 kg t
Horizontal component of 3000 ·kg load
+-
=3000xsin 45°= 2121 kg
The beam hinged at end F,
~ +- -+
Horizontal reaction at F = 2121 - I000, RFH= l 121
For vertical ·6omponents of reactions, let us take moments· of the fbrces, ab.out
. . .. ~ ..
-
the.
·point A.
1000 X5X2'5) +1732X6;)+2121x9;) =3 Rn:)+·10 RF~,
12500+ 10392+ 19089= 3 RB+ 10 RFII .
._ .,.
41981 =,1 3 !Rn+ 10
•
RFv
For equilibrium
R(l+ RFv = 5 x )900 + 17~2f 21~1 = 8853 k~
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2000kg 121'21 kg
I 3000 kg
1
14'5°
~,--r-7"~~~~~.,,u_
-2203 kg
-4500kg. . 1
B.~ .Dio'gram
I j__ s' ( C)
r-1. 57m
Fig. 7·46
So Rn =(8853-RFY)
10 RFv+3 (8853 -- RFY) = 41981
7RFv= 15422 :kit-ru
RFv= 2203 kg, RB= 6650 ·kg
Total reaction at F = RF= -1(2203) 2 +(112°1)2 = 2472 kg
Angle of Inclination of RF to the v'ertical,
tan 6= !~: = ~~~~ = 0'5088

or 9= 26° 58'.
'rip'~
_ ... ,.,r,~r,-.SF _and , B"t1, ,,d!a~ams _con~i~er a section, X-X ~t ·a -~~~ia~ce 1of jc the en~ A
in portions AB, BC, C:D, DE ~nd EF respectively. Take upward forces ·on rtre 1eft of t'tte section
to be positive, and clo~kwise moment on the left side of the section to be positive.
SF diagram.
J>ortion AB. SF at any section,
F..=-wx where w=°lOOO kg/m
= 0 at x = O m
~- ;,ooo 1~ at x=~ ·m
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339
Portion BC, F.,=-wx+6650=- 100Qx+ 6650
=+ 3650 kg at x=3 m
= + 1650 kg at x = 5 m.
Portion CD. F.. = --1qp9x 5+6650= 1,650 (c<?n~t.~p.t t,ltr,o'}t~~.? ~t t.h.i~ J?Ortion).
Portion DE. Fz= - 5000+ 66 0- 1132= - 82 kg
(C!:mAAao.,t th;r_9u.g1t9p,t w~
p ortion).
Portion EF. F., =- 5000+ 6650-1732- 2121 = - 2203 kg
(constant throughout this portio n),
F ig. 7'46 (b) shows the SF diagram .
B.M. Diagram
Portion AB. B.~. at any section,
wx 2
M. = - where w= 1000 kg/m
2
= -500 x 2
=0 at x=O m
= -500 kg-m at x=l m
= -2000 kg-m at x=2 m
= -4500 kg-m at x= 3 m.
wx 2
Portion BC. M~ = -
2 +Rn(x-3)=-500.x +6650 (x- 3)
2
= -4500 kg-m at x=3 m

= -1350 kg-m at x= 4 m
=+800 kg-m at x= 5 m.
Portion CD. M., =-5000 (x-2'5)+6650 (x-3)
=+ 800 kg-m at x=5 m
=+2450 kg-mat x= 6 m.
Portion DE. M,,= -5000 (x-2·s)+6650(x-3)- 1732(x-6)
= + 2450 kg-m at x= 6 m
=+2368 kg-mat x=7 m
= +2204 kg-mat x=9 m
(There. is slight er i:.or due ~o calcula,t;ioW i e. ip. ]?J.a<;<;: of
2203 kg-m we are getting 2204 ~&-m).
PortionEF. M., =-5000 (x-2'5)+66§0(x -3}- 1732(x-6)-2121 (x- 9)
= 2204 kg-m at x= 9 m
=0 at x=I@ m
Fig. 7'46 (c) sh ow the Bill diagram. The maxjm um ,bcns:l i:i:ig 11\QPl(iJ?,,t -4\00 kg-m
Jccurs at the support B where SF has changed sign
Point of contraflexure lies in the portion BC
Puttiing - 500x 2 + 66;5Q(.x-3.)= 0
5QOx2- 6650x+ 1-9950 = 0
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x 2 - 13'3+~9'9 = 0
'stilENG'nt ·o'F MATERiA'L'S
340
X= 13'3- 1 (13'3)2 - 4X39'9 13'3- 4'16

2 2
=4'51 m.
Point of contraflexure lies at a distance of 4·57 m from end A
Problem 7'13. A beam ABCD, 8 metres long, supported over a length of 6 metres at
points Band D has the SF diagram ~s shown in Fig. 7·47. Determine the various loads acting
on the beam. Then draw the BM diagram and find. ·
(l) Magnitude and position of the greatest bending moment.
(2) Position of the point of contraflexure if any.
Solution. The beam. is supported o~ the points B · ~nd D, there will be support
reactions say Rn and RD. Consider the t hree port10ns of the beam 1s AB, BC and CD. Consider
':> K o , a gram
Fig. 7·47 • !
a section X-X at a distance of x from the end A. Taking upward force on the left side of the
section to be positive.
Portion AB. F,. = - 40 kN (constant in the portion AB).
This shows that there is a ve1tical load of 40 kN acting on the point A.
Portion BC. F,, =+80 kN (constant in the portion BC).
At th·c point B, SF has changed from -40 kN to +80 kN showing thereby that
-40+ Rn= 80 kN
or Rn = l20 kN , : l , •I.; , , :•
Reaction at the support B,
Rn= l20 kN.
P~rtion CD. At the point C,
SF= O.
Which shows that a vertical load of 80 kN is acting on this point.
From C to D, the SF is not constant but has a straight line relation, gradual de~reasl
in SF. Showing uniformly distributed load over the portion CD.
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=w
Say the rate of loading
~"tlEAR foRCE A.'ND BENtii'NG MOMENT DIAGRMIS
Then SF, Fc-FD= -w X4 (4 m is the length of the portion CD) where

0-40 kN= - 4w Fc =shear force at C and
'o"r w=lO kN/metre run. FD=shear force at D
At the point D, there is a SF
FD=-40 kN.
(Note that vertically upward force on the right side of the section 1s taken as a
negative SF).
So reaction at D, Rn=40 kN.
The load diagram on the beam is as shown in Fig. 7'48 (a).
Total vertical load on the beam
= 40 +80+4x 10 = 160 kN
Reactions, Rs+Rn = 120+ 40= 160 kN
Which shows that load diagram is correct.
40kN
--,- qPoint of c~ nt raflexure

-eo l<Nm
B M Diagram
--- 3 rn
( b)
Fig. 7-48
B.M . Diagratn. Taking clockwise moments on the left side of the section to be
positive.
Portion AB. B.M. at any section,
M., =- 40x
= 0 at x = O m
= -80 kNm at x= 2 m.
Portion BC. M., = - 40x+ 120 (x-2)
= -80 kNm at x = 2 m
= +80 kNm at x=4 m .
2
Portion CD. M. = - 40x+120(x-2)-80(x-4) w (x- 4)
2
where w= lO kN/m
= 80-S(x- 4) 2
= 80 kNm at x=4 m
www.engbookspdf.com = 75 kNm at x=5 m

st.ktNGTIJ oii ~.Atiiii.1Ais
=60 k.Nm at x= 6 m
= 35 kNm atx= 7 m
= 0 kNm at x = 8 m.
Fig. 7'48 (b) shows the B.M. diagram. Maximum bending moment ±80 kN m occurs
.. at, <li~tances of 2 ai;id 4 m from the end A. Point of contra_flex~re lies a~ a d4,Jance .of -3. m from
the chd A.
Problem 7'14. A beam ABCD, 10 1~ long and hi~ged at its ends is su,bjected to
clockwise couples 60 kNm and 80 kNm at distances of 3 m ahd 7 m from the left hand end
support. Draw the SF and BM diagrams and determine the p.osition of the p.oiut of contra-
flexure if any.
Solution. Taking moments of the forces about the pojn_t A
60)+80:;)-Rvx 10:, =o
RD = -14 kNt
For equilibrium RA = 14 kN i
w-------X
- 8 8_kNm
t
P , P , 'p are t r, e
1 2 3
po}.~_ts of contr o fluure
S M.Oiogram
(·c_) - -
Fig. 7-49
SF Diagram. Con~ider a section X-X at a distance of x from the end A . Taking

upward forces on the left's.ide of·the s'ection to be::positiMe.
·,Jrqrq.pn AB. S~.aJ any secti0n,
F.,=- 14 kN
(constant from x= O to 3. m).
l»ortion BC.www.engbookspdf.com
F111= -14 'k.N (constant from x = 3 m to 7 m)
SHE>:k FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS 343
Portion CD. F .. =- 14 kN (constant from x= 7 m to IO m)

Fig. 7·49 (b) shows the SF diagram.
BM Diagram. (Clockwise moments on the left side of the section are positive).
M .. =-14 x
= 0 at x= O
= - 42 kNm at x=3 m.
Portion BC. M .. = - l4x+ 60 kNm
= + 18 kNm at x = 3 m
=- 10 kNm at x =5 m
= - 38 kNm at x= 7 m.
Point of contraflexure lies in this portion also as the BM has changed sign.
Putting M _.= 0
or - 14x+ 60 = 0
We get, x = 4'29 m (from end A).
Portion CD. M,.=- 14x + 60 + 80

=+42 kNm at x = 7 m
= + 28 kNm at x = 8 m
=0 at x = lO m.
The BM diagram is shown in the Fig. 7·49 (c).~
As is obvious from the BM diagram there are 3 points of contraflexure lying at
distances of 3 m, 4·29 m and 7 m from the end A.
Probletn 7·1s. A beam ABCD, hinged at one ..end and simply supported at other
carries the loads/forces as shown in the Fig. 7'50. Draw the SF and BM diagrams.
S0lu1ion. The load diagram is equivalent to the diagram shown below in Fig. (bJ, which
can be obtained as follows :
( i) At point B, an inclined load of 5 tori'n'es is resolved into two components 'of 3T t
-+
and 4T. The component 4T at a le.ver of I m le·ngth is equivalent to an anticlockwise moment
....
4T-m and a force cf 4T at the point B.
-+ ....
(ii) At the point C, Forces 4T at lever length of 1 m and 3T at lever length of 2 m
-+
are equivalent to a force IT and a clockwise moment 10 Tm at the point C. The end A of the
beam is simply supported, while the end D is hinged.
'So h orizontal reaction at D,
-+
fl p11 = 4- l=~T
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344 STRJ:NGTJ-J OF MATERIALS
' 5T
I
Ai===.:d_L~4 ~~
=====~ ~~1-m
-;ij;r;, B CI
2m
31
3m - - l - 3m--...J lm
(a) I
3T t
r,
+2·1L.3Tm
0
~~T
- 7·857 Tm
B .M. Oiogrom
(d )
C
_L
Fig. 7'50
For support reactions, t ake moments about the point A.

3 X 3 ~ - 4' + 10 ~ - 7XRm,' = 0
15= 7 RDY
RDv = 2·143 T .
But RDv+ R,w=jT
RAv= 3- 2°143= 0°857 T
SF diagram . (Taking upward forces on the left of a section to be positive) 1 •
Portion AB. Fx = + 0·857 T (constant from A to B)
Portion BC. F.,=+o·ss7 T-3T= - 2·143 T (constant from Bto C)
Portion CD. Fx= + o·ss1T-3T= - 2·14J T \Constant from C ~o P}
fi~. 7'50(c) show~ \he SF dia~am ,
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BM diagram. Taking clockwi~e moment on the left side of the section to be positive.
Mx=+o·g57 x
=0 at x= O
=+2·570 Tm at x=3 m
Portion BC. M:. = 0'857 x-4-3 (x-3)
=-=- 1·43 Tm at x=3 m
= -3'572 Tm at x=4m
= -5'715 Tm at x= 5m
=-7'857 Tm at x=6 m
Portion CO. M., = +o ·s57- 4 -3{x- 3) + 10
= +2·143 Tm at x=6m
=0 Tm at x=7 m
Fig. 7·50 (d) shows the BM diagram with two points of contraflexure at points B
and C.
SUMMARY
l. Resultant of forces parallel to the section of the beam carrying transverse loads
on the left or on the right side of the section is called shear force.
2. On the left side of the section vertically upward force is a positive shear force. On
the right side of the section, vertically downward force is a positive shear force.
3. Resultant moment of the forces on the left or on the right side of a section is called
Bending Moment.
4. Clockwise moments on the left side of the section are positive BM. Anticlockwise
moments on the right side of the section are positive BM.
5. For a cantilever of length L, carrying load W at free end, max(mum bending
moment - WL occurs at the fixed. end.
6.For a beam of length L, simply supported at it ends, carrying a concentrated load
.
Wat its centre, the maximum ben d'mg moment WL occurs at t he centre of the beam.
I .
4
7.
For a cantilever of length L, carrying uniformly distributed load w per unit length,
wL2
maximum bending . moment - - occurs at the fixed end.
2
8. For a beam of length L simply supported at its ends carrying uniformly
distributed load w per umt . lengt11, maximum
. bend.mg moment - wV - occurs at the centre o f
8
the beam.
9. Maximum bending moment in a beam occurs at a point where shear force either
is zero or shear force changes sign.
10. A point of contraflexure in a beam occurs at a point where benqini moment
changes sign.
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' ,: "
STRENGTH OF MATERlALS
l l. For a beam of length L, hinged at both the ends subjected· to a, turning moment
M
M, the reactions at ends are ± L. The shear force remains constant thr-0ughout the length
of the beam.
12 If for a certain portion of a beam, bending moment is constant, then shear force
is zero.
13. For a beam carrying transverse point loads and distributed loads
(i) dF = -w
dx '
i.e., rate of change of S.F. is equal to the rate of loading
at a particular section
W) dM = F
dx '
i.e., rate of change ofB.M. is equal to the shear force
at a particular section
1. A cantilever 5 m long, carries a point load of 5 tonnes at its free end and a uniformly
distributed load of 2 tonnes/metre run throughout its length, the maximum bending
moment on the cantilever is
(a) 100 tonne-metres (b) 50 tonne-metres
(c )• 25 tonne metres (d) None of the above.
2. A cantilever 8 m long carries a point load of 5 tonnes at its free end and 5 tonnes at its
middle. The bending moment at the middle of the cantilever is
(a) 10 tonne-metres (b) 20 tonne-metres
(e) 40 tonne-metres (d) None of the above.
3. A cantilever 10 metres long, carries a uniformly distributed load of IO kN/metre run
statt-ing from free end upto the middle of its length. The BM at the fixec:il end of the
cantilever is
(a) 2SkNm (b) 50 kNm
(c) 75 kNm (di JOO kNm . ·
4. A cantilever 8 ffi' Jong carries throughout its length a uniformly d istributed load of iv
kg/m run. If the maximum bending m,,ment is 3200 kg-metre, the rate of loading w is
(a) 100 kg/m (b) 50 kg/m
(c) 25 kg/m (d) None of the above.
5. A c:mtilever 6 m long, carries a point load of JOO kN at its free end and an0ther p0int
load Wat the middle of its length. If the maximum BM on cantilever is 900 kNm, the
valve ef load W is
(a) 50 kN (b) 100 kN
(c) 150 kN (d) 200 kN.
6.· A cantil~ver JO m long carries a uniformly distributed load of 20 kN/m run throughout
its length. ff it is propped by a force P at its free end so that the centre of the ·cantilever
becomes the p oint of inflexion, the magnitude of P is
(a) 200 kN (b) 150 kN
(c) 100 kN (d) 50 kN
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SflllAR FORCE AND BBNDING MO\fBNT DIAGRAMS 341
7. A beam 8 m long, simply s upported at its ends, carries a point load of 800 kg at a dis-
tance of 3 m from one end. The BM under the load is
(a) 4000 kg-metre (b) 1600 kg-metre
(c) 1500 kg-metre (d) 1000 kg-metre.
8. A beam 10 m long supported over 8 m span, having equal over hang on both the .sid!!S,
carries loads of 8 tonnes each at its ends and a load of 2 tonnes at its centre, the pofots of
contraflexure lie at
(a) at the supports (b) at the centre
(c) at 2 m from each end (d) None of the above.
9. A beam 8 m long, supported over a span of 6 m, carries a concentra,ted load of 20 kN at
its centre. The maximum bending in the beam is
(a) 80 k Nm (b) 60 k Nm
(c) 40 k Nm (d) 30 k Nm.
J0. A beam 8 m long, simply supported at the ends, carries a uniformly distributed load of
2T/m from one· end to a distance of 2 m, aod from the other end to a distance of 2 m.
The SF at the centre of the beam is
(a) 4 T (b) 2 T
(c) 1 T (d) 0.
11 . A beam carries transverse loads and is simply supported with over hang on both H1e
sides. The point of contraflexure is a point where-
(a) Shear force is ma,x imum (b) Shear force is zero.
(c) Bending moment changes sign (d) Bending moment is maximum.
12. A beam 10 m long hinged at both the ends is subjected to a clockwise turning moment of
40 k Nm at a di stance of 3 m from one end. The SF at the centre of the beam is
wo~
(c) 4 kN
w2~
(d) 8 kN.
13. A beam carri~s tr.ansverse loads. Its SF and BM diagrams are qrawn. In a portion of
the beam where SF is zero, the bending moment is
(a) maximum (b) minimum
(c) coRst-ant (d) zero.
14. A beam 10 m long is supported over 6 m gpan with equal over hang on both the sides. It
carries point loads of 40 kN each at its ends and a point load of 80 kN at its centre.
The points of contraflexure lie at a distance· of x metres form each end. The \lalue of
Xis
~2m W3m
(c) 4 m (d) 5 m.
15. A beam 10 m long carries point loads. When SF diagram is drawn, there are two rec-
tangles of the sii;e IO .kN x 2 m, one is starting from ~nd and above the .base. '.f:-he other
starting from 1the other end but. below the base line. The BM at th~ c~ntre qf tb,e
beam is
(a) 50 kNm I (b) 40 kNm
(c) 30 kNm (d) 20 k:Nm.
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (:b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (b)
6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (d)
i 1. (c)
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12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (d)
348 StRENGtH 0~ MAT!RIALS
EXERCISE
1·1. A beam ABCDE, 16 m long supported over a span ABCD of 12 metre carries
concentrated loads of 6 tonnes at B, 4 m from A, 5 t onnes at C, 8 m from A and 4 tonnes at
E. Draw the SF and BM diagrams stating (i) the position and magnitude of maximum BM
· (ii) the position of the point of contraflexure.
[Ans. Reactions, R,4 = 4·33 tonnes, RD = 10.67 tonnes, Mma:ii=I7·32 tonnes/mat a
distance of 4 m from end A, points of contrafl.exure l-ies at a distance of 9'6 m
from A].
7·2. A beam AB, hinged at the ends A and B, of length / carries a uniformly dis-
tributed load cf intensity w acting downwards on half of its length and an upward uniformly
distributed load of intensity w acts on the rema ining h alf of the beam (a). Draw the SF and
BM diagrams. (b) Locate the position of the point of inflexion, if any. (c) What is the
maximum bending moment and where it occurs.
[Ans. Reactions ±wl/4, (b) Point of inflexion lies at the centre of the beam,
(c) Maximum bending moment ±w/ 2/32 occurs at l/4 from both the ends].
7·3, A beam 8 m long carries a uniformly distributed load of 10 kN/m run, through-
out its length. Clockwise moments of 50 kN m and 30 kN m are applied at the two ends.
Determine the support reactions. Find the magnitude and position of the greatest tending
moment.
[Ans. Support reactions 30 kN and 50 kN Mmare=95 kN m at 3 metres from one end]
7·4. A beam ABCD, 8 m long supported at B, I m from A and at C x metre from' D.

The beam carries a point load of 4 kN at end A and a uniformly distributed load of 2 kN/m
run throughout its length. Determine the value of x , if the centre of the beam becomes the
point of contraflexure. Draw the BM diagram and find the position of any other point of
contraflexure.
[Ans. x= 16/7 m, RB=32/3 kN, Rc = 28/3 kN ; other point of contraflexure lies at 7/ 3
m from end A]
7·5, A beam ABCDE, 12 m long cantilevered over the portion AB= 4 m long,
supported at points B and E, BE= 8 m, carries a concentrated load 2 kN at A, 2 kN at C,
2 m from A and 2 kN at D, 2 m fro m E. In addition it carries a uniformly distributed load
of 1 kN/m over the portion CD. Draw the SF and BM d iagrams, indicating the values of
BM at B, C and D. Find the position of the point of contraflexure .
[Ans. RB= 7 kN, RE= 3 kN, MB=- 8 kNm, Mc =+2 kNm, MD=+ 6 kNm; Point
of contraflexure lies at a distance of 5'6 m from A]
7'6. A . beam ABCDE, 14 metres long supported at Band D, the overhang on both
the sides being 3 metres, carries the transverse loads as shown in the Fig. 7' 51.
(a) Draw the SF and BM diagrams
(b) Find the p osition of the p oint of inflexion.
(c) Determine the position and magnitude of maximum BM.
[Ans. RB= 6 tonQ.e, RD= 8 tonnes, (b) There is no point of inflexion in th~ beam,
(c) Mm•• 15 tonne-metres occurs at the support D]
,\ . \
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SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DiAGRAMS 349
20kN 40kN
3 Tonnes ~To nne; Ws 10 k Njrn
W= 1 Tonne/me ter
A B / C 0 Apx.ra:x:q~::o::~m:r::ci::o::~o
B C
--1 3m ~~~ 3m - 2m- 2m 3m
L,OkN .
Fig. 7'51 Fig. 7'52
1·1. A propped contilever ABCD, 7 m long carries the transverse loads as shown in
the Fig. 7·52. Draw the BM diagram and determine (i) magnitude and position of the
maximum BM (ii) Position of the point of contraflexure.
[Ans. Mma.,= - l 85 k.Nm at the fixed end. Poi1i.t of contraflexure l.ies at a distance of
4·633 m from end A]
1·8. A beam 8 m long simply supported over a span of 6 m, carries the transverse
loads as shown in the Fig. 7·53. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams.
Determine (i) the position of the point of contraflexure if any (ii) position and magnitude of
the maximum bending moment.
[Ans. Point of contrafl.exure lies at a di:.tance of 5'48 m fro m one end, Mrn,,,, = -15.833
tonne metres at a distance of 1 m from one end]
9T
W= 21/m J5T
W: 2T/ m
A
B C
Im lm Im 3 rn 2m
. ~ 2m 4m
Fig. 7·53 Fig. 7 54
. · 7'9. A cantilever 6 m long, carr ies a u niformly distributed load of 2 tonne/m run
from B, 2 m from free en<;! A, upt? the fixed end C _and a concentrated load 5 tonnes a~ the end
of a lever at A, a s shown m the F ig 7·54, Determme
(i) the point where shear force is zero.
(ii) m agnitude and position of the maximum bending moment.
(iii) position of the point of inflexion.
fAns. (i) at no point SF is zero ·
(ii) - 36 tonne-metres at the fixed end
(iii) at 2 m from end A ]
7·10. A beam ACB of length l hi nged
at both the ends carries a linearly varying
distributed load as shown in Fig. 7'55.
Petermine the maximum bending moment
· and its position . Locate also the point of
contraflexure.
fAns. Mma;,; = ± w/2/36'1 3 at l/2'13

from both the ends. Point of
contrafl.exure lies at the centre] Fig. 7•SS
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StRENG:ilH OF ·M-Ai:ERIAiS
7'11. A beam ABCb, 12 m iong suppotted at Band b, 8 m apart carries a concentrated

load of 3 tonnes at A and 18 tonnes load distributed from C to D. Point C is at a distance
of 4 m from support B. Rate of 10ading varies from p at C to q at D. Determine the
values of p and q such that reactions at B and D are equal. Draw the SF and BM diagrams.
Find the magnitude and position of the maximum bending moment. Where is the point of
contraflexure?
[Ans. Rn= RD = 10·5 tonne, p = 9 tonne-metre, q= O,
. '
Ms= - 12 tonne-metres, Mc=+ 18 tonne-metre
Mmo:11= 21 ·3g tonne-metres at 8"945 m from end A.
Point of contraflexure lies at a distance of 5'6 m f~cJ111 A]
7·12. A horizontal girder. ABCD. 8 m long is hinged at end A n.nd rests freely on a
roller support at D. The girder is loaded with vertical and inclined loads as shown in
Fig. 7'56. Assuming the direction of the reaction at D to be vertical, determine (a) magnitude of
reaction at D (b) magnitude and direction of reaction at A. Draw the BM diagram to a
suitable scale.
[Ans. RD = 6'121 tonnes, R,1 = 7'447 tonnes, inclined at an angle 34° 46' to the
vertical]
GT
w = IT/m 6T
A
(
D
B C
- -4 m 2m 7m
I
Fig. 7·:6 Fig. 7·57
7'13. The SF diagram of a beam ABCD, 12 m long, supported at the points A and C
is shown in the Fig. 7'57. Draw (a) the load diagram, (b) the BM diagram of the beam. (c)
Determine the position of the point of contraflexure.
Ans Ms = +8 tonne metres, Mc = -8 tonne metre, Point of contraflexure lies at 6'47m
from A]
7'14. A beam ABCD, 8 metres long and hinged at ends is subjected to two.couples
M1 = 4 Tm and M 2 = 8 T-m at points B and C. Both the couples are in anticlockwise
direction and the points B and Care at 2 m and 6 m respectively from the end A (as shown
in Fig. 7'58). Draw the SF and BM diagrams and find the position of the .points of contra-
flexure.
[Ans. Points of contraflexure lie at distances of 2 m, 2'667 m and-6 m from end A]
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5T
4T
A f
lrn
Al
B
CL
lm ~2rn 3m
Fig. 7·58 Fig. 7·59
7·1s. A beam ABC, 6 m. long, hinged at C and simply supported at A carries load/
force at a lever l m X 2 mas shown in the Fig. 7·59. Determine reactions at A and C. Draw
SF and Bl\4 diag-rams. Find also the position of the point of contraflexure if any.
[Ans. RA = 4 ·g33 tonnes, RcH= 4 tonnes, Re v= o· l 67 tonnes ;
Mn = + 14·5 tonne-metres, = O·s tonne-metr<!S,
No point of contraflexure any where]
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Theory of Simple Bending
In the last chapter we h ave studied about the Shear Force and Bending Moment dia-
grams of cantilevers and beams subjected t o transverse loads. Shear stress is developed across
the section of the beam due to the shear force on the section and longitudinal or direct stress
is developed on the section of the beam due to the bending moment on the section. An
element of the beam may be subjected t o positive bending moment (i.e. a bending moment
which produces concavity upwards in the beam) or a negative bending moment (i.e. a bending
moment which produces convexity upwards) as shown in the Fig. s· 1. An element of the
beam initially straight, bends to the shape a'b'd ' c' due to a positive bending moment.
a b
~E- - - --3~
;(;-a ' b)\
M/c~ ~)M
(a )
Fig. 8·t
As is obvious, the upper layer ab gets contrac~ed to a'b' i.e. ab>a'b' and the lower
layer gets exte nded to c' d' i.'j-, c' d'>cd. . There is a layer (sh?wn dotted) which neither
contracts nor extends i. e. ef = e'f . There will be compressive stram and compressive stress
in the upper layers and tensile strain and tensile stress in the lower layers. Similarly when the
element of the beam is subjected to a negative BM, the upper layers will extend and lower
layers will contract i.e. a'b'>ab and.c'd' ~c? as shown in Fig. s·1 (b). Again there is a layer ef
which neit,her extends nor contracts 1.e. e f = ef
The layer which neither contracts nor extends due to bending moment and does not
have any strain or any stress in it is called a neutral layer.. It will be shown that this neutral
layer passes through the centroidal axis of the sections of the beam.
There is a definite relation~hip ~etween t~e di~ect ~tress f developed due to bending
and the bending moment 1!-f, which ;¥111 be derived m this chapter. To develop the relation-
~hip between[ and M certam assumptions are taken.
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THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING 353
s·t . ASSUMPTIONS FOR THE 1 HEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING
For developing the theory of simple bending or for working out relationship between
the stress f and the bending moment M, following assumptions are taken :
(i) The beam is initially straight before the application of transverse loads o~ the
beam.
(ii) The material of the beam is homogeneous and isotropic. i.e. the material possesses
the same elastic properties in all directions through out the length and breadth of the beam.
(iii) Elastic limit is not exceeded i.e. if the beam is unloaded it returns to its original
shape and ·dimensions.
(iv) Transverse sections which are
plane before bending remain plane after bend- I "j ~c
j
ing. Fig. s·2 explains the meaning of this . -
assumption. Transverse sections of the beam b d
such as ab which is in one plane, after bending J::::F!_.~
changes the direction a'b' but a'b' section ~ ' ·-b - ·d
remains in one plane. Similarly the section
cd in one plane after change remains in one
plane c' d'. In other words this assumtion means Fig. 8·2
that transverse sections of the beam are not
distorted in shape after bending.
(v) Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract independently of the layers
above or below it.
(vi) The value of the Young's modulus of elasticity E of the material is the same in
tension and in compression.
(vii) The beam section is symmetrical about the plane of bending i.e. about the plane
passing through the neutral layer.
8'2. THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING
Consider an element ABCD of the beam of small length ax as shown in Fig. 8'3 (a).
After the application of the transverse loads on the beam, the beam bends arrd say that on this
small element, the bending moment Mis positive i.e. producing concavity upwards. The beam
section can be of any shape. Say the beam section is trapezoidal as shown. Due to bending
moment, the upper layer AB contracts and lower layer CD extends. A layer EF which neither
contracts nor extends is called the neutral layer. After bending AB changes to A 1 Bi, EF
changes to E 1 F 1 and CD changes to C1 D1. Such that A 1 B1 <AB, C1D1 >CD and E 1 F1 = EF.
Say for the small infinitesimal length ax, the bent length can be considered as a part of a
circle of definite radius, ~s shown in Fig. s·3. (b) Say the centre of circle ' or centre of curvature
is 0 . Radius of the circle or radius of curvature upto the neural layer E 1 F 1 is R .
• l• ' · ··, ; ' '
Consider a: layer GH at a distance of y from the neutral layer, which is reduced in

length to G1 H1 rafter the bending of the beam .
GH= Final length-Original length

Strain in the layer
Original length
G1H1 - GH_
GH
But initially GH= EF= E1 F1
Strain in the layer GH,
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354 STRENGTH Of MATERIAJ,S
where E1 F 1 =R0
G1H 1 =(R-y)fJ
The distance between the layers GH and EF i.e. y is changed toy'. But the change .in
this thickness is negligible and y'e!y.
r6x -1
IN
M M b
( A
;
C
( 0)
B
H y
( C )
0!
B
·-.:jft I-
( d)
F,
ft
.
Yt
0- Cent re of corvature
R- Radius of corvoture
( b)
' Fig. 8·3
So the strain in the layer GH,

_ (R-y) 0-R0
E- R0
- y
= R
or e ex y .. . (1)
The strain in the layer is a compressive strain or a negative strain.
I t can be deduced from this equation that strain in any layer is proportional to its
distance from .the neutral layer. The strain -is compressive or tensile depends 1:1-pon the position
of the layer i.e. whether the layer is above or below the neutral layer. In this particular cas~,
maximum negative or compressive strain will be at the top and maximum positive or tensile
strain will be at the bottom layers.
Say y 4 = distance of the top layer from the neural layer
y 1= distance of the bottom layer from the neutral layer
Then Ee, maximum compressive strain=>;;
~t i maximqm ten~ile strain
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THEORY OF SIMPLE BENtJING 35S
The variation of the strain is shown by the Fig. 8'3 (c). The strain: distribution is
linear across the thickness of the beam.
8'3. NEUTRAL AXIS
The intersection of the plane of the neutral layer with the cross section of the beam is
called the neutral ax.is, as shown in the Fig. s·30 by NA across the section of the beam.
The strain in any layer is directly proportional to its distance from the neutral axis
Say the stress in the layer GH
-f
But / = £E
where £ = Young's modulus of the material
So f= _)'_, XE
R
Consider an elementary area, b"oy as shown in the Fig. 8'3. Force on the layer GH of
thickness, 8y
Total force on the section,

-y • .
F= j 8F , - i Jy)~a
Yi
For equilibrium resultant force on the section is zero. i.e. Total compressive force
acting on the section above the neutral axis is equal to the•totat-. tensile force Ft acting on the
i...
ection below the neutral axis.
i.e.
-y.
Therefore F=O or - iJ y 8a = O
Yi
Now E#O, R#O
-y.
So I y 8a= A .Y=O,
i.e. the first moment of area about the neutral axis is zero
Therefore .Y= O because A#O
The first moment of area of section about its centroidal axis is zero·. . This shows that
:utral axis of the beam passes th.rough. the centroid of the section. In other words, the neutral
yer along the length of the beam passes through the centroids of all the sections along the
ngth of the beam.
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356 STRENGTH ' OF MATERIALS
Example 8'3-1. A brass strip 80 mm wide and 30 mm thick is bent into an arc of
radius 60 m . What is the maximum stress develo ped in the strip if
Ebrass = 1 X 105 MN/m 2 .
Solution. Say the maximum stress developed = /

Strip is ·of rectangular section, neutral axis will pass through the centre e1f the thickness,
So, y=± ~ where t=thickness
= ±15 mm (since it is a rectangular section)
Radius of the arc, R= 60'm
= 60000 mm
E for brass = 1 X 106MN/m 2
= 1 X 105 N/mm2
Now
I E
y=R
f ERy =± 1S X 1 X 10
5
60000
= ± 25'0 N/mm2.
Example 8'3-2. A mild steel beam of depth 200 mm is bent into an arc of a circle of
radius R . What is the minimum value of R if the stress in beam is not to exceed 600 kg/cm 2.
The beam section is symmetrical about the neutral layer. £ = 2 X 106 kg/cm2.
Solution. f, maximum stress
= ±600 kg/cm 2
y, distance of extreme layers from Neutral axis
= ± 100 mm (as the beam section is symmetrical about NA)
= ±10 cm
I E
-;=If
Radius of curvature, R= JY =
2
x ~~~x IO = 3·3333 x 104 cm
=333'33 m. ··
Exercise 8'3-1. A round steel bar of diameter 50 mm is bent into an arc of radius
SO m. What is the maximum stress developed in the bar.
Given, E=2 X 106 kg/cm2 • · '1 [Ans. ±500 kg/cm 2!
Exercise 8'3-2. To what radius an aluminium strip 100 mm wide and 20 mm thid
can be bent if the maximum stress in strip is not to exceed SO N/ mm2? E for aluminiurr
= 70 x 103 N/mm 2 • [Ans. 14 m:
8'4. MOMENT. OF RESISTANCE

Refering to Fig. 8'3 (d)
Force on elementary 8a,
'SF=- i y. 8a
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THEORY OP SIMPLE BENDING 357
Moment of the force 'SF about the neutral axis,
oM= -y oF
= - i y 8a(-y) = ; y 2 8a.
Total moment about the neutral axis

-yo
= ! i yzsa.
Yt
Moment of resistance due to internal stresses developed in the section of the beam,
-y.
M,= iJ y 2 Sa = Applied Moment, M
Yt
-y.
But J y oa=second moment of the area about the neutn~l axis
2
Yt
or
Say CG is the centroid of the section and XX and YY are the horizontal and vertical
axis passing through the centroid. Neutral axis of the beam passes through the centroid of the
section, as shown in the Fig. 8'4.
So, INA=l..
E
R. l.,:c = M
M E
or I .,. = Ji · ... (3)
A- X
Morever / = ; .E
or
I E Iv
y=1r
The value of y is negative when it is Fig. 8·4
taken towards the centre of curvature from the
neutral axis, and y is positive when the distance of the layer is taken away from the centre of
curvature from the neutral axis.
From the above equations
M - Ji. __L (flexure formula) ... (4)

I,,,, - R - y.
Moreover we see that Fe and Ft i.e. total compressive force on the section on one side
of neutral axis is equal to the total tensile force on the section on the other side of the neutral
axis and they constitute a couple of arm h [see Fig. 8'3 (d)).
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STR:'EN61'H · 0F MA TEIHAts
Moment of resista nce Afr = .Fc Xi1= F , X h= Applied Moment, M .

Fig. 8'3 (d) shows the str~ss distribution across the section. The axis of the resultant
forces Fe and F1 and the length of the arm of the couple can be determined.
Equation (4) in terms of maximum tensile and maximum compressive stresses can be
written as
f ,= - M~ =- M
J.,. z,
My, M
Ji=1...
-= -z,·
W~ re Z sta,n di; for the modulus of the seeti on ~nd is eq11al to the moment of inertia
of the section about the neutra l axis divided by the extreme value of y.
If the section of the be.am is symmetrical abou t the neut:al axis i.e. a bout its centre of
gravity, and if dis the depth of the secti6n then
d d
)'.=- 2' y,=+ 2
[.,.,
Z . = Z ,= Z = -
d/2
Then, the expression fo r the moment of resista nce,

M = fZ.
s·s. MOMENT OF INERTIA OF SECTIONS

Before we proceed to determine the stresses in t11e beams due to bending moment, le,t
us revise the infor mation on t he posit ion of centro id and moment of iner tia of different
sections, most commonly used for beams.
(i) Rectangular Section. F ig. s·s shows a rectangular section of breadth 'B a nd
depth D. CG lies at distances of
(x= 1, J= ~ ) and
BD3 DB3
l..: =
12, lr11 =
12 •
•
y
X X
: :
Fig. 8·5 Fig. 8·6
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THl:.ORY OF SI MPLE BENDING 359
(ii) Circular Section. Fig. 8 6 shows a circular section of diameter D, with C G at

its centre ·
4
rtD
I:u = lvv = M.
,
(iii) Semi-Circular Section. Fig. 8"7 shows a semi circular ~ectio n of radius, R.
CG lies alon g YY axis and at a distance cf ;: from the c\iametral axis 00 as shown.
nD 4
lo o-- - · -
128
D4
f u = f oo - - -
l81t ·
I y
0
y
X X
- 4R
Y:-
O 311 0
0 Y. 4'R
x =y=
Jll
F ig. 8.7 Fig. 8·8
(iv) Quarter-Circular Section. F ig. 8"8 shows a quarter-circular section of radius

R with C.G. ~ing at
4R
x=J =~
TCD4
f oo = l oo' = - -
256
..
(v) Triangular Section. F ig. g·9 shows a triangular section DEF of base B and
Height H . Its C.G. w-ill pass through X-X axis at a dist ance of f from the base. Say NF
equal to H., is the altitude on side DE from the point F. PQ is parallel to the side DE at a
distance of 1!. frbm the side. 'CG lies at the inter section of X-X axis and line PQ.
BH3
l.r:,, = ~
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,360 . STRENGTH OF MATERIAL!!_
H
..y
X
H
i y
7?8
3
F
X
- - X
J' -._
X
01
1-t, ------ r- x y
Fig. 8·9 Fig. 8·10
(vi) Any Section, Consider a section of any shape as shown in Fig. s·IO.
Tot:tl area can be considered as a summation of small areas 8a1 , 802, 803 ..... . San.
Say the co-ordinates of aver) small area Sa are x and y.

Then moment of inertia, Tu= Jy2da
l 11 v= Jx 2da.
_ Jxda
Location of CG, x= A
Jyda
y= --x-.
Perpendicular Axis Theorem. Fig. A
s· 11 shows any area with its CG lying at 0.
X-X and Y- Y are the horizontal and vertical
axes passing through the centroid 0 . If 0 -0 , ) ( -~ r--- ~ - - l --
is the polar axis of the area, then
X
Moment of Jnertia= / oo
= Ir1.., + I1111
l oo is generally called the polar moment
of inertia. ·
Fig. 8·11
' P arallel Axis Theorem. Fig. s· 11 show a plane lamina with its C.G . at 0. X-X
and Y-Y are the horizontal and vertical axes passing through the centroi d 0. Axis X'-X' is
parallel to X-X axis and is at a distance of h. Axis Y' Y' is para llel to Y- Y axi s and is at a
distance of h' from YY.
Moment of inertia, Jy'y' = /yy+.A.h' 2
Moment of inertia, lx'x'= Ixx+Ah 2
rt=ap~a of the plane lamina,,
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THEORY OF SfMPf.E BENDING
s·6. BEAMS OF RECTANGULAR SECTION
Fig. 8' 12 shows a beam of rectangular section subjected to bending moment M. The
breadth of the section is B and depth is D. The neutral axis passes through the centroid of the
section, and the rectangular section is symmetrical about its CG.
Fig. 8'12
Therefore distance of extreme layers from the neutral axis

D
=y= ± -2
The longitudinal stresses or the direct stresses developed on the extreme layers are
:qual and opposite.
So f. = -f, (as shown).
The stress distribution across the depth of the section is linear. Upper half of the
ection comes under compression and the lower half comes under tension.
Compressive force on upper half,
FC =( O+f2 0 ) BD _ fc . BD
2 - 4
Tensile force on lower half,
F,=( Oi ft ) Br = fi
4BD .
The resultant force, Fe passes through an axis at a distance of 1/3 x D'/2 from the top
Lyer and the resultant force F, passes through an axis at a distance of D/6 from the bottom
.yer.
Fe and Po form a couple of arm 2D/3
. 2D 2D
Moment of resistance, M=F,x - 3- = F. x - -3
BD 2D BD 2D
=fi . - x 3 =/cX
4 T' T
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STRENCHl;I OF MA TERtAI$
BD 2 BD 2
=/1 . - 6
- - fc -6-
= ft .Z,=f• . z.
The section modulus Z 1= The section modulus Zc
BD 2
= -6-·
Example s·6-1. · A timber joist _of rect~ngular s~cti<;m 10 cm x 20 cm deep is simply

supported over a span of 4 metres and carries a umformly distributed load of 1 tonne /me tr;~
run. Calculate the skin stresses at the centre of the beam .
Solution.
Length of the beam, L= 4 metre
Rate of loading, w= 1 tonne/metre
BM at the centre of the beam,
w/2" JX 4 X 4
M= = . = 2 tonne-metres
8 8
5
= 2 x 10 kg-cm
Breadth of the section, B= lO cm

D epth of the section , D = 20 cm
...... :. • t , ' : '. • ~ ·•
·section modulus,
- •
·z = Bf2 = 10:2os J°-3 33 X 1Q4 ems . ; l'
M 2 x 106 ·
Skin stresses, Jc= ·2 = . X
1 333 104
15 kgJc m2 (compressive)
0
.:. J 17.:. ·. / ! l ~.. . . · · - •-" <

.,.· M .
J, = 2 = 15 kg/cm2 (tensile).
Exatnple 8'6-2. A steel beam . of hollow square · section with outer side 50 mm and
inner side 40 mm is fixed as a cantilever with a length of 3 mei.rcs. Now much concentrated load
can be applied at the free end of the cantilever, if the m::iximum stress is not to exceed 60
N/mm 2 •
Solution. Length of the cantilev.er,
L = 3 m = 3000 mm
. . .. fay the. load at free end, ;.:' 1
·· ··:.: : .. ; · .·, · . = W Newtons.
•The maximum bendin_g momer~t W .f: occurs at the fixed .end of. the contilever'; and so
the max imum stress in the cantilever sect10n. will be developed at the fixed end. The F ig g· I 3
sh ows the hollow square section and the stress distributi on with extreme stre~~c~ :!:60 N7~m2,
Di~tance of extreme layers from Neutral axis,
. . . ?'::;:= :!:25 JP.Pl ,
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tHEORY OF SIMPLE BENDlNU 363
1
Section ~ 2
+ 60 N/m m
St ress d is tri bu ti on
Fig. 8·13
501 4
Moment of Inertia, INA = lxx = --rr-- u40
104
= 12 x 369 mm'
Maximum stress, / = 60 N/mm 2

y = 25 mm
Therefore M=L X l xx= j!}_ X J_Q4 x 369

y 25 12
4
= 73'8 x 10 Nmm
= WL=3000 W Nmm
Concentrated load at the free end,

... 73' 1 X 104
W= 3000 246 N . ...;
Exercise 8'6-1. A timber joist of square sectiqn 200 mm X 206' mm f~ fixed as a

cantilever with a length of~ metres .. What unifo~mly distributed load ca]l be aBplied ·through-
out the length of the beam 1f the maximum stress 1s not to exceed 5 N/mm2 ? · .,
[Ans. 1·4~ kN/mJ
Exercise 8'6-2. A steel beam of hollow rectangular section with outer sides 50 mm
wid'.), JOO mm deep and inner sides 30 mm wide and 80 mm deep is simply suppcrted over
a span of 6 metres. How much central load the beam can carry if the maximum stress is not
to exceed 75 MN/m 2 • [Ans. 2'88 kNJ
s·7. CIRCULAR SECTION
Fig. 8'14 shows a circular section of the beam subjected to b\:mding moment M. ·· The
diameter of the circular section is D and its CG lies at the centre of .1he circle. Under the'
action of the bending moment shown, upper half of the section comes under tension aud
lower half comes under compression.
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364 Sl'RENGTrH OF ~A'FE~t,A1<&
under tens ion
M M under
compression St ress
distr 1but10M
sect ,on
Fig. 8·14
Moment of inertia,
~D4
fu orfNA=~
Distance of extreme layers from neutral la¥er

D
= ±2
Stresses developed in extreme layers,
M D
/, or Jc=± /~-,, · 2
M D 32M M
=± ~D• x64x -y =± ,.D3 =z
wDa
Section Modulus, Z.=Section mod't'iius, Z1=Z= -32- ·
' . )
Example 8'7-1. A cast iron water pipe 50 cm t?ore and 2 cm thick is supported over
a span of 10 metres. Find the maximum'sttesi; in t he metal when the pipe is running full.
Density of cast iron =7300 kg/m 8
Density'of w,~ter = 1000 kg/m3 •
'S0b1tlon. T]J.'~ fig. 8' 15 !?hows a
sec;:ti,0n qf cast iron pipe with a bore of 50 cm
·ahi i:>lltside dia. 54 cm. water
Area of crbss section of pipe
Area of cross section of pipe carrying

'<Water
.= : X 502 = 1963'5 cm2
Fig. n ·5
, I , '- '
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Ti:lEORY OF SIMPLE BENDiNG
Density of cast iron = 0'0073 kg/cma

Density of water = O·Ool kg/cm:i
Weight of CJ. pipe per metre length
= 326·72 x ·oo x o·oo73 = 238'50 kg
Weight of water carried per metre length
= 1963'5 X IOO X0001 = 196·35 kg
Total weight of pipe per metre length
= 238'50+ 196'35= 434'85 kg
Span length, 1= 10 m
Load on the ·beam per unit length,
w= 434'85 kg/ m
Maximum bending moment occurs at the centre of the beam,
wl 2 434'85x JOx 10
Mma: =-- = 5435'62 kg-m
8 8
= 543562 kg-cm
1•• , moment of inertia of Cl section ,
= ~ (D4-d4)
= 6~ (544 - 504) = bl-0596'9 cm 4
Distance of extreme layers from the neutral axis,

yo or y1 = ±21 cm
Stress developed in metal,
J;=Mmaz
-- . y,
f xx
543562 X 27
= 110596·9 132·7 kg/cm2
= -f•.
Exercise s·1.1. A steel tube 8 mm bore and J mm wall thickness is fully charged
with mercury and forms the part of an apparatus of a laborat0ry. The tube is 600 mm
long and is supported over a span of 500 mm. What is the maximum stress in the tube due to
bending. Given
Density of steel = 0'0078 kg/cms
Density of mercury = O·o 136 kg/cm3 [Ans. 446'9 l kg/cm9l
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s·s. I-SECTION
Fig. 8'16 shows a symmetrical I y

section most commonly used as a structural
member. There are two flanges on the top
and bottom of the dimensions B X t and one
web in the centre of dimensions b X d. Since
the section is symmetrical, its CG is located
at the CG of the web as shown.
D
Moment of lnertja,
d
BD 3 (B--b) d3
f xx=--i-z-
Distance of the extreme layers from the

neutral axis
12
1 t
Section modulus, Zt=Zc=Z

fxx BD 3 -(B-b) d3
= D/2 = 6D
In this case most of the bending moment is resisted by the 'flanges.
Example 8-8·1. A beam of I section 30 cm x 12 cm, has flanges 2 cm thick and web
I cm thick. Compare its flexural strength with that of a beam of rectangular section of the
same weight, the depth being twice the width. What will be the maximum stress developed
in l section for a bend~ng moment 30 kNm.
Solution. Fig. 8 · 17 shows I section

of given dimensions.
= 12 x 2+ 12x2+ (30 - 4)x 1
- 1s 1- ·
= 74 cm2 • -f~T
i 30c ni
1~7cm
section
Rectangular beam is of the same
weight and same material.
So Area of cross section of rectangular
=74 cm2 = B X D
2,m l__
T~1 2c m~
. 1 cm
-J6·06f-
Re c t a ngular
sec t ion
or = B X 2B= 2B2 ! -S ection
or B=
J 2
14
- = 6"08 cm
'
D·=6'08 x 2= 12· 16 cm
Fig. 8·17
I-Section. B= l2 cm
b = l C'm
D= 30 cm
d= 30- 4= 26 cm
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THEOR'i'. OF $IMPLE BENDING 367
Section modulus, z 1
= 12 X 30 3 - ( 12- 1)263
_ 324000- I93336
6X 30 - 180
= 725'9 cm3= 725'9 X 103 mms
BD 2
Rectangular section, ZR=-- where B = 6·os, D = 12'16
6
= 6'08x 12·162 = 149'84 cma
6
The flexural strength of a beam is directly proportional to its section modulus
Z1 _ 725·9 = .
4 84
' ZR -149'84
Bending moment on I section beam ,
M = 30 kNm
= 30X 10 6 Nmm
= f,naxZ =/max X 725'9 X 103•
Maximum stress developed
30X 106
- 725·9x 10a = 41·32 N/mm2
Exercise 8·8-1. A beam is of I section 20 X 15 cm with thickness of the flanges 2'5 cm

and thickness of the web 1· 5 cm. Compare its flexural strength with that of a beam of circular
section of the same weight and same material. What will be the max imum stress developed in
I section for a bending moment of 2·5 tonne-metres . [Ans. 7_' 14, 403'024 kg/cm2]
8'9. T-SECTION
Fig. 8'18 shows a T section of breadth

B and depth D. The thickness of the flange is . r-section
t 1 and thickness of web is t 2 • The section is
symmetrical about Y- Y axis as shown but
unsymmetrical about X - X axis passing
through the centroid of the section. To deter-
mine distance of the CG from the lower
edge.
Let us take, area of flange, a 1 = Bt 1
Yi', distance of C.G. of the flange from
lower edge
=(D- i) Fig. 8·18
Area of web, a2 = ti(D-t1 )

y 2', distance of C.G. of the web from lower edge
=( D
;t 1
)
Distance of the C .G. of the T-section from lower edge,

01J'i' +a2Y2'
,Y2 = a~+a3
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368 STRENGTH OF MATElUAI:.S
T~n Ji=D-h
Neutral axis passes through the centroid of the section.
So moment of inertia,
ln =
B11a (
+ Bt1 Yi-2
11 )2
12
3
+ tiD-t1)
12 +tiD-f1)(y2-Y2')2
(Using parallel axis theorem)
Section modulus,
Example s·9-l. Find the position of the C. G. and calculate l xx for 15 cm x 1O cm x

1·5 cm. T section shown in Fig. s· 19. A canti lever of length 3 metres and of the section shown
with flange at the top carries a load W at its free end. What can be the maximum value of
W so that the stress in the section must not exceed 50 N/mm2 •
Solution. Area of flange,
a 1 =l0X1"5=I5 cm2
Yi' from bottom edge
=15-0.75=14·25 cm
Area of web,
a2 = 1"5X(15-l.5) Bottom edge
=20·25 cm 2
y,/, from bottom edge
15 5 Fig. 8·19
= -/ =6'75 cm.
y 1, distance of C.G. of the section from bottom edge

15 X 14"25+ 20·25 X 6·75 _ .
15+20·15 - 9 94 cm
y 2 , distance of C.G. of the section from top edge
= 15 -9.94= 5"06 cm
Moment oflnertia,
15
lxx= I0 ~ · a
2
+ lo x 1·5 ( S-06- ~~/
+ l 'S Xl~·sa + 1·5 X 13·5 (9.94 - 6.75)2
= 2'8125+278"64 15+307'5469+206'0660
= 795"07 cm'
_ f xx _ 195"01
St:ction modulus, Z 1 - Yi - 19 987 cm 3 = 79·987 x 10s mm3
9.94 = ·
= fx x _ 195"01 = ] .
Zz - 5·06 .57 13 cm3
;v~ .
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!l1HEOR¥ .OF SIMPLE BENDING
1
The stress due to bending in a layer is proportional to its distance from the neutral
fayer. Therefore maximum stress in the section will be developed at the lower edge. The
<:antilever is fixed such that flange is at the top. Cantilever carries a load W at free end.
So the flange will be in tension and the lower portion of the web i:e. below the neutral axis
will be in compression. So Jc should not exceed 50 N/ mrn 2 •
Max. B.M. on cantilever = WL

(at the fixed end) = 3000 W Nmm if W is in Newtons
= / o.Z1
3000 W= 50X79"987X 103
W= 50 X79'987 1333 N
3
= 1"333 kN.
Exercise 8"9-1. A beam of T section, 4 m long·carries a uniformly distribuled load w

per metre run .throughout its length. The beam is s imply supported at its ends. The T
section is 2o·x '10 x 1·2 cm. What is the maximum value of w so that stress in the sec'tion does
not exceed 600 k_g/cm 2 • f Ans . 340·8 kg/metre run]
8'10. L-SECTION
Fig. s·20 shows on unequal L-section, of bceadth Band depth D and thickness t.
a1 , area of leg L 1 = B.t
Distance of C.G. of area ai, from
edge PO
B
-2
Area of leg L 2 , a2 = (D - t) t
Distance of C.G. of area a2 from edge PO
t
- 2
Distance of C.G. of L section from PO, Fig.8·20
t
Distance of C.G. of area a 1 from edge OR=
2
1
Distance of C.G. of area a2 from edge OR=( D2 +t )
·--· ( Q±i..)
2
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' '
3.70 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Distance of C.G. of L section from edge OR,
.,
Moment of Inertia, lxx=

t (D - 1) 3 -\- t(D - t) (
12
Y2-TD · )2
Bta
+12 + Bt
(
Yi-
t )2
2
Section modulus, Z = fxx
1 J'1
Example s·t0-1. Find the position of C.G. and calculate moment of inertia J.," ·o f an
unequal angle section 10 cm X 8 cm X I cm. A beam of this angle section is used as a cantilever
of length 3 metre subjected to a turning moment M at its free end . What is the maximum
value of M if the stress in the section is not to exceed 70 MN/m2 •
Solution. L section is also called an angle section.
area, a1 = 8 cm2
area, a 2 = (10- l) x I= 9 cm2
_ 8 x 4+ 9 x o· s 36'5 1--r .
1 10cm
x= 8+ 9 · = 17 - 6 853
= 2·147 cm
-t-- X X
8 x o·5+ 9(1 -t-4·5) ( I = 3 147
"
G /Q.
,_L,
Yi =
= 3'147 cm
8+ 9 - -
-w,,m--j T ,m
y2 = 10- 3'147 t · 147 cm

= 6·853 cm Fig. 8•21
8 X 13
M oment of inertia, l ,x= - ,-2- + 8(3' 147 - 0'5)2
1 X 93
+-
12- +9(6'853 - 4' 5)2
= 0'667 +56'053 + 60'750+49'829
= 167'299 cm4
= 167·299 x 104 mm4
'
Admissible stress, J = 70 MN/m 2
= 70 N /111111 2
The stress in a ~ayer.due to ben~ing is c.lirectlJ'. proportional to its distance from the
p<;l}trnl layer: therefore 1n th1~ ca~e µiaxup~m stress w1!l o<;:cur at the top ed~c because y~>Yi·
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THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDiNO 311
Maximum admissible turning moment, M
=fX lxx
Y2
70X 167.299 X 104
6·853
= 1708·88 x 104 Nmm
= 17·08 kNm .
Exercise s·to-1. Determine the position of the centroid of an unequal angle

120 mm X 60 mm X 8 mm. A beam of this section is simply supported over a span of 8 m.
A load 1 kN acts at a distance of 2 metre from one end of the beam. What is the maximum
stress developed in the angle section.
[Ans. x=13.07 mm, J = 43'07 mm, l xx=206.44 X 104 mm 4
/maz =55.898 N/mmZJ
Note that in this case, maximum bending moment occurs under the load.
s ·u CHANNEL SECTION
Fig. 8'22 shows a channel section of depth D, breath B and thickness t. CG lies at
a distance of x from edge PR and at distanc~ of D/2 from the edge RN or the edge PM.
B B t
B. t . +B . t .
2 2 +(D-2t) t. 2
x= B t+B t+(D-2t) t
t2
t B2+ (D - 2t)
2 M
= 2 Bt+t (D-2t)
B 2+-t (D - 2t)
2
2B+(D-2t)
D
Ji= Y2= z
Moment of Inertia,
EDS (B-t)(D-2t) 8
l.u= -rr-- . 12
Section modulus, Fig. 8·22
Example s·u-1. The thickness of flange and web of a channel section are 10 mm
and 8 mm respectively, while its breadth and depth are 50mm and 100 mm. Find the position of
the CG of the section and its l xx· If a beam of this channel section is used, what maximum
bending moment can be applied if the stress is not to exceed O'S tonne/cm2.
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Solution. Considering the channels and web separately as· shown in the fig. ·s·23.
sox 10 x 2s + so x 10x2s + so x sx 4
X
sox 1o+ so x 1o+ sox8
25000 + 2560 = 16 .801 mm
1640
Moment of Inertia ,
SOX 1003
. 12
42 X 80 3
12
I chaoo,1 *IOmmr
= 237'467 x 104 mm 4
= 237'467 cm4
,, rmm f~:b 100mm
1
Allowa:b!e stress due to bending
= 0'5 tonne/cin:2
. • I
y1 = 50 mm char;inel J
Maximum allowaole B. M.
i ... ·
1:-so~~ ~ ,T
10mm
-- 0·5 lxx __ o·sx237'467
M max- X D/2 - s·O . ,
[ where { = s cm J ii:: 16·8-0mm
Fig. 8·23
= 23'7467 tonne-cm= 0'23-7467 T-m. ·
Exercise s·n-1. A 20 cm x 8 cm channel with thickness of web 10 mm and thickness

of flanges 12 mm is used as a beam with the 20 cm base yertical. - At' a certain cross section
it has to resist a bending moment of 14 kNm. Calculate the maximum intensity of stress due
to bending a:t that section. · · [Ans. 65 N/mm2)
8'12. UNEQUAL I SECTION
Fig. 8'24 shows an unequal I section. The top flange B1 x ti, bottom flange B2 x t 2 and
web t3 X dare symmetrical about the Y-Y axis. So C.G. of the section lies along Y-Y axis. The
overall depth of the section is D.
To determine position of C.G. along the Y-Y axis, take area df iop flange,
a1 = B1 !1
C.G. of a1 from bottom edge PQ
= D-~
2
C.G. of a~ from edge PQ= 1 2 •
" Are'a of the web,
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r-B1 ~ J_
Tr a, TT
ti
+--,
Cl 3
C.G
0 X d
N A
l
t3
Y1
02
t2
pl~ 12~~
Jn egual I - Sectio n
Fig. 8·24
d
C.G. of a 3 from edge PQ = t2+
2
then
B111 ( D- f )+B2!2· t+t3 . d ( t2+ 1)
B1 t 1 + B 2 l 2 + t 3 d
Section modulus,
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374 STRENGTH OF MATERiALS
Example 8'12-1. A CI beam of I section with top flange 15 cm X 1 cm, bottom

flange 20 cm X 2 cm and web 27 cm X I cm is
supported over a span of 6 metres. - If the
permissible stresses are 1 tonne/cm 2 in com-
pression and 0·25 tonne/cm2 in tension , what
uniformly distributed load can be safely
/Y
r-
15 C rn -~/ ==-r-:b
applied on the beam.
i -/ rem
+
Solution.
2
Top flange area,
Bottom flange area,
a1 = 15 cm 2
a. = 40 cm:i
i
X _ _·..._c_.G
_ X
27cm
Web area, a 3 = 27 cm:l 1 C rn

. YI
Section is symmetrical about Y-Y axis ,
so C.G. will lie along this axis. Pl
l'<---20cm-~
V - ](d j2cm
The distance of C.G. of I section from
bottom edge PQ, Fig. 8·25
15 X (27+ 2+ 0'5)+40 (1) +27 {2+ 13'5)
15 + 40 + 27
442 ·5+40+ 418·5 901
= 82 =
82
= 10' 988 cm
Y2 = 30-10'988 = 19'012 cm.

15 X JS
Moment of Inertia, f xx = - - - + 15 (19'012- 0'5)2
12
l X 273
+ 12 +27(2+ 13'5- 10'988)2
20 X23
+ 12 + 40 (10'988-1)2
= 1'250+5140'412+ l 640'25 + 549'670+ 13'333+3990'406

= 11335'32 cm 4
f xx 11335'32 , ,
Section modulus, Z 1 = Yi = 10.988 = 103161 cma
Z= ~ = 11335·32 = 596'22 s
Y2 19'012 cm ·
Now the stress due to bending in any layer is proportional to its distance from the
neutral axis. As the allowable stress in tension is much less than the allowable stress in
compression and y 1 < y 2 , the bottom flange should come under tension .
Taking f ,= 0·25 tonne-cm 2
Bending moment /1 . Z1
= 0'25 X 1031' 61 = 257'90 to nne/cm
= 2'579 tonne-metres
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Taking Jc= 1 tonne-cm 2

Bendin g moment = f,XZ 2
= I X 596·22= 596"22 tonne-cm
= 5"9622 tonne-metres
Therefore allowable moment,
11'/2
= 2"579 tonne-metre = - -
8
where w= rate of loading
/= length of beam, 6 m
IV X .i.§._ = 2"579
8
2·579 .
Rate of loading, w= ----;fs = 0 5731 tonne/ metre
= 573' I kg/ metre run .

Exercise s·12.1. The cross section of a cast iron bea m is an J section with top flange
15 cm x 5 cm, web 22 cm x 4 cm and bottom flange 25 c m X 8 cm. The load ing being in the
plane of the web. The upper portion o f the sectio n is in compression. If the a llowable
maximum stresses are 60 N /mm 2 in tension and 150 N/ mm 2 in compression, find the moment
of resistance ot the section. · [Ans. l xx= 52559 cm4, 233'25 kNm]
8'13. MODULUS OF RUPTURE
Flexure formula Mflxx = f /y= E/R is derived on the assumption that stress developed
in beam due to bending does not exceed the proportional limit stress. It is also proved that
stress strain in any layer is proportional to its distance from the neutral layer. But if the
stress developed in any layer exceeds t"ke propor ti onal li mit stress as obtained from the stress
str:i in diagram of the material Fig. 8"26 (a), though the strain in any layer remains pro-
protional to its distance from the neutral layer but the stress in the layer does not remain
a d
Strai n distribution Stress
Stress s t ra i n diagram
distr ibution
(a) ( b) ( C)
Fig. 8·26
proportional to its distance from the neutral layer. Consider a bea m of rectangular section
subjected to a bending moment M. The stress-strain diagram is the same in tension and in
compression as shown. From the stress-strain diagram, e 1 is the strain at t he proportional
limit upto which stress is proportional to strain, we get linear stress distribution diagra m as
:-;hown in dia~ram (c). At the strain f:? in the extreme la~er, stress ish, stress distributioQ
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STRENGTH OF MA TE.\U,\J.,$
diagram is linear upto certam distance froin neutral layer but beyond which the di~_gram is
non linear and stress is / 2. Similarly / 3 is the stress in the extreme fibres corresponding to
strain c 3 as shown. If the bending m0 ment applied is such that stress in the extreme layer
reaches the ultimate stress, the beam is su13posed to haye failed.
If Mu1 1= ultimate bending moment determined experimentally.
Modulus of rupturc= ultimate str ess in extreme fibres calculated on the basis of flexural
formula.
This m odulus of rupture is higher than the true stress.
6 Murt
Modulus of rupture
bd2
where b= breadth of rectangular sect ion
d=depth of rectangular section.
The theoretical value of modulus of rupture is given by cb while the true ultimate stress
is/3 as sh own in Fig. 8'26 (c).
' 4 :J
' ·ExarnHle 8"13-1. I 5 cm x 15 cm pine beam was supported at the ends on a 4·5 m
span and load~d at the third points. The beam fa iled when a o·s tonne load was placed at
1·5 pi fr.om ~ach end . Find the m opulus of rupture.
Solution, The bea m is of square section 15 cm side

aa 15 3
Section modul us, Z-=-= 6 = 6- cma.
The beam is of 4·5 m length and

carries loadc; of o·8 tonne each at a distance
..
0 ·8T 0·8T
of 1·s m from each end.
A B C D
Reactions RA = R n=0'8 tonne
(be9ause o f symmi:try) R.A=O·BT l5m 1-5m l5m R0 =0·8T
B.M. at Band C = .0'8 X 1·5
t
= 1·2 tonne-metres 1·2Tm
The B.M. diagram is as sh o~n in the
Fig. 8'27.
Mult. . = 1·2 tonne-metre Fig. 8·+7
=f,,. X section modulus
153
1'2 x lOOO x 100 kg- cm=/'" x
6
i'2 X 105 X 6
modulus of rupture, /m = J53 = 213'3 kg/cm 2 •
. E:x:er,c.ise 8 13-1. A 10 cm x I_ 5 cm wooden beam ~ m long was tested to failure by

applying a concentrated load at the middle of the span . F md the JTi odulus of rupture if tp.e
!Tlaximu!TI !oad was 1520 k~. f.~ns. ~04 kg/cm~~
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.<THEORY OF .SIMPLE BENDING :::,-n
8'14. BUILT UP SECTIONS
A number of compound sections can be built up using standard· rolled sections
such/, T, (channel) and Angle (L) sections and flat plates making beams and columns
of required strength and stiffness. In the previous articles we have seen different sections with
sharp edges and corners. To reduce the effect of stress concentration at the corners and to
eliminate sharp outer edges, the steel sections of different shapes are rolled out having fillet
radius at the corners and rounded edges. The di~ensions of standard rolled steel sections are
given in Indian standards. The properties of standard sections such as l xx, l v11 and distance of
centroid from edges are also provided iu these tables. A few examples are given below .
I
An I section ISLB I50, a channel section ISLC 75, an equal angle section TSA 6060 and
an unequal section ISA 5030 are shown in the Fig 8'28.
1v y
t
T
150 X
G
X
T
75 X
_l
I ISLB 150 ~ 46 f-
G
X
X
T-tll
.Jx
f -+ GX
!-- 6YO --l f .

l ~ aqv~
ISLC 75
(b}
ISA 6060
(C )
i
(a)
T v
50 _L
~ X y
i\ ; :
...j-/o ~ - .. .,., .
ISA 5030
(d)
.. ,
Fig. 8·28 \'
I section ISLB 150 has weight 14'2 kg/ m, Area 18'08 cm2, Depth 150 mm, width
80 mm, Flange thickness 6'8 mm, web thickness 4'8 mm, moment of inertia l xx=688'2 cm4 and
IY11 = 55'2 cm4 • Channel section ISLC 75 has weight 5'7 kg/metre. Area= 7'26 cm 2 , Depth
75 mm, flange width 40 mm, flange thickness 6'0 mm, web thickness 3·7 mm, fxx=66' I cm4,
!vu= 11 ·5 cm", distance of C.G of the section from outer edge of web, x = 1.35 cm. ISA 6060 has
weight 4·5 kg/m, Area= S'75 cm2, l xx= l vt = 19'2 cm4, x=y= 1'65 cm for a thickness of 5 mm.
The thickness of the section can also be 6, 8 and l O mm and correspondingly the properties
change ISA 5030 has size 50 X 30 mm , weight 1'8 kg/m, Area 2'34 cm 2, l xx= 5'9 cm4, In = l '6
cm4, x = 0'65 and y = I '63 for thickness of 3 mm. For other thicknesses of 4, 5 and 6 mm, the
properties of the section change correspondingly.
Combining the standard sections with plates built up sections are made. A few
examples are given in the Fig. 8'29.
The built up sections are made with the help of riveting or welding of plates with the
standard sections. The CG of a built up section is found out and then moments of inertia l ~x
and I{r are determined taking the help of p~rflllel ax is theorcn~. ·
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378 STJIBNOO'S OF MNJ;BRJAl!.S
"
I '.
)( X X X X,
,I
y
I Section and Two I Sec tions and T wo channel s 11. ctions
p~ates plates and plate~
y
y
,
x~-B,5:2:z~~~~~x
I - Se-ct ion with 4 Angle sec;tions

two I -Sections. with plate.~ .
Fig. 8·29
Example 8'14-1. A compound section is built up of two rolled steel beams JSJB 150
standard section placed side by side with two plates 10 mm thick and 150 mm wide each riveted
to top and bottom flanges. the rolled sections are placed symmetrically about the centre of
the plates. Calculate the lxx a,nd / n for the built up section. For each 1SJB 150.
A', Area = 9'01 cm2 Depth=l50 m:µ,, Flange width=50 mm, l xx'= 322'1 cm' and
l>,'=9'2 cm'.
I --- . Iv _j_
T '"~.. ·-~ ...
'. TlOmm
I I~
~o mm
l_ x- fr-
15orrrn
i-1° j
- ·==r.
cJ7, 5 37. 5
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THBOllY OF SIM~E BBNDING
. '
Fig. 8'30 'shows the ·built up section having 2 I-sections and two plates on top and
bottom. Since the I-section or beam section are placed symmetrically about' the centre of the
plates 150 mm x 10 mm, the CG of tlie built up Section wm'lie at the centre G as shown. The
X-X and Y-Y axis of the built up section. are shown, passing through G.
Distance of CG of I section from Y-Y axis =37'5 mm .
. (Sit'lce ·tfie I 'sections are symmetr'ically placed abo'u t the centre of the plates).
Distance of CG of the plates from X-X axis=15+ 5 = 80 mm.
Using the parallel axis theorem
15 X l 3
l xx = 2frx'+ 2 x 12 + 2 x l5 X 1X82
= 2 X 322'1 +2·5+ 1920 = 2'566'7·c1114
2
frrv= 2[y'y' + 2A' (3'75)2 + 2 X 1 X li;
= 2 x 9·2+ 2 x 9·01 x 3'75 2 + 562'5
= 18·4+253 '40 +'562'5 =·834'3 cm4•
Note that I section is 'also called a beam section.
Example 8'14-2. A box section is made by joini ng 4 equal angle sections ISA 75 75
ana hvo ' toj> plates 200 mm X 10 min a nd two side plates J80 ram X J'Orh m ~is-sho\.vn m the
Fig. 8°3'1. Determii1e tlie 'm oment of inertia l xx a nd /,,. Properties of equal -angle ·sections are
A', Area = 7'27 cm 2
lxx' = l ,y'= 38'1 cm4
x' = y' = 2'02 cm.
ffh:e· box ·s ecfi0n ·m ade is shown in Fig. 8°31 . The equal angles are placed symmetrically
about the centroid G of the whole of the section.
Distance of G' of angle sect ion from
X-X axis
= 10- 1-2·02= 6'98 cm 2·02cm
,j_,., ~ -·- .::.. , y. .
, . ,bistance of G' of angle section frc m 2'-02cm · I T
YYaxis
= 10- 1- 2·02= 6°98 cm x ----\:I- _j_ ,. i00rn m
.
'x1x ·a:~is
bista:ii.be of CG of top plates from
= I00-5 =95 mm= 9·5 cm

\
. /G -- ;
1 I.
,. 'bf"'"'
_:._.x
1:. . . J
Distance of CG of sides plates from ·~1 ciorn m· \oornm~

YY''axis
= 100-5= 95 mm = 9·5 cm . flii:. 8·31
Using parallel axis theorem

2 X20 x 13 • 2 x I X 183
lu = -- - - +2 X20 X l X 9 52 -J- - - - + 4 x / x'x.'
12 12
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• .• • .... f,..
. STRENGTH OF MA TERlAl.S
= 3'333 + ~610+ 972+ 4 x 38·7+4x 1·21 x 9·52

. . • ; ~?
~. ! ~ ) .. -~' ~. = 4585'333 + 154'8+ 2624'47 ···1
• "f • .,.
= 7364'603 cm4 • " e . ...:.
1,,.-= 2
X\;203 2
+ x ~~x is +2x l8 x 9'52+ 4I11,'+4A'x9·5 2
= 1333'333+ 3+ 3249 + 4 x 38·7+4 x1·21 x 9·52

= 7364·603 cm4•
We have obtained ln= I.,., because the section is symmetrical about X-X and YY-axis
and forms a square type box section.
Exercise 8'14-1. Two channel sections 1SJC 100 placed back to back at a distance
30 mm are joined by two plates 120 mm x 15 mm at the bottom and top flanges. Determine
the moment of inertia I n and I,..,.- Properties of a channel section are, Area= 7'41 cm2, Depth
100 mm, flange width= 45 mm, l x'x' = 123'8 cm4, ly'y' = 14'9 cm4, x'= l '40 (distance of C.G.
from outer edge of web). Determine moment of inertia Ix» and In .
[Ans. 1444'6 cm4, 586'43 cm"]
,. ..
Exercise 8'14-2. A beam section ISLB 250 is riveted to the beam sections ISMB 100.
The smaller se.ctions· ate riveted by .coinciding the XX axis of ISLB 250 to the J:'Y axi$: ·of
ISMB 100. Determine the moment of inertia I,,,, and, luv of the built up section. Properties
of ISLB 250 are, web thickness = 6· J mm, Arca 35·53 mm2, depth 250 mm, width,·:1,25 mm,
l x'x' = 3717'8 cm\ ly'y' = 193'4 cm4. Properties of ISMB 100 are, area=14'60 cm2, depth
100 mm, width= 75 mm, l x'x' = 251'5 cm4 and l y'y' = 40'8 cm4 •
,, ,.. _[Ans. · 3799-·4 cm4, ' ~530'17 cm']
. r~:5
8'15. BEAMS OF UNIFORM STRENGTH ···;-:: ·t..:r.

Generally the beams and cantilevers which are commonly emJ)loyed are of :uniform
section throughout their lengtfi. Limiting stresses are reached only at the s~ction subjected to
the maximum bending moment. At all oth er section s of the beam, maximum· allowable stress
is not . reached and the material is not put to its most economical use and as a resuff:''.'a
considerable amount of the material is uuderstressed and is wast~d.:. To ~chieve the most
economical use of the .material, beams and cantilevers of uniform strength throughout their
length can be suitably designed, so that the maximum stress . deveJoped anywhere, . along the
length . remains the same. Stress f at any section subjected to bending moment Mi:; equal
M. J., .."" t..· . .&., ..
to , w~ere Z is the section modulus. Therefore to achie:ve unifo1:?1 st~·ength it is necessary

2
to have 1
cons~; nt throughout. Plate girders, ca~riage s~rings, t~pere_d ~ast_~, ~l~~~fic poles
are some of the examples in which concept of uniform strength has been used to sonie extent~\\'
,.r1 1,, ~
Let us consi4er a cantilever of length /, of rectangular section· ·and carrying a concen·

trated load at the free en"d. M, Bending moment at any section= Wx (numerically)
bd2
Z, section modulus =6 • J
M 6Wx
or = . .. (1)
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Z kd 2 '
In this case either b is varie~f an·d ~/ is· kept ·constant throughout or ·b is 'kept ·tionstant
and d is varied along the length.
(i) f~- 6b:: = 6::: ( ; ).
To achieve uniform strength, b is uniformly increased from zero at one end to maximum
. . 6Wx '6-Wl
at the fixed end as shown m Fig. 8'32 where b,, = fd 2 and the breadth at the fixed end, B = fd 2 •
Fig. 8·32 Fig. 8·33
Secondly, the width of the cantilever section is constant say B throughout and the depth varies.
Then f = 6Wx
Bd2 or d., = J 6Wx . Fig. g·33 and at the fixed end, depth of the
Bf - as shown in
. r 6WI
section, = ~ Bf •
Let
•
us consider .that. •the cantilever carries
2
a uniformly. distributed load w per unit
length. The bending moment at any section= w;_ (numerically) . Say the depth of the rect~
\lngular section is kep(constant?as d and breadth v~ries for the_ uniform strength . t.···. Then;. ,
Fig. 8·34
6wx 2 6 J2
breadth at any section b.,= fd 2 and breadth, Bat the fixed ertd wiii be _; 2 • Secondly, we
consider breadth to be constant say Band depth variable i.e. d,,2= ~~"
1
· or qepth at any
( 6w ·
section, d"'= \J D='\J{ fB
6w
I as shown in r ig. 8'34.
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fB x and at the fixed end .
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THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING 3,-83
Breadth, B= 10 cm
/, length of the cantilever = 200 cm
Uniform strength, f = 1·2 tonne/cm 2
Rate of loading, w=2 tonnes/ metre run
= 0'02 tonne/cm
Depth at any section I6

d:i:='\J. fB.
IV
x
= f 6x002 x=- O·Jx

\J 1·2 x 10
d at t:h~ middle of the len~th = O'I x 100= 10 cm
D.epth at tbQ fixed end = O·l x200= 20 cm.
. J;:xa,;nple s·tS-2. A beam of uniform strengtl). and va,r ying rectangular sc<;tion is
simply supported over ~ span of 3 metres. It carries a u~i-(ormly d,i~tr ib~ted load <:>f H) k~
per metre run. The umform strength is 80 N/mm 2 • (a) Determine the depth at a distance of
I m from one end if the breadth is the same throughout and equal to 15 cm. (b) Find out
the ~readth at the centre of the span if the depth is constant throughout the length of the beam
and 1s equal to 10 cm.
Solution. 1=3 metres= 300 cm
w=IO kN/m=IOO N/cm
/=80 N/mm2= 8000 N/cm2
(a) Breadth is constant,
B= 15 cm
d. =J}; (lx-x2)
x= lOO cm
d=J3 x
"
IOO X (300 X 100- 1002)
8000 X 15
= .f 3 X IOOX 10000><2= 4 .08
\J: I 5 x 8000 cm
(b) Depth is constant, d= IO cm
Breadth at any section b~= };: (Jx - x 2)
x = l50 cm (i.e. at the centre)

_ 3 X 100 ( _
B- x x 300 x 150 150)
2
8000 102
= 8·4375 cm
Exercise s·t?-1, A canii!ever 250 cm long carries a load of 20 kN at the free end.
The c1;1.nfl1ever i~ of rectangu·lar secti on with constant breadth b= 5 cm but of variable depth.
So as to hav·e a cantilever of uniform strength. Determine the depth at intervals of 50 cm
ffOJll, the free end if the uniform strength is ·1·0 0 N/mm 2.
[Ans. 0, 10'95, 15'49, 18'97, 21'90! 24'495 cmJ
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S:rllENGT-H OF .MAWRIA;J,,S
Exercise 8'15-2. A beam of span 4 metres carries a concentrated load 4 tQnnes· at its centre
and its ends are simply supported. The beam is of rectangular section with uniform breadth
10 cm throughout. If the beam has uniform strength throughout and is equal J<;> 1·2 tonnes/
cm 2, determine the depth of the section at quarter spans from the ends and at the mid ·point.
[Ans. lO cm, 14'14 cm]
~·t6. BIMETALLIC STRIP
When two metal strips having different coefficients of thermal expansion are brazed
·,t ogether, a change in temperature w ill cau se th e assembly to bend. Fig. g·37 shows a compo-
:site bar of rectangular stri ps of metal 1 a nd metal 2 per manently joined together. Say
"the coefficient of linear expansion of metal 1 is cx 1 and that of metal 2 is c,:2 and 11. 1 <C1.2,
say the Young's modulus of metal 1 is E 1 and that of metal 2 is E 2 • When this composite
bar is heated through T 0 it will bend because C1. 2 >cx 1 and both the strips will deform together
introducing compressive stress in metal 2 and tensile stress in metal 1, because°'~ < cx 2 , metal
1 will exert compressive force on metal 2 along the interface reducing its free expansion
·· of C1. 2 lT and metal 2 will exert tensile for.ce on metal 1 and further increas ing its free . expansion
: u.iLT. This we have already discussed in chapter 2. ·
. . .. ,·-. • ' • .- I~
~.
. . ·1.• .. . . :., .. ' '
,.;,.
1, Fig. 8·37
For equilibrium , compre_ssive (orce ori sj.rip of metal 2

= tensile force on strip of metal 1.
Say b is the breadth and t is the_thickness of each strip.
f1bt=J~ bt . , . .. ( 1)
where / 2 = compressive stress in strip 2
( :·~ · ·· ., : ... / = tensile stress in strip L
1
The b ending moment exerted on the bar,

M = Pt
M= M 1 + M2
~• I I •
+
= Bending moment resisted by . strip · 1 bending ·mo!11ent . re-
. sisted by stnp 2 ·,
br 3 bt 3 bt 3 · ." . ... n)
Pt= l2 RXE1+ Ii R E2 = l2 iE1+ .E2_)
., \.. ._, -.
,
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11{EORY OF SiMPLB BENDING 385
Let us assume that the composite bar has bent into the shape of an are of a circle. Th~
radius of curvature upto the interface is R' and Radiu~ of curvature R is the same for both the
strips because~ is very large in comparison to t.
Resultant strain in strip 2,
(from flexure formula)
Resultant strain in strip 1,

t
E1 = - 2R
Moreover resultant strain in strip 2,

p
= - -bt -E- +a2T
2
and resultant strain in strip I,

p
= + bt E 1 +cxiT
Difference of strains
t p p
"2- "1 = -R = - bt
- -.r\--a2T- - - -a1 T
E btE 2 1
1 1
- - = (a 2 -cx1
R
)7'-~(-
bt E
- +-E1- ) 1 2
or (az- 0:1) T = _t +..!._ ( J_ + -1 ) ... (2)

R bt E1 E2
Substituting the value of P from equation I I)

2
t bt l ( 1 I )
(cx2- a1) T = If + 12 R (E1 + E2)bt Ei + E2
= _t _ +_t_ (E1 + E 2)2

R 12 R E1E2
=.!__[ I+ E1 +E2 +2E1E J
2 2
2
R 12 E E~ 1
t
= 12 R E1E2 (E12+ E22 + 14 E1E2)
or Radius of curvature, R ... (3)
Example 8'16-1. A bimetallic strip is made of brass and steel strips of width 6 mm
and thickness 1·2 mm each. The composite strip is initially straight. Find the radius of bend if
the temperature of the composite strip is raised by 80°C.
<XB= 19 X l0- 6/°C, as= l1 X l0 "8/°C,
EB= 0'9 X 105 N/mm2, Es = 2 X 105 N/mms
Solution. In this problem as~aB~ so the e~uation for the r~dius of 9urva~ure can be
modified
., as,
......
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j I , • ' j J
,, 11 :i d I I
J. I. j J •d ( 11 .. !
j ~\. :._,,, I 1
(faking E1 =Es and E,=es)

, 1• I ii 1/ , .I\[
t=1·2 mm
I l •1 r 1 :t ·, i 1; :• , I f r, , · f T=80°C
If we take Es =m= 2- = 2·22

Eo 0·9 '!
1
( m+ - )+14 ,
R- m X .!_
- 12(ocB - aS) T, !" ·
c2·22+0·4sJ+14 1·2
12(19 - 11) X 10-li X 80
16'67 l '2 X 106 = .
96 x 80 ·· 2604 7 mm
=2'60 m.
Exercise s·16-1. A bimetallic strip is m,a de frc,m copper and steel strips of width
50 mm and thickness 15 mrri each. , The composite. strip i{l initially straight. Find the radius
of the bend if the temperature of the composite strip is r a'. ised by I00°C.
Given : (/.C = 18 X 10- 0 Ee = 1 X 105 N/mm2 rt
6
11s= l l X !0- /°C Es = 2 X [05 N/mm 2
[Ans. 29°464 metre]
,.
8:17. COMPOSITE BEAMS
1
In this chapter uptil now, we have studied beams of vanous sections but of single
material c;ubjected to bending moment. A beam h~ving two or more than two materials
rigidly fixed together is called a comp-osite beam. A beam of two materials is most common,
such as wooden beam reiriforc~d by metal strips ai1d concrete beams reinforced with steel rods.
We will discuss the three cases as below-
1. Fig. g·3g shows a beam of rec-
tangular section B X D of material l strengthen-
ed by two strips of section t x D each of
material 2.
Say the skin stress in ~ 'aterial l =i 1
Skin stress in material 2= / 2
Modular ratio = !
2
1
=m
.
11 11 I
, Fig. 8·38·- ,
()t~·:"'J.,,~
• I .fl • 1 ;, I • •
Mopient , of Resistance= Resisting moment offered by bea,m of ,material 1 +resisting

moment offered by strips of material 2.11
M = M 1 +M2
,,.
~/ 1. ! BD2 +2 ( /2. it D2 )
,,
1.
,)
= BD 2
+{t. 2t D~ •.. (!)
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381:
Since the beam and strips arc perfectly joi1~ed together, the deformatic.m . or the strain
in the layers of both the materials at a particular distance from the Neutral axis ts the same.
or !1 !2
7;= E2
or . .. (2)
M= / 1!D~ + m/1 4t D2 = 1 D2[B+ 2mt] . .. (3)
2. Fig. 8'39 sh ow a plate of width t an~ depth . d of material. 2 sandwiched be~ween

two beams of rectangular section B x D of matenal 1. fh0 neutral axis passes symmetrically
through the section.
Say the skin i;tress developed in beam of materia l l =/ 1
and modular r atio, m= -E2

E1
Stress in material I at a distance of
d/2 from neutral axis
d/2 d
=f1X D/2 -f1 D .. . (1)
Skin stress developed in material 2,

d
f2=f1 m -D- ... (2)
Fig. 8·39
Moment of resistance, M = M 1 +M 2
= Res)sting moment offered by two beams of rectangular

sect1on + resisting moment offered by the plate in between
two beams
. .. (3)
Fig. 8"40 (a) sho ws a rectan.gular beam of sectio n B x D of material 1 strengthened by

two plates at the top and botto m, of materia l 2. Say the modular r atio E2 = m
E1 .
In this case_equivalent sections either of material I o r of materia l 2 can be considered.
. P ig. 8"40 (b) shows a 1~ equivalent sectio.n of material I, the width of the plates is
mcreased to mB. Neutyal axis passes symmetncally thr9 ugh the equ ivale~ti1-sec,ion . .
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StRBNGtH OF MATERiAU
Xrt•OI
Mater ial
1
tj_
.-
D
D
1
D
t
_t -
0
XN A
X
D
-
T~s-1
Co)
µ:~ ( b)
sJ'~
m Cc)
Fig. 8·40
Say skin stress in material 1 at a distance of
~ from the neutral axis = / 1
Theo skin stress at a distance of ( t + ~ ) from neutral axis
/ 1 (D+2t)
D ... (1) .
Moment of Inertia,
mB(2t + D)3 BD2
IN,1 or IH = 12 - t"2
Section modulus
Z= f.,. 2 lam
t+ E._ (2t+ D)
2
Moment of resistance =fl (D+ 2t) _ 2 l xx -- I' X /.,.,

... (2)
D X (D+2t) - n D/ L.
Fig. 8'40 (c) shows the equivalent section for material 2. The width of the beam, B
of material 1 is reduced to B/m and the width of the plates remains unchanged. Neutral axis
passes symmetrically through the equivalent I section.
B(D+ 2 t)
3 3
Moment of inertia, I
H
= 12
_!!..
tn
( D
12
) ... (1)
Say the skin.stress developed at a distance of t+ -f from neutral axis,
=/2
Section modulus,
Moment of resistance, M=/2. Z ... (2)

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'tH!!ORY bP StMt>LE BE~DING
Example 8"17-1. A wooden beam Sreel

20 x 30 cm is strengthened by two steel plates
Ix 25 cm each as shown in Fig. 8"41. Deter-
mine the allowable bending moment if the
allowable stress in steel is 1500 kg/cm2 and in
wood is 80 kg/cm2 • Given
30cm
Estee/= 2 X 10 6 kg/cm 2
Ewood =8 X 104 kg/cm~
~lf..---2 0
l Cm
- ...J1f-
Solution. Fig. 8·41
Modular ratio,
The section is symmetrical, the neutral axis passes through the centre as shown .
Say the skin stress in wood,
/.,,= 80 kg/cm 2 (at a distance of 15 cm from NA)
Then skin stress in steel at a distance of 12· 5 cm from NA,
12·5
/,=80xm x-g-
= 80X25 x f~ = 1666"66 kg/cmt

1 5
But allowable stress in steel,

/, = 1500 kg/cm 2
Then skin stress developed in wood (corresponding to allowable stress in steel),
J. D 1500 15
f,,, = ~ X c1 =25X 12·5°
= 72 kg/cm2
So allowable bending moment,
M = M, + Mw
I l
=f. . (> X 2 (1 X 25 2)+/w. (20 X 302)
6
1500 1
= --x2x25~+72x x 2ox302
6 6
= 312500+ 216000 kg-cm = 528500 kg-cm
= 5·285 tonne-metre.
Example s·t7-2. Determine the allowable bending moment about horizontal neutral
axis for the composite beam of wood and steel shown in the Fig. 8"42. The allowable stress
in wood = 8 N/mm2 and allowable stress in steel= !50 N/mm2.
Estee1= 2IO X 103 N/mm2
Ewood = lO X 10 3 N/mm1(
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srkENmi t OF
I
MATERIALS
•! · I ,
11
Solution. y
5c m x lcrn.
\
:T..,_
.
Modulus ratio, = ;; = 21 ,.-...Lt.4!'-"-- _j_ t Cm
the equivalent steel section is shown in Fig.

8'43 (a) thickness of the web !·
20 20 cm
=n crn
Ilf
CG will lie along YY axis due to 10cm ,1
symmetry. cm'-.._4---"'- _ rem
!,.-- ,5 -
Let us dete11mio,e . the position of CG y "'
along Y-Y axis. Fig . 8·42
J'i= lO x t x o·s + 2o x 20 x (lO+ l)+ sx1xc21+o·s) _

21 20
10+2o x +s
21
_ s + 209·s2 + 107·5_ = .46
- 34·048 9 cm
Distance, J2 = 22-9"46 = 12·54 cm
Momentofinertia, lu= ;,ia

10
+ 10x(9"46-0'5) 2
+ ;~ X ~~ -j- ;~ X 20(1,1-9.'46)2
+ S X } B +5 ( 12'54-0'5) 2
12
= 0'833+ 802"816+634"920 + 45' 173-1- 0'416 + 724'808
= 220_8'966 cm 4= 2208"966 x 104 mm4.
-j 5c m)-- j__ f--105cm---j

t 1cm 0 0
if-cmj
J
'2 T
20cm I
TX
J_ •I
~10cm-J
l,
X
T
cm CJ ,......___2~0c_rn_ -_,::Jt:::l
J.. 210cm ---i>o-JI

I • ,,,
Eq 1:.i1v'ci! e nt' •s t ee l E qui, a l ent woode n

se ction · IJ s ecti o n
( 0 ) ( b)
Fig,; 8\43
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THEORY OP SIMPLE.BENDING 3"91
Since Y2 > Yi, maximum stress will occur at the upper edge.
Allowable stress in ste.el, f = 150 N/mm2
4
Section· modulus, Z 2 = I,,,. - 2208 '966x 10 = 17' 61 x l01 mm 3
Y2 - 12S-4
Bending moment, M=f. Z2 :,
= 150x 17'61 x 104 N-mm
=2641'5X 10 4 N-mm=26'41 kNm
The equivalent wooden section is sh own in Fig. s·43 (b). If we co mpare the two
equivalent sections, we find that both are unsymmetrical I sections and in tlie case of wooden
section, all the widths of flanges and web are 21 times the width of flanges and web in the
equiva lent steel section.
So Yi= 9'46 cm, Y2 = 12·54 cm
l x:v=2 1 (2208'966) cm4 = 21 X 2208·966 x 104 mm' I!
Section nioahi~s. z- 4
21 X 2208'966 X l0 = 2 l X l 7 .61 X J0 4 mms
2- 12S-4
, Allowable stress =8 N/mm2
Bending moment, M=f Z 2 = 8 X 21 X 17'61 X 104 Nmm
= 2958.48 x 104 Nmm= 29'58 kNm
So the allo wable bending moment ab out the neutral axis
=26.41 kNm.
Exercise s·t7-1. A wooden beam 15 cm X 20 cm is strengthened by two steel plates

of thickness 1 cm and depth 20 cm on both of its sides. Determine the allowable bending
moment around the horizontal neutral axis if allowable stress in wood= IO N/ mm 2 and allow-
able stress in steel= 150 N/mm2 •
Given E steez= 200 X 103 N/m m 2
Ewood = 10 X 103 N/mm 2 • [Ans. M=55 kNm]
Exercise 8'17-2. A wooden bea m 20 X 30 cm is strengthened by two steel plates of thick-
ness 12 cm and width 20 cm on its top and bottom. Determine the skin stresses developed in
steel and wood if a bending m oment of 4 tonne-metres is applied to the beam of this section.
Given
Estee/ = I 5 Ewood = 2 100 tonnes/cm 2.
[Ans. fw= 42.40 kg/cm 2, f. = 712.476 kg/cm2)
s·ts. REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (R.C.C.)

We have learnt that a portion of the bea m comes under tension when the beam is
subjected to a bending moment. Concrete is. a common building material and when a column
or a beam of concrete is subjected t o a bendmg moment, a portion of the concrete comes in
tension . Concrete has a very useful strength in compression but in tension it is ver y weak.
Minute cracks are developed in concrete when subjected to even a small tensile stress. There-
for e the tension side of a concrete beam is reinforced with steel bars. Concrete and steel
make a very good composite because cement concrete contracts during setting and firmly grips
the steel r einforcement. Moreover coefficient of thermal expansion of steel and most co mmon
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µ1 ix of c;oncrete f.e. 1 : 4 : 4 i~ more or les~ the same. R ~tio 1 : i : 4 stand§ for l part of
392 ~TRENGTH OF MA T~RIAL~
cement, 2 parts of sand and 4 parts. of aggregate by volume. Therefore, the stresses developed
in R.C.C. due to temperature changes are negligible.
In order to develop a theory for stresses developed in R.C.C. beam section, following
assu mptions are taken : .
1. Concrete is effective only in compression and stress in concrete on the t~~sion side
of the beam is zero.
2. Sections which are plane before bending remain plane after bending. '
3. Strain in a layer is proportional to its distance from the neutral axis.
4. Stress is proportional to strain in concrete.
5. Modulus of elasticity of concrete bears a constant ratio with the modulus of elasti-
city of,! steel. I
The last two assumptions are not true since concrete does not obey Hooke's law ,
but it is possible to take a mean value of Young's modulus of concrete over the r ange of
stress used. The allowable stresses for concrete and the value of the Young's modulus depend
upon the type and mix of the concrete used.
Rectl!lngular Section-R.C.C. Beam. In the Fig. 8'44, say Bis breadth of the section
and D is the depth of the reinforcement from the compression face.
Let H be the distance of neutral axis from the compression face and the maximum
stresses developed in steel and concrete are f s (tensile) andf. (compressive) respectively.
f
p
,·,~ D
p
...,
( b) ( C)
Fig. 8·44
Now the strain in any layer is proportional to its distance from the neutral axis.
Therefore, , 0 ex H
, , ex (D-H)
€c H
or
€1 D-H
or
Jc x -E, = H
-
E, f, D-H
!, - -E, x -
(D-H)
--
r; E~ H
where E, = Young's modulus of steel
P~ = Yount& modulus _o f co~cryt«?
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THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDiNG 39,3
(D-H) E. , mo du 1ar ratio

.
= m wh ere m = E.
H
So ]!_ = m ( D-H) ..•(1)

Jc H
If the beam is under the action of the pure bending, then the resultant force pin steel
is the same as the resultant force P in concrete,
i.e. P = J. Ac = f, A.
or f (BH) = f,. A,
where A, = area of cross section of steel reinforcement

The stress in concrete linearly varies along the depth H. Therefore the mean stress in
where f. is the maximum stress in concrete.
0
concrete is taken as { ,
~ (BH) = f, . A, ... (2)
Theo the resultant compressive force P in concrete and tensile force P in steel form a
couple resisting the applied bending moment. The arm of the couple as shown in Fig. 8'44(c)
is (D- ~).
M= P(\ D-!!_)
3
= /c
2
BH (D-.!!._)
3
= f,. A, ( D- ~ ) ... (3)
If the maximum all_owable stresses in steel and ~oncret~ are. given, then knowing the
ratio of J ff• we can determme the value of H fo! the given .dimensions of a beam, with the
help of equation (1). After that area of ste~l remforcement 1s found by using the equation (2).
Finally we can determine the moment of resistance from equat10n (3). Thus is known as the
"ECONOMIC SECTION" in which the allowable values of stresses in steel and concrete have
been realised.
In case the dimensions of the beam i.e. Band D, area of steel reinforcei:nent A, are
given, then H can be determined from equations (1) and (2) as follows :
J. (D - H)
Tc = m H- ... (1)
J. - BH
fc - 2A, ... (2)
m(D- H) BH
or H = 2A, ... (3)
or 2A, (mD - mH) BH2 =

or BH2+2 m A,H - 2 m A,D = 0 .. . (4)
The value of H can be determi ned from equation (4) and the actual stresses in steel anq
~oµcrete are then cleteriµined froµi the ma~nitude of a~)~lied mo~ent !ef! · ·. ·
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STRli1:foni dF MATERtALs
Example 8 18-1: A reinforced concrete b~'am is 40 cm wide and 40 cm deep. The
maximum allowable stresses in steel and concrete are ·1200 kg/cm2 and 75 kg/cm 2 respectively
What area of steel reinforcement is required if both the stresses are developed and steel rein'-
fdrcement is 6 cm above the tension face. Modular ratio = 16.
What uniformly distributed load can be carried over a spah of 5 metres. The weight
dens ty of ~Qncrete is 2360 kg/m3 • Neglect the weight of steel reinforcement.
Solution.
Allowable stress in steel,
f . = 1200 k~/cm2
Allowable stress in concrete,
1 .. /• = 75 kg/cm2
Width, B = 20 cm
Depth of the beam = 40 cm
Cover for steel = 6cm
Distance of steel reinforcement from the compression face,
D = 40- 6 = 34,cm
Both the allowable stresses are to be realised, i.e. we are finding out the economic
section of the beam.
j. rn(D - H)
From equation (I)
fc
= H
Modular ratio, m = 16
So
_120Q_ = 16
(D - H)
15 H
16 = 16 (D - H)
H
or 2H = D
34
H =
2 = 17cm.
f, BH
From equation (2)
j. = 2A,
Area of steel reinforcement,
20 X 17
A. =
2 x 16 = 10'625 cm2
Moment of resistance,
M = f.
2
BH (D- H3 .)
5 7
- ~ x2ox 17 ( 34- ~ )
85
= 750X 17 x - - = 36 1250 kg-cm
3
= 3'6125 tonne-metre.
Say the u~ifopnily-' clistrib\,lted load per metry P..lll = IV tonnes
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fliEORY
. . OF. SiMPLE BllNDING
'\ . 395
(\

w/2 = W X 52 = 3'6125
8 8
w = 1' 156 tonnes/metre
Wei~ht of th,~ beam per metre ru_u
= 0·2xo·4 x I x236.0 kg
= 188'8 kg
= 0' 1888 tonne.
Uniformly distributed load carried by the beam
- 1'156-0'1888
= 0'9672 tonne/metre run
Exercise 8'18-1. A reinforced concrete beam is of rectangular section 250-mm wide
and 550 mm deep. Steel reinforcement of 1200 mm2 is placed 50 mm above the tension face.
The maximum stress in eoncrete is 5 N/mm2 • The nwd,ular ratio is-15. Calculate ,the stress
in steel and moment of resistance. [Ans. 107' 18 N/mro~.
' - ,•
5,5·5
. kNm]
. ·..
Problem s·1. A wooden joist of span 8 metres is to carry a brick . wall 23 cm thick
and 3·5 m high. The depth of the joist is~ tim,es its µreadth and the maximum permissible
stress is limited to 80 kg/cm2 • Find the dimensions of the joist.
Density of brick wall = 1800 kg/ma
Solution. Uniformly distributed load per metre length on the wooden joist,
w = l X 0'23,X'3'5•X 1800 kg
= 1449 kg.
Span length, l = 8 metre
144? X 8 X 8
8
= 11592 kg-m
= 115g200 kg-cm
Allowable stress, f = 80 kg/cm 2
Required section modulus,

M.,a., _ 1-159200
Z· = ~ ' 80 '
= 14490 cm 3
=~
()
x BD2 but D= 3 B
=} x B x 9 B 2 = 1'5 Ba
1·5 BS = 14490
lJB ==- ~
l'::,
= 96.60 cm 3
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. .
396 STRENGTH OF MA1iERIALS
Dimensions of the j oist,

B = 21 ·3 cm
D = 63'9 cm .
Problem 8'2. A floor has to carry a load of 1000 kg per sq. metre (including its
own weight). If the span of each joist is 5 metres, calculate · the spacing centre to centre
bet\\oeen the joists. The breadth of the joist is 10 cm and depth is 30 cm and the permissible
stress due to bending is 8 N/rnm2.
Solution.
/, span of each joist =5m •

tloor
I J
~-r
. .
J.-,_J<o,st -I
9 30 Cm
Say the spacing between the joist t j_
= xm o/-j o i s t
cm ·
Floor area per joist = 5x m 2
w, uniformly distributed load per metre Fig. 8·45
length of joist
= XX 1 X 1000= 1000 X kg/m
= x tonne/metre run
M1110:a Maximum bending moment
w/2 xX 5 X 5 25 X
= -8- = ,8 ~ tonne-metres
BD2; 10 X 30 X 30 _
Section modulus, Z=-- = - 1500 cm3
6 6
Permissible stress, / = 8 N/mm 2 = 800 N /cm2 = 81 '63 kg/cm2
Mma:a=JZ
= 81 '63 X 1500
25 X
= 122445 kg cm= - - tonne-metres
8
25 X 1011 X kg-cm
-
8
122445 x8
or x= 0'3918 m = 39' 18 cm.
25 X 105
Problem s·3. A beam subjected to bending moment M is of T-section as shown

in Fig. 8'46. Determine the thickness of the flange and the web if the flange is 2 times as
thick as web and the maximum tensile stress is 2 times the maximum compressive stress.
Solution. The stress in a layer due to bending is proportional to its distance from
the neutral layer. With the type of bending moment sh own, the flange will be in compression
and lower portion of web will be in tension. Extreme fibres at top and bottom will have
maximum compressive and maximum tensile stresses. Say the 11eutral layer lies at a distance of
of y 1 from the bottom edge. As given in the problem.
y t = 2yo
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397
THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING
or Y1=2Y2
But Y1+Y2=20 cm
2Y2+y2= 20
y 2 = 6"67 cm
y 1 = 13"33cm
FLANGE
M r- 10- _L
'11
M
2t
-1r~ i4-1t~
Fig. 8·46
Now flange area, a 1 = 10 x 2t = 20t

CG of a1 from bottom edge,
= 20-t
Web area, a2= (20-2t) t= 2t (LO-t)
CG of a2 from the bottom edge ,/
_ (20-2t) - (10 )
- 2 - -t
_ 20t (20- t) + 2t (10- t)(LO- t)

Now Yi - 20t + 2t (10-t)
13"33- 10 (20-t) + (l0-t)2
- 10+ (10-t)
or 13"33 (20-t) = 200-10t + 100-201+ 12

266"6-13"33t=300-30t + t2
f Z- \ 6"61t+33°4=0
16"67- 'V (16"67)2 -4 x 33·4

t= 2
16"67- 12"012
= 2
= 2·3 3 cm
Thickness of web = 2·33 cm
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Thickness of flange = 4·66 cm.
398 STkENGTH OP MAtEflTAtS
!
Problem 8'4. A T-beam of depth 12

cm is used as a beam with simply supported
ends, so that the flange comes under tension. 3cm
The material of the beam can be subjected to
900 kg/cm2 in compression and 300 kg/cmi
in tension. It is desired to achieve a balanced
design so that the largest possible bending
stresses are reached simultaneously. Deter-
mine the width of the flange. Find how much
concentrated load can be applied to the beam
at its centre if the span length is 4 metre.
Solution. Stress due to bending in a

layer is proportional to its distance from the
neutral layer Fig . 8·47
ji = 300 kg/cm2 in flange a Yi
fr. = 900 kg/cm 2 in web a y2
where y 1 and y 2 a_re the distances of extreme layers from neutral layer
i.e. 300 ex y 1,
900 ex y 2
l'.
But Y1 + Y2= 12 cm
So Yy= 9 cm, .v, = 3 cm
This means that neutral axis is passing at the intersection of web and flange.
Area of web = 27 cm 2 ·
Area of flange =3w cmi
3 wx 1·5+ 27 x (3+4-5) 4'5 w+81 + 121 ·5
Yi 3 w+27 3 w+ 27 =3
or 4·5 w+202'5= 9w+ 81,
w= 27 cm
Area of flange, a1 = 27 X3= 81 cm2
Area of web, ai= 9 X 3= 27 cm2
27 x 33 3x9a
Moment of inertia, fx x = 12 - + 81 X l'5 2 + 1 2+ 21 x 4·52
= 60·75 + 182'25 + 182'25+ 546'75= 972 cm'
1%% 972 '· . ·,
Section modulus, Z1= - = - -= 324 cm 3
Y1 3
lu 972
Section modulus, Z 2= -
Y2
= -2
- = 108 cm 3
Permissible bending moment,
M = fi. Z1 = f•. Z2
= 324 >< 300= 97200 kg-cm
Span length, L = 4 m= 400,cm
At the centre of the beam,
where W is the central load,
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,,,
,•t,.
THEORY OF S1:\1PLE BENDING 399
W x400
100 W kg-cm
4
= 97200
or central load, W= 272 kg
Problem s·s. A cantilever has a free length o f 3 metres. It is nf T section

with the flange 100 mm by 20 mm, web 200 mm by JO mm; the fl ange being in tension.
What load per metre run can be applied if the maximum tensile stress is 40 N/mm 2 ? What
is the maximum compressive stress?
Solution. The T-section is sym-

metrical about the vertical ax is Y-Y so the
C.G. of the section will lie on this ax is To
determine the position of X-X axis, the
mol)'lents of ar.e as can be taken about the top
~r-100----
FLANGE
edge of the flange
Area, ai'= 100 x 20 mm 2

J'i' = iO mm
Area, a 2'=200 x 10
y 2'=20 + 100 = 120 mm
I
N ow (a/+a2:) Jli = ai' y/+a2' Y2'
(2000+2000) y 1 = 2000 x 10
+ 20oo x 120 y
J'i = 65 mm Fig. 8·48
Y2= 220 - 65 = 155 mm.
Maximum teri~ile stress is developed in the flange. So the maximum compressive stress
will be developed in the web
f t m,,., = Y.1..
f, maz Y2
y2 155
J o m•x = )\Xfi m, x = ~ X40
= 7·07 N / mm 2
Say the load per mm run= l!' Newtons
Length of the cantilever = 3 m = 3000 mm
2 2
_ w~ = w x (3 000) Nmm
2
'J •
I .. , of T section -- <16'0 ) (:?~~ + 2000 (65 - 10)2
12
IO X (200)3 . ,
+ 12 + 2000(155 - 100)2
= 198J"33 x I()' rnm 4
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400 STRENGTH OP ¥A TERI ALS
Now
ft m ax
or Mmn x = f x,, - - -
Y1
1
; x (3000) 2 = 1983'33 x I04 X :~
3966'66
w= , w= 12'205 N/mm
325
Load per m run, w= l2205 N/m

= 12'205 kN/ m.
Problem 8 '6. A compound beam for a crane runway is built up of a 150 X 50 mm

rolled steel joist with a 100 x 50 rolled steel channel attached to the top fl ange. Calculate the
position of the N.A. of the section and determine moment of inertia lu of composite section.
For I section, Area= 9'01 cm 3, I.'•' = 322' l cm"', J,/ ,/ = 9'2 cm", and for the channel section,
Area= I0'02 cm2 , web thickness= 4 mm, J.,'.,'=164'7 cm4 l,'v'= 24'8 cm'. Distance of CG
from outer edge of web = 1'62 cm.
Solution. The composite section
t
is shown in the Fig. 8'49. The section is
symmetrical about YY axis but unsymmetrical
about XX axis. Let us determine the po~ition 0 ·4crn
of neutral axis.
9'01 X 7·5 +10'02(15'4- l '62)
Yi = 9'01 + 10'02
= 67'575 + 138'07~ = 10'80

19·03 cm
J2= 15'4- 10'8 = 4·6 cm

Moment of lnertia
Fig. 8'49
4 4
(322' l cm is J,,' .,' of T section and 24'8 cm is the l y',/ of channel section)
l:u = 322' 1+ 9·01 (10'8 - 7'5) 2 + 24'8+ 10'02(4'6-1 '62)2·
= 322' 1+ 98'119+24'8 + 88'981
= 534 cm4•
Problem 8'7. Two channel sections 300 mm X 100 mm are placed back to back and
only the top flanges are joined by a plate 200 mm x 10 mm . This compound section forms a
simply supported beam 2 m long and carries a uniformly distributed load of 10 tonnes/metre
run. Determine the- maximum stress developed in the sections. Properties of a channel
~ection.
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THEOR'Y OF SIMPIJB BENDING
Solution. The compound section is

shown in the Fig. 8"50. The section is
symmetrical about YY axis but . unsymmet_ri_cal
about X-Jt ax-is. I:.et us determme the pos1t1on
of G from the b0ttom edge.
2 x 42"19 X 1s + 20 x 1·o x 30' 5
Ji = 2 X42"19 + 20 X 1 G
(taking the dimensions in cm)

Y1
1265"7+ 610
- 104"38
lc:=.:::..i~
-
1875"7
104"38
17·97 cm ~100-~-100 ~
y 2 = 31 - 17"97= 13"03 cm Fig. 8·50
Moment of Inertia, l xx = 2 X l x'x'+ 2 X 42' 19 (Yi -15)2

2
+·l X ~;.J:.'.3 + 2 x 20(y2-0"5)2
= 2 X 6066 + 84"38 (2·97)2 + 3"333 + 40(12'53) 2

(putting the values of y 1 and J12)
= 12132 + 744·30+ 3"333+6280'0
= 19159'633 cm4
Length of the span, /= 2 m = 200 cm
Rate of loading, w= 10 tonnes/metre= o· 1 tonnes/cm
w/ 2 0' l X 2002
= -8- = 8
= 500 tonne-cm
Maximum stress due to bending
Mm ar
= - - XYt
fxx
As, y 1 >y2 , maximum stress will occur at the lower edge.
500 X 17'97
f w,x = 191 sf633
= 0"469 t onne/cm 2
Proble111 s·s. A girder of I section is simply supported over a span of 8 metres. A

uniformly distrihuted load of 1000 N/cm is earried throughout the span. The beam is
strcngthen~d wherever necessary by the additi~n of fl.angle plates 1S mm thick. Find the
length and width of the flange plates such that the maximum stress due to bending does not
exceed 120 N/ mm 2 • · • '
• • I •
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402 STRF.NGTH OF MATERIALS
Solution. The section is symmetrical,

therefore C.G. of the section will lie at the
centre of the web
Yi=Yi= 300 mm
Moment of 1lnertia,
I = 240 X 60q3 _ 220 X 5503

xx 12 12
== 106[4320-3050"2]
= 1269"8 X 10 6 mm"
Fig. 8·51
The beam carries a uniformly distributed load
w= IOOO N/cm
= 100 N/ mm
If / = length of span
= 8000 mm.
The maximum bending moment will be at the centre
'f ,, = w/2 _ . !_90 ~ 8Q_OO x 8000
j.• .,.. 8 - 8
= 8 X JOB Nmm
Maximum stress developed
.Mm ,,
= I x x- · Y1
8 x 108
x 300
- 1269"8 X 106
= 189'00 N/mm2.
This stress is more than the allowable stress of 120 N/ mm2 • Therefore it is necessary
to strengthen the section by the addition of flange plates as shown.
Thickness of the flange plates= 15 mm
Say the width of the flange plates = b mm
The moment of inertia with additional flange plates
lxx'= l xx+
2 152
x~;
+ 2 x b x l5 X (300 + 7·S)2
= f xx+ 3T5 b+ 30 b (307"5) 2
= l xx+ 31'5 b + 2836687°5 h
= lxx+ 2836725 b
y/ = 300 + 15
:,= J l 5 1nm
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..
Allowable stress, 120 = #/xx·~·" X Y1'
8·x 10s·x 31 S-
120= Uu:+ 2836725 M
315
or lxx+2836725 b= g X l~~;
2836725 b":"' 21 X 108 - 1269'8 X 106
= 830'2 X 10 6
830·2x 10 6
b= 2836725 mm
Width of additional flange plate
= 292'66 mm
Now it is not necessary to provide the strengthening of the beam throughout its length.
For some central portion of the beam, additional flange plates can be provided.
The bending moment Mx, corresponding to allowable stress,
fxx
Mx = fu11ow1~I• X -
Y1
125 X 1269'8X 106
300
= 507·92 X 106 Nmm
The beam is loaded as shown in the Fig. 8'52.
Reactions, RA = RB
_ 100 X8000 = 40 X l04 N
- 2 J-x X
W =100 N/mrn
wx2 A X
M x= RA .X - 9
2 8000mm
100 xl RA
= 40 X 104 x - -- Re
2
= 40 x 104 x - 50 x2 Nmm Fig. 8·52
= 507'92 X 10 6 Nmm
or 40 X 104 x- 50 x 2 = 507'92 X 106
or 50 x 2 - 40X L04 x + 507·92 X 106 = 0
or x2-8000 x+ 1015'84 X 10 4 = 0
8000±./(8000) 2 - 4 X(1015'84><-i04 )
X
so 2
1
= 4000± \ (4000) - (10 15'84 X 104)
2
= 4000±100\i' 1600- 1015'84

= 4000 ± 2417
= 6417 and 1583
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This shows that upto a length of 158 3
mm from both the sides, there is no necessity
of additional flange plates because Mx<507"92
X 108 Nmm,
T3cm
Therefore length of the additional
flange plates
= 8000-1583-1583
=4834 mm
+
Problem. 8 '9. The section of a beam
in shown in Fig. 8'53. X-X and YY are the
axes of symmetry. Determine the ratio of
the moment of resistance in the plane YY t o
that in the plane X-X, if the maxi mum
stress due to bending is the same in both the
cases.
Fig. 8·53
Solution. 'The section is symmetrical
about X-X and YY axis. Its CG •lies at G
as shown in Fig. 8"53.
6 X 93
Moment of inertia, l rx= ~ - 4 x (moment of inertia of triangle shown about
its base)
= 364'5 - 4 ( 1·5 7; ·5a )
= 364'5- I "6875 = 362"8125 cm4

y 1 = J2 = 4·5 cm
Section modulus, z" = 362"8125 = 80"625

4·5 cm
3
9 X63
Mbment of inertia, I,= ---rr---2 (moment of inertia of tniangle 3 X 1·5 about YY)
= 169-2 [ B! +''Bf
3
(3-0'5)~]
where B =3 cm
H=l·5 cm
So / yy = l62- 2 [
3 x 1·5s
36 + 3 x2l"5 (2"5)2 J
= 162- 2 (0'28125 + 14'0625)
= 162-28"6875 = 133"3125 cm4
X1=X2= 3 cm
Section modulus, Z,= 1YY = 138 ' 3125 = 44'4375 ems

3 3
Mx =Zx f · 1wherc maximum stress due to bending is the same
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M,=Z1..f
M, = z~ = 0·55
M,, Z,,
Problein.8 '10 . A beam of l section of momeIJt of in~rtia 954 9.914 an,p~deRth l4 cm
is- freely supported at its ends. Over what span can a uniform load. of 5~00 ,kg/rrietre ,·be c~rried
if maximum stress is 60 N/mm 2 .
,W hat adcl:itional. central.load can be carried when ,maximuni,stress. is 100 N/inm 2 •
Solution. For a uniformly dis.t r-ibuu;d load over a siµipl y .&upponJ!,d . J?F,i;t.~ , .l he
maximum bending moment occurs at the centre of the beam
w/2
Mma.,,=--
8
where w= rate of.loading
= 500 kg/m
= 5 kg/cm=5 x 9·8 N /cm
and /= length of the beam p~tween the supports
I
Now Mma•=frnaeX -
y
w/2 =[ma• X _254 cm4
8 7cm
where , Y.9': .lil.alf the. depth of Lswtion
and fma.,, = 60 N/ mm2 =6000 N/cm2
. ~ _ 6000 X954
So 5X 9 8X 8 - 7
12= 6000x954 ___8_= .

133504 37 cm 2
7 x 5 X 9'8
/= 365'38 cm = 3'65-38 metre
Say the additional central load
=W
Additional maximum bending moment at the centre. of the beam
-WI
- --M I mas
4
wx 365 '38 Nern
4
Additional maximum stress due to central load
fina11'= 100-160-.40 ~/mm2 = 4000 N/cm2
So ,.Mmar;' = [mat: X )_
y
954
365'38 j£_ = 4000 X -
4 7
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406 STR.ENGfH dF MATERl'Ais
Additiona1 central toad,

W= .i_x4000x 954 5961 .95 N
7 x 365·38
= 5'968 kN.
Problem s· 11. A steel tube 4 cm outside diameter and 3 cm inside diameter safely
carries a central load of 40 kg over a span of 6 metres.
Three of these tubes are firmly fixed together so that their centres make an equilateral
triangle of the side 4 cm. Find the maximum central load which the beam can carry if the
maximum stress is not to exceed to that of a single tube.
Solution.
Single tube. Moment of inertia,
l = ...!:_ (43 -3 3) = 8'590 cm 4
64
Distance of extreme layer from the neutral layer = 2 cm
Section modulus, = s·259 = 4'295 cm 3
/, span length = 6m
Central load, W= 40 kg
Maximum BM, Mmo

~= WL _ 40 x 600
w 600 kg-cm
4 4
Safe stress developed in tube
Mm a• 600
= - z- = 4·295 = 1396'97 kg/cm2 •
3 Tubes. The three tubes formly fixed

together are shown in the Fig . 8'54. Their
centres make an equilateral triangle of side
4 cm.
Vertical height ad= ac sin 60°
= 4 X 0'866=3'464
C.G. will lie along ad but at a distance
of 3'464/3= 1'155 cm from the base be. So
the neutral axis is parallel to be and at a dis-
tance 1· 155 from the base. Fig. 8·54
Area of cross section of each tube
=~
4
(42 - 32)=5'4978 cm 2
Moment of inertia, l xx= 2 [8'590+ 5'4978 (Yi- 2)2 ]+ 8'590 + 5'4978 (y 2 - 2)2
= 17' 18+ 14'668+ 8'590+ 29 '311 = 69'749 cm4•
Since y 2 > yi, maximum stress will occur at the upper edge
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THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING
Section modulus, Z 2 = liX _ 69"749 = 16"187

y 2 - 4"309 cm
3
Safe stress, / = 1396"97 kg/cm 2

Allowable BM =f. Z 2 = 16"187x 1396"97 = 22612"5 kg-cm
Span length, 1= 6 m = 600 cm
Say the central load= W kg
Mma•= :L = Wx/'.)O = 150 kg-cm
So 150 W= 22612"5 kg-cm

22612 5
W= " = 150"75 k
150 g
Problem 8·12. The 50 x 150 mm I

section shown in Fig. 8· 55 is simply supported
4kN
at its ends over a span of 3·6 metres and
carries a central load of 4 kN which acts
through the centroid but inclined at an angle
0
of 6l, to the horizontal. Calculate the maxi-
mum stress.
Solution. Length of the beam, .~ ---x-

L = 3"6 m
Inclined load 4 kN can be resolved

into two components
I..,,_
1 ,mtrm
C---1-v----'oI
· ... ·. ,.
Pv= 4000 cos 30°== 3464 N ~50--j 4 -6mm

PH= 4000 cos 60°= 2000 N Fig. 8·55
Moment of inertia, 5 x 15a 4·7 x 14"083 . . . .

l xx = --12- - 12 = 313 cm 4 takmg d1mens1ons m cm
0"46 X53 14"08 X 0"33

ln= 2X 12 + = 9"55 cm1
12
Bending moment due to vertical component, Pv
M x= Pv/ l= 3464; 3"60 3117 .6 Nm
Bending moment due to the. horizontal component, PH
Mv = P~. I = 200~x3 6 = 1800 Nm
Stresses due to bending at extreme layers

117 6
Due to Mx, {AB =- M x 1'5 =-· ~ " x7·5 = -74"7N/cm 2
· Ix 313
M
.f c v =-c-:+ - [ ~x- X7'5= -l-. 74·7 N '/Gnl2
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STRENGTH · OP M-~Tl*IA'I.\S
Due tQ Mv /Ac =- f"· x 2 5=-

18
~~~ 2·5 =-- 471 ·2·N/ fn'm 2
flJ-'u= + !fr
I11
X2'5 = + 471 :2 N/mm 2
Maximum stress at A =- 74'7 - 471'2= - 545'9 N/m 2

Maximum stress at D = + 14·7 . .1-471 ·2= 545'9 N/m2 •
Problem 8'13. A vertical flag staff

10 m high is of circular section 200 mm
diameter at the ground and 80 mm diameter
at the top. A horizontal pull of 2 kN is a:pp1kcf
at the top as shown in Fig. 8'56. Calculate
the maximum stress due to bending.
Solution. Height of the flag staff
-= 10 m = 10,000 mm
Diameter at top = 80 mm
Diamet'er at ground
= 200 mm
Consider a section at a distance of x
mm from t'h'e' top
200-80
Diameter-, D..-= 80 + 10 000 x
'
120
= 80 + 10000 X
= (80+ o·o12x) mm Fig. 8·56
Se~fibtt''!Woijl)lfos· of the section

T1.D·.,s· ,; . ,_ .. 3
Z .,= J.2 = 3'2 (80+ 0 01·2 x)
Bending moment at the section,

Mz= 2 kN x x= 2000 x Nmm
Stress in extreme layers at the cross-section considered

f = Mx ·= __ ..... 2000 X __
z,, l (80+ o·on x)3

32
= 2000 x 32 x (80 + 0·012 x)- 3

Tt
= kx (80 + o·o12x)-3
k = 64'b0-0 a constan_t
. ff i
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For the stress to be maximum
df = 0
dx
rx =k !80 + o·o12x)- +kx (- 3) (80+ 0·012x)-4 (0'012) = 0

3
or k (80+ o·o12x)- 3 [1- 3x (0'012) (80+ o·o12x)-1]= 0

3xx o·o12
or l - (80+ o·o12x) = O
or so+ o·o12x- 0·036x = O
80- ·024x= O
80 .
x= . = 3333'33 mm
0 024
x=3'33 m
Maximum stress due to bending,
64
fma'l:= · 000 (3333'33) (80+0'012 X 3333 '33>-3
ff
_ 20371 '8 (3333'33) = . N/

- (120)s 39 29 mm
2
Problem 8'14. The original dimensions of a tie bar of rectangular section are
80 mm X 30 mm. The dimensions are reduced by -fc th of their original values by re-
moving the material from two adjacent faces. If an ax'ial load of 120 kN is applied through
the centre of the original section, find the value off for a maximum tensile stress of 100
N/mm 2 • Determine also the magnitude of the least stress.
Solution. The Fig. 8'57 shows the C.G. of the final section of the tie bar, but the
tensile force is acting at the P i.e. at the C.G. of die original ·section of the tie bar.
eccentricity,
e =40 -· -I ( 80- -80 )

.. 2 k
40 40 ,
= 40- 40 +7c = y mm
eccentricity,
e
•
= I 5 - _!_
2
( 30 - lQ.
k
)
15
= - mm
k
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·
STRENGTH
I ~
'
OF MATERIALS
1 I I , 1
Moment of inertia,
_ ( 80- to )( 30-to
fxx - 12
r
3 4
= 80 X 30 X ( l - _!_ )
12 k
f>v =
( 30- t0
)( 80-{Q
12
--~
r
= ~X 803 X ( l - _!_)4
12 k
Section modulus,
z- I ..,,
~- l 15- ~5 )
80X 303 (1-+ )'

12
X
_is ( 1- t)
= 12000( 1-· ky
Section modulus,
I 4
30X 803 ( 1-k)

= -i2
40 ( 1- +-)
/
= 32000\ 1- k1 )8
' , ,<F
I, , ,
Bending moment about plane X - X,
Mr = F. ey ,, ,·
where F = tensile force

= 120 kN
15 1800
So M,.= 120 X T = - -k kNmm
Bending moment about plane Y-Y,

My = F. ey
4
= 120 X 0
k
,;:=: 48;0 kN!Tim
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411
Bendini stress due to M t ,
· M,l
f b• = - Z.,-
= k
1800 i
X 12000 ( 1- t r k:N/mmi .
0·15
= 1 3 kN/mm 2
k ( 1- F)
_ 150
-
k
( l
1- - -
)aN/
- mm 2
k
Bending stress due to M11,
fu = 1:
4800 .1
=k X 32000 ( l - !t kN/mm 2
0·15
= ( 1 3 kN/mm 2
k 1-T)
150
= - N/mm2
k ( 1--1
·- k
)3
Tensile stress due to direct force
F
- -- - -- -
80 ( 1- ~ ) 1-+ )
- - --
30 (
120
-
80 x 30 ( 1- !r
- - - kN/mmi
0·05
= 1 2 kN/mm2
( 1-k)
= 501 2
N / mm2
( 1-y)
Now maximum tensile stress
50 150 150
)2 + -+-- -
=
(1-" k(1-+r k(1-+r
= 100 N/mm 3
I
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. ~
4J2
2 1 3 . 3. .
or
=( 1-+y + k ( 1.- .~ y+ k ( 1~ k) 3
'dr ;k ( 1-. .!__) +~+3=2k( 1- J_J'a

k •.. . k
k ( 1- ~ ) + 6 = 2k
'
( 1- ~
(
r
2k ·
k-1+6 = F(k-1)a
or kS+5k 2 =2k 3 -6k2 +6k-2 .

k3-llk 2 + 6k -2~0
Sclving the equ,Ltion, k=. 10·4
1
or - = 0'096
k
3 1 3
Now k ( 1- J_ )
. k,, = 10·4 ( 1- -10'4..
- ) = 7·r,.79..l
'1 , ·
( 1- tr = 0'817
50 !SQ 150
t.r
Least stress - - -- -
( 1-
50 150 150
=o·s11- 7·679 - 1·619
= 61' 199- 19'53 - 19'53= 22~1·39 ·N/mm 2 • 1·
. . Proble~ s·ts. A bimetal~ic strip i&_for!'l?:ed_ by u~i~g strips of copper and steel. E~ch
stnp 1s 60 mm wide and 12 mm tht(;k. Both the_stnps are fastened together so that no relative
movement can take place between them. This bimetallic strip is now heated through 100°C.
Assuming that both the strjp~, \Wnd by the 'sa'me radiu~. and stresses are transmitted only
through end c<;>nnect ions, find radius of the bend, m'}XiQ;uµi ··tensile and compressive stresses
in both. ·· iT iw
Given : E,=2 x 106 kg/cm2 E = l X 106 kg/cm 2
tf '
O(, = 11 X 10-6/°G, tXf= 18 X 10-6 /°C
I
Solution. Thickness of each strip, t = 12 mm

Temperature rise, T= J00 °0 .
Radius of bend, R= E,2 +E.2+ 14 E, _Ee X ...!._

12 E, E 0 (O(c - !X;) T
where E, = m=2
Ee
1
m+ - + 14 ·
Then R= m xL
12(a.-O(,) ~
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'(6'.'5 ·12-
12·X 1·X l0- 6 ~ 100
=23571 mm
=23'571 m .
There will be tensile stress devel0ped u; s~~-~~ . a~d co_!llpre.s.~ive_ ,;tres.,_ q~~~lpped in
copper becaiu,~.~ > N,
Com:rm~~sive for!,:,e iJ1.CQP.per
= T.~nsile force in steel (due to temperature rise)
1
bt 2
P 0 = !2.R (E, + E.)
Direst. c.ompr~~sivt,: .stress io copper
= :; = l~R (E,+Ec)
12
= 12X2357l X(E,+Ec)
4
E,=2X 10 kg/mm 2 E 0 = 1 X 104 kg/mmz
E,+E.=3 x 104 kg/mm 2
Direct stress in copper = 12 x~; x x 571

3 104 = t21 kg/n1m 2 (Compressive)
Therefore direct tensile stress in steel = 1·27 kg/mm 2

Stresses due to bending. Bending moment shared by copper
Mc =
E
RX [ .=fo X
bt 2
6
. ± E, bt 3 6
~tr~&~-Q,~y to bendmg, Jc = R X
12 X Ttz
Er.t 1 X L0 4 X 12
= ± 2R = ± 2 X 23571
= :b2 ·5A, kg/mm2
Maximum stress developed in copper strip
= 2'54+ 1·27 = 3'81 kg/mm~ (compressive)·
Minimum stress developed in coppe1 striP:
= 2'54-1 '27 = 1·27 kg/mm2 (tensile)
Similarly bending stress in steel,!,
E, t 2 X 104 X 12
= ±,2:JV ,;= 2 X 2357 l --
= ± 5'08 ~if.µin1:=
Maximum stress in steel strip
= 5'08 + 1·27 = 6·35 kg/m_m 2 (tensile)
Minimum stress in steel strip . '
= 5:-08 - I '27--3.81 kg/mm2· · · (compressive)
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STRENGTH OF MATERI ACS.
Problem s·t6. A steel bar 12 cm in dianteter in corttpiete1y euca5·)d in an aluminium

tube of 18 cm outer diameter and 12 cm inner diameter so as to make a composite beam.
The composite beam is subjected to a bending moment of 1'2 Tm . Determine the maximum
stress due to bending in each material.
E,t,,1=3 Ea111mfnfum,
· · Solution. The composite section is

shown in Fig. 8'58. The neutral axis will pass aluminium tu be
through the centre of the section as shown. · d
Strain in any layer is proportional . to its dis- Steel C
tance from the neutral layer. · bar
Say maximum stress developed in N

steel=/,
At a distance of 6 cm, from N.A.,
strain in steel= {;
distribution
Si:rain in aluminium layer at a distance ac = f 5
of 6 cm from N.A.= {: ab =CC Ea
g Es
dc=-x ab
Strain in aluminium layer at a distance 6
, NA f, 9 t·5J, Fig. 8·58
of 9 cm from . . = -E, x 6 = ~
Stress in aluminium ,layer at a distanc.e of 9 cm N.A. (or the maximui;n stress),
fa = I' 5 J. XEa
E,
fa= I'5f, =0'5f, [putting E, = 3 Ea]

3
Bending moment, M = M, + M a
= Moment of res ista nee of steel bar
+moment of resistance of aluminium tube.
Z,, section modulus of steel section
,; X 123 ..
= 32 = 169'64 cm3 ' f,
Za, section modulus of aluminium section

n(184 ~ '124) _ •
X - 428 82 cm 3
32 18
M. f, . Z s f, X 169'64
Ma = fa, Za= 0'5f, XZa
= 0'5f, x 428'82 = 2L4·4t /,
M = l69'64/, + 214'4l /, = 384.05 / ,= 1·2 Tm
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. '.I'HEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING
384·05f, = I·2x 105 kg-cm

f,=312.46 kg/cm 2
fa=0·5 f.=156·23 kg/cm 2
Maximum stress in steel=3J2·46 kg/cm 2
Maximum stress in aluminium
= 156·23 kg/cm 2.
Problem s·11. A timber beam of breadth B and depth 32 cm is simply supported
over a span of 8 metres. This beam is to be strengthened by the addition of steel ftitches
fixed on both the sides as shown in Fig. 8"59. With the original timber beam a load of
200 kg/m gave a maximum stress of 50 kg/cm 2 • If the flitched beam is loaded with an extra
load of 120 kg/m with the maximum stress in the steel of 600 kg/cm 2, the stress in timber
remaining the same, determine the dimensions of timber beam and steel flitches .
Given: E. = 20
/ E,
Solution.
(a) Timber beam without steel flitches
Section modulus,
14- B --f s tee.I
Z = B(32) 2
6 Timber
~
d
w= rate of loading X
= 200 kg/m ] _ 32cm

= 2 kg/cm
/ =length of the beam
I ' : - - -· - I -1-
-l_i_ I-- --l t 1--
i.
= 8m 2 2
= 800 cm Fig. 8·59
Maximum bending moment at the centre of beam

w/2
Mmu:,; = - -
8
2 X 800 X 800 _ l l k
- S - 6 X 04 g~m
Now Mm ax= fxZ

50 x Bx322
16 x 104
6
16 X 10,1 x 6
B= 50 x 322 = 18"75 cm
Now considering steel fl.itches fixed on timber beam

M'ma. = maximum bending moment at the <;!Cf\tre of the ge<>'m
considering add itional load "'
Additional load = 120 k~/m = 1'2 k~/cm
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Total load = 2+ 1·2= 3·2 ·kg/cin
3 2 8002
Mma,,,' = · ~ ~ 25 :6 x fo 4 kg-c·m
y,= 16 cm
d
y,=2
Stress in steel, /s = 600 kg/cm2
Str'l!ss 'in t imber Jt = 50 kg/cm 2
M;,.a/ Ji . Et
Now .. t i)
I, Yt =R
M~!i_ = J. = E, ...{2)
/, Y• R
f. ft
or ys E, = y, Et
E, f• 1 600
y,= E. Xy1x 7, = wXl6XS0
1 . .•
y,= x l6X 12= 9'6 'cm
20
or depth of stedi 'ftftthes = 2 y,= 19·2 cm
Now It = Moment of inertia considering equivalEnt section in timber
18"75x323 tX 19'23 E.
= --1-2-- + 12 x&
where ~ i's "thte.kness df each s'tde'I ilitch
T,= 51200 + 11796'48t cm 4
From equation ·(1 ) above
I,-- M,''d·
m " /1
I X!..
51200 + 11796'48 t = 25'6 X l04 X ~~ = 81'920
or l 1796'48 ! = 30720
t=2'60 cm
So thickness of each steel fl.itch =1'3 cm
Depth of each steel fl.itch = f9'2 cin
Width of timber beam = 18'75 cm.
Problem 8'18. A composi~e Heam consists ot two wooden beams of breadth B and
depth D each and a steel plate of width b and depth d sandwiched symmetrically between
them . The allowable. stress in ste~l . \ 5 169 ,N/mm 2 ~~~ in ~.?<?9. i~ is Ip N/mm 2• Determine
(i) ratio of Did if maximum stresses m ~te'el an.~ "".ood rea_ch s1muJtaneously (ii) ratio of /3/b,
if the m~ment of resistance ·of ·0ne WtYod'e'n beam 'is equal to that of steel plate .
Qiven Estee1= MO x jtis N/mm2
.,,.. = lO X 1'0
Ewood 3
Nimm
. i
2
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TH'i?oRY ·op siMPLE BENDING
Solution. Maximum skin stress in wood,
f w= I0 N / mm2
E. 200X 103
Modular ratio, m = E, = 10 x I03 20
0
Distance of extreme layer of wood from neutral axis

D
=2
At a distance of D/2 from neutral axis,
Stress in steel, f ,'=m fw = 20x 10=200 N/ ri1m2
But the allowable stress in steel
/, = 160 N/mm2
Therefore the depth of the steel plate has to be less than D.
Stress in a layer is proportional to its distance from the neutral layer.
So the value of d/2 for a stress of 160 N/mm 2
D 160 .
= 2 X 200 = 04 D
or d= 0'8 D
_Q_ = 1'25
d
(ii) Moment of resistance of one wooden beam = moment of r"esis'tarice of steel plate
lS beam
BD2 · bd2
-6- Xf,,, = 6 Xf,
BD 2 X IO= bd2 x 160
b D2 D2 D2
13= 16d 2 = 16 x (0'8 D) 2 = 16 X0'64 D2
,r ~ = 10"24.
b
Problem 8'19. The reinforced concrete beam of T -section shown in the Fig. 8"60
as maximum stresses of 5/ Nmm 2 in concrete and 100 N imm 2 in steel. The modular ratio of
:eel and concrete is 16. Assume that the neutral axis lies within the full width of the section,
nd the area of steel reinforcement and the moment of resistance.
Solution. Say the distance of the
eutral axis from the compression face is H.
Breadth of concrete section in com-

ression
= 600 mm
Depth of steel reinforcement from the
impression face,
D = 300 mm
~aximum stress in steel, Te ns ion face
f, = LOO N/ mm 2
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Maximum stress in concrete,

fo = 5 N/ mm 2
Modular ratio, E,
m= -=1 6
Ee
We know that f. = m (
f•
DH-H) ... (I)
l ~O = I 6 ( 30~- H )
or 1·25 H = 300- H
300
H=
2·25
= 133·33 mm
Now J. · BH= f, . A, ... (2)

2
; X600 X J33·J3 = 100 XA ,
Area of steel reinforcement,

A,= 15 x 133.33=2000 mm2 = 20cm 2
.
Moment of resistance, M = f , . A, ( D - H ) = I00 X 2000 ( 300- 133'33 )
3 3
5
= 2 x I0 x 255'55 = 511 · 1 x 10 Nmm= 51' l kNm
5
SUMMARY
1. Flexure formula is,

M = !_= E
/,,, y R
where 1'1= bending moment at a particular section
IL» = moment of inertia of the section
/ = stress due to bending in a layer at a distance y from tt
neutral layer
E = young's modulus of elasticity
R= radius of curvature at the section.
2. Maximum stress in compression,
J.=3£
z.
where Z. =section modulus in compression
M;iximum stress in tension,
M
.fi = -i ,
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ntEORY 6P stMPLli ~EN°i>ING
where Z 1= section modulus in tension
Z . -_ -
lxr• Zt = 1,,:,
Y• Yi
y = distance of extreme layer in compression from neutral axis
0
y,=distance of extreme layer in tension from neutral axis.

3. Rectangular section,
BD 2
Z, = Zt = - -
6
m/3
'4'. Circular section, Zc = Z1= -
32
],.,,
5. I section, Zc = Z 1= D/ 2
where D = depth of 1 section .
6M.,,t
6. Modulus of rupture = bF'"
where Muu = ultimate bending moment on the beam
b, d= breadth, depth of a rectangular section.
7. In beams, cantilevers of uniform strength, M /Z i.e., ratio of bending moment and
section modulus is kept constant through0ut the length of beam/cantilever.
8. Bimettallic strip,
Radius of the bend, R

Ei2+ £ 2 2 + 14 E 1 E2
12 E1 E 2 (o: 2 - a1)
where ! = thickness of each strip
T = temperature change
E 1 , E 2 = Young's modulus of str ips I and 2 respectively
ix 2 , oc2= coefficient of linear expansion of materials 1 and 2.
9. In a fl.itched beam
Moment of resistance= Resisting moment offered by beam of material (I'+resisting
moment ofI:ered by beams of strengthening material (2). . '
· . Equivalent section of the beam is made by considering the modular ratio E 2 /E1 •
10. In reinforced cement concrete beam
A =m (
f.
D-H)
H .. . (1)
P= Jr . Ac= f. A,
1-E_ (EH ) =f , A ,
2 ... (2)
M= P ( D-1 ;= {• BH ( D- ~ )=f, A,
where / , = maximum stress in steel
/. = maximum stress in concrete
m=E,/Ec
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D= d; pth. of ~teel reiJ;1.fot~em~nt from compression face
H= distance of neutra,l axis from compression face
B= breadth of concrete section
A, = ~rea of steel reinforcement.
MULTIPLE CHOIC~ QUESTIONS
1. A beam of rectangular section of breadth 10 cm and depth 20 cm is subjected to a

bending moment of 2 tonne-metres. The stre~~ devetopeq at~ q\~sl_nS:J?, ~ \0 9ffi from
the top face is
(a) 1200 kg/cm2 (b) 600 kg/cro2
(c) 300 kg/cm 2 (d) o·o.
2. A beam of T section is subjected to a bending mom.~nt M. The depth of the section

is 12 cm. The moment of inertia of the section about plane·of bending is f200 cm'.
The flange of the section is in co mpression. If the maximum tensile stress is two times
the maximum co mpressive stress, then the value of section modulus in compression. for
the section is
(~) 300 cro 3 (b) 200 cro 3
(c) 150 cm 3 (d) 100 cm 3 •
3. A mild steel beam is subjected to bending moment, a stress of 1 to.n.n~/~m~ is. de".~oped in
a layer at a distance of 10 cm from th~ neutra~ layei;. If E=2000 tonnes/cm2, the radius
of curvature is
(a) 400 m (b) 200 m
(c) 100 m (d) 50 m.
4. A beam of I sectioa. of depth 20 cm is subjected to a bending moment M. The flange
thickness is 1. cm. · If the maximum stress developed in I section is iOO N/mm 2, the stress
developed; ~t ~h~ i.tHWr edge of thy flange is
(a) 95 N /mm 2 (b ) 90 N /mm2
2
(c) 41·5 N/ fm (d) 45·0 N/mm 2 •
5. A beam of rectangular section (breadth b, depth d) is tested under bending a~'d Mu 11 is
the ul.timat\'l \:>.en_gJ_i;i,g moment recor.ded. The modulus of rupture of the beam.ii, given by
(a) 6 Muu/bd 3 (b) 6 Muit/bd2
(c) 12 Mu1i/bd 2 (d) 12 Mu11/bd8.
6. A beam of square section (with s ides of the square horizonta l and vertical) is subjected
to a bending moment Mand the maximum stress devylop,e d is 100 N/mm2. If the dia-
gonals of the section take vertical and h orizontal directions, bending moment remaining
the same, the maximum stress developed will now be
(a) 100 .,,J2 N /mm2 (b) ~~ N/ mm2

(c) SO N/mm 2 (d ) None of the above.
7. A cantilever of uniform strength / having rectan gular section of constant depth d but
variable breadth b, is subjectec,l to. a _Point load W at its free end. If the length of the
cantilever is /, the lfteadth of the cantilever at the mid9le of its length is
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'1¥,IJPRX OF 3IMPLE l3ENO,ING
6 wl (b) 3 wi
(~) Jd2 fd2
2 wl wl
(c) fd3 (d) fd2
8.. A cantilever of uniform strength /, having rectangular section of constant bteadt],i, b

but variable depth dis subjected to a uniformly distributed load throughout its length'.
If the depth of the section at the fixed end is 16 cm, the depth at the midd\e of the
length is
(a) 2 cm (b) 4 cm
(c) 8 cm (d) 12 cm.
9. A steel plate of breadth 1 cm and depth 15 cm is sandwiched betwe.en two wooden
beams of breadth JO cm and depth 20 cm each. The composite beam is subJected to a
be.nding moment such that the maximum stress developed in steel plate is 150.0 kg/,cmz~
If ;~ = 10, the maximum stress developed in wooden beam is
Ca) 50 kg/cm 2 (b) 100 kg/cm 2

(c) 150 kg/cm2 (d) 200 kg/cm 2 •
10. In an R.C.C. beam, the depth of the steel reinforcement froqi compression face is 30 cm.
The modular r~tio EE, = 15 and the ~·atio of maximum stress developed in steel and the
'0
maximum stress developed in concrete is alsp 15. The ~\stance of the. neutral a)l:is fron;t
the compression face is
(a) 20 cm (b) 18 cm
(<:) 15 cm (d) 12 cm .
.i\NS,WE~~
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5.. (b)

6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (c)
EXER€1SES
s·t. A wooden joist of span 6 m is to carry a brick wall 23 cm thick and 3 m high.
The depth of the joist is 2·5 times. its breadth an:d the maximum permissible &tress, is limited
to 70 kg/cm2. Find the dimensions of the joist. Density of brick wall = 1800 kg/m3 .
[Ans. B = 19'72 cm, D=49,'3.0. ~m,]
s·2. A floor has to carry a load of 8 kN/m2 (including its own weight). If the span
of each beam is 6 m. Calculate the spacing centre to centre between the joists. The breadth
of each joist is 12 cm and depth is 30 cm and permissible stress due to bending is 5 N/mm2 •
[Ans. 25 cm]
8:3. A b.eam subjected to ben9ing moment Mis of T section, having flange JO cm x 2t
and w.,e,1;> t~ic.lc.r;i.e~.s t. Th~ overall depth of T section is 20 cm. Determine the thicknes.ses of
the flange <,1 nd the web, if the maxii:n.~1yi tensile stress is doubly th,e maximum c.oippressive
stress. '(The flange being in compression). · ["n,s. 4: 64_8 C,Wi, 2'324 GD};]
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422 STRENGTH OP MATERIA.l.S
8'4. A girder of T section of depth 25 cm is used as a cantilever with unifo rmly

distributed load w throughout its length. The width of the flange is b and thickness 5 cm,
while web is 20 cm X 5 cm. The flange comes under ten5ion. The material of cantilever
can be subjected to 80 N/mm 2 in co mpression and 20 N/mm2 in tension. It is desired to
achieve a balanced design so that the maximum permissible bending stresses are reached
simultaneously. Determine the width of the flange. Find the intensity of the load w on the
cantilever if it is 2 m long. [Ans. 80 cm, 33·333 kN/m]
8'5. A cantilever has a free length of 2"4 m. It is of T section with the flange
12 x 2 cm and the web 24 X 1 cm. The flange being in tension . What load can be applied
at the end of the cantilever if the maximum permissible stress in compression is 500 kg/cm 2 •
What is the maximum stress in tension? [Ans. 359 kg, 202'7 kg/cm2 ]
.. 8'6. A compound bea m for a crane runway is built up of a 250 x 125 mm rolled steel
joist with a 150 x 75 mm rolled steel channel attached to the top flange. Calculate the position
of the neutral axis of the section and determine moment of inertia / ,,.,. For I section ;
area = 35'53 cm2 . lx'x'=3717'8 cm4, lv'v'= l93'4 cm 4 • For channel section; area= l 8'39 cm 2 ,
web th1ckness=4·8 mm, Ix' / = 698'5 cm4, l.,'/=103' l cm4, distance of C.G. of channel section
from outer edge of web = 2·39 cm. [The over all depth of compound section is 254'8 mm]
f Ans. Neutral axis lies at a distance of 16' l 1 cm
from lower edge ; 5179'9 cm 4]
8'7. A 2oo' x 60 mm I section is strengthened by joining a plate 60 mm x 10 mm at
the bottom flange only. The compound section is used as a beam of span 4 m carrying a
central load W. What is the maximum value of W if the stress due to bending in the section
is not to· exceed 80 N/mm 2• Properties of I section are. Area= l 2'64 cm 2, Ix' x' = 780·7 cnr1
/// = 17'3 cm4 • [Ans. 7·35 kNJ
8'8. An I sectio n, is to the used as a cantilever 2 m long. In 1 section, flanges are
100 mm x 20 mm and the web is 2 10 mmx 10 mm. If the permissible stress is 80 N/mm 2 ,
What concentrated load can be carried at the end of the cantilever. If the cantilever is to be
strengthened by steel plates 20 mm thick, welded on the top and bottom flanges, find the width
of the plates required to withstand an increase of 40% in the load and the length over which
the plate should extend, the maximum pennissible stress remaining the same.
[Ans. 19'44 kN ; 52 mm ; 572 mm length]
8'9. The section of a beam is shown
in t he Fig. 8·61. X-X and Y-Y are th e axes of
symmetry. Determine the ratio of its
moment of res istance in the plane YY to that R:15m m
in the plane XX for bending, if the maximum
stress due to bendi ng is the same in both the
cases. [Ans. · 0'366]
I
. I
8·10. A beam of I sect.ion of moment
of inertia 11 25 cm4 and depth 16 cm is freely
supported at its ends. It carries a central
load of .2 tonnes. Over what span can the
beam be carried so that the maximum stress
does not .increase beyond 800 kg/cm 2 • ·'
F ig. 8·61
· (b) ·lfthe allowable stress is increased to 1200 kg/cni2, what load uniformly distributed
throughout its length can be applied on the beam. [Ans. 2·25 m, 888'8 kg/m run]
8 '11. A steel tube 35 mm outside diam cte~· and 30 mm inside diameter saf~ly c~rrie~
a 'ioad of 300 N over a span of 4 metres.
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THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING 4,2 3
Four of these tubes arc firmly fixed together w ith their centres forming a square of
side 35 mm. Find the maximum central load which the beam can carry if the maximum
stress is not to exceed to that in the single tube. [Ans. l '98 kNJ
'
8' l2. An ISMB 250 I section is supported as a beam over a span of 2 metres, A load
W acts at an angle of 45° to the vertical axis at the middle section of the beam. Determine
W if the maximum stress in the section is not to exceed 560 kg/cm 2.
Specifications of the section are :
Depth=250 mm, Width = 125 mm
Flange thickness = 12·5 mm, Web th ickness = 6'9 mm
fx., =5 131'6 cm4, '~y = 334'5 cm 4 [Ans. 750'7 kg]
s· 13, A vertical flag staff IO m high is of square section 160 mm x 160 mm at'. the
ground, uniformly tapering to 80 mm X 80 nim at the top. A horizontal pull of 200 kg is ·
applied at the top in the direction of a diagonal of the section. Calculate the maximum stress
due to bending fAns. 490·9 kg/cm2J
8'14. A bimetallic strip is formed by using strips of brass and steel, each of width
75 mm and thickness 20 mm. Both the strips are fastened together so that no relative move-
ment can take place between them. The bimetallic strip is now heated through 120°c.
Assuming that both the strips bend by the same radius and stresses are transmitted throu gh
end connections, find the radius of the bend and the maximum and minimum stresses in both
the strips,
E,=2 x ]05 N/mm2, £&=0·9 x 105 N/mm2
a,= 11 X 10- 0 /°C, ao = 19 X 10-6 /°C
[Ans. 28'559 m; +86'95, - 53'11 N/mm 2 (in steel)
-5 1'93, +18 ·09 N/mm 2 (in brass)]
8'15. A steel bar 5 cm in diameter is completely encased in a brass tube of IO cm

diameter, so as to form a composite bea~, . fhis co.mposite ~earn is subj~cted to a bending
moment of 2 kNm. Determine the maximum bending stress rn each material.
E,=2Eb=210X 103 N/mm 2
[Ans. Js =±19'09 N/mm2, .fb = ±I9'09 N/mm2]
8"16. A timber bea m of breadth Band d~~th 30 cm is simply supported over a span
of 6 m. The beam is to be strengthened by the add1<1on of steel flitches fixed on both the sides as
shown in Fi g. 8'62. With the timber beam
~0_-.
30cm~o--i
alone a load of 10 kN gave a maximum stress
of 5 N/mm 2 • If the flitched beam is loaded
with an extra load of 5kN, with the maximum
1!-.+
stress in steel of 60 N/mm 2, stress in the timber
remaining the same, determine the dimensions
of the timber beam and steel fitches.
2 2
_§ = 15
E, Fig. 8·62
[Ans. B= 20 cm, d=_24 cm, ! = 13'02 mm]
8·17. A composite beam consists of two wooden beams of breadth 10 cm and depth
30 cm each and a steel plate of width b and depth d is sandwiched between them. The allow-
;:ible stress in steel is 1500 kg/cm 2 and in wood it is 90 k~/cm~. Deterµiine the dimensiOI\S of
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the steel plate if (a) maximum stresses in steel arid wood reach simultaneously (b) moment of
resist'aiice ·of one wooden beam is equal to the moment of resistance of steel plate.
E,=2100 tonnes/cm 2, E, = 21
E,
[Ans. d=23 81 cm; b=9' : mm]
8'18. The reinforced concrete beam
of T section shown in Fig. 8'63 has maximum j-socrn-~
stress of 70 kg/cm 2 in concrete and 1540 kg/
cm2 in steel. The modular ratio of steel and
concrete is 15. Assuming that the neutral
axis lies within the full width o~ the section
find : (i) distance of the neutral axis from the
=t ~LIm
top face (ii) area of steel reinforcement (iii)
moinent of resistance.
[Ans. 10'135 cm, 11'52 cm 2, 3'835 Tm] Fi~. 8·63
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, '
9
Combined Bending and Direct Stresses
In the last chapter, we have studied about the variation of direct stresses due to bending
moments along the depth of the beams and cantilevers of various sections. We have learnt
that bending stress varies from maximum tensile stress in an extreme layer to. the maximum
compressive stress in other extreme layer on the other side of the neutral axis. Now, if in
addition to the bending moment, the beam is subjected to axial pull or axial thrust, the direct
stress due to pull or thrust will be superimposed on the bending stresses and for a certain value
of thrust and bending moment, the section may have only one type of stress i.e., either tensile
stress or the compressive stress throughout the section. When a column carries a vertical load
at a point not on its C.G. but away from C.G., the column will be subjected to a combination
?.f ~ ?ending moment and a thrust.
9:1: BENDING MOMENT AND AXIAL THRUST
Fig. 9·1 shows a short column of rect-
angular cross section of breadth Band depth D .
G is the centroid of the section abed i.e., the
top edge of the column. A vertical load P acts
at point G' along the X-X axis passing through
the centroid. If the load acts on the C.G.
of the section, there will be only direct com-
pressive stress. But now the position of the
application of the load is G', at a distance of
e (eccentricity) from the centroid G. The
effect of this will be to bend the column and I
as a result of bending, the edge be will Pl
experience maximum compressive strain or
stress and the edge ad will experience the
maximum tensile strain or stress.
Let us apply an equal and opposite
.vertical load of magnitude P at the centroid G
of the section. A load P at G' can .be replaced
by a load P at .G and a clockwise bending
()i .
moment P . e at G. Fig. 9·1
Bending moment, M= Pe
Direct load, = P (compressive force)
Direct stress, f<1. = B~ (which is constant throughout the section)
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Bending stress on a layer mn, at a distance of x from the neutral layer hf

/b= P.e . x
!vu
fb is positive or negative depending upon the value of x.
BDa
Now lyy = ~
.12 Pe
jb = .13vs xx
=O at x=O
.6 Pe D
= + BJJ 2 ,(compressi:ve) at x=-
2
'6 Pe . '])
=- BD 2 r(tens1le) at x= - 2
.Pe
=±z
,.wher.c Z = seation ,modulus.
Fig. 9·2 shows the stress distribution along the depth of the section, "a'no is given by
line a'" b'". The stress on the edge bc ,is :bb"' r(comp1:essiv.e) .11i1.d the ,sttess .on ,the -edge ad ,i~
aa"' (tensile). ·
Fig. 9·2
Example 9·1-1. A cast iron column .of 20 cm tl rame.ter ·dn:rres ;a ·v'ertica'l load ~f-21'6
tonnes, at a distance of 4 cm from the centre. Heterni'i'ne 'the .n'la~im'um ·ana mtn:imum ~ trdss
developed in section, along the diameter passing through the 1pdirft o'f l6'a:ding.
Solution.
Vertical load, P= 40 tonnes = 40,000 kg
Diameter of section, D = 20 cm '\.I
Area ·of :Gt;Qss.se,c~ion, A= -~ (20) 2= 314'16 cm2

4
P 40,000
/d = =' ~14' = 127·32 k~/cm2 (compressive)
4 19
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~DINED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESSES
Eccentricity, e = 4cm
Bending moment, M = P .e= 40,000 X4= 160,000 kg-cm
Section modulus, Z = rcD3

32 -
- T X 203 = 78s··A 3
32 "t cm
a __ tjeTG'-:-- b
--J4cm!.- 20cm
y'
,-
I 331 Ot. kg/c m2
..::L rnP'"""---'--L-L-.l.-.l.-L--....!._
(1- (compressive )
7 6 4 0 kg /c m2
(Ten s i le)
Fig. 9'3
Pe _ :1:
Bending stress, fo = ±y= -160,000 . k / i
18514' -: 203 72 g cm
Resultant stress at the edge b

= 127'32+203'72= 331 '04 kg/cm2 (compressive)
Resultant stress at the edge a

= 127'32-203'72= - 76"40 kg/cm2 (tensile):
Exercise 9'1-1. A cast iron column of rectangµ,lar s~ctipn 20 cm x 3~·1-i:w carries a
vertical load of 25 tonnes at a point 3 cm away from the CG of the section on a line passing
through the centroid and parallel to the larger side. Detevmine the maximum stress at the
[
Ans, 66'66•lcgfcm2 (compressive)
16'66 kg/cm2 (compressive)
J
edges of the line passing through the centroid on which the point of application of load lies.
9'2, LOAD ECCENTRIC TO BOTH THE AXES
Consider a rectangular section B X D of a column subjected t_o a vertical load P at the

point G', at a distance of e from the centroid G (as shown in the Fig1 9;4 (a)! 'Flie load is
eccentric to both the symmetric axes XX and YY passing through the centroid. Component
o~ ~:c~~tricity e along X-X axis is e1 an<l along y. Y axis is e~.
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Direct load on the column= P
•·
0
'
428
Area of cross section, A=.B.b

Direct stress, fd = Jn (compressive) .
Bending moment about axis YY,

M 1 = Pe1
! yy BD 2
Section modulus, Z "'= D/2 = -
6-
Fig. 9·4
Bending stress due to M 1 along the edge be

= -Mi-- - 6 --
M1 ( compressive
Z:. - BD2
. )
Bending stres$ due to M1 along the edge ad

6M
=- - -1 ( tens,. 1e)
BD2
..
Stress distribution is shown in Fig. 9·4 (b)
: Bending moment about axis XX,
M 2 =P.e2
J.,, DB2
~ I Se~tiQ.~ mo.dutus = 6-
' ,.
; •
Z,.= B/2
j, .
Bending stress due to M 2 along the edg~ cd
= -M2
-=-6-
M2- ( compressive)
•
Z,. DB2
Bending stress due to M 2 along the edge ab
' ;
6 M 2 ( tens1•1e )
= - DB 2
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Stress distribution is shown in Fig. 9·4 (c).
COMBINED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESSES
Resultant stresses at the corners
fa= fa-fo-fo'
1
fo= fd+fb-jb
J. =Ja+Jb+fo'
fd=fa-fo+f•'·
In this case, the compressive stress has been taken as positive and tensile stress is taken
as negative, because the columns are subjected to compressive loads or thrusts and materials
of columns like cast iron and concrete are strong in compression but weak in tension. In
co:e.crete columns it is desired that load should be placed at such an · eccentricity that the
resultant stress at any point in the section is only a compressive stress.
Exatnple 9'2-1. A cast iron column

of section 20 cm X 30 cm is subjected to a
compressive load of 10 tonnes acting at a point d C
~
4 cm away from its CG and along a diagonal.
Determine the resultant stresses at four corners
of the top face of the column. X
- _20crn
Solution.
--------t---.J_L
Vertical load, P=lO tonnes Q y . ' lb
= 10,000 kg
Area of cross section, A=20 x 30 ~ 30 c m - ~
= 600 cm 2 Fig. 9·5
Direct stress, " = .!._- lO,OOO = 16'66 k /cm 2

Jd A - 600 g
Eccentricity about the diagonal ac

= GG' = 4 cm
Component of eccentricity along X-X axis,
e1 = -:r4 X2 15 .
- 3 328 cm
'V 10 + 15 2
Component of eccentricity along Y-Y axis,

4
xl0 = 2'218cm
e2= 1102+ 152
Bending moment about YY axis,

M 1 = P.e1 = lOOOO X 3'328 = 33280 kg-cm
Bending moment about X-X axis,
M 2 = P.e2 = 10000 X 2'218 = 22180 kg-cm
Section modulus, Zx= l11u = 206x 302 = 3000 cma

15
Section modulus, Z y-- I.,.,

10 -
- 30 x 202 = 2000 . a
6 cm :1,
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430 STRENG'f.H OF MAT~I~~
Maximum bend'ing stress ciue to M1 ,

fi0 =± Pe1
z. - _ 33280 =±ll·09 k / 2
30oo· g cm
Maximum bending stress due to M 2 ,
f.' = Pe2 _ 22180 =±ll.09 k / 2
D ± Z-y - 2000 g cm
Note that due to M 1 bending stress at b and c will be compressive and equal to 1.1"09' kg/
cm2 ; and the b~nding stress at a and d will be tensile and equal to 11 ·09· kcg/cm2 •
Due to bending moment M 2 , bending stress at c and d will be compressive· and equal
to 11 ·09 kg/cm 2 and bending stress at a and b will be tensile and eqµal to 11 ·09 kg/cm 2 •
Resultant stresses
fa = r6·66 - 11 "09- J l ·09 = -5·52 kg/cm2 (tensile)
Jo= 16'66+ 11 ·09-11 '09 = + 16'66 kg/cm 2 (compressive)
fe=t6·66+ 11 ·09+ 11 "09 = +38.84 kg/cm2 (compressive)
fa = l6.66-ll·o9 + 11·09 =+ I6·66 kg/cm2 (compressive)
Exercise 9'2-1. A cast iron column of square section 40 X40 cm is subjected to a

compressive load of 50 tonnes acting at a point which 6 cm from X-X axis and 8 cm from Y-Y
axis, where X-X and Y-Y are the axes of symmetry passing through the C.G. of the top section
of the column. Determine the resultant stresses at the extreme corners of the section.
[Ans. -34'375, +40'625, 96'875, +21·875 kg/cm2 ]
9'3. CORE OR THE KERNEL OF A RECTANGULAR SECTION
Fig. 9'6 shows a rectangular section of

breadth B and depth D with C.G. located at
its centre G. Say this is the section of a
column and a load P is applied at G' at a
distance e 1 from G along the axis X-X.
Moment about the axis Y-Y.
M 1=Pe1
Maximum bending stress due to M 1
= ± 6P.e 1
BD2 Fig,9·6
Resultant stress along·th'e edge,
P 6Pe 1
ad= DB - BD2
= direct compressive stress - tensile stress due to bending

Along the edge be, resultant stress will be compressive throughout.
If the material of the colum~ is brittl.e which is weak in tension, then it is desired
that tensile stress should not be de:vel'ep·ed a:nyw.)tere in the section, for. that,
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eoMBl'NBD BENDING ANB DIRECT STRESSES 43,l
direct stress> bending stress

P 6P.e1
BD > BD2
D
or e1<
6
Similarly we can consider the ap~lication of load on the other side of the neutral
axis YY, for the resultant to stress be only the compressive stress,
e1 ' < D
6
In other words, load can be applied anywhere along pq or on the middle third of the
depth, the resultant stress in no part of the section wi ll be tensile.
Again let us consider that load is applied at G", at a distance of e2 from the centroid G
of the section.
Bending moment about axis XX.
M 2 =P.e2
Maximum bending strese due to M 2
= ± 6P.e2
DB 2
Resultant stress along the edge ab

P 6Pe 2
BD - DB 2
The resultant stress along the edge cd will be compressive throughout.

If it is desired that tensile stress should not be developed anywhere in the section then
direct compressive stress> bending stress
P 6Pe 2
BD> -DF
,JJ
or e2<
6
Similarly we can consider the a·pplication of che 1l0ad ,on the 0tiher side of -neutral r.~~is
XX, and for the resultant stress to be only the compressive stress,
I B
e2 <!
6
or in other words, load can be applied anywhere along rs or on the middle third of the ·breadth,
the resultant stress in no part of the section will be tensrle.
Joining the points p, q, r and s gives a di~mond shapeli figure lWhioh is calle'd core-or
If the vertical load is applied on the column on any point inside the
k ernel of the section.
area marked core or kernel, the ,resultant stress anywhere in the section of the column will be;:
~ompressive,
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STRENGTH OF .MATERIALS,
9·4. CORE OF A CIRCULAR SECTION

Fig. 9·7 shows a circular section of y
diameter D, of a column carrying, the vertical
load at G', at a distance of e from the centre
G of the section. Q.
1 r:,
I
Say X-X axis passes, through G and G' 0 b

and axis . YY is perpendicular to XX and X. X
passing through the centroid of the section, G.
Bending moment, M = P .e
Section modulus, Z:c=

TCD 3
32
L~'=12jFig. 9·7
Resultant stress at the extreme edge a

4P 32 Pe
='11n2 - - r;D"il ,, ·,.
While the resultant stress at edge b is wholly compressive.

- If the resultant stress throughout the section has to be compressive, then
4P _32 Pe >O
rcD 2 TCD 3
4P 32 Pe
or TCD 2 > TCD3
D
or e< ..8
Similarly eccentricity on the other side of the neutral axis YY can be considered and
we get
D
e< 8
for no tension in the section anywhere.
The area covered by a circle of diameter D/4 at the centre is called the core or kernel
of circular section. If a load is applied on the column on any point within this core, the
resultant stress at any point of the section will be only compressive.
Example 9'4-1. A short hollow cylindrical column carries a compressive force · of
400 kN. The external diameter of the column is 200 mm and the internal diameter is 120 mm.
Ffnd the maximum ·permissible eccentricity of the load if the allowable stresses are 60 N/mm2
in compression and 25 N/mm2 in tension. ·
Solution. ()
External diameter, D= 200 mm

~! •j • 11/. 1, •
Internal diameter, d= 120 mm
TC
2
Ar.ea· of cross section, A=
4 (D - d2)
,\
:, . ·.I.••:
I,
~ ~ (2002- 1202) = 2'01 X 104 Plll\2
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'COMBINED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESSES 433
Compressive load, P=400 kN=4X 105 N
Direct stress, p 400 X 103 -19·90 N/ 2 (compressive)

/a=7 = 2·01 x 10 4 - mm
Say the eccentricity of the load=e mm

Bending moment, M = P.e= 4e X 105 Nmm
1;(D 4 -d4 ) n (2004 -1204)
Section modulus, Z= 32 D = 32 X 200 -
n 13'9264Xl0S 3
= 32 x 200 mm
=0'6836x 106 mm3
Maximum bending stress,
M 4exl05 •
fb= ±Z =± 0·6836 X 106 =±0 585 e
Resultant stress at extreme layers = 19'90±0'585 e

Allowable stress in compression=60 N/mm 2 = 19·90+ '585 e
e=68'55 mm
Allowable stress in tension =-25 N/mm2 =19'90-'585 e
or _ 25-19'9 8'72
e- "585 mm
Maximum permissible eccentricity is 8'72 mm from the centre of circular section.
Example 9'4-2. A short hollow pier 1'6 m X 1'6 m outer sides and 1 m X 1 m inner
sides supports a vertical load of 2000 kN at a point located on a diagonal 0·5 m from the
vertical axis of the pier. Neglecting the self weight of the pier, calculate the normal stresses at
the four outside corners on a horizontal section of the pier.
Solution. Fig. 9'8 shows the section
of the pier. Vertical axis passes through the
centroid G of the section. ac is the diagonal
and GG' = 0' 5 m. -. Jm
At G' the load 2000 kN is applied on
the pier. j_
Load applied P = 2000 kN
Area of cross saction= l '6 2 -1 2
= 1'56 m 2
. modulus., Z~= Zy = ( 1'64 - 14) l'6

Section 2
12
= 5 ·553 G= 0·5785 ma
~·~ . .
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,STRENGTH OF MATl!RIAJ.S
Eccentricity about YY axis = e1 = '5 X'707 = 0'353 m

Eccentricity about XX axis = e2 = '5 X'707= 1)·353 m
Bending moment about YY axis = Nf1 = P X 0'353
Bending moment about XX axis = M 2 = P X 0'353
= ± ~
z% -- + 2-~_9·~] = ± 1220'4 kN/m2
0·5785
= ± ,tvf2 _ _1_2'000 >< 0'353 = ±l 220 .4 kN/ 2
Z:1 - 0'5785
:::i:: m
D irect compressive stress,
. p 2000 kN = + 128.l"05 kN/ 2
j a= - l'56 m
A
Resultant Stresses at Corii'ets

f. = 1282'05 - 1220'4- 1220'4= - 1158'75 kN/ m2
/b = l282·05 + 1220·4- 1220·4= + 1282·05 kN/m 2
f• = 1282'05+ 1220·~+ 1220'4= + 3722'85 kN/tn2
/d = 1282"05-1220'4+ 1220'4= + '1282'05 kN/m2
Negative stress is n 'tehsile !itress.
9·5, WIND PRESSURE ON WALLS A~ CHIMNEY SHAFTS
}vf~nY. .a..tirn.es _mas9,n ry ~alls and chim1wy shafts are subjected t.o strong wi~d pressures.
The werg'ht t>1''tlte w~tlt ·Cir the chimney produces compressive stress in t'he ·base while the wind
pressure introduces bending m oment producing tensile and compressive stresses in the b ase.
'Fi'g. 9·9·shov.•s a tnatofity w a11 of heiglit Hand rectarrgular section B x D. The 'horizontal wind
p--~essttte ofint6rts1ty p ·1s ·.atltittg on the face df width B.
Say density of masonry structure= p
Weight of the masonry structure, Wind

p re s sur e- Mas o nry
W = p BDH
w all
Area of cross section at the base = BD H
Compressive stress due to the weight

of the structure on its base,
. .. (I) d Nc
bl
Total wind force on the vertica l face,
P= pBH
1~!.ect;oc
Distance of C.G. of the wind force ~ b
from the base, --l D I-
H
=2
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cfo~1NE0 BEND(Nd ANn ornEcT srRessEs
Bending moment, M
= PH _ pBH2
2 - 2
2
BD
-Section modulus, Z=-6-
- M pBH2 6. /
Bending stress, jb-±z =±~x Di
3p H 2
=±~
Due to bending moment, there will be maximum tensile stress along edge ad and
maximum compressive stress along edge be of the base.
",pH2
Resultant stresses, jR = fd- ·D 2 along ~dge ad
Fig. 9' l O shows a cylindrical chimney of height H, external diameter D and internal
diameter d, subjected to hqri?:ont~I wind pressur~ p as shown.
If p is the weight density of the masonry structure, direct stress due to the weight of the
structure on its base= pH
Consider a small strip of width R ae, subtending an angle 38 at the centre and making
an angle e with the axis ac of the section.
w ind
p
T H
p res sure
C_X
Fig. 9·10
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SttlENGTH OF MAtEkIAL~
8P= Wind force reaching the small strip

-+
= pX R 80.H cos 0
= pH R 8/J cos 0
Cmponent of the force normal to the strip I'·
= 8Pn=8P cos IJ
pHR cos e . 80 cos IJ= pHR cos 2
0 89
Horizontal component of 8Pn,
8P1 = 8Pn cos e= pHR cos 3 O • 89
Another horizontal component of 0Pn 1 , 8P2 = 8Pn sin 8. This component is cancelled
out when we consider a strip in other quadrant (as shown), while the components 8Pn coi 6
are added up.
Therefore total force in the direction X-X
= WPn cos 8=2pHR cos 3 IJ • 8/J
Integrating over the whole exposed surface from (J = 0 to 90°.

1r/2
Total wind force, .P = J 2pHR cos 3
d(J .
0
= pDH. T2 =kpDH
where k = coeflicient of wind resistance
DH= projected area of the curved surface
CG of the force lies at a distance of H/2 from the base.
Bending moment due to wind force,
M = PH
2
= pDH 1_ x!!.... - pDH2

3 2 - 3
n(D4 -d4)
Section modulus, Z= 32D
M
Bending stress =±z·
Generally the coefficient of wind resistance is taken as o·6for cylindrical chimneys.
Example 9'5-1. A 10 m high masonry wall of rectangular section 4 m x 1·5 m is
subjected to horizontal wind pressure of 150 kg/m2 on the 4 m side. Find the maximum and
minimum stress intensities induced on the base.
Density of masonry is 2200 kg/m 3 •
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COMBINED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESSE~ 437
Solution. B, Breadth = 4 m
Height, H = lOm
D, depth = l'Sm
Area at tho ba'le
Weight of the masonry structure
= pBDH= 2200 X 4 X 1'5 X 10 = 132000 kg
Direct compressive stress at the base due to weight,
fa = 132000 = 22000 kg/ m2
6
Wind pressure, p = 15'() kg/ m2
Wind force on the vertical face of side 4 m,
P = pBH
= I 50 X 4 X lO= 6000 kg
Distance of CG of P from base,
H
= 2 =5 m
PH
Bending moment, M = - - = 6000 X 5= 30000 kg-m
2
Section modulus,
Bending stress due to bending moment,

M
fb = ±z:
- 3o,ooo = 20 000 k / 2
- 1·5 ' gm
Maximum stress = 22000 + 20000 =42000 kg/m 2 (compressive)
Min imum stress = 22000- 20000 = 2000 kg/m:i (compressive).
Example 9'5-2. A masonry chimney 20 m high of uniform circular section · 5 m
external diameter and 3 m internal diameter has to withstand a horizontcil wind pressi:re of
intensity 200 kg per square metre of the projected area. Find the maximum and minimum
stress intensities at the base. Density of masonry structure=2100 kg/m•.
Solution.
Height of the chimney, H = 20 m
External diameter, D= 5 m
Internal diameter, d=3 m
Density of masonry, p= 2100 kg/ m3
Direct compressive stress due to self weight on the base of the chituney,
/a=pH = 20 X2100=42000 kg/m2
Wind pressure, p=200 kg/m2
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438 . StRBNGTH OF MATijRJI\LS
Projected area, A=DH=5 X 20=100 m2
Wind force, P=pA= 200X 100=20000 kg
Distance of CG of the wind force from base
= 1 =!Om
PH
Bending moment, M= = 20,000x 10=200,000 kg-m
2
Section modulus, Z = _!"C - (D4-d-i) - ~ (54-34) - 10'68 m3
32 D - 32 5 -
Bending stress, I'. = ± M_ _ ± 200,000 kg/ m2

Jb Z - 10'68
= ± 18626'6 kg/m2
Maximum stress intensity,
f,naz =fd+/D = 42000 + 18726'6=60726'6 kg/m2
Minimum stress intensity,
/vi.cn = /11- /b = 42000-18726'6=23273'4 kg/m2 •
Exercise 9·5-1. The section of a masonry pier is a hollow rectangle, external

dimensions 4 m x l"2 m and in~en~al dimens~ons 2·4 m >,: 0·6 _m. A horizontal thrus't of 3000 kg
is exerted at the top of the pier m the vertical plane b1sectmg the length 4 m. The height of
chimney is 5 m and density of the masonry is 2250 kg/m 3• Calculate the maximum and
minimum intensity of stress at the base. (Ans. 28142 kg/m 2, - 5642 kg/m2]
Exercise 9·5-2. A cylindrical chimney shaft of a hollow circular section 2 m external
diameter and I m internal diameter is 25 m high. Given that horizontal intensity of wind
pressure is 100 kg/m2 ; determine the ~xtreme inte11sities of stress at the base. Take the
coefficient wind resistance as 0'6. Density of masonry= 2280 kg/m3 •
(Ans. 107930 kg/m2 , 6070 kg/ m2, both compressive]
Problem 9·1. A fl.at plate of section 20 mm x 60 mm placed in a testing machine is
subjected to 60 kN of load along the line AB as s_hown in Fig. 9· 11. An extensometer adjusted
.along the lini:: of the load recordeq an extens10n of 0'078 mm on a gauge length of 150 mm.
Determine (i) maximu.m and minimum stresses set up, (ii) Young's modulus of the material
of the plate.
Solution.
60 k N
8 6 0kN
Section of the plate, = 20 x 60 -;;- - - -
= 1200 mm2 60 mm
48 mm
Eccentricity of the load, = 48- 30
= 18 mm ...____ __.___ __J_l
Bending moment, Fig. 9·11
M = 60 x IOOO X 18 Nmm= l08 X 104 Nmm
bd~
Z = -- where b= 20 mi;n, d= 60 mm
Section modulus, 6
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C'OMBINED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESSES 439
= 20 x ~o x 60 = 12000 mm3
Stress due to bending, jb = ± 1

1 04
= ± ~~~0~ = ±90 N/rrnn
2
Direct stress, r= 60 x 1000 = - 50 N/ 2

.1d + 20X60 mm
Minimum stress =fa+/b
= -50+90 = 40 N/mm 2 (compressive)
Maximum stress = /d + /o
= -50- 90 = -140 N/ mm 2 (tensile)
Now stress along the line of the load
18
= -50-fo X 30
= -50-90 X ~ =- 140 N/mm2 (tensile)

30
Say Young's modulus =E
Then extension along the line of the load
= y104 x gauge length
= -104-£-
x 150
- = O·o78 mm
l04 x 150
So 0'078
E
W4 x l~ •
or Young's modulus, E= . = 200,000 N/ mm"
0 078
Problem 9·2. A large C clamp is shown in the Fig. 9· 12. As•the ·screw is ,tightened
down upon an object, the strain observed in the vertical direction at the point B is 800 micro-
strain. What is the load on the screw ?
E=2X 105 N/mm2.
Solution. The section shown is symmetrical about the axis X-X. CG lies along X-X.
13X3X 1·5 + 2 x 15X8
39+30
_ 5s·s+240 = 4 .32
- 69
x1 =4'32 cm
x 2 = 13-4'32= 8'68 cm
A.rea of ihc; $ection = 30+ 39 = 69 cm.2
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Moment of inertia,
103
1u,-- i 312
x 3a +13x3 (4·32-1·5) 2 +2x1·sx 12
+ 2 x 1·5x 10 (8·6s-s·o)a
= 29"25+3 10'1436+ 250"00+ 406'272
= 995"66 cm4
____
..._ .,
Sec t ion a t a-a
Fig. 9·12
Distance of the point B from neutral axis,

x = 8'68 -3=5"68 cm
Say the load on the screw= P Newtons
Distance of CG of the section from the load line,
e= 50+4"32= 54'32 cm
Bending moment on the section,
= P.e Nern
Direct force on the section,
= P (compressive)
On the point B /a = direct stress is compressive
/e = bending stress is also compressive
p
jtJ = N/cm 2 = 0"0145 P
69 .,
= M. x = 54·32. PX5 '68 _ .
Jib l yy 995"66 - 0 3098 P
Resultant stress, f• =J<i+Je= 0·3243 P
Strain at the point, E= jR = 800 X 10-o

E
= 0 3243
$
P
= 800 X 1Q
_6
w4ere ~ = ~ X 107 N/crn,9
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~C6MBJNID BENDING AND DIRECT STRESSES 441
'So o ·3243 7p = 800 10- s

2 X 10 X
80
Load on the screw, P= ~.; ; ~ IO = 49337 N = 49'337 kN.
4
. . Problem 9·3. A recta ngular plate 1 cm thick with a hole of 5 cm diameter drilled
m it as shown in the Fig. 9'13, is subjected to an axial pull P = 4500 kg. D etermine the
greatest .and the least intensities of stress at the critical cross section of the plate.
icm
o1 rc- Y = '.l 5 c ms.

7
A r·c:i
p
'\
.
-w-r
K
t _____
15cm F p
5c
1 -
· ,- -A B
-
. . - 1 5cms.
T- v =-6 5 cm
1
t
Cr 1t 1c o 1 s e c t i o n o t, t h e p l a t e
(a l
a l o ng K K
t
5cm di o ( b)
Fi ;. 9'13
Solution. For locating centroid al axis, take moments of areas about AB,
1 x I x o·5 + 4 x I x 8
Yi = 1+ 4
32'5
= " s= 6'5 cm
J2 = 10- 6'5= 3'5 cm
(4) + 4 x (3'5 - 2)2+ l x (t)s + t x (6'5 - 0·5)2

3
Moment of inertia, /,,., = ~
12 12
= ~~ + 4 X 2·25+ 36
605 4
= ) 2 Cm
Area of cross section, A= l x 1+ 4 x I = 5 cm2

Axial load, P= 4500 kg (tensile)
Eccentricity, e=6·5-5'0 = 1·5
Maximum stress along the edge,
AB= _ _!_ . P.e. Y1
A Tu
_ 4500 _ 4500 X 1·5 X 6.5 X
- - 5 605 12
= - 900 - 870
=:=a= - 1770 k~/cm2 (tensile)
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Minimum stress along the edge,
__ 4500 4500 x 1·5 x 3·5

- 5 + 605 X 12
= -909+468 = -432 ·kg/cm 2 (t~nsile).
Problem 9·4. A short column of hollow circular section of internal diameter d and
external diameter D is loaded wit4 a s;ompressive load W. Determine 1the maximum distance
of the point of appli,c a.t ion of the load from the centre pf the section such that the tensile stress
does not exist at any point of the cross section if .P= 1·5 d.
Solutiqn. Area of cross section,
n
A=- (D2 -d2)
4
t
-0
Moment of inertia,
C
I=_!!_ (D'-d4 )
64
Say P is the point farthest f;pm G
(centre of the section) where the load acts ;
eccentricity e=distance GP Fig. 9·14
Stress at the point D = _!f:_ + W.e. X D (compressive)

A I 2
W W.e D
St;e_ss at !h,~ point C =--x--1- ·2
To satisfy the condition that tensi!~ stress sh.o uld 11-ot occur at any point of the section,
.W _ W.e.D ~O
A 2I ~
I e. D
or -,r=21
4 e.D Q4
rc(D 2 -d2) = 2Xit X {l)4-,iJ.4)
D2+f D2 13
or - SD = T;.D,
Problem 9·s. A shoft c.as! j,:-op. coJumn 1has an external diameter of 20 cm. and interna·
diameter of 16 cm, the distance between the centres of the outer and inner circles due to th€
displacement of the core during casting is 6 mm. (\. !oad of 40 tonnes acts through a vertica
centre line passing through the centre of the outer c1ral~. Calculate the values of the weates
f\P:d Jea~t 9ompresstv~ stre~~Y~ i11 a ~ori~o.ijHl:l WO§l? ~~~H;m of th~ 9olumn,
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CbMBINED BENb'ING AND DIRECT STRESSliS
Solution.
C 1 =Centre of outer circle
C 2 =Centre of inner circle.
Dia. 'o f outer circle=W cm.
Dia. of irinei' circle= 16 cm.
Taking moments of areas about AA',
to locate C.G. of the section,
_!:.. X(20) 2 X 10-~(16)2 X 10"6

4 ...... _ 4 .
. 'It (20) 2 -2!... (16) 2
4 4
4000-2713"6 = 8'93 Fig. 9·15

400-256 cm.
So GC1 =10-8"93=1'07 cm,
GC2= 10'6-8'93 = l '67 cm.
Moment of inertia about Y-Y axis,
11111=[ ~ (20)4 +; (20) 2 (G C1)2 J

- [ ~
6
x (16)4 + %(16)2 (G c )2l 2
=[: X 104 + toO i (1'07) 2 J-[1024 1;+ 64 ff (1'61)2J

= 4436 cm4•
Area of cross section, A= .!:. X (20)l - ~ X(t<W= ll3'2 cm2

4 4
Vertical load at the point C1 , W = 40 tonnes
Eccentricity, e=G Ci:= i·o1 cm.
Greatest compressive stress,
W We
= 7+ -1-YY XX2
40 40 x 1·01 x 11·0'7
= 113·2+ 4436
= 0·353 + 0· 107= 0'460 torttre'fcm.2
Least compressive stress,
= -x-
W W.e
Ty; • X1
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' '. I
)-
' 444 -STRENGTlI -op MATER}AJ;S
=0'353-0 ·os6 = 0·267 tonne/cm2.

i
I
Pfoblem 9·6. A steel rod 2 cm diameter passes through a copper tube 3 cm ' internal
diameter and 4 cm external diameter. Rigid cover plates are provided at each end of. the tube
and steel rod passes through these cover plates also. Nuts are screwed on the projecting ends
of the rod as so that the cpver plates put pressure on the ends of the tube. Deterpline the
maximum stress in the copper tube, if one of the nuts is tightened to produce a linear strain
of ~ ii;t the rod. , ) · ·,
10 0
(a~ ~f the rod is concentric with the tube. . · .
(b} !if the centre pf the rod is 5 mm. out of the centre of the tube.
Gi~en: E,teei=2100 tonnes/cm2
Ii . E •• ,,,.,=
1050 tonnes/cm2
Solution. (a) Strain in the steel rod, €s = ~ tensile, by tightening the nuts the
1 00
steel rod will be stretched.
Modulus of elasticity of steel, E, = 2100 'tonnes/cm2
I'
F ig. 9·16
Stress in steel, /, = €,XE,

= ~
1 00
x 2 100= 2·1 tonnes/cm 2 (tensile)
Area of cross section of the steel rod,

A,= 1!_ x (2)2 = 3· 14 cm 2
4 'I
Pull in steel rod, P, =f ,.A,

= 2· 1 X 3· 14= 6'6 tonnes.
For equilibrium,
Pull in steel rod = Push in copper tube
f 0 xA.
Area of cross section of the copper tube, ;
A. = : (16 - 9)=5'5 cm2
6'6
Stress in copper tube, /. = ~ = 1·2 t onnes/cm 2 (compressive)
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.f .q,MBlNEP ~ ENDING AN? DIRECT STRESSES
tb) When the centre of the rod is 5 mm .out of the centre of the tube.
1
Moment of inertia of the tube section, · · . , ;:, ·a
' '
11111 = ~ (4 4 -34 )= 8'59 cm4
64 ..
-0
-0
u
u 0
D
-
E
E· V
E
u .......
u
"' "
'
t "
0 5cm
Fig. 9 ·17
Eccentricity of the load P., e= 0'5 cm.

Maximum bending stress in tube,
J
/' I -
O
-
!..:!!_
I"" . ·( •~2 )
=±· 6'6 X8 .0'5X2 ±0'768 t onne/cm2
59 ._ ..
Therefore maximum stress in the copper tube
;= 1·2 + 0·768= l '968 tonnes/cm 2 . (compressive)
, .
Problem ')'7. The cross section of a short column is as shown in the Fig. 9' 18. A
vertical load W tonnes acts at the p oint P. (a ) Determ ine the value of W if the maximum stress
set up in the cross section is not to exceed 750 kg/cm 2 (b) Draw the stress distribution
diagram along the edge AD. . ,. ·
Solution. (a) The section is symmetri-
cal about the X-X axis, the C.G . of the section D l
lies at the point G, therefore,
8 X 83 rc(4)'4 Bern
J,.., ~ 1 2- - ~
Vertical load
Eccentricity,
= 328'77 cm 4
= W tonnes
e=.1 cm .
J~ - A ~ 8(m ---JB · ,,.
Bending moment, M= W. e
= W X 1 tonne-ems. Fig. 9·18
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~. • I !
n X42
Area of cross section, A=8 x 8- - -=51 '44 cnt 1
4
Greatest stres! along the edge

W W.e
AB= A + I.e . Yi
w Wx l x 4
= 51'44 + .328'77
= 0'75 tonne/cm 3 (comp'ressive1
W= 23'72 tonnes.
(b) Stress distribution along AD
Considering origin at the centre and y t ct be + v! downwards.
Stress at y=O, /o= 23 '72 + 23 .72 ~ Q-

A I••
23'72
= 51·44 +o
= 0'462 tonne/cni2
23'72 23 '72 X 1
Stress at y= 1 cm, Ii= 51'44 + - 328'77
= 0'462+ 0·012-= 0·53-4 tenne/cma
. 23'72 ~ 1
Similarly stress, f-1=0 462 - 328''77
= &462 - 0'072=ti'39 tonne/cma
= .,. • : • Stress at y _:;i eni, "= 0.462 + 23:72x2

Jt 328'77
= 0'462 +0' 144= 0'606 tonne/cmi
/_2 =0'462-0'144= 0'3Ut tonile/cma
ti
· 23'72X3 • t ' r~ .
Stress at y = 3 em, fs= 0'462 + 328'77
= 0'462+ 0·216= 0'678. tonne/cmil
/_ 8= 0'' 462-0'216=0'246 to:t!ne'/em2
23'72 X4
Stress a.f y=4 cm, /,=0'462+ 328'77
= 0'462 + 0'288= 0'75 tonne/cmi
/-,=0'462-'288
,, ..
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= 0' 114 tonne/cffii (~ohipt'essiv,\
CQ¥BINl!D I!~NPJ~G AND DIRECT STRESSES
0 17(
D
A ~ - --'
· o 7SO t /c m'·
Str ess o ,s t r , D•,t,o()
along AO
Fig. 9' 19
Problem 9'8. The crosssection of a short cq}µµm is as shown in tl}.e Fig. 9'20. A
vertical load of 15 tonnes is applied at the point P. Determine the stresse, at the ·corners A,
B, Cand D.
Solution. The section is symmetrical about X-X axis, therefore

Y1 = J2= ±6 cm
To locate tfle centroid of the seqtion, take moments of areas about the edge BC,
12 x 3 x 1·5 + 2 x 1o x·2·5 x (5+ 3)+ 12 x 2 x (13 + 1)
36+50+24
1- ·-
i X
l
~2
cm
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79
= ucm
79 86
x 1 = 15 -
11 = 11 cm
15X )23 10X73
Moment of inertia, l zz= - - - (because of symmetry)
12 12
= 1874'17 cm 4
and 1yy
= 2x2·sx10 3
12
+2 X 2 .5 X 10 ( 8 - 79 . )2 12x3
11 + 12
3
+ 36 (~-
11
1·s )2+ 12x2s + 24
12
(Ji__
11
l )2
= 416'67+40'90 + 27+ 1162+ 8+ 1116
= 2770'57 cm4
20
Eccentricity, e.. =~-6= cm
11 11
ey=6- 4= 2 cm
' '
• Area· or'cross section, A = l 10 cm 2
Direct stresses
Compressive load, W= lS tonnes
Area, A = l 10 cm 2
Direct stress at all the points,
15 000
I' _ ~~ = 136'4 kg/cm 2 (COtnpreSSiV<!)
1
Bending stresses
(i) Considering couple,
M1=W1 e"
Compressive stress at A and D
W .e..
=-
/ -XX1
:,y
15000 X 1'818 86 k / 2
= 2770'57 x 1T g cm
= +76'9 kg/cm 2 (compressive)
Tensile stresses at the points Band C,

W. e~. X2
1-.y
15000 X l '818 X 79
= · 2110·57 x 11 =-70·7 kg/cm2 (tensile)
(ii) . Considering couple,
M ij= W ~r1
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COMBINED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESSES
Compressive stresses at A a nd B
W. ey
= --,;:-- . y 1
15000 X 2 X 6 _ . 2
1874' 17 -+ % O kg/cm
Tensile stresses at C and D
w. Cy. Y 2
= fxx
l 5000 X 2 X 6 . , .
. = -96 0 kg/cm- (tensile)
1874 17
Resultant stresses at the corners,
/A = 136"4 + 76'9+96'0 = 309'3 kgf/cm2 (compressive)
fn = I 36·4-70'7+ 96·0 = 161 '7 kgf/cm 2 (compressive)
Jc= 136'4+ 10·7- 96'0 = - 30'3 kgf/cm2 (tensile)
jD = 136·4+ 76'9-96'0= 117'3 kgf/cm 2 · (compressive).
Problem 9·9. A rolled steel I section, flanges 15 cm wide and 2·5 cm thick, web 20 cm
long and I cm thick is used as a short column, to carry a load of 80 tonne. The load line is
eccentric, 5 cm above XX and 3 cm to the left of YY. Find the maximum and minimum
stress intensities induced in the section. ·
Solution. Area of cross section of I

section,
= 2 x 15 x 2·5 + 2o x 1
= 95 cm 2
Moment of inertia,
In= 15 ~ (25)~ _ 14 x t20) 3
12 12
= 8565 cm4
Moment of inertia,
2x2·5 x (15)3 2o x (IP
lyy 12 + - 1- 2- -
= 1407 cm 4
Eccentricity, ex==3 cm
and ey= 5 cm
Vertical load, W= 80 tonnes
Direct stress, jd at any point,
80
= = + 0·842 tonne/cm2
95
MatCi~µpi pending stress (compressive) will occur at the edge (4) of the section ,
{4 = !_:.!.!._ X 7·5+ p :_<'~ X 12'~

, lu I.,11
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stfttNCirl-t at MAfEitALs
-. 80;4~;1·s + 80x8ss;s12·s = t·28+0·534
= 1"864 tonnes /cm 2

Maximum bending stress (tensil·e) will o'ccur at the edge (2) of the section,
J~= 1"864 tonnes/cm 2.
Maximum resultant stress in the section,
= 0"842+ t ·864=2'706 tonnes/cm2 (compressive)
Minimum resuitant stress in the section,
= 0'842-1 "864= - 1·022 tonnes/cm 2 tensile).
Proble1;11 9·io. A cylindrical chimney shaft 20 m high is of hollow circular section

2·4 m externat diameter and I m internal diameter. Tl\e intensity of the horizontal wind
pressure varies as x 2 13 where xis tne height above the ground . Determine the maximum and
minimum intei:isities of stress of the base. Given then
(I) Density of masonry structure is 2240 kg/cm3
(2) Coefficient of wind hsistance is O·o
(3) Wint\ press'ure At :i freight of 27 m is 180 kg/ni 2 •
Solution. Say the intensity of

pressure, I
where c is any constant
At
So
p -:- c x21a
x = 27 m, p= 180 kg/m 2
180= cX27 2 ' 3 -= cX9
TCJ
20m
or c= 20
So the pressure at any height
p = 20 x 2 13
Let us consider a small projected area

of thickness Sx.
Area '8a = 2·4 'Bx

Pressure p = 20 x 2 / 3
Force on the area, p win d pressure

'8P= kp '8a = 48 kx2ts dx
where k = 0"6 Fig. 9·22
Moment of the force about the base,
8\-{='BP. x=28·s x 5 /3 dx
20 20
28"8 1-
Total pioment M= J 2s·8x
613
dx = [ 8
8/ 3 Xx '3 .
0 O
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20
=j 10·~ x 8 i ~ I= 1~ X 29 8 13 = lQ 8 X 2946 kg-m

0
Section m~q.~!~s.
Bending stress,
Density of masonry, e= 2240 kg/1,11 3

Height of the chimney, H=20 m
Direct compressive stress on base due to self weight
= pH=2240 X 20=44800 kg/1112
Maxjmµm ~tre~s at base = 44~00 +24176"9 = 68976"9 ~g/m2
=6°891 kg/cm 2 (compressive) ·
Minimum stress at base =44800-24[ 7.6"9=20623· 1 kg/m2
= 2'062 kg/cm2 (compressive).
Problern 9·11. A tape~ing r;p.imney of h ol\o-y _circular section is 45 m high. Its

external diameter at th~ basy l& 3·6 m anq at thy top!~ rs 2·4 m. lt is subjected to the wind
pressure of 220 kg/111 2 of the projected area. Calculate the overturning moment at . the base.
If the. weight of. the chimne:y _is 600 tonn~s an?. the ii1t~1:pf.!.l pi~m~ter at th~ ·l,),~~ is 1·2 m,
deternHJHl ~9~ m~~!ffiUffi and m1~1murµ st-ress m~en,&1t1e~ at the base.
S?l~t~on.
B~se. External diameter,
Internal diameter
=3·6 m
= 1· 2 m
= ~ (3"6 2 - l '2 3 )
m~ / )Sm
= : (11°52)
= 9°048 m2
Weight of the chimney,
= 600 tonnes
Direct compressive stress at base d1,1~

to self weight,
r - 600 = 67"31 T/m2 Bps_e s.ectt0r:t
;d - 9°048
Wind pressure, p = 220 kg/m 2 Fig. 9· 3
Projected area of the exposed surface,
3
=( 14
·,~± ) x45 = 135 m 2
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t.,,, i .. . , • , . •. .. '
452 STRENGTH OF MA'l'ERIAU
Total force due to w·i nd,

·P = 220 x 135 = 29700 kg =29"7 tonnes
Distance of the centroid of the trapezoid abed from the base,
2·4x45x-¥+2x(
3
·1;i· 4
) x 45X15
2·4x45 + 2x o·\x 45
2430+ 405 2835 = 21

- 135 135 m
Bending moment, M = 29"1 X 21 = 623·7 tonne-metres
Sectio n modulus of base,
24
Z = ~ ( D4.-d4_) - ~ x ( 3 · 64._ 1. ) - 4·524ma
32 D - 32 3·6 -
M 623"1
Bending stress, Jo = ± Z = 4 .524 = 137"86 t onue/metre2
Maxi mum stress at the base,

= fa + fo = 61·31 + 137"86
:! •\
..: . ., = 205' 17 tonne/metre 2 (compressive)

., Mit1imum stress at the base,
= fa- /0 = 67"31 - 137"86 =- 70·55 t onne/metre2 (tensile).
Problem 9·12. A masonry pillar D m in diameter is subjected to a horizontal wind

pressure of intensity p kg/m2 • ff the coefficient of wind resistance is k, prove that the
maximum permissible height for the pillar so that no tension is induced at the base is given in
metres by ·
py;Dz
H = · - - where p= density of masonry."
I6kp
Solution.
Density of masonry = p kg/ m3
Say p~rmissible height =H m
fa; direct stress due to self weight
= pH kg/1112
Intensity of wind pressure = p kg/ m2
Coefficient!
of wind resistance = k
Diameter, of exp osed surface = D metre
•, I , r1 {
Wind force P= kpHD
Distan~e Qf C.G ." of wind fo rce from the base,
H
=2
W, Bending moment due to wind force, i.
PH kpDH2
= - 2- = 2
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COMB INED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESSES
nD3
Z. section modulus at the base = 32°
M kpDH2 32
Bending stress, b= -L
...J._
-=---,--
Z 2 x -na
.•
16 kpH 2
·-...J... - --:---
- --· rtD2
For the condition that no tension is induced at the base,

fa'";it--/b
H> 16 kpH2
P nD 2
or H~ prr.D2
I6 kp
p .,,D2
· or the maximum permissible height is equal to kp ·
16
SUMMARY
I, A short column of rectangular section with section modulus, Zx = BD 2/6 and Z"
DB 2/6 carries the load P with eccentricity e., or e y, the resultant stresses in the extreme layers
of the section will be
fR = 2_ ± p. ex
BD Z,,
where Z = In , Z = f xx
x D/2 y B/2
B Pey
fR=-±-·
BD Zx
2. A short column . of circular cross section of diameter D supports a load P at on
eccentricity e from its axis. The resultant stresses developed in the extreme layers of the
section will be
3. A short column of rectangular section Bx D, supports a load P eccentric to both

the axes XX and YY. If the eccentricities a hout XX and YY axes are e:11 and ey and section
modulus Zx=BD2/6 and Zy= DB2/6 then stresses developed at the four corners of the section
are (depending upon the location of the load P)
P Pe.. Pey
Ji, 2; s, 4= BD ±-zx - ± Zy
1
i.e., f _ _!____+ Pex _ Pey

1- BD Zx Zy
/
2
=_J!__ + !ex + Pe>
BD Z,, Py
f: _ _!_ Pe" + Pe,
3- BD - Zx Zy
! 4= :n--1" - ~ y •
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·4$.4
4. Core or the kernei of a section is a small area located around the centroid of the
section of a column and if any vertical load is applie9, oµ the colµq11~ within this ~rea, there
will not be any tensile stress developed any where in the section.
5. Core or kernel of a rectangular section B x D is a rhombous with its centre at the
C.G. of the rectangular section and the two diagonals of the rhombous are
B/3 in the direction of length B
D/3 in the direction of depth D.
6. Core or kernel of a circular section of diameter D is a circular area with its centre
at the C.G. of the section and its diameter equal to D/4.
7. If a column is of any section ; square, l19llow sqMare, rectangular, hollow rectan-
gular, circular solid and hollow and p is the density of the material of the column, then direct
compressive stress due to self weight developed at the base of the column will be pH, where
H is the height of the column.
8. For a wall of rectangular section BX D, wind pressµre p acting on f~c.:e of l;>rtar;ith
B, stress due to bending moment created by tlw wind pressure will be ±3pH2 /D 2 at the base
of the wall.
9. For a chimney of hollow circµlar ~ecfion, outer diameter D, inner diameter d,
height H.
Stresses at the base of the chimney due to bending moment created by wind pressure p,
jb=± 1
~ (D4-d')
where Z= 32D
2
-PDH
2
1·r coe ffic1ent
M= o f wm 3 ·
- · · d ·
resistance=
3
MP~T1P~~-C~OJCE Q.UESTIQNS
1. A short cast iron column of 20 cm diameter is s.µbjected to a vertical load P passing at

a distance e from the CG of the section. What is the maximum value of e if no tensile
stress is developed any where in the section ·
(q) 4 0 _µ.ffi (b) 3·o Y111
(c), 2·5 cm (d) 2·0 cm.
2. A short column of square section of the side 20 cm carries a ver,tical load of 40 kN at a

distance of 2 cm from its CG along ope sym_metric axis. The maximum stress developed
in the section is
(a) 240 N/mm 2 (b) 160 N/cm2
(c) 80 N/cm 2 (d) Noµe of t)l~ above.
3. A short cast iron column of cirpular s~9tion with area equal to 40 cm2 subjected to a
thrust 0"40 tonnes. T hrust is applied at a point 2 cm away from the centroid on the
axis passing through the centroid. The section m~dulus ?f circular section is 89 C!11 •
3
The maximum stress at the extreme }ayer on the Y-Y axis passing through the centroid 1s
(a) 20 kg/cm2 (b) 15 k&fcm2
(c) 13 kg/em~ (d) No9,e .o f tp._e above.
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COMBINED B.ENDING AND DIRECT STRESSES 455
4. A hollow cast iron column of circular section carrries a vertical load at a distance of e
from the centroid of the section. The section modulus is 1·2 m 3 • The maximum and
minimum intensities of the stress developed in the section are 42000 kg/m 2 and 12000
kg/ m2 (both compressive). The magnitude of the bending moment on the section is
(a) 42000 kg-m (b) 36000 kg-m
(c) 18000kg-m (d) 14400kg-m.
5. A short column is of hollow square section with outer side 2 a and inner side a. A load
P acts at a distance of a/4 from the CG of the section, and along one diagonal. The
maximum and minimum stresses at the corners of the section are 48 kN/m 2 and - 12
kN/ m2 • The bending stress introduced at the extreme corners of the section, by the
eccentric load is
(a) ±24 kN/m2 (b) ±18 kN/m2
(c) ±12 kN/m 2 (d) None of the above.
6. A short masonry square section I m side is i O m high. Wind pressure of 200 kg/m 2
acts on one vertica l face of the column. The weight density of masonry is 2000 kg/ms.
The greatest stress acting at the base of the column is
(a) 80 tonnes/m 2 (b) 40 tonne/m 2
(c) 20 tonnes/m 2 (d) None of the above.
7. A m asonry chimney of hollow circular section is 10 m high. Outside diameter of
chimney is l m and inside diameter is 0·5 m. The compressive stress on the base of the
column due to its own weight is given by (if the weight density of masonry is 2200 kg/ms).
(a) 44 kg/cm2 (b) 2·75 kg/cm 2
2
(c) 2·2 kg/cm (d) 1'65 kg/cm2.
8. For a cylindrical chimney of hollow circular section subjected to wind pressure, the
coefficient of wind resistance for calculating the total wind force on the chimney is
generally taken
(a) 0'3-0'5 (b) 0'45-0'6
(c) 0'6-0·75 (d) 0·15-0·90 _
9. A short column of circular section of diameter D supports a load P at an eccentricity e
from its axis. The maximum and mirlinium stresses developed in the section are 8 kg/cm2
and 3 kg/cm 2. If the eccentricity is doubled and load remains. The same, the maximum
stress developed in the section will be
(a) 10·5 kg/cm2 (b) 8"5 kg/cm2
(c) 7·5 kg/cm2 (d) 6·0 kg/cm 2 •
10. A cylindrical chimney of hollow circul.ar cross section is subjected to wind pressure p. The
height of the chimney is H metres and density of masonry is 2000 kg/m 3 • The maximum
and minimum stresses developed at the base of chimney are 65000 kg/cm2 and 15000
kg/m 2 • If the intensity of wind pressure increases by 50%, the maximum stress developed
at the base will be
(a) I ,30,000 kg/ro 2 (b) 1,19,000 kg/m2
(c) 77,500 kg/m2 (d) 70,000 kg/ni2.
ANSWERS
I . (c). 2. (b). 3. (a). 4. (c). 5. (d).

Q. (a). 7. (c). ~. (c), 9, (a). io. (c).
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EXERCISE
9'1. A flate plate of section 3 cm x
8 cm is placed in a test ing machine and is
f f'
subjected to 12 tonnes of force along a line as 111
shown in Fig. 9'24. An extensometer adjusted
__, __ T _ _ _ -
a long the line of force r ecorded an extension
of o· 11 8 mm on a guage length marked of 'lm
5 cm
200 mm. Determine

Fig. 9·24
(a) maximum and minimum stresses set up in plate
(b) Young's mod ulus of the materi a l of the plate.
[Ans. (a) 875, 125 kg/cm 2, (b) l '006 X l 06 kg/cm2)
9·2. A cantilever hydraulic crane is required to lift a load of 5 tonnes as shown in

F ig. 9'25. The single rope supporti ng the load passes over two pulleys and then vertically
down the axis of the crane to the hydraulic appar atus . The section of the crane at CD is
also shown . Determine the maximum and minim um stress intensities in the section.
[Ans. l ' 5235 to une/cm 2 (compr essive), - l '4865 tonne/cm2 (tens ile)]
·5 Tonne s
Fig. 9·25
9'3. A rectangular plate 2 cm thick containing a square hole of 2 cm side as shown

In Fig. 9'26, is subjected to an axial pull of 3 to nnes as sho wn. Determ ine the greatest and
least tensile stresses at the critical section of the plate.
[Ans. 388"06 kg/cm 2 , 91 '8 1 kg/ cm 2 ]
T
4cm
3_..
T --..t - - _ Lt- 4
le m
)T
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COMB'INED B'END1NG AND DIRECT STRESSES 4S7
9'4. A short column of hollow square section of inner side a and outer side A is
loaded with a compressive load W. Determine the maximum distance of the point of appli-
·Cation of the load . from the CG of the section, along the diagonal so that the tensile stress
does not eKist at any point of the cross section if A= l '4 a. [Ans. 0' 178 A]
9'5. A short cast iron column has an external diameter of 24 cm and internal dia-
meter of 16 cm, the distance between the centres of the two circles due to the displacement
of' the core during casting is 1 cm. A load of 100 tonnes acts through the vertical line passing
through the centre of the inner circle. Determine the greatest and least compressive stresses
in a horizontal cross section of the column, neglecting the weight of the column.
[Ans. 579 kg/cm 2 , (compressive) 239·5 kg/cm2 (tensi le)]
9'6. A steel rod 3 cm diameter passes through a cast iron tube 4 cm internal dia-
meter and 6 cm external diameter, 200 cm long. Rigid cover plates are provided at each
end of t:\].e tube and steel rod passes through these cover plates also. Nuts are tightened on
t!:\e projccfa;ig ends of the rod, so that the, cover plates bear on the ends of the tube. Deter-
m ine the maximum stress in the cast iron tube, if one of the nuts is tightened to produce a
stretch of 2'5 mm in the rod.
{a) if the rod is concentric with the tube .
(b) if the centre of the rod is 4 mm out of the centre of the tube.
Given E,tee,=2100 tonnes/cm2

Ec.,.=1080 tonnes/cm 2
[Ans. (a) l' 18 tonnes/cm2, (b) 1·616 tonnes/cm 2 ]
9'7. The cross section of a short column is as shown in the Fig. 9 27 A vertical
load W tonnes acts at the point P. Determine the magnitude of the load W and the eccentri-
city e if the stresses at the points C a nd D are 1200 kg/cm2 and 800 kg/cm 2 compressive
respectively. [Ans. 48 tonnes; 0 ·333 cm]
9·s. The cross section of a short vertical column is as shown in the Fig. 9'28. A
vertical load of 12 tonnes is applied at the point P. Determine the stresses at the corners
A, B, C, and D .
[Ans. 53'2 kg/cm 2 (tensile), 142'6 kg/cm 2 (compressive),
303'2 kg/cm 2 (compressive), 107'4 kg/cm2 (compressive)]
~
T
4cm
-i-
Scm
~ 2cm ~ 4 c m -~2 cm ~ ~
2cm
~"-"--
2 r-L..L.L..L..L1
+
4cm
- ~'-"--"-'2~
2 c+<-'--m'-'C-1.- :
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9 ·9. A rolled steel I section, flanges 10 cm x 2 cm and web 26 cm X 1 cm is used as a

short column to carry a load of 100 kN. The load acts eccentrically, 5 cm to the left side of
axis YY passing through the centre of the web and 6 cm above the axis X-X passing through
the centroid of the section. Find the maximum and minimum stress intensities induced in the
section. [Ans. 112·6 N/mm2 (compressive), -82"3 N/mm2 (tensile)]
9·10. A cylindrical chimney 30 m high, external diameter 2 m and internal diameter
1 m is exposed to wind pressure whose intesity varies as the square root of the height above
the ground. At a height of 9 m, the intensity of wind pressure is 18 kg/m 2 • If the coefficient
of wind resistance is o·6, calculate the bending moment at the foot of the chimney. If the
density of masonry structure is 2280 kg/m 3 , what is the maximum stress developed at the base
of the chimney . [Ans. 14195·52 kg-m, 81679'5 kg/m2 ]
9·11. A tapering chimney of hollow circular section is 24 m high. Its external dia-
meter at the base is 4 m and at the top it is 2·0 m. It is subjected to a wind pressure of
2 40 kg/m 2 of the projected area. Jf the weight of the chimney is 380 tonnes, and internal
diameter at the ba$e is 2 m, determine the maximum and minimum stress intensities at the base.
[Ans, 71 "6 L T /m 2 (compressive), 9·028 T /m 2 (compressive))
j.
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10
Distribution of Shear Stress in Beams
In the chapter 7, we have studied about the Shear Force and Bending Moment diagrams
of beams and cantilevers and learnt that in a portion of the beam where B.M. is constant,
there is no shear force and for an infinitesinal length of the beam where there is variation
of BM, oM=-F8x where oM is the change in BM along the length ox and F is the shear
force transverse to the axis of the beam. Further in chapter 8 we have studied about the
longitudinal stress/ developed in the section due to bending moment M. When there is
variation in M, there will be variation in f on both the sides of elemen,ary length ox of the
beam as shown in the Fig. 10· 1. This figure shows a beam of rectangular section subjected
to bending moment producing concavity upwards in the beam. The neutral axis passes
I,; M M+ 6M
\f
0 b
f /
C
0
r,
d
r-ox-i
I
11 C
I
( 0)
'j
Fig. 10·1
~ytbmetrically through the section. Upper half of the section will be under con'lpression and
lower half will be under tension .
• l
: . 459
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. , . . ....
460 StRENGTH OF MATERIALS
The Fig 10·1 (b) shows the distribution of longitudlna·l stress ac'ross the thickness of
the section. The compress~ve stress in extreme layer ab on one side i.e., Jo' is greater than
/. on the other side. Similarly, the tensile stress
i-q the ixtreme layer cd on the lower side i.e.,
ft' is greater than /1 on the other side. Due to
the difference in longitudinal stresses on both
the sides, there will be difference in resultant
pull or push on the two sides which will be
balanced by a horizontal shear force developed
on the longitudinal plane of the beam or
horizontal shear stress is developed on the
horizontal section. Consider a rectangular
block at a distance of y from the ne:ijtral axis
anp upto the extreme layer ab. The stress
intensities on both the sides of layer fe i.e.,
Jc• and Jct are smaller than f.' and f • respec-
tively as shown in Fig. I 0·2. The resultant Fig. 10·2
push F.' on the righ,t side of the section is
greater than the resultant push on the left side of the section. For Gquilibrium, a shear force is
developed on the horizontal plane fegh. Say the intensity of shear stress on this plane is q,
then '
Fc' - F.=q X Sx x B
Fc' - F 0
or shear stress, q= B8x
With the help of flexure formula derived in chapter 8, we can determine Jc' andf, or
Fe' an<l F. and the magnitude of shear stress q can be determined. It can be further observed
that intensity of shear stress on plane abjk will be zero and the intensity of shear stress on the
plane pqrs on the neutral axis Fig. Io· I (b) will be maximum in this case of rectangular section.
10·1. SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION

,.
Consider a sm~ll length Sx of a beam subjected to bending moment producing concavity
upwards. Fig. 10·3 ~µ.~ws a trapezoidal section of a beam. Say NA is the neutral axis and
Mis the bending moment on the left side and M + SM is the bending moment on the right side
b -
0 IS th e c b o f
ore a k fro
Fig. 10·3
of the element of the small length 8x considered. Now consider a layer of thickness 3y, at a
distance of y from the neutral axis (as shown in Fig. 10'3.) · .
I I
Due to the type of the bending moment shown, the upper portion of the section above
NA will be in compression and the lower portion of the section below NA will be in tension.
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biSTRIBUT!ON OF SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS
Stress due to bending on the left side of the element,

M
!= INA . y
Stress due to bending on the right side lilf the element,
'= M+oM
! INA .y
where l NA= moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis
Area of the elementary layer,
'8a = b oy
where b is the breadth of the layer under consideration.
Compressive force on the left side of the section,
oF=f. 'Sa=/ . boy ,
Compressive force dn the ri ght side of the section,
8F'=J' oa=J' b ~Y
Unbalanced force on the elementary slice of length 8x and thickness :;y
,
t:"'
= 8F''.-:.oF
=( M~8M y - Af y ) boy
'?3M
=J Y. oa
Summing up all these unbalanced forces on all element~rr areas from y to Y2 we get
Yi
oF= ""'.
~ - 8M
- . y . oa
1
JI
Jl2
q . b oX= 'SM ""' y oa
-J-L.,
y
where q is the shear stress developed on -Hie li'orizontal plane b X ox to resist the unbalanced
force oF for equilibrium.
\ . \' • . . . ;,,, ,1 ,, fl "•l .~
Y2
So q . b. oM · ""'
ox= 1 ""' y oa
.1. , y . I .. :)"');' ,,
Y1
q=lb
I . oJt1 . .
ax 2; y 8a·
)1
';I f: ; Y:? I'
where ,, 1 ' ·"L..,"'-V .oa = fir~t mo ~nent ,of ~rea of t4e section above the layer kl and
upto the extreme layer ca.
,, Ii , I Jllf :
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STRENGTii OF MAtEitIAL~
= first moment of the elementary area k/ca about the neutral

axis
=A.J
where A= area klca
y = distance of CG of k/ca from the neutral axis.
Shear stress or horizontal plane,
q= oM . Ay
I 1 l>x lb ·
Fay oM dM ,
= - - because -- = - - = F
lb ox dx
ax~O
where F is the transverse shear force on the section.
Example 10·1-1. A round beam of circular cross section of diameter D is simply

supported at its ends and carries a load W at its centre. Determine the magnitude of the
shear stress along the plane passing through the neutral axis, if the particular section lies at a
distance of //4 from one end, where I is the span length.
'I
Solution. For a simply supported and centrally loaded beam, SF diagram is shown
in Fig. 10'4. At the section X-X, at a distance of l/~ from one end, shear force,
F= W
' 2
X W
Fig; 1Ci·4 I{( • • • i)

·,,. '. l.ll, IJ,(i ,·1• I J;: 1;·,: ' ; 'f l,. i ,:
Fay
Shear stress at NA, q= INAb
nD~
where a= - - , area NYA, above N .A. (neutral axis)
8
r--/ · 2D
J = C.Gt of, tne
::, area from N.A. = - 3,.-
ffD'
INA=~· moment of inertia about neutral axis
:.-~·
b'= breadJ~
1
o_tfll~ a.t
s~ction the laye'r unper consideration
r= D (in the present case)
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DISTRIBUTION OF SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 463
Shear stress at neutral axis,
W rcD2 2D 64 I
q= - -x - x - x - -4 x -
2 8 3rc rr;D D
8 W
-
- -
3rtx -
D 2·
Exercise J0-1-1 . A beam is of rectangular cross section of breadth B and depth D .

At a particular section of the beam, the shear force is F. Determine the intensity of shear
stress at the nei1tral ax is.
Ans. [ }Jv J
10'2. SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN A CIRCULAR SECTION OF BEAM
Consider that a beam of circular section of diameter D has shear force Fat a particular
section. The neutral axis of the section will pass through the centre Oas shown in Fig 10·5
shear stress at any layer ,
Fay
q= -
Ib
Let us consider a layer at a distance of y from the neutral axis, subtending angle 0 at
the centre. Then
sin 8= ..l.... or y=R sin 8

R
and dy= R cos 8 d0
R= ~ = radius of the circle
breadth b= 2R cos 0
R
aY= Ib 8y.y Shear st ress

d1st ri but1on
y
Fig. IO·S
R n/2
= I f
2R cos 0.R sin 0.8y = 2R 2 cos O.sin 0(R cos 0)df
r o
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. 464 STRENGTH OF MATE&IALS
rt/2 tt/2
= 2R3 j cos 2 0.sin 8 d8 = 2R3 ' c~sae j
e e
= 2R
3
-- - ! cos3
3 2
re J 3
3
3
- cos 3 0 = - 2R cos 8
F x 2R3 cos3 8 4 4 F cos 2 0

q- - 3(2 R cos 9) x ~R4 =- ·3· -- --
rcR~
4F
0- 0°, q=- 3-~- R
-2
F
0= 30°, q= - rcR 2
2F
8= 45°, q= - 3~R 2
0= 90° q= O_
.) .
Fig. 10'5 shows the shear stress distribution which is symmetrical about the X-X axis
: 0~ lhr fiC\}ttal .axis..
Example 10'2-l. At a particular section of a beam carrying transverse loads, the shear
force is 40kN. The section of th beam is circular of diameter 80 mm . Draw the shear
stress distribution curve along the vertical axis passing through the centre of the secti on.
Solution. Diameter~ 80 mm
R= 40 mm
Shear force, F=40 kN= 40000 N
4_ _ F_ _ _i 40000 _ .
So 3 X rcR2 - 3 X 'f"X40 X40- 10 61 N/mm
2
Shear stress at any layer sub·tending angle 8 at the centre

4F
= --2
cos 2 8
3~R
• I
• Ii! ;,
She ar stress d1s':r1bu t 1on
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: J?IS~R>J~.UTION 0F ~HEAR STRESS IN BEAMS
At 0= 0°, q= 10·61 N/ mm2

0= 30°, q= 7·957 N/ mm2
0= 45 °, q= 5'305 N/mm2
8= 60° q= 2'6525 N/mm2
0= 75° q= 0"71063 N/mm2
0= 90° q= O
The section is symmetrical about the neutral axis, therefore the shear stress distribution
diagram is symmetrically repeated below the neutral axis a s shown in Fig. 10·6. ·
Exercise 10·2-t. A beam of circular section 5 cm radius subjected to transverse loads,

has the shear force 8 tonnes at a particular section. Dra w the shear stress distribution diagram
along a vertical diameter of the section.
r;.·· . . ,, ., .
Ans.
,.-,-
f o jo
) q
·-
0·136 · 102
L ~~~~~~- -~~~-~-~-~ J
30 60190
·029 0
- -- ',
tonne/cm 2
I l
1
tO·J. SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN A BEAM OF RECT.A NGULAR SECTION
. Fig. 10'7 shows a rectangular section of breadth Band depth .D, .. Say at a particulat-
section of the beain, shear force is F. ' . . . . ..
Shear stress at any layer, .. ' - ,j, :
\ y
FaJ d
q= fNAb . - rr-,,--,-;....,......,...T"--.:
.Q
a = area of the section above the layer ·--t-- 0
Ji = distance of the CO of the area a . J1. N

from the neutral layer 2
1 ,,·, 1fos! ' . _J_ --+--'--""
INA= - -
12 . ~a~--J. _r fr
I 2BO
b= JJ (breadth at the section)
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D
--y
Now Y=(y+~)={ ~ +y )
'1)
area, a=B(i -y )
aJ = ~- B (g -y )( ~ +y )=~ ( ~ -y2 ) 2
or
F x 12
q= -BDs x B
X .!!..._l( _EJ: ___ ( n2-y2)
- y2)= _j!'BD3
2 4 -_ 4
, 3 F
)'= '0, '<J= i" BD
D 9 F
y= ·4, q= - -
8 BD
'D
y= 2- · q= O.
The section is symmetrical about neutral axis, therefore shear stress distribution diagram
is repeated symmetrically below the neutral axis as shown.
Maximum sl\ear stress occurs at N)t,
qmax = I ' 5 o]J~
F .
but BD = qmean, mea n shear stress
so .qm,., = I '5 q., ,an
Example t0·3-1. A wooden beam of rectangular section 20 cm x 30 cm is used as a

sin~ly ·su'pp~rtM ~earn .e arty,.i.ng uhifor·mty dist,r:ill>uttd ,of w it6nnes/,metre. What ,1s the maximum
value of w if the maximum shear stress developed in the beam section is 50 kg/cm2 ' and s]"an
length is 6 metres.
Solution. Maximum shear stress at neutral axis.
1·5p
qw,afll = BD
1·5 x F
so 50 = 2o x 30
or F~ 50 X 60Q 20,000 kg
1·5
N'o~ for-a si-inply' sllPl,-orted beam, carrying uniformly d-istributed load,
M~ximtlm slfearJ orce
wL
=2
II
f,= 6 metre~
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wX6
Fmam= =3 w tonnes
2
= 3000 w kg
or 3000w =20,000
20,000 20
=
w=
3000 3 tonnes/m,etre 1\UJ1
Permissible rat~,of loading=6·667 tonnes/metre run.
Exercise 10·3-1. A wooden beam of square c.r:oss-section 20 X 20 cm is used as a
cantilever of 3 metre length. How much load can ·be 'applied at the end of the cantilever if
shear stress developed in' the section is not to exceed 10 N/mm 2 • What is the shear stress
developed at a depth of 5. ~II} fr~m. th~ toP,.
Ans. (266"67 kN, 7·5 N/mm2)
t0·4. SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN~ HOI:,"OW CIRCULAR SECTION
Fig. 10"8 shows a hollow circular section with outer radius R 2 and inner radius R1 •
Say the section of a beam is a hollow circular section and., subjected to a shear force F.
Shear stress at any layer
Fay
q= IN.4,_.b
'It
and INA = 4CR24 -R14)
Case}r.; 1->..\ 1
.
a'
Consider laye.r cd. il,t a di ~tallCCof y from the neutral axis .
. \
f? = t(Rl- y 2 ) 1 / 2
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· ,W.idth·,ofJt9:e la~e~,
R,
Shear stress q= ___!!_ rby dy
INAb
y
R,
= F I2[R22-y2)1/2y dy
INA 2 4 R22-y2
y
R1
.=
... '2/NA
' 4F /- -
2
2_ 2 8 2 ·
R22- y2 . - 3. {R2 y ) /
.
I
y
= 21. F
NA V R22- y2 3
I
o+2-(.k22-y2)a12 1·· .
.
F
= 31NA [R22-y2J .
=0 at y=R 2
F .. (.,
= 31NA (R22_ R12) at y = R1

Case II. y<Ri
b
2= V R22-y2-VR12--:-y2
Shear stress at any la~er
R2
q= IN:. b Jby dy
y
R1
,= IN:. b[ J (v R22-y2- "R12-y2) 2.y dy
y
R,
+ J2 V(R22-y2) y dy]
R1
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Di~TRI~UTION OP Sif EAR 81.'RESS IN BEAMS
_ IN:. b [ ; (R 22-=._ji~ia 12 ,:_; ._ (R1;~j2)a/2 J

. i ; -
2F [(R2 2-y2)3fz-(':R12 -y2)3/!]
3lNA :[2,f R22-y2 .:,_ 2V R12;-y2 ]
p [ (R2 2-y2)at2_(R 12_y2)a12 .J
- 3INA (R22-y2)1/2-(R12_y2)1/2 · J·
3
F X ( R 2 -Ri3) at y=O
3fNA R2 - R1
F . (R22-R12)a/2
31NA (R22 - Ri2)1'2
Substituting the value of

INA = : (Ri4 -R14)
F 4 (R23 - R 13 )
qma:o= 3 X -; (R24 -R14 )-(R"-2'-_-R-1.,.-)
F F
qmean= area = 1tlR22 - R?)
qma• 4 . R2 3 - Ri3 4 R22 +R2R1 + R1 2
qmt an _= 3 X(R 22+ R1 2)(R2-R1) = 3 x R 22+R12
if the section is very thin R1 -:1:= R2
qmo=._ = 2
q111,a11
Example to·4-1. A hollow circular section of a beam with int1er radius "20 mm and
outer radius 40 mm is subjected to a transverse shear force of 40000 N . Draw the ·shear stress
distribµtion .over the depth of the section. •
,f •
Solution. Moment of inerti{
ff
INA = - (404 -20•) =60rt x 104 mm 4
4
Shear Force, F= 40000 N
_!_ = 40000 = 2·12 x ·10:...2 N/ m 4
INA 601t X 104 .•
Inner radius R 1 = 20 mm . . r.
Outer radius R 2 = 40 mm
Shear stress distribution •• • ' •
-·
r •
at y=R 2 q= O .
F 2·12 x 10~2 :: (. ~
y = 30 mm, q= --31NA [Rz2-y 2 ]= [402 -3()~]
3
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, (y>R.1) = 4'95 N/mm2 I ) ' :.. -
2 12 10 2
· · Y.=2o mm q= :-f_JA('2 -202 ) .· ; - [1200)
I ') ' 1 - ' 3['1(,4 ~~
=:=&'9q N/mm 2
y = lO mm, q= JINA
F [ (R2 2-y2Hf2-(R 12_ya)a/2
(R22_yi)1,2_(R?-y2)112
J
(y<R1).
_ 2 '12 X 1_0- 2[ ( 402 - l 02)2/2 - (202- l 02)312
- 3. ~(402 - lQr)l/2-(202-102)1 /2
J
= 2·12 x 10- 2 L- 58094'8 - 5196'2 ] = 17 .47 N/ 2
3 38'73-17'32 mm
Y=O·' q
= _!_[ 40 3 -20 3 ] - 2·12 x 10-2
3 INA 40-20 : 3
[ 5600
20
J
=19'78 N/mm2
Fig. 10'9 shows the shear stress distripution ~cross the depth of the section.
i- ..
i. Omm .
I
-l -
s t r~ ss
' r-1,s :11but1o n ,.
Fig. 10·9
Exercise 10'4-1. A cantilever is pf hollow circular section, with outer diameter

10,cm ana imier diameter 4 cm. 1 Ai a particular section SF is 5 ·tonne·s. · Draw the shear
.
stress distribution·1diagrarit across the depth
. of the section.
[Ans. q0 = l3S'97 kg/cm2 , q1 = 123'73 kg/cm2 q2 = 73'20 kg/cma
q8 = 55'770 kg/~m 2, q,= .31'37 kg/cm, , q6 = 0]
I t r•J / , ·• t.
to·~. DIRECTIONAL DISTffrl»U'J;'~Q~. O_F ~HE~R ~TRJ}:~S

In chapter 1 we have learnt that every
shear stress is accompanied by ap. e,quaJ colll·
plementary shear stress on planes· at right
angles. The directions of shear stresses on an
element are either both towards the corner or
both away from the corner to produce balanc-
ing couples. Moreover, near a free boundary,
the shear stress on any section acts in a
direction parallel to the boundary. This is due
to the reason that if there were a shear stress
D1rect 1onat d1s tr1 bu t 1on
in a direction perpenp,\9ulat, ,f'? the bo~1:9afyI . of s.h eor stress
then it would require a complementary shear
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stress in the direction parallel to the boundary.
tNsn uBU!fION OF SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS
The Fig. 1o·10 shows a solid circular section

subjected to shear force . The shear stress
distribution along the boundary is parallel to
the boundary and at the centre, shear stress
direction is perpendicular to the boundary so
as to provide complementary shear stress to
to the shear stress along the boundary.
Fig. 10· 11 shows the directional distri-
bution of shear stress in I-section. Since the
shear stress direction has to follow the
boundary in flanges and in the web, the shear D i re c ti o n a l ·di s t ribu ti on
stress distribution must be of the form shown, o f s hea r s tre s s 1n I se c ti o n
i.e. horizontal in flanges and vertical in the
web. Fig. 10·11
Problem 10·1. A 12·5 X 30 cm RSJ of I section with flanges 12·5 X 1·2 cm and web
27 '6 x I cm is subjected to a bending moment Mand a shear force F. What percentage of M
is carried by the flanges and what percentage of Fis carried by the web.
Draw the shear stress distribution over th'e 'depth of the section.
Solution. The section is symmetrical about XX and YY axes and its G lies at the
centre of the web as shown in Fig. 10'12(a).
Ft o n g~
y
Tt30 27 ,6cm
- x N1 A
we b
X
1,
..
.'(
Shea r ·s tre ss
d i s t rib ut ion '.
~• ; I
·.
(a ) {_ b)
Fig. 10·12
. '), ,.
12'5 X 303 .. 11 '5 X 27'63
Moment of Inertia,-1 lmx = 12 ~ 12
= 28125-201 48'55= 7976'45 cm;'-
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~g.z .. STRENGTH OF. MATERIALS
Flanges. Direct stress due to M,

f= M.y
lxx
where y is the distance 9f the~layer from N.A.
Consider a layer in the fl ange,
f= MIy where y = J3'8 to 15 cm.
xx
Say the thickness of the layer = dy

Force in layer, 'fiP= 12'5 dy . f
My X 12'5 dy
- l x.1.
Moment of 8P, about N.A.,
2
SM = My X 12'5 dy
r' :..- . fx x.
\. .
Total moment shared by flanges,
15
MJ,'2
/ ' M'= 2 J - ·-. X 12'5 dy
lxx
,(.
]3·8
.' i .
'l. : 't
15 ]5 ,,
Iya·/
I I I •
=~M J y2 dy = 25 M
l~z Ixx 3
13'8 ]3·8
;~ ~ [1125 - 876J = 0·78 M

7 6 5
i.e. B.M. shared by flanges is 78%. .
Web. Shear stress at any layer at a d istance y from the NA ,
. q= t:.} = 7976~5 XI[ 12·5 X 1·2 X 14"4
+ (13·8-y) ( y+ 13 ·!-y )]
_ _ _ _ ,_
: -. - - [
7 9 7 45
3 J1·22- ~ :_ Jsince ld = INA
J
Shear force in the elementary layer of thickness 8y and breadth 1 cm considered in

web.
F
dF= q X 1 x dy = . [311·22-0·5 y 2] dy
7976 45
Shear force shared by web
~
,: I
,. \ ,·(
19
; :~
45
.·,,,r,-:-
.
X2 r
]3•&:, J
Q I
( , I
(31'1 '22~ 0·5·j,2) d)7

.
··,qi I() 1w,rr,!/
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413-
2
F
7976·45
13 82
[ 31 J'22x 13'8- .
6
J
= 0'961 F
Shear force shared by the web is 96'7%
Shear stress distribution
Flanges (y>13"8)
b = I2'5 cm
q = [~ = lu:12·5 [12·5x(15-4)( y+I5;-y )]
= _!_ [225-y2]
2Iii•
at=l5 cm, q= O
y=l3·S cm, q=2x1:16·45 [225 - 13"82]

=0"00216 F
/ ··
web. b=l cm; y=I3'8 cm or y< l3'8 cm
at y=t3·8 q= F -- X 12'5 (225-y2 )

'' .. 2Iu . 1
=i. X 1: 16 .45 X 12.5(225-13"82)
= 0"027 F
·a t-y=O, (neutral axis), q= 1~. 1 [t.2·5 x 1·2x 14·4+13·8 x I x6·9]
F
= 7976·45 [216+95"22]
= 0"039 F
Shear stress distribution is shown in the Fig. 1,0· 12 (b).
Problem 10·2. Show that the difference between the maximum and the mean shear
stress over-the depth of the web of an I section is Fd 2/24lN.4 where INA is the tnom'ent of
inertia of the section along an axis perpendicular to the shear force F and passing through the
centroid of the section and dis depth of the web.
Sola.tion. Fig. 10·13 shows an I section of flanges B x t and web b X d. An approxi-

mate ak~tch of the shear stress distribution is also shown. Maximum shear stress occurs at the
neutral a1tili, NA.
Say Fis the shear force at the section. lN,4 is the moment of inertia about .- NA. Then
qma.,= IN~F b [_ Bi ( z+"f

d t)
+b d7- x 4 . d] . .. (!)
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f.longe
_L y
t
T
(
_.L
t . - ---:."+' - - - - - ,
e
-i-r-8 Sh"~o r s t ress

drstn but ,on
·....
(a) ( I) J
Fig ~ 10·13
.1
'· ·,
Shear stress at the edge of the web
!fr= IN:. b [ Bt ( ; + ~ :) J : /!!"; . . . d.
F
qmox- q1 = fN A . b
[ - d
b 8
2
J=. 8[;(,;
. F ; I r! ! '!~ i ,;
.. . (3)
In the diagram for shear st~~ss distributio~ (S.ee Fig. ;0·13 (b))
cc' or ee'= q1, shear stress at edges of ;web
nt/~ q,,."~, shear SL!ess at ·ct.mtre... o!_ web, { ~:()~f1hel ~rabolic
curve. · ,1
So qmean= mean shear ~tress.=cc"· or ee"
2
= qi+ -f (qm.,z- q1)
- .___!d2 .:
-qi+ 12 INA
.•.•,rr. . . ..., . "! ., ·'; -~·(,I ·~!'.'!~-!(>".°'i
-;~~ ;'° :fa~~equations, (3) and (4)~ .Difference between the maximum andf~eamiSheatt:stressl~
in1,he,~eb'ls · · . G: )'.): ;:>tfJ ·i:) uitt:tai
Fd2 Fd 2 Fd 2 I,·· : <)~ : :)! u l "", ~- >)·;L":!}!)
q,narz-qme an= ~ - 12J = 24 INA
-ix,·::.'l· ·: ..... . . . ·. ;. . . . ' rv.1 •, !'fA. ._,., -~ I; ::~;·,1 .:1. ,11t:''.. 3
~ ·· 1 : Proble11110··3: A bea~ ol circular cross section, diameter · cl and ·- ~i,M. {~9g~ ffs~,
supported at the ends. It carries a central load W. Show that the principal stresses· ·devef6pecfh,
~t arJ_~fer q/~rfr:~fT! -the-edge ~t.~ sec*m under the load· are . · , · 1;_ ?.i ··~ 'C ::~ _
·'···
' 2Wl [ ·{
.. r,d3- .. I :r V .1+
d2 J
-/2 ...
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o($:i:[email protected]:iN o~.sI-i-~Alt: STRESS IN BEAMS ~15
Solution.
(a) Direct Stress. Span length=l
Central load =W
Bending moment at the c_entre
WJ
· =4
Moment of inertia about neutral axis,
.,,d11
INA = 7;4
;
Direct stress at d/4 from the neutral axes (or· d./4' frnm the edge)
1\ ;) \;< / : ·.:. : . .. . ! ~ Mm aa X
INA .
3_
4
...:\i\ ·io l· ,.. : ,, ;:; .·· . . WI 64 d
I
= 4 X rrd 11 x4
J ! • • • "
4WJ ..:
. : ... ( l.)
= rrd3 ""\
(b) i Shear Stress

. y -' : .
Fay J. \ •
q= - -
INA b
Angle ·subtended by the layer ab Fig.

10·14. A
4 . -·. ·...
sin 0=1/ =O·s .
.. .
· . . ·:. ......
J ;"; ,¥
d/2
8= 30°
cos 0=0.866 Fig. 10·14
:, • .'I
./3 '
Breadth, ab = d COS 60°= d X ... (1)
iL~:.-~ :.1 :: 2
Shear stress at any layer subtending angl~ ~ at the cemre
4 F cos2 6 .......
q= 3 x _ nr 2
In this case cos' 8""10·866
~, '. -~os
2
~= !
. d
r=2•
16 F 3 4F
( " · q= 3n d 2 X 4 = nd2 ..
\ ·-
F=
w at the centre
But shea f~rce,_.
1\ .. 2 ,-
: :.,, Ji::: I ,.t •
· 2W
So q= .nd 2 •
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2
_ 2WI[
- nda ,
l±J I+ d12 ]·
Problem 10·4. Show that for a beam section of triangular shape base b, height h
subjected to shear force F, the maximum shear stress is 3F/bh and occurs at a height of h/2
from the base.
Solution. The Fig. 10' l 5 shows a _J b

tri-lmgle ABC of base b and height h. Its
neutral axes is parallel to the base and at a
distance of h/3 from the base BC. Consider
a layer ef a:t a distance ef y from the neutral
axis.
bh3
Now fN,4 = -
36
..:.;-o:
Shear stress at the la.yer under con-
sideration
Fay
= INA . b' Fig. 10'15
a = area (shaded) above the layer
J = CG of the shaded area from the neutral axis
b"- brea'cltn· of the' fayer
2h )"
-- ( T-y
h
Xb=(lj1 ~ l'..h }b'
Shear stress,
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or
i.e., maximum shear stress occurs at a height of h/2.

Now substituting the value of y
J---=-F.~'h2_
-1 ; .
.,,:._,
qma
.,= _F_
· fNA ·..
[2'1.7 h2+ l!:_9· X _!!..fr ~· _h2_
,
108 - 12 JN,' I!"
.:.1 •1 U1
Jiftl.· 36' 3F
=u X bh8 = htz
F 2F
qmean = mean shear stress lift/2 = bh ..
1:,
qma• = I ·5.
qm•an
Problem 10·5_ A rolled steel joist of T-section shown in the Fig. 10"16 (a) is
used as a be~m . . At a p~rtieulat sectroii:, fFie transverse· shear force is F. Plot_1}lie.: sh~l!:r stress
distribution ovef the depth of the section·.-
Solution. The seefi-ort is sy'rfrmettical abou't YY axiit G lies on this axis.
Distance of di ft'o'n\' fl\'e' !owe\' etl.ge' 6'f fife' \lve'b'
· . _ 40 x ~ ;(iP+ 3'JJ><1 (4~ + 5). e· 35 mm
Yi - 41:f* S-+ :ffilx 10'
...
' - ...
~
·.;, j ,.
' ,· :"'; -::'!

~. . . ..... ri.• ,d
-3
3· 9-Gl x,1_(), f
s·wea,, sh e·~·s-
: cfrst'r'i-but ion
_( _b)
Figl, 10·16' .', ·
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then . r ·y 2= .5Q- 35= 15 mn1
Moment of inertj.i., ..
30 103
INA or fxx ~ sxl~os + 200 (35-2,0)~+ ~2 + 300 (15-5)2
= 29166"7+45000+30,000 · ,· ·. 7 . ·,? ··r~.' ~;.,·:j
=104'1667« 1os _pim'
Shear stress at any layer (at a distance y from NA),
q=-- FaJ
fxx b
ay= first moment -of area above the layer ... •,1
•, • ! .L
F =shear force
b= breadth of the layer
At y =:= 15 mm, q = O
·•
' .. , I'. _ Fx (15-10)(30)(13 + 2·5)
At y = lo mm -
q- 104' 1667x 103x 30
Fx 150X 12'5 _ . -a
- I04'l667 x 30 x 103 - O 60 x 10 F
._ Fx 30 X 10 X !Q__ _ . . :.:_3
At y=5 mm q- I04'1667 x 10ax30 - O 96 x 10 F
...... (when h=30 mm)
q=S'76x 10- a F, (when b = 5 mm)
r: <1·) ?,; ·o· .·~- . . '
a .~.')llt:1 ' Atrit y;,,:o,,·! :_: ·. F X (30 X JO X 10+.5 X 5 -x .i·5.)· (S'1nce b = S

· . q= mm · ·) -· <1.. ·'• .•..... ··,~r,
., .,.
104'1667 x l0 3 x 5 . . · .· _ .. ·v,, ·j.;-f·,i:1ib
.:'.'-'(" ,.<· ,;'., ,: .: ~-- ~ -~'88 -x -1~- F, (at the neutr~l axi~).,:;,. .. ·
3
,. . ·!:!
At y= 20 mm ·_o n th~ ot_h er side 9f. neu~~al. ~~is ·, .. -..-:...,,:. 1~ 1<...i
_ ;= A [l ~X5X(2J+7'-5)] , 3'96 x 10- sF
·· ·. . -~--- q l,04'16.6 7x 10sx5 ·
At y = 35 mm
on the other side of neutral axis, q= O.
Shear stress qi~tribution is i.hown in the. Fig. 10'16 (b).
Problem 16·6. ' Tw; peam~ oqe with I $ection and anothei ~ifh section are simply -t
supported at the ends and carry concentrated load at their centres . The $pan length for both
is tb.e same but the central_ loa:ds app! ~ed are such that. the maximum stre~s due to bending in
both is the same. Determtne th-~ ratio of th;;: maximum shear stresses developed in these
sections. The dimensi~~s of the sections are giv~n in Fig. 10'17. \ _.".
Solution. Let·-us first calculate INA for both the sections.
T-Section : . .. __________ _(· .
Distance of C.G. from lower ~dge of web,
'.:., '10 X5.+ 12 X 10'5
Yi= ·.· 10+ 12 -
=8 'cin
then y2 = 11-8 =;;p 1CID..;. ,
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ti>is'FR1BUTION OF· SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS
.. ,•;· .(
' I •ft , :
( 0) ( b ) -
Fig. 10·17
l0 + 10(8- 5) 2 + 12 X l 3 + 12(2"5)2
3
Moment of Inertia, INA = l X •_, ••~ t H'~
12 12
. = 83'333+90 + 1+75=249'333 cm'
I-Section. Section is symmetrical about YY and XX axis, therefore CG is located at
the centre of the web.
.·,~·
.. :t . -1
. \
Moment of inertia, / Ntl = 12 }2

x 1is_ 1I x 93= l33r-668'25
12 .
=662'75 cm4
. ., ·: . .... l .. r~ ':i
ii . ?.""-:,'N ow .!i~y the load"·bn the beam of T section= W1 . ·: , . , t \- _r(11:t:-1 :i1.in
:'.}~· . ··:. ·and
-~~~d Ot\ ~h'e ~earn of I section = W2 ~ ~-: __~.:; · . ~ ,·yt #J ,~ 2 ;1!
W1L
B.M. at the centre of T section beam - 4 .-
. : , ., . . :· • ·. . ,:. •. ,.a '{':l
W2L J \ J .. ~: ~ : .••:;. "! j~
B.M. at the centre of I section beam =4
where L=span length:
In T-section, maximum bending stress will occur at the lower e'dg~l 9(t'h~~w~~. ~ince,,
• .-. , ) :Z • I j • ' Ii \f ...·., .. I. 7~
V1>Y2• • ·~-. t
In I-section, maximum stress due to bending will occur at the extreme ~edge of the
langes.
· b W1L 8 2W1L . Since Y-1=8 cm
fmaz m T-section earn= 4 - x INA = 249·333
.
f,mo~ .m 1-section beam -_ W2L x _5·5 W2 Lx s·s
4 INA' 4 X 662'75 i .
' .} ·:: ! . ' . . ~ \
But /.n arc = fmaz'
2WiL W2 X L X 5·;5
249' 333 - 4 X 662'75 ·
Of W1 S-5 X 249?33 = 0·23 ~

W~ = 4 X (i62'7~ ... (1)
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fII
Since the beams are simply supported at their ends and carry the central loads.
Maximum SF in T s.ection b.eam =

w
--z1
Maximum SF in I scctipn beam =

w
---!..
2
In both the cases, maximum shear sµ-e.ss across the section occurs at the neutral
axis.
In T section,
W1 8X I >< 4 16W1
qma~= 2 X 249"333 X I = 249"333
(Note that for convenience, ay is taken for the lower position of the web)
In /-section,
W2 ~+4"SX J X2"25)
I
q · ,n!J.f/l = rx oi x 1 X'661:15'x
I 1 --
W2 70"125
= 2 x 662"75
Now q;a"' = 16W1 x . 662"7S ; 2 .. = J·213 W1

q "'""' 249'333 W2 X 70 125 W2
= 1"213 X 0"23~
= 0"285
Problem 10·1. Determine the p@i,ition 9f the layer at whi~h tnmllveri;e ~hta.r uress is
maximum. The section of the beam is squ_are of 10 cm side with one diagonal verfo;al, and the
shear force at a particular section is F. Draw the shear stress distribution diagram .
Solution. Section symmetrical about
YY and X-X axis as shown Fig. 10·18(a) with
centroid at the centre of the section.
IO'
lxx= 12 cm4 = 83r3J <;m 4
-0
. . 'i;Ql}Si~ f\ l~~r 3it A vertjca,1 !wight C
0
y from the neutral axis. xg' ..--
_H~~gh~ ?,f tµe tri~gle ygp . "Q

; . ,,
:-
=2
·a .
-y where dis the diagonal
0 ...
of the squar<r
__J_
base of the triangle
=2( ~ -y) Fig. 10·18 (a)

. !,
at"ea of the triangle yob,
=; (~ - y )( ~ - y)
{ d
9 \ ~ -y
-)? r,
I •
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iDISlll,JBUTION '.OF 'SHBA:R STRES IN BEAMS 481
Distance of the centroid of the triangle from the neutral layer,
Y=y+ +( ~ -y )
= ~+2y
6 3
= ~ (; + 2y )
The shear stress at any layer,
Fay
q= - -
l xxh
Fx( !!_2 _ 4 ) 2
1 ( d \
· - - (.-
fuX2
d
-y
)x 3 2 + 2Y)
2
= ·_ !_ ( :!!._ -y )( ~ + 2y ) ... (I)

6fxx 2 2
= _f_[,~ +yd
6fx x 4 2
-2y2]
'For maximum shear stress
dq = 0
dy
d
or - -4y=O
2
or d
y= -
8
In the problem, diagonal,
d = l0\/2=14'14 cm
'
y= 10</2
-8- = 1•767 ems.
At q=O
d Fd 2
y=4· q= - [Putting values in equation (1)]
24/xx
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F(¥ )(3f) y
q= 6 X 833'33
FX9d 2
= 192 xg33·33
Td
2
0 1F
+
9Fx w14z 0112F
'1
= 192 X 833'33 f----
//>t-~ 01 F
= 0'01 l2F 1--~..=./- .£1·0112 F
d
y = O, 2 ·O lF
Fd 2
q= --
24 fx x l_
F X 14'14 2 y
= 24 x 833"33 Sh ea r stress di stri but ion
= O·OJ F ( b}
Fig. 10'18(b) shows the shear stress
distribution. Maximum shear stress occurs Fig. 10·18
at d/8 from N.A.
Problem 10'8. A bar of hollow square section (as shown in the Fig. 10'19(a) is used
as a cantilever of length 2 metres . What is the magnitude of the uniformly distributed load
if the maximum shear stress in the section is not to exceed 150 kg/cm 3• Draw the shear stress
distribution over the depth of the section. tfor the maximum shear force on the cantilever).
Solution. The section is symmetrical about the XX and YY: axis and its G lies at the
•1
centre as shown.
8if2 .
Semi diagonal = - -= 5 656 cm
2
Moment of inertia
t
:i 656cm
2
150 kg,km
Shear s tr ess
d 1s tr1bution
(a } ( b)
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DI°STR!BUTION OF SHEAttSTRESS IN~BEAMS
Consider a layer be at a distance of y from the neutral axis (y <12:828 cm).
aJ about N.A.=(5'656-y)\I y+ 5'656-y ) -(2'828-y)2 ( y+ 2'828-y)

- -
3 3
(5 '656 -y)2(5'656 + 2y) (2'828-y) 2 (2'828 + 2y)
= 3 - 3
Breadth of the layer
=2(5'656-y)-2(2'828-y)
= 5'656 cm
aY (5'656-y) 2 (5'656+2y - 2'828 - y)2 (2·s28 + 2y)
b = 3XS'656
Shear stress,
q=FaY
fxxb
For the shear stress to be maximum,
r!!l=o
dy
or !!_ (ay
dy b
)=o
or 2(5'656-y)(-1)(5'656+ 2y)+(S'656-y)2(2)
_ -2(2'828 ·-y)(- 1)(2'828 -l-2y) -· (2'828 -y)2.2= 0
or (5'656-y)(S'656 + 2y) - (5 '656-y) 2 -(2'828-y)(2·s2s+ 2y)+(2'828-y)z= o
5'656- 2y 2 + 32- 32 + 2 X S'656y - y 2 - 8 + 2y 2 - 2'828y + 8- 5'656y+ y2= 0
or 8'484 y=O
y=O
In this case maximum shear stress occurs at the neutral axis.
ay t NA = 5·656 3-2'8283 _ 180'937-22'6 17
b a . . 3 X 5'656 - 16'968
= 9'33
Fay F x 9·33
qmae= l xxb =
320 = 150 kg/cm2
or F = 5144'7 kg
=wL (in the case of cantilever maximum SF occurs at
fixed end)
=w X 200
5144'7
w= = 25'7235 kg/cm
200
= 2572'35 kg/ metre
=2'572 Tonne/ metre mm .
Shear stress distribution
at y= S'65fi, q= O
y = 2'828 Foy 5144'7 {~'656 )(2'828) X ( . +2·s 2g)

q=-y:b- = 320 X 5'656 X 2 828
2 3
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5144"7 . . .
X • X (2 828)(2 828)(3 770)
320 5 656
= 85"73 kg/cm2
At y = O, q= J50 kg/cm2
The shear stress distribution is shown in the Fig. J0'19(b)
Probletn 10·9, A beam section shown in the Fig. 10·2o~a) is subjecte~!Jtb a shear
force of 1 tonne. Plot a graph showing the variation of shear stress along the depth of the
section. Determine also the ratio of the maximum shear stress and tlie-mean shear stress.
Solution. The section is symmetrical about the Y-Y axis shown. CG will lie on
YYaxis.
Distance of G from the lower edge,
6 X 3X 1'5+2x3X2X4"5
2"7 cm
6 X3+2X3X2
Shear force, F = l T=IOOO kg
Sh e ar s t ress
d1 s tr, bu t 1on
ra ) ( b )
Fig.10·20
Moment of Inertia
INA or fxx=[ 6 ( / 3
+36(3-2'7) 2 J-[2 ~ 33 +6(3·3-1"5) 2
]
= c108+ 3·24)-(4·5+ 19·44)

= 101·24- 23'94
= 77'30 cm~·
Shear stress at any layer at a distance of y from N.A.
Fu.Y
q= - -
lxxb
y= 3'3 q= O
l000[2 X 2 X 1"3 X(2+ 0'65)]
y=2·0 cm q= 2 X2X77"30
250 X 5'2 X 2"65
77·30
= 44'56 kg/cm2
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1000[2 X 3 X 2{0~3+ 1:5))
y=0'3 cm, q= 11·3ox2-x.2 - - (breacith=4 cm)
_ tooox 12x 1'8 _, , . . . k ,, 2
- 4X7;7'3o' · - 6,9 86 ' gyam..
q'=46'57 kg/cw (breadth= 6 cm) . •:
y=O, lOOOx6x2·7x 1·35 (we have taken first moment of
q 6 x 77'30 the area ay on the other side of
N.A. to avoid long calculations)
= 47'15 kg/cm2
At y= 1'3 cm on the other side of neutral axis
1000 . . .
q= . x [6x 1 4(13+07))
77 3 6
= 1000X8'4X2 = 36.22 k / 2
77 ·3x6 g cm
Fig. I 0'20(b) shows the shear stress distribution over: the depth. One can notice in this
case, that maximum shear stress does not occur at the neutral axis·.
Problem 10·10. A beam of hexagonal section with side a, is subjected to a transverse

shear force Fat a particular section. Shear force Fis perpendicular to one of its diagonals.
Derive an expression for the sl_!ear stress. q at' a distance y from the diagonal and plot the shear
stress distribution over the depth.
, .
Solution. The section is shown in Fig. 1Q'2l(a). The d~th of the section is ,/3 a
· and diagonal is 2a. The section is symmetrical about X-X and Y.Y. axis and centroid lies at
the centre G as shown.
Moment of inertia
[ a
2 (v3 )3]
INA =
1
; (v' 3a) 3 + 4 X ;; a = ~ y'3a•· -,,
1
Now consider the layer cd at a distance of y from the neutral layer X-X.
./3a v3
"'Ta-y )
) (~3
2 a-y ) v3
Ta-y )
a'j= a ( (
z-Y Y+ 2 +2 V3 2 X
i
v3
r -ya-y 1
J
LY+ 3 J
Note that in 6. caa', ca' = aa' x tan 30°
and aa' = 3 a-yv
2
'.· i . . ' .
,_: •, . ".jj.cea;dth ·at-<:d( ,
.• I t!
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~ 2v3a-2y
- - .,r3
Simplifying the expression for ay we get
~J= a• -ayi+ 2ya

2 v = .,,1 [ 3\13a3- 6,j3 ay2+4ya
3 3 6 3
J
' • I •
I/,., I • ~ •,. •" "
~
-· ' ' r::hear stress
d 1str1but1on
.( b)
.,:'
Fig. 10'21
So the shear stress,
J
.·.·
when
a 16F
y= 2· q= Sv3a 4
F ·
= 0'387 a2
y=O,
16F [iaa J
q= 5 ,j3a' , , 3a
4F I
= 5,v'3Xd.i
·. = 0'462 -~
a
Fig. 10·2l(b) shows the shear stress dis_tribution over the depth of the section.
Problem 10·11. . A rolled steel section 60 mm X 40 mm is shown in the Fig. 10'22(a).
A transverse shear force of S tonnes is acting on this section: Plot the shear stress distribution
1
over the depth of the section. c ·
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D.IS:FRiBUTION OF SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 487
Solution. Fig. 10·22 (a) shows the section, symmetrical about X-X and YY axis i.e. G
lies at the centre as shown.
V
. ·1
• I •
. -····. , '·
• N""!
S h t ar stre ~ i
d1st r I b ut ton
(a1 ( b )
Fig. 10·22
Moment of Inertia
fNA = 40~ 603 _ 4 ( lOI~ 103)
(Note that moment of inertia of 4 triangles of base 10 mm and height JO mm is

substracted from the moment of inertia of a rectangle of 40 x 60 mm)
INA = O' [ 72- ; ] = 71'667 x 10' mni .
Shear stress at any layer (at distance of y from the neutral layer)
q= - FaJ
INAb
F = SX9'8 X 1000 N = 49X 103 N
y = 30 mm, q= O
49 x 10s[40 x 10 x (20 + S)]
y = 20 mm, q= INA X 40
49 x lO* x 104
- -=--=--=---,----
7l ·667 x 1o« x 40
= 17'09 N/ mm 2 •
49 X 103X [20 X 40 X (10 + 10)]
y=IO mm,
q= 11 ·667 x JO' x 40
-: j .. : u
49 X [16 X 103)
-
71·667 x 400
=27°35 N/ mm2
)'= 0 mm,
49 X 103 [ 40 X 30 X 1s- 2 X (l~ x lO) x -¥!- J
q= 71 ·667 X l04 X 20
(at the lly~tnil a~is (J = 2Q Qlm)
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J •
·) ". ,
'' 49 Xii 03 X I r/.66'6,··66'7
71"667 x IO' x 20-
= 60·40 N/ mm2
The shear stress distribution is shown in the Fig. 10·22 (b)_.
Problem 10"112:- A. beam is of rr

section, with flange 12 cm x I cm and .web
10 cm x I cm. What percentage of -s-lrearin-g
force at any section isrs-~~!.ed/ by the web.
, I
Solution. Fig. I0·23 shows the 'T

section of given dimension. 'The section iis
symmetrical about -the .Y-\Y -axis. .LeLus fimd
8c m:: Y1 ~i---,,= dy l
10cm
position of G along YY axis. j ~ 3 .y~--- - l-

''··' ·.. '11~1cm
Taking first moments of the areas , ..
about the lower edge of the web Fig 10·23
oo+ 12) Yi= 10 x 1 x s+ 12 x 1 oo+o·s)
22 Yi = so+ t.26
or y 1 = 8 cm
Y2= tO+ 1-£=:3 cm
Moment of inertia about the neutral axis,

. .
INA =
12 x i s +12(3- 0·5) 2 + l x ios·+I0(8- 5)2
r •.• .
.12:i .
12 t
= 1+ 75 + 83'333+90
= 249"333 cm4 •
Shear force shared by the portion abed of the web ,:,,

Shear stress at any layer
Fay
q=
INA. b
Say thickness of the layer= oy <1 •
Area of the layer 'b Sy_

ff 'I
'
where b= breadth of the web
Shear force at the layer considered ,) ' ,~ .
= qbdy
1(1'
1. fl! - ::F-aJ X'bd

- INA b y
I '• t 1,1• J
F aJ
=; T«-1 dy
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DISTRIBUTION OF SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 489
ay= 12X I X 2'5+(2-y) ( y+ Z~y )
4-y 2 64-y2
=30+ - 2 - = 2
Total shear force shared by the portion abed
=
2
J
Fr 64-y
INA L 2
2
J dy
0
= -F -[ 64 y -ys-
21NA 3
J 2
F1 = - F
- x376
2 INA
F
- = 62'667 -INA
3
-
Shear force shared by the portion cdef

Shear stress at any layer at a distance y from N.A.,
Fay
q= b
INA
Shear force in a layer of thickness dy,

Fay
dF= q . bdy = - - - bdy
I NA. b
= Fay dy
INA
. 8
where aJ= (8 -y) ( Y+ ;:y- )= 21 (8 -y)(8+y)
(64-y2)
- 2
Total shear force shared by the portion cdef,

8
F2 =I-F- 2 INA
(64-y2 ) dy
0
8
= 2 ~NA [ 64 y - ~3 J
0
= -F-[64 x 8-
i i{VA
~]=170'667_!_
~ _ ft.{,1
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490\
Total shear force shared by the w~b

F
= F 1 +F2 = (62'667+ 170'667) ftvA
= 233'3·34, F = 0'9358 F
249'333
The shear force shared by the web is 93' 58 % of the sh.ear foree acting ·0n' tlie 'section.
Problem 10·13. A tee section with a fla:nge 10 X 1·s cm and web lOX 1 cm is
subjected to a bending moment of o· f2 fonne-1m:tre i(ro~ucing tension in flange and a shear
force of , ·6 tonnes. Determine the principal stresses at the (ollowing points.
(a) A, bottom edge of the flange
(b) B, at the neutral axis
(c) C, at the bottom edge of web.
Solution. The figure of the T section

is shown in Fig. 10·24. · '
Let us calculate the moment of inertia
INA or lxx. "
The section is symmetrical a,bput J:'Y
axis and its G will lie on this axis,
_ 1o x I x s + 1o x 1·s 00 + 0·1-5)
Yi - !0+15 .
Y2 = IO + J ·5- 8'45= 3''0§ ~m
Momeat of inertia, J _ _I X \0, 3
·• lO x J·5s
NA - - \~ --HO (?, 45-5)~+
fxx - + 15 (3·05 - 0'75)2
12
= 83'333 + 119·025+ 2·8125 + 19·35
= 284'52 cm4
Stresses due to BM
M = 0·12 'F-m = i-2.: x 104 kg-cm JI
/A = -/:A X (yA)
where y,4 = 3'05- I 'S = I·ss

1·2 x 104 x 1·55 · ·· , • i .
284.52 =65·11 l<g/cm 2 (tensile)

/s=O (at nl!µtr1:1I a:xes)
]'2 X J04X8'45
Jc = -, 284·52 = -3'56'39 kg/cm 2 (compressive)
Stresses due to SF
F = J '6 tonne = 1600 kg
1600
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(The width of the flange at bottom is 10 cm)
_ ·l600 X 15 X-2'3 = l 9 '40 k / 2
- 284·52 x 10 g cm
· 15X2'3+( 1'·55·X lX1X '1

1 5
)
qB=l600 X lx.cXl
(Width at neutral axis is 1 cm)

_ 35·1ox 1600 = 200 .76 k
g1cm
2
- 284'52
qc = O
Principal str!"sses
P!A, P2A=
1; ± ,J( 1; r + qA 2
= 6 77
; ± J( 6\ 77 /+19'40) =32'885±38'181
2
= 71 '066, -5,.296 kg/cm2

'PiB, P21J= ±4' qB2, Since /11 = 0
= ±200'76 kg/cm2
p 1 c=-356'-39 kg/cm2
p 2 c = O at this point.
Problem 10'14. The Fig. 10'25 shows p

a bracket of T -section s:upporting a ~haft
transmitting power. At a' part'\'cular instant
the thrust P on the bearing is 4000 N 'in- 0
clined at 45° to the vertical. Determine the
principal stresses along the section a-a at the
point b.
Solution. Resolving the ,inclined -load.
Vertical component, \o;m - i
-: 2or:- 120mm ~
Pv = 4b00 >(0'707 = 28~8 N
Horizontal component, ·a
Pn= 4000 X0'707= 2828 N __Lr2o~m 1
Due to the vertical component Pv, Y2: -
875
,- X- N~-1-
A-Tr
there will be a bending moment and a shearing Y1 =1625 GB - 20mm
force on the section. t .. !' __:!_~
_,..jv l-
Bending moment at the section a-a s rr,rr•
M= Pvx 120= 2828 X 120 Nmm Sectio n 9t O:,-,O
Shear force at the section a-a
F = 2828 N. Fig. 10·25
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T-Section
Section is symmetrical about the Y-Y ax"is. G lies on YY axis.
Distance of C.G. from lower edge of web,
_ 20_x 5 x 10+_20 x 5 x 22·5 _ .
Yi - JOO+ 100 - 16 25 mm
then Y2= 25- 16.25= 8'75 mm
Moment of inertia,
5 03 20 53
INA or l u= ~; + 100 ([6'25-10) 2 + (i +100 (8'75-2·5)2
= 3333'333 + 3906'250+ 208'333+3906'250

= 11354'166 mm 4
Due to the bending moment M, there will be compressive stress at the point B,
f' = _J!__ y
lx,c
where Y= Yt- 10= 6'25 mm
__ 2s2s x 12o x 6·25 ___ . N/
- 11354'166 186 80 mm
2
Shear stress q (at y= 6'25 mm from neutral axis)

FaJ 2828 X 10 X5 X5
= l xx b-= 11354'166 X5 12 '453 N/mm 2
Moreover the horizontal component PH acts at an eccentricity

e= 8·7S + 25= 33.75 mm
Bending moment due to Pe,
M' = 2828 X 33·75 N mm
Due to PH there will be direct compressive stress on the section

PH 2828
fa =-area =- lOO+ lOO -14'14 N/mm2
Due to M ' there will be tensile stress on the point b
"= M ' xy 2828 x 33·75 x (16'25- 10)
1 f xx 113.54' 166
=+ 52'54 N/mm2 (tensile)
Net direct stress at point B
= -1s6·so +52·s4- 14·14
f =- 148'40 N/ mm2 (compressive)
Shear sttess at the point B
q= 12'453 N/mm2
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SHEAR STRESSr IN BEAM S
0
DISTRIBUTION OP
Principal stresses at the point B
P1>P2= { ± y(f )2+q 2

,
= - 74.2±4(- 74'2)2+ (12'453)2

= - 74'2±75'23
or Pi= - 149'43 N/ mm2 (compressive)
p 2 = + 1'03 N/mm2 (tensile)
Problem 10'15. The box section shown in Fig. 10'26 (a) is made up of four 18 X 3
cm wooden planks connected by screws . Each screw can safely transmit a load of 150 kg.
Determine the minimum necessary spacing of screws along the · length of the beam if the
maximum shear force transmitted by section is 1000 kg. ·
J_
-Ftl f I -H-=t=£t_24cm•
D <.,.s crew
be a m
D= p it ch o f sc r e ws
Box sec t i on
( b)
(a)
Fig. 10·26
Solution. Fig. 10'26 (a) shows the box section. The section is symmetrical about yy
a.nd XX axis and its CG lies at the centre as sh own.
Moment of inertia,
j /
182
Jxx = l8 X 243_ 12 X = 20736-5832= 14904 cm"'
12 12
q at the edge of the web

Fay lOOOx (2x9 x 3 x 10·5)
= Jxxb 14904 X3 X 2
= 6'34 kg/cm2 (breadth is 6 cm)
say p cm is the pitch of the screws
Then shear force per pitch length
= p X3 X 2 X 6'34 kg
= 38'04 p for two screws
= 19·02 p for one screw
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Load safeiy tta11smitted by a screw
=150 kg:-19;.02 'p
Pitch p=7'886~8 cm.
1. Shear stress at any '!'ayer at a tli~taii~e' of y froin the neutral axis,

Fa)
.where
.F = sbearq=force onb ,the section
INA
.
4--J=<first moment about neutral axis of the art% ·a.:bbve the layer'l'(irttlir
consideration
/N,1 = moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis
b= breadth of the layer
2. In a .circular section, maximum shear stress=! X mean shear stress.
3. In a rectangulllr section, maximum shear stress= 1·5 mean shear stress.
4. In the case ;of a thin ci.r cular tube,
·Maximum shear stress=2 mean shear stress.
5. In the ease of I section, most of the .m.oi:r.:ient Mis cartied by the flanges and most
of the-,shear force Fis carried by'fue web.
6 In the case of rectartgular, square, circular and / section maximum shear stress
occurs at the neutral axis.
7. In the case of sqi,iar,e section with diagonal lying in the plane of bending, maximum
shear stress is 9/8 times the mean shear stress and occurs at a distance of d/8 from
the neutral axis, where d is the dia;gonal of the section.
8. Near a free boundaiy, the shear stress on any s~ction acts in a direction parallel
1tp the ,boun<ilait .

r
1. A rectangu\ar sec,~~?~ o( ~ .~eai;n ls,subj~ct~p .to ~ ·~h~A!~ng. for~e. The ratio of maximum
shear stress ,t o··the ~mean -shear .stress 1:ievelo,ped m tbe section 1s
(a) 2 (b) 1·75
(c) l '50 (d) 1·25
2. A square section with side a, 6f a' .bea.n;i .i~ subjected to a shear force F, the magnitude
of shear stress at the top edge of-the square is
(a) 1·5 F/a 6 (b) F/a 2
(c) O'S F/a 2 (d) 0
3. In I-section of a beam subjected to transverse shear 'fotce f'. ·The ·niax'Ifmtm ,\iliear stress
is developed at
(a) at the top edge .of·,the ,t@p dlange
(b) at the bottom edge 0f, the ,to.p ·flange
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DISTRIBUTION OF SHELR STRESS IN BEAMS
(c) at the centre of the web

(d, None of the above.
4. A circular section with area 100 mm2 is subjected to a transverse shear force 6 kN.
The magnitud~ of the maximum shear stress, develo.ped at the section is
(a) 120 N/mm 2 (b) 80 N/mm 2
(c) 60 N/mm2 (di 50 N/mm 2
5, A thin circular tube is used as a beam. At a particular section it is subjected to a trans-
verse shear force F If th_e mean shear stress in the section is q, the maximum shear
stress developed in th,e se'ction is
(a) 2'5 q (b) 2'0 q
(c) 1'5 q (d) 1' 25 q
6. A beam with a squary cross-section 10 cm X 10 cm is simply supported at its ends an'd'
carries a centrar load W. If the maximum shear stress developed is not to exceed
6N/mm2, the maximhm value of W is ·
(a) 20 kN (b) 40 kN
(c) 60 kN (d) 80 kN
7. . In an J section of a beam, subjected to. a s~ear force F, the most of the sb:e~~ foWe is
shared by the web · ·
(a) Trl,l,e (b) Fa.ls,e
8. In an /-section of a beam, subjected to a bending moment M, the most of the m·o merit
M. is sq~red by t~e w~b
(a) True (b) False
9. A beam with a square secti01:r of side a, is, plaeed with one of its diaigonals in dl'e vertical .
plane. 1f the transverse shear force at a particular section is F, then the ma~itn'IMff
1
shear stress developed in the section is •
(a), rsFJ.4 2 (b), l · 25 F/a2

(t) 1'12'5 F/a 2 (d) None of the above.
10'. A beam with square cross-section of side 100 mm, is placed with one of its
diagonals in the horizontal plane. At a particular section shear force is 15 kN. The shear
force developed a:t the neuti;al axis of the section is
(a) 3N/mm2 (b) 2·25 N/mm2
(c) t ·8 N/mm2 (d) 1·5 ~/mm 2
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b)

6. (d) 7. (a} 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (d)
EXERCIS~
10·1. A20X40cmRSJof /section with flanges 29 X~cm ~nd -.y~l> 36XJ cm i-s-
subjected to a bending moment Mand a shear force.F. What percentage of bending 'mometi'i
is <;arried by the fl.an~e and 'YQ.at percentage of shearmg force is carried by the web ?
· A:ais. [88' 14% of M, 95;28% of FJ
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496
10·2. A beam of rectangular section with breadth B and depth D is simply supported
with a span length L. It carries a concentrated load P at its centre. Show that the principal
stresses developed at a depth of D/4(in the central section of the beam) are
3PL [
8BD 2 l±
J 9D ]
l + 4£2
2
10'3. Show that for a beam section of triangular shape base B, height H subjected to
8F
shear force F, the shear stress at the neutral axis is 3BH
10·4. A rolled steel section shown

in the Fig. 10 27 is used·as a beam. At a parti-
cular.section the shear force is 5 kN. Plot the
shear stress distribution over the depth of
th,e section.
Ans: [qNA=48"256 N/mm2 ]
Fig. 10·27
~ 1o·s: Two beams, one with I section and the other with angle section are used as
cantilevers with equal lengths and carry the uniformly distributed load on one w1 and on the
other w2 , such that the maximum shear stress in the web for both is the same. I section has
flanges 12 X 1·5 cm and web lS X l cm. The angle section is 18 cmx 18 cmx 1·5 cm (thickness).
Detern;iine the ratio of the maximum stress due to bending developed in both.
Ans. ['2:'.!...= 0"806,
Wz
Ji =0"3296
/2 ·
J
· · 10·6. A beam o.f square sec!ion. is placed with its diagonal in the vertical plane. The
shearing force at a certain cross-section 1s F. Show that the shear stress at the centroidal axis
is equal to the mean shear stress in the section.
10·1. The section of a beam is a square with a small square cut-out from the centre
as shown in the Fig. 10·28. Determine the shear stress at the neutral axis if the· shear force at
th!;!_section is 10 tonnes. Ans. [404'44 kg/cm 2 ]
'I . .
4cm
.._______, J_
Fig . 10·28 Fig. 10'29
10'8. A beam section subjected to shear force F is shown in the Fig. 10'29. Plot
a graph showin.g the variation of shear stress over the thickness of the section. Determine
ratio· of maximum to mean shear stress. . .
Ans. [qA = O, ([8 = "0696 F, qB' = ·osi2 F, . qc = O, q .... ., ·=· 1·53

' · · · <.(mea-p
J
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Dl5'l'iU9{!1'flON OF-SH-BAR STRESS IN BEAMS 497
10'9. A timber ~be_a;lll of hexagonal section (side 10 cm) placed with one of its
diagonals in i hor.i,z.ontal plaQ.!,': ; is simply supported at its ends and quries .a central load W.
Determine th~ dis.tance betweei;i the supports and the load W if the maximum shearing stress
is limited to i kgi.~m 2 and the maximum direct str ess due to bending is limited to 5.0 kg/cm2 •
[866 kg, 1·443 mxtre]
A
10·10J A r_elle.d steel section shown

I
I
in the Fig. !P'30 .i~ subjected to a vertical
shear force of 20 to~:Q~s. Petermine the

C l
o+o- ---+ 1
I 6cm
shearing stresses at the corners A, B, C and D.

I I Ge m
Ans. [qA=O, qs= 161 '4 kg/cm 2, qc = 695'2
kg/cm2, qv = 1108·5 kg/cma] '-----+------' .
,_.__ _ ,0 Cm _ _,._,,
L
Fig. 10·30
10·11. A beam is of 10 X 30 cm I section, flanges 10 x 1: 5 cm, web, 27 X l cm is

subjected to a bending moment 20 k Nm (producing tension in top flange) and a shear force
120 kN. Determine principal stresses :
(i) at the bottom surface of top flange
(ii) at a distance of 5 cm from the top edge
(iii) at the neutral axis.
Ans. [(i) 54'896, - ~O·O N/mm2, (ii) + 50' 54, -24'70 N/mm 2 ,
(iii) ±47'28 N/mm2J
10·12. A bracket of I section fixed in a wall supports a load of 3000 N as shown in

the Fig. 10'31. Determine the principal stresses along the layer BB across the section aa.
Ans. [89' I 3 N/mm2 , - 0·25 N/mm 2 ]
Se c t ion at 0- 9
I_ _J P: 3000 N.
r:-- lOO mm
a
~Omm
r--8::_~B--_, _J_ 10mm

1
a 2_0..,._
m_m__
T ~t
S e r t1on at a - a
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498 . . ~T.RE,N.GTH OF MAl'.~RIAl:S
10'13. The box section shown in

· Fig. 10·32 is made up of four 10 X 2 cm
wooden planks connected by screws. Each
screw can safely transmit a shear force of lkN.
Estimate the maximum spacing between
screws along the length of the beam if the
maximum shear force transmitted by the
section is 5 kN. Ans. [6 cm]
Fig. 10·32'·
-· ~.
; ') : : ~ J-~
.. \
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Deflection of Beams and Cantilevers
In chapter 8, we have derived the flexure formula M/l=E/R=f/y and studied about the
maximum stresses developed in the extreme layers of the beam. The beam section is designed
taking into consideration the allowable skin stress developed. When the beam carries the trans-
verse points loads and distributed load over its length, the axis of the beam deflects. The deflec-
tion in the flexure elements of the machine must be with in the permissible limit so as to prevent
misalignment and to maintain dimensional accuracy. Stiff flexural members are required in
most engineering applications.
I
In this chapter basic differential equation relating slope and deflection with the bending
moment will be developed. Only the deflection caused by bending will be discussed in this
chapter and deflection due to shear will be discussed in the chapter on strain energy.
11·1. RELATION BETWEEN SLOPE, DEFLECTION, RADIUS OF CURVATURE

AND BENDING MOMENT
Fig. 11 · 1 (a) shows a beam simply supported at its ends and carrying a point load W
and a uniformly distributed load w as shown. Under the acti on of these transverse loads, the
beam is deflected and its axis is bent as shown by ACDB. The radius of curvature of the
beam at one section may be different than the radius of curvature at the other section.
As the bending moment along the length of the beam changes, its radius of curvature
also changes as is obvious from the formula M/l=E/R. Consider a very small length M
B
0
( b)
,,
rr..
....... . Fjg. 11·1
499
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500 stRF.NGtI-i ot. MAtBi\iA.ts
marked by points C and D and for this very small length radius of curvature, R may be
assumed as constant. Enlarged view of the length CD is shown in Fig. 11 · 1 (b ), where R is
the radius of curvature, 0 is the centre of curvature. CG is the tangent to the curve CD at the
p0int C and DF is the tangent to the curve at the point D.
Slope of the curve at the point C
Slope of the curve at the point D
then Angle subtended by length 3/ or CD at the centre of cur'varture
=3</>
R3,f, = 3l ... (1)
So
When az~o. then segment CD. can be approximated by ~ straight I.ine CD having
components 3x and 'Sy along x-axis and y-axis respectively.
'Sy
tan</> = - -
Sx
dy ... (2)
or -in the limits tan 'P = dx
Differentiating both the sides of equation (2)
d2y
sec2 if, . di/>= dx 2 dx
But sec2 </> = I + tan 2 ¢,=[ 1+( t )1' ... (3)
So
d<fJ = [ 1+( dy
_ dx
)21..;
From equation (1) Rdcf, =di= ;./ (dy) 2 +(dx)2
= dx J 1+( rx r
Substituting above
d2y
d )2 cfxz dx
dx Ji+(lx ~ R [ i+(t)']
d2y
dx2 1
or
V1+(: y X [ 1+( t }2]
... (4)
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t)BPLEC.TION- 0F BEAMS· A:ND CANTILEVERS
Since dy/dx is the slope at a p oint in the beam is a very small quantity then (dy/dx)2
will be much smaller than dy/dx and therefore ca;u be neglected m comparison to 1.
l d 2y
So If = ax 2
But from the flexure formula

1 M
R= El
M d 2y
Therefore
EI= dx 2
2
or El d y =M ... tS·)
dx 2
This differential equation gives the relationship between the moment. of resistance at
a particular section and the cartesian co-ordinates of the point in the bent beam. ___
11·2. SIGN CONVENTIONS
In the chapter 7, we have taken the following conventions :

ci) Shear force tending to rotate the body in the d ockW'ise direction is positive.
(ii) Bending moment producing concavity upwards in the beam is taken as positive.
(iii) If x-y is the cartesian co-ordinate system, then x is positive towards the right side
of the origin 0 .
(iv) y is positive upwards.
Fig. 11·2 shows the bent shape of a
beam loaded with transverse loads. ¥
Slope at point A = iA is negative

Slope at point B = is is positive
Deflection at point C = ye is negative
When we follow these conventions, and
-
consider a section X-X in the beam then i ·g.._u,,·r.--- - - - - - - - -
upward orces on the left side of the section .
are positive and (ii) clockwise moments of the forces on the left side of the section. are positive.
11'3. A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH A CONCENTRATED LOAD
A beam AB of length / is simply

supported at the ends A a1I1d B and carries a
load W at its centre C, as shown in the Fig.
11 '3. By symmetry the reactions at A and B
will be equal i.e., RA=Rn= W/2. Now
consider a section X-X at a distance of x from
the end A.
Bending moment at X-X, Fig. 11 ·3
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So2 s'rn.BNGTii OF MAniuAts
':.', ·; i ,~, ••• .

M=+R,1.x=-y x
w
d 2y W ... (1)
or EI dx2 =2 x
Integrating the equation (1)
dy W x2 ... (2)
EI dx=2X2 +Ci
where C1 is the constant of integration.
As the beam is symmetricaily loaded about its centre, slope at the centre of the beam
will be zero.
dy I
i.e., - -=0 at x= -
dx 2
Substituting the values in equation (2) we get

w12
0=--+c1
2
- ''
w12
or C1 = - ~-
Equation (2) will now be

. 'i-:
dy Wx 2 W/ 2
EJ - - - - - - - ... (3)
dx - 4 16
Integrating the equation (3) we get

Wx 3Wl 2
El y =
12- 16 x+ C2
where C 2 is another constant of integration.
At the end A, x= O, Deflection,y = O
Substituting in the equation above
.. . ., '.)
O= O- O+ C2, or C2 = 0
.::::,:i::,: therefore'
Maximum deflection occurs at the centre of the beam at x= i-

Elym ao,=
W( I
12 2
)3-16
W/
2
( l ) Wis
2 = % - 32
w/s
WJs ''[; ,..'

= -48 . . ·...
~
l'mu = -
W/s
EI ('m d'1catmg
. d ownward deflection)
48
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DEFLECTION OF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS 503
Slope at tl"ie end A, i.e., at x = O

w12
EliA = 0 - --
16
or iA=-
wz 2
16 EI
By symmetry the slope at B,

w12
is= 16EI .
N ote that bending moment is considered only in the portion AC. The equation (3)
is valid only fro m port ion AC. The slope at B can not be detemind by using equation (3).
Exa1nple 11·3-1. A girder or uniform section and constant depth is freely supported
over a span of 2 metres. Calculate the central deflection under a central load of 2 tonnes, if
l xx=780·7 cm4 . Determine also the slopes at the ends of beam.
Given E = 2 X 106 kg/cm2.
Solution. Say a beam AB of length 2 m is simply supported at the ends and carries
a central load 2 to nnes at C i.e., the centre of the beam. Maximum deflection occurs at the
point C.
wJs
ymae= 48 El
W = 2 tonnes= 2000 kg
/= 2 m = 200 cm
E=2 X 106 kg/cm2 , 1= 780·7 cm4
2000 X (200) 3
Yma , = 48 X 2 X 106 X-7---=8-0-·7- 0·21 3 cm or. 2· 13 .mm:·:,~:
~·' , · . !!! . , .' J
~
!i J '
In comparison to the span length of 2000 mm, deflection at the centre, 2:13 mm is
very small.
. W/ 2 2000 X (200) 2
Slope at the end A, u =- 16 El = - 16 X2 X I06 X780·7
=- 0'0032 radian or - 0·1s3°
Slope at end B, iB = + 0·0032 radian or + 0·1s3°
Slope at the ends is also very small.
Exercise 11'3-l . A wooden beam of breadth IO cm and depth 20 cm is used as a

simply supported beam over a span length of 4 metres. If E for wood = l x 1011 kg/cm 2 , what
will be the magnitude of the load Wat the centre of the beam to ·cause a deflection of 2 mm
at the ~ntre. What will then be the slope at the ends.
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Sl'RENG'l'H OF MATERIA-L'S
11·4. A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH A UNIFORMLY DlSTRIBUTED LOAD

OVER ITS LENGTH
A beam AB of length/ simply supported at the ends A and B carries a uniformly

distributed load of w per unit length throughout its length as shown in the Fig. 11 4.
w pu unit l~ngth
B
we
Re=-y
~ __ __. ...
Fig. 11 ·4
;f.o,1;~ v,er.tical load on t.l:t.e beam = wl

By symmetry, reactions at A and B will be equal i.e.,
wl
RA=RB= -
2
Consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the .end A
wl wx 2
(note that C ..G. of the ioad w ..;t" l.i.e~ at a
M= +-
2 x- - 2 distance of x/2 frOi;ll %-%)
d 2y wl wx2
So E l - = - x- - ... (1)
dx2 2 2
Integrating the equation (I) we get

dy _ wlx2 wxs
EI dx - . 4 - 6
+ c1
where C 1 is the constant of integration
Sinc.e the be.am -is sy1mmetrieaUy loaded ~b::>u.t its centre, slope at the centre of the
beam will be zero.
4Y
-·O at I
j_e:, x =·-
dx 2
Substituting in the equation above
,wJs - .wJ.s
,@= + c1
16 48
wJa
C1= - 24
EI dy wlx2 wx 3 wi,8
dx = -4-- y - 24 ... (2)
_li:tJepating .t he ec;i1,1.~ tion .(2J ~ain

wb:8 wx4
- uwl x +.c2 ' 8
fly = ---rr- - 24
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wb,ere C~ is another 9onstant of inte~ration,
DEFLE€1'·1 8N OF BBAMS AND CANTILEVERS 505
at the end· A, x = O, y=O.

0 = 0-0-C2 or C2 = 0
Then El = wzxa _ wx4 _ w/sx

y 12 24 24 ... (3)
In this case, maximum deflection occurs at the centre of the beam i.e., at x = l/2. Putting
this value in equation (3)
w/4 wl' w/4
El yrna:11= % - 384 - 48
5
= - 384 w/4
5wl4
or Yma:11 = ·- 384E/ (indicating downward deflection)
At the end A, x=O, ddy =iA, slope at the end A

X
Putting x = O in equation (2)

w/3
EliA = O- 0 - -
24
w/S
or - --
24El
By symmetry, slope at B,
w/3
ia= + 24 El
Example 11'4-l. An I section steel girder of/ = 2502 cm 4 and depth 225 mm is used
as a beam for a span length of 5 metres. The beam carries a uniformly distributed load w
kg/cm run throughout its length. Determine the magnitude of w so that the maximum stress
developed in the beam section does not exceed 600 kg/cm2 • Under this load determine slope
and, deflection in tl:re beam at a distance of 1·5 m from one end.
Solution. E=2 X 106 kg/cm2 X
Span length, /=5 metres

=500 cm
Rate of loading, w=?
Allowable stress, /=600 kg/cm2 Fig. 11·5
Maximum bending moment occuts at the centre of the beam,

w/2
M.,a.,=--
8
w X 500 X 500 k
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- 8 = 31250 w ~ cm
5.@6 ,,! : STRENGTH .OF MATERIAL~
M aximum stress' will occur at the extreme layers at a distance of ± d/2 from neutral
axis, where di s the depth of the section and 1s equal t o 22·5 cm.
f = M X d _ 31250 w X 22'5
I 2 - 2502 2
or 600 = 31250 w x 22·5

2502 X 2
w, rate of loading = 4'27 kg/cm run
'
At any section at a distance of x from the end A,
dy wlx2 wx3 wza
EI - - - - - - - - -
dx -- 4 6 24
and
at X= 150 cm i.e. , at point P

if ,
. _ 4·21 x 500xl50 x i'5o 4·27 x (150) 3 4·27 x (500)3

E f zp - 4 - 6 - n 24 ·
El ip = ( l200'9315 X 104 - 2401 '875 X 10 3 - 22' 2396 X 106 )
= ( l 2'009375 - 2'401875 - 22'2396) X 106
= - 12 63 X 106
12"63 X 10 6 .
Slope at point P; ip= - x X
2502 2 100
= - 0·0025 radran
= - o· 145 degree
Then El y p= ~ ( l50)3- ~ (I 50)4 - wl~ ( 150)

12 24 24 · l ·'"1"
Putting w= 4'27 kg/cm run, /= 500 cm
El y p= 4·27]~ 500 x (I50)3 - \!7 X (150)4 - 4'27 ~~500)3 x (I50)
= 6004 68 X 105 - 9007"03 X 104 -333'59 X 10 7

= (60'0.47 - 9'00 - 333'59) X 107
= -282'543 X 107
'.
282'543 X 10 7
Deflection at point P, yp=- 2502 x 2 x 100
=-0' 5646 cm= -5'646 mm ·,•I:,
Exercise 11'4-l. A roll~d steel j~ist _h aving ! = 3600 cm 4 is simply supported over a
span of 6 metres. It carries a u111formly d1stn buted load of 0'8 tonne/ metre length. Determine
~lope and de~ec::,tio~ 3:t a di~tanc::,e of 7 r11e~res frorn Qnc end of the beam . E = 2000 tonnes/cm 2.
·
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DEPiECTlON dF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS
11'5. A CANTILEVER WITH A CONCENTR.ATEDI LOAI)
A cantilever AB of length /, free at end
A and fixed at end B carries a concentrated
load W at the free end as shown in the w X
Fig .. 11 '6. At the end B, there wi ll be a j_
reaction, Rn= W aDd a fixing couple Mn = WI Ymax
(This we have already discussed in Ch apter 7) -t- A
i---- t
Consider a section X-X at a d istance of
x from the end A. Fig. 11·6
Bending moment at X-X,
M = - Wx (a bending moment producing convexity upwards)
d2y
or EI - = - Wx ... (I)
dx2
Integrating the equation (I) we get
dy Wx 2
El ,t;=- - 2- +c 1 (a constant of integration)
at the end B, a fixed end, t =0

2
Therefore, EIXO= - W/
2
+c1 or
So EI dy =- Wx 2 + W/2
dx 2 2 ... (2)

Wx3 2
Ely= - - 6- + W/ x
-2-+C2 (another constant of integration)
at the end B, a fixed end , y=O
3
Therefore Ei x O= - ~/a + iv_; +c2 or
Ely=- Wx 3 + W/ 2x __ w1s
... (3)
6 2 3
Maximum deflection takes place at the free end where x = O
WJ3
,. Eiymaa,=---
3
WJS
Ym~..,= - 3 El (showing downward deflection)
Maximum slope a lso occurs at the free end, where x=O

w12
EI ima.., = 0 +-2
-
W/2
im11x= 2£/
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Slope and deflection at any other po1nt of the beam · can be d.etermi'ned hy using . fl1e
equation!, (2) add (3).
Ex~m,pl~ 11·s.1. A cantilever 2 metres long is. -loaded with a point load of SO kB a,t
the free end. If the seoti9n is ,rectangular 8 cm x 16 cm deep, calculate slope and detleetroil
at (i) fre~ end of the cantilever, (ii) at a distance of o·6 m from the free end. E :;;105 lr:.g/cfll!.
Solutio:q.
Width of the secti_on, B= 8 cm
Depth of the section, D= l6 cm
163
Moment of inertia, I= BDS = 8 X =2730"67 cm'
12 12 ..
Lo~d at the free ~nd, W=50 k~
Length of the cantilever,
/= 2 metre = 200 cm
Young's modulus, E= 106 kg/cm 2
(i) At the free end
'
. W/3 50 X (200)3 •
deflection,yma"- - 3EI - - 3 x 2730 .7 X 105 =-0488 cm
. , WI2 50 X (200)2
Slope, lma:i,= '2EI =2x 2130·1x 105
= 0"003662 radian = 0"21 °
{ii) At a distance of 0'6 m from. free end
! ;
Taking x=60 cm from free end
EI dy = - W x2+ W/2
d~ . 2 . 2
EI i = - ~o x 602 + 50~2002 = ,~IOQQ~.
9100.QO
i= ; x 0·0033 radian=o· 19°
2730 67 105
Wx 3, W/ 2x W/a
\•.' . And Ely= - - 6 - + - 2 - - 3
Putt;iug x ::::;:6Q ci;n
EI y= _ 50 ~ 6 0 + 50 X 2~0 ,?( _6?. _ ~.O~200a
3 2
= - 1800 X 103 +6QOO X 10'-133·33 X 105

= ( - 1"8 + 60-133"33)x 106 = -75'133x 10s
75"133 X I06
y= ~ 27"3ff·67 X 10s= -0·275 cm
Exercise 11·s-t. A rolled steel joist of I section, depth 15 cm and moment of inertia
1455'6 cm4 is fixed at one end and a load W acts on the Qther end at a distance of 6 m from the
fixed end. What is the maximum value of W such that the deflection at the centre of the
qanWever does not exc.eed 2·5 mm . £=2 x 106 kg/cm 2. [Ans. 32'346 kg]
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!i~eiitilctioN oF nEAMs ANo cANT1LEVERs
11'6. A CANTILEVER WITH A UNIFORMLY .i>ISRiBUTED LOAD

A cantilever AB of length I, fixed at
end Band free at the ena A carries a uni-
formly distributed load w per unit length, ·as ·
shown in the Fig. 11 ·1. There is reaction,
. wl2
Rs=wl and fixmg ·1;9uple, MB= - -· - to
2
maintain equilibriµro.

of x from the end A. Fig. 11'7
. x wx2
B.M. at the section XX, M = - wx . =- T
2
or El d 2y = - wxz
... (1)
dx 2 2
Integrating the equation (l) we get
EI dy
dx
= - wxs
6
+c1 (a constant of integration)
At x=l; fixed end ; dy = 0

dx
So wJs w/3
0= -
- -+C1 or C1 = + T
6
dy _
El dx wx 3 + w/3 ( )
-- 6 6 ... 2
Integrating the equation (2) further we get
EI y= - wx'
24
+ !vzax
6
+c 2 (another constant of integration)
At the fixed end B; x=l; y = O

w/4 4
So 0= -
24
+-w/6-+c2 or C2= -
8
wl'
w/3x
wx4 wl'
Therefore, Ely=- 24 + - 6 - --8- ...{~
Maximum deflection occurs at the free end, i.e., at x = O.
Substituting this in equation (3)
wl'
El Ymae = - O+ O- - -
8
4
.
Maximum deflevtion,
· w/
y,na• = - SEI md'1cating
( ' · downward defl ect1on
· )
Moreo:ver maximum slope in the cantilever also takes place at the free end as is obvious
from the diagram i.e., at x = O, substituting this value in equation (2)
w/3
E{ i,,.,,., = -0 +T
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510 STRENGTH OF MATERiAi..S
. w/S
Maximum siope, i ,,a.,= 6El • I
The slope and deflection at any other point of the beam can be found out by substitut-
. ing the va lue of x in equations (2) and (3) respectively. , ,
Example 11 ·6-l. An aluminium cantilever of rectangular section 48 mm wide and

36 mm deep, of length 250 mm cirries a uniformly_d istributed load. What fs the maximum
value of w if the maximum deflection in the cantilever is not to exceed l mm . ·
E for aluminium = 70 x 1oa N/mm2
Solution.
Length of the beam, / = 250 mm
Breadth, b = 48 mm
Depth, d = 36 mm
ubd =48 12X 363

3
Moment of inertia, I= 186624 mma
Young's modulus, E= 10 X 103 N/ mm 2
Maximum deflection ,
wt•
Yma:io = 8EI =l mm
wx 250 4
or 70 x 103 x 186624 = l
70 X 10 3 X 186624
or w= (2 S0) 4 =3"344 N/ mm
= 3 344 kN/ metre run
Exercise 11·6-l. A cantilever of circ ular section of diameter d and length l metre
carries a uniformly distributed load of 500 kg/ metre run. What is the minimum diameter of the
section if the deflection at the free end is not to exceed 2 mm. E= I x I 06 kg/cm2 .
· [Ans. 15·022 cm]
11'7 MACAULAY'S METHOD
The method followed so far for the determination of slopes and deflections in a beam is
laborious when we consider each portion of the beam (between two adjacent loads) separately,
making equation for the bending mom~nt for ~ part icular porti_on and integrating the expres-
sions and finding out the constants of mtegrat1on for each portion and then finding out slope
deflection at a particular section lying in that portion of the beam. The method devised by
· Macaulay gives one continuous express ion for the bending moment which applies for all the
portions of the beam and the constants of integration determined by u sing boundary condi-
tions, are also applica ble for a ll portions of the b~am . By using this method slope or dcfkcr ion
at any section throughout the length of the beam is determined by a single expression. This
method can be best explained by taking an example.
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(a) Concentrated Loads. Fig. 11 "8

shows a beam ABCDE of length /, supported
at A and at D , at a distance of x 2 from A. ·- - x
There are concentrated loads on the beam w,
i.e., W1 at B, at a distance cf x 1 from the end A
A, load W2 at C, at a distance of x 2 from the
end A and load W 3 at the end E of the beam.
R1 and R2 are the support reactions at A
and D .
. Macaulay's method can be briefly out-

lined as fo llows : Fig, 11·8
. I. Consider a section ~-X, in the last portion of the beam starting from on~ end, and
at a distance of x from the starting end. In the example shown, last portion is DE.
2. Make an equation for the bending moment at the section X-X in the last portion
of the beam. In the example shown,
B.M. at the section X-X,
M= R1x - W1 (x-x 1)-W2 (x- x 2 )+R2 (x-x3 )
or ... ( 1)
3. Integrate the expression for the bending moment and the brackets as shown above
will be integrated as a whole, such as
dy R1 -x 2 - - W1- (x-x ) 2 -
El 7x=- W2 (x-x ) 2 + R2 (x - x · + C
9
2 2 1 2 2
2 3 1
and
where C 1 and C 2 are the constants of integration.
4. Boundary conditions are used to determine the constants C1 and C2 , subject to

the conditions that a ll terms for which the quantity inside a brackets is negative is omitted.
As an example at the end A, x=O, deflection y = O. This boundary condition can b e used to
determine one of the two constants. The terms (x-x1 ), (x - x 2 ) , (x_:.x3 ) all become · negative
and are to be omitted. In other words, when x = O, the point lies only in the portion AB ·
expressions other than R 1 x are not valid for the portion AB. ' · ·
5. Similarly the value of other constant is determined. Say in the example at x=X3 ,
y=O i.e., we have. t() 'consider the portion CD.
6. Once the constants C 1 and C2 are determined, they are applicable f?r all the
portions of the beam.
7. Say slope and deflection are to be determined in portion BC. then x will be taken
in this portion and (x- x 2 ) is either zero or negative and (x- x 3) a negative term are to be
omitted. Similarly fo r the calculation of slope and deflection in the portion ;I B, th~ term1;
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(x-xi) and (x - x;i) become ne~ative ancl ar~ to l.?e omitteg, ·
ST.RENO 1'H OF MA TBRJ.A:LSJ
(b) Uniformly distributed loads.

Consider a beam ABCD of length / supported ~ - - l l -- -1 .x
at A and D and carrying uniformly distributed
load of intensity w per unit length over BC, D
A,__.._._._._._.__.._._........_...__
where B is at a distance of x 1 from A, and C
is at a distance of x 2 from A. There are 3 R'"'
portions of the beam i.e., AB, BC and CD. )( '
Consider a section X-X at a distance of x .......__ e -----"
from the end A, in the portion CD of the
beam. Now in order to obtain an expression Fig. ll·9
for the bending moment, which will apply
for all values of x (i. e., in the portion AB, BC also) it is necessary to continue the loading
upto the section x and applying equal and _o pposite load of intensity w from x 2 to x as shown '
in the Fig. 11 '9.
BM at the sectio1t X-X,
I II III
First term is applicable for portion AB, upto II term for BC and upto III term
expression is applicable for the portion CD.
d 2y IV IV
EI dx 2 = R1 x-
2 (x-x1)2+ 2 (x-x2)2
After integrating EI y: = R~ x
2
3
- ; (x-x 1) 3 + ~ (x-x2) 3 +C1
EI Y= R1/
4 (X-x1 ) + ; 4 (x-x2) +C1x+C2
4 4
and - {
The constants of integration are C1 and C 2 which are determined using boundary
conditions. The values of slope and deflection at any section in any portion of the beam can
be determined as per the procedure explained in part (a).
Example 11·7-I. A beam ABCD, 6 m long carries a concentrated load of 20 kN at

etidl A and 40 kN at point C, at a distance
ot: 4· m from A. The beam is supported over
a· spa,n 0£ 4- metres at points B and D as
shown in the Fig. 11·10. Determine maximum 20kN 40 k'
"
deflection and state where it occurs.
•
l
I C X D
E=iX 106 N/mm 2
/ =8000 cm4 •
2in 21n 2'm
IX
...i..
Solution. For support reactions take
moments of the forces about the point D. Fig. 11 · 10'
20 x6+40 X2=R11 X4
Ra = 50 kN
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µu = 20f 40- Rs = l0 kN
DlffLECTION OF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS 513
Using Macaulay's method ·consider a section X-X in the last position CD of the beam
at a distance of x from end A .
BM at the section, M =- 20 (x)+50 (x- 2) - 40 (x-4)
2
or EI d y2 = - 20x+ 50 (x-2)-40 (x-4) ... (I)
dx
Integrating equation (I) we get
El ~ - - 20 x2 +12_ (x- 2J2- 40 (x-4)2+ c1 ... (2)

dx - 2 2 2
JO xa 25 20
and Ely=- -
3- -+
3 (x - 2) 3 -
3 (x- 4) 3 + C1x +c2 . .. (3)
Boun dar y conditions are at x = 2 m, y = O, putting t his value of x, in this case term
(x- 4) will bec0me negative and, therefore, is to be omitted. •
2s
So 0= - 10 x - -+ 0- omitted 1term+2 c 1 +c2
3
or 2 C1 +C2 =+26.667 ... (4)
Another boundary condition is that at x = 6 m, y = O, putting this value of x,
63 25 20
0 =- lO x
3 +3 (6 - 2)3- -f (6- 4)a+6c1 +c 2
0-=- 720 + 533.33 - 53.33 + 6 C 1 +c 2

=- 240 +6 C 1 +C2
or 6 C1 +C2 = 240 . .. (5)
From equations (4) and (5), the values of constants are
C1 = 52'333, C2 =- 80
Equation for deflection will now, be
xa 25 20
El y= - 10 - + (x ·- 2) 3 -- (x- 4) 3 +53·333 x - 80 ... (6)
3 3 3
At x= O y=yA
El YA =- 80 \
Now 2
E=200 kN/mm =200 x 106 kN/m2
1= 8000 cm4 = 8000 x 10-s m4
E!= 200 x 106 X8000 x 10-s= l6000 kNm2
So YA =- ;g
1 00
=- 0·005 m
=- 0 '5 cm or - 5 mm
At x=4 m, y= ye, deflection at the point C
3 25
f l yc=- lO X -f4 + "'"f (4- 2) 3- 0 +5 3·333 X 4- ~Q
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514 STRl!NGTH OF MATERIALS
= -213"333 +66'667+2 13"332-80

= -13'333
13·343
ye=- =- 0"0008 m=-0 "08 cm
16000
In this case maximum deflection occurs at the free end where the load 20 kN is applied.
Example 11"7-2. A beam 6 m long
simply supported on ends carries a uniformly
distributed load of 2·4 tonnes per metre length
over 3 metres length starting from the point
B, at a distance of 1 m from the end A as
shown in Fig. 11' 11.
Determine the magnitude of slope at
the ends A and D. Determine also the
maximum deflection in the beam. Fig. 11·11
E=2000 tonncs/cm 2
/ = 4800 cm4.
Solution. For support reactions take moments about the point A
2'4X3X(L+ I ·5) = 6 Ro,
and Ro = 3 tonnes, R,i -== 3X2"4-3 = 4'2 tonnes
N ow consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the end A, in the portion CD of
the beam. Continue the uniformly distributed load upto the section and apply equal a nd
opposite uniformly distributed load from C to x as shown in the figure.
BM at any scct i"on X-X,
M =+ 4·2x- ; (x-1)2 +; (x-4)2
2·4
or
d2y
EI dx 2 = 4"2 x -
2
- (x- 1)2 + 22'4 (x- 4)2
dy 4·2 x 2 2·4 (x-1) 3 2·4

Integrating EI dx = --2-- 3X2 + 2x 3 (x- 4)3 + C1
=2.J x 2 -0·4 (x- 1) 3 + 0'4 (x- 4)a+c1
J
2· 1 x 3 0·4 · 0·4
Integrating further EI y = - - - ·-4- (x -:- 1)4 + 4 (x - 4)4 + C1 x+C2
3
or E I y = 0 ·7 x 3 - 0"1 (x- 1)4 + 0·1 (x- 4)4 +C1 x+C2
Taking the boundary conditions t hat at x = O, y=O terms (x- 1) and (x-4) are to be
omitted
0 = 0-omitted term+omitted term +c1 x o+c2
or C2 = 0
Taking another boundary condition that is at
x= 6 m , y = O
we get 0 = 0·7 X 63 - 0' 1 (6-1)4 + 0· 1 (6 - 4)4 +6 CL
w 0= 1~1·i-92·~ t n, + 6 c,
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DEFLECTION' OP 13EAMS AND CANTILEVERS. 515
0 = 90·3 + 6 C1
or C1 =-15'05
The expression for slope will now be
EI dy = 2'1 x 2 - 0·4 (x- 1) 3 + 0·4 (x- 4) 3 - 15'05

dx
At A, x=O dy = i,4
' dx
El iA=- l 5'05
£ = 2000 x 104 tonne/metre2
1= 4800 x 10-s m4
E l = 960 tonne metre 2
15 05
Therefore .
IA=- ~ ' =- 0 0157 ra d',an
Slope at A = -0'9°
dy .
At B, x= 6 m, dx = 1n
So El io=2 1 (6)2 - 0'4 (6- 1)3+0·4 (6- 4)3- 15'05

= 75'6-50+3'2-15 '05
= + 13'75
13 75
in= · = + 0'0[433 radian
960
Slope at B = 0'82°.
Maximum deflection. Maximum deflection in the beam may occur at a section
in the portion BC. The ter m (x- 4) wi ll be negative and is to be omitted. At this section
dy/dx will be zero.
For the portion BC,
El dy =2'1 x2 -0·4 (x-1) 3 +C 1

dx
= 2' l x2 - 0'4 (x- 1) 3-15'05
= 2·1 x 2 - 0'4 (x3 -3x2 +3x- l)-15 '05
= 2' l x 2 -0'4x3 + 1·2x2 -1 ·2x+ 0'4- 15·0S
or = - 0'4xa+3 ·3x2 - 1·2x-14'65
or x3-8·2sx2 +3x+36'625= 0
x e!: 2'92 m from end A. (by trial)
El Ymax=0 ·7 X 2'923 -0' l (2'92- 1) 4 - 15'05 x 2'92
= 17'428- I '359 - 43'946
=- 27'877
27 '877 .
yma:i:= -
9~ = ~0 029 m
=- 2' 9 cm.
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Maximum deflection
516 STRENGTH OF .MA,TERIALS
Exercise 11·7-1. A beam 4 m long simply swgported at the ends carries loads of 2
tonnes each at a distance of 1 m from e&ch end. Determine the slope at the ends and the
maximum deflection. ·
Given E= 2X 106 tonnes/cm2
1=5000 cm4. [Ans. ±0'171°, 0'366 cm]
Exercise 11'7-2. A beam 7 m long carries a uniformly distributed load of 2 tonnes/

metre run throughout its length. The beam is supported over a span of 5 metres with over-
hang of 2 m on one side. Determine the slope and deflection at the cantilevered end.
E=2000 tonnes/cm2
/ = 802 cm4 . [Ans. 0'506 °, 9'35 mm]
u ·s. ECCENTRIC LOAD ON A SIMP,LY SUPP-OR/J'ED BEAM
Fig. 11·12 shows a beam AB of length/,

simply supported at the ends and carrying a x----.l
load W at a point C, at a distance of a from w
the end A or at a distance of b from the end A C -X B
B. Say a<b. For support reactions, ta ke
moments of the forces about the end A
W .a=RB.1
Wa
Rn=--
1 a< b
Wb
RA = W-RB = ·-1- Pig. 11·12
Macaulay's method can be used to determine the slope and deflection -at ,any
1
point of
the beam
B.M. -at the section. M= RA. x-W(x- a)
2
or El d y = Wb x - W(x-a) .. . (1)
dx 2 I
Integrating equation (1),

El dy = Wbx 2 _ W(x-a)2+c ... (2)
1
dx 21 2
EI = Wbx
y 6/
3
_ W(x -a)3
6
+c 1X+c 2 ... (3)
where C1 and C2 are consta1;1t$, Of integration
Boundary CondtdonS
at x = O, y = O
and at x = l, y= O
Substituting the first condition we get
O= O+ C1 x o+C2 or C2 = 0 (term (x - a) to be omitted),
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:l'>Ei7IlEC"FION•OF -BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS
Substituting the second boundary condition
0= Wh/3 W(~-a)a +C1l

61
or
C _ W(l-a) 3 Whl
i- 6/ - 6
_ Wh 3 __ If!hl _ Wh (h2 - / 2)
- 61 6 - 61
Wh
C1 = 6/ (h+l)(h-1)
Wah Wah
=-
61 U+h) = - ~ (a+2h) because l=a-tib
The expressions for slope and deflection will now be

dy Wbx2 W Wah
Eldx = 21 - 2 (x-a) 2 - ~ (a-l-2h)
Wbx3 W Wah
Ely = ~ - (x-a)s- ~ (a+2b)x
6
The constants determined above-are valid for both the portions AC and CB.
Example 11·8-l. A beam 6 m long, simply supported at both the ends carries a load
4 kN at a distance of 2 m from one end. Determine the slope at the ends and maximum
deflection . Given E=2X l05 -N/mm2 1= 4800 cm4
Solution.
Load W = 6kN
Distance a= 2m, h= 4 m
-Length l=6 m
E = 2x 105 N/mm 2 = 2 x 1011 N/m 2 = 2 X 108 kN/m2
/ = 4800 cm4 = 4800 x 10-s m4
E/= 2 X JOBX4800x 10-s= 9600 kN m 2
E~pressions for ,·slope and deflection will now -be
6X2 X4 (2 +8)
2
E/EJ!..=6 x·4x _ _§_(x- 2)2
dx 2X6 2 6X6
40
= 2x2 - 3(x- 2) 2 - -
3 ,,, ...{1)
Ely= 6 X4 x xs _ i_ (x-2)3- 6 X2 x ~(2+8)x

6x 6 6 6x6
2 40
=3 xa- (x- 2)s-3 x ·, ... (2)
Slope at the end A, where x = O, (term (x-'2) ,is negati~.at\d so OJ:Qitt~)
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518 S"TRENGTH OP MATERiALS
E1 iA=2XO- 40
3
. -40 1 . .
lA = - 3- X 9600 = -0 00139 radian= -0°08°
Slope at the end B, where x=6 m

40
E1iB=2X6 2 -3(6-2)i- = 72 - 48 _.iQ..=+10·667
3 3
. 10·667 +0·0011 d'

lB= 9600 = ra 1an= 0'063
0
Maximum Deflection. Maximum deflection will occur at the section where the slope
is zero. This section may lie in the portion CB. (Fig. 11 · 12)
So, 2x2 -,(x - 2) 2 -13. 333 = 0
2x -3x2 +6 x 2x-12-13.333= 0
2
-x2 + 12x-25.333=0
or x~-12x+25·333 = 0
12-Vl44-lOI ·332 12-6·532
x = --- 2 = --2~~
= 2·734 m
Substituting x=2·734 m for the maximum value of deflection
Eiymam= ; (2.734)3 -(2.734 - 2) 3 - ~O X 2·734
= 13·624- 5.213 -36'453 =-28·042

2s·o42
Ym •x= -
1 = -0·00292 m- -0'29 cm
9600
Exercise 11.8-1. A beam of length l simply supported at both the ends carries a load
Wat a distance of //3 from one end. Determine :
(i) Slope at the ends
(ii) Deflection under the load.
EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam.
[Ans. ( i) 5WL2
- 8 I EI '
4W/ 3
+ 81 EI ' ( u··) - 243
2 W/
3
EI J
11'9. IMPACT. LOADING OF BEAMS
If a load W is dropped from a height h onto a beam supported at the ends, the kinetic
energy of the load is converted into t!1e stra in energy f~r the beam..An instantaneous deflection
8, is produced in the beam at the pomt where the fall1.ng l?ad strikes and an instantaneous
stress/ is developed in the beam. The bea~ starts v1bratmg and finally settles down to a
deflection 8<81 which would have occurred if the load W had been applied gradually.
, '
Potential energy loss by the falling weight= W(h+8,)
Strain energy absorbed by the beam =}P 8,
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Where 81 is the instantaneous deflection and P is the equivalent gradually applied load
i.e., if Pis appl ied gradually on the beam at the point where load W strikes, the deflection
in the beam will be 8,.
Consider a bea m of length /, simply su pported at the ends and the !oad W falling from
a height h strikes the beam in its middle, sa y under the falling load, the instantaneous deflection
is 8,.
Then . .. (i)
where equ ivalent gr adu ally appl ied load is
P= 48EI llt_ = K8, . . .. ( ii)

/3
where K is a constant an d equa l to -,3-

48£ 1
So W(/1+8,)=~ KS,.8, = t KS, 2

j KS, 2 - W Si- Wh = O ... (3)
If W and h ar e given, then 81 can be found out and the maximum instantaneous stre.,s
developed in the beam sectio n is determined.
Example 11·9. 1. An ISJB 150 rolled steel joist is simply supported over a span of
4 metres A weight of 40 kg is dropped onto the middle of the bea m, producing an instan-
taneous maximum stress of 800 kg/cm 2 • Calculate the height from which the weight was
dropped and the ma ximum instantaneous deflection in the beam .
/ = 322"1 cm4 ; E= 2000 tonnes/cmz
Say the equivalent gradua lly applied load = P kg
Solut ion.
Maximum bending moment at the centre of the beam
Pl
M mnx=
4
where / = span length = 400 cm
So Mma"= Px:oo 100 Pkg-cm
f, Maximum str ess produced =~OO kg/cm 2

I for the section = 322·1 cm4
d, depth of the section = I.Scro
N ow f= M x !!_
I 2
800 = 100 'I!_ 7·5
322·1 X
P= 800 X 322· 1 = 343. 57 k
750 g
P/3
Instantaneous deflectio n, 8, = Ef -
48
w!1c;rc; JI=7,000 X 1000 k 9/ cm2
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52(i) STRENGTH OF MATERIALS~
So ·
So 40(h+0'711) = y X 3~3·57 X0'71 l = 122' 139
h= 122 . 139 - 0'711 = 3'053-0'71 l =2'342 cm

40
Exercise 11'9-l. A gradually applied load of 250 kg at the middle of a beam simply
supported at the ends, produces a deflection of 0'5 mm. What will be the maximum instant-
aneous deflection produced by a weight of 50 kg dropped onto the middle of the beam from a
height of 20 cm. [Ans. 0'645 cm]
1U10-. PROPPED CANTILEVERS AND BEAMS

Av cantilever of length / earring
uniformly distributed load w per unit length
is propped at the end, so that the level at the ----x---,
free- ·end is the same as th'e level · of fixed end,
thtm ·th'e ·reaction of the prop will be equivalent w )(
to a k>ad producing deflection in the opposite
direction so that the deflection produced by
the uniformly distributed load is :nullified. p X
Prop
If the prop is not provided .. then
deflection at the free end due to uniformly
distributed load w (throughout the length of
I· e----
the cantilever) Fig. 11·13
w/4
=- 8 EI
Deflection due to prop at the ftee end

P/3
=+ 3El
So
. p 3 wl
or React1on at prop, = - 8- ... (I)
Consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the,end A as shown in the Fig. 11 '13.
wx 2
BM at the section = +Px- -
2
d y2 wx 2
3 wl wx 2
EI -
d?r2 = Px- - 7,·- =T x -T
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Integrating equation (2)

EI dy - 3 w/x2 - wx3 +C1
dx - 16 6
Slope is zero at x=l
Therefore, 0 = 3 w/3 - wl3 +c1

16 6
wl 3 3 wza w/3
or C1=6--w=-48
EI dy 3 wlx2 wx3 w/3
So 16 - -6-- 48 ... (3)
dx
Integrating again equation (3)
El y
= 3 wlx3
48
At x= l, at the fixed end, deflection is zero

w/4 w/ 4 w/4
So 0= 16- 24 - 48+C2
or
wlx 3 wx4 w/3x
So El y=16- 24_ _ _48 ... (4)
Equations (3) and (4) can be used to determine slope and deflection at any section of
the cantilever. For the maximum deflection the slope is zero on the section where maximum
deflection occurs. Therefore to find the position of the section where maximum deflection
occurs
dy 3wlx2 wxa w/3
EI - =0= - - - - - -
dx 16 6 48
3lx2 x~ 13
or - - ---=0
16 6 48
or 9/x2 -8x3 -l3 =0
After solving this equation, x= 0·425 I
At x = 0'425 l
wl 4 w wl4
El )Ima.. = - (0'425)3- - (O 4251 4 14 - - (0·425)
16 24 48
=[o·oo4s - 0·00136- o·oo885] w/4
0·0054 wl4
Ym a,o= El
Exa.m.ple 11·10-1. A beam of length 6 metres, simply supported at the ends carries a
vniformly distributed load of~ l<N per metn~ run throu~hout its len~th. The beam is propped
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at its centre so that centre of the beam is bro ught back to the level of the supports. Determine
(i ) reaction of the pr op (ii) slope at the ends (iii) maximum deflection in·the beam .
1= 760 cm4, E= 200 kN/mm2.
X w=Gk N/ m
c,z.,,.
A I-- i~B
: . ~LC - ·1 RB ; 6 7 5 k N
.:1m--r-.1m
I
1
P :225 k N
Fig. 11·14
Solution.
£ = 200 kN/mm2 = 200 x 10 6 kN/m2
! = 760 cm4 = 760 X 10-s m 4
El= 200 X l0°x 760 x 10- 8 = 1520 kNm2
Deflecti on at the cent re of a beam having unifo rmly distributed load w throughout its
length ,
5wl4
= - 384 EI
Say Reactio n of t he prop = P

Upward defl ection d ue t o P at the centre of the beam
pzs
= 48 El
4
P/3 Sw/
So - - - - -=0
48 El 384 El
5 wl
P= -f-
w= 6 kN/m, /= 6 m
Therefore P= ~ X 6 X6 =22'5 kN
T otal load o n the beam = 6X6 =36 kN

36 25
Reactions, RA= Rn= -} ' = 6·7s kN
(Reactions RA and R JJ are equ al because of symmetrical loading) .

Ta ke the portion AC only of the beam and consider a section X-X at a distance of x
from the end A. · '
wx 2
!3M at the section M = =-1- 6'75 x - -
i
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DEFLECTIGN OF BEAMS ft.ND CANTILEVERS 523
6 2
= 6'15x - x =6'15x-3x 2
2
d2
Therefore El-Y- = 6'15x-3x2 ... (1)
dx2
2
EI ;~ = 6'15 ~ - x 3 +C1 (constant of integration)
Slope is zero at x= 3 m i.e., at the ce11tre because of sy mmetrical loading on both the
sides of the centre of the beam
32
Therefore 0 = 6'75 X -3 3 +C1
2
C1 = 27-30'375 = _ 3·375
dy x2
EI dx =6'75 - - - x 3 - 3'375 ... (2)
2
Integrating equation (2) we get
xa x1
El y=6·15
6 _4 -3'375x + C2 (constant o f integration)
At the end x = O, y = O
So 0 = 0- 0- 0+C2 or C2 = 0
x3 x4
Therefore El y = 6'15 -6 - 4 _ 3·375 X.
Slope at the end A

x= O
El iA = 0 -0 - 3'315
3 375
iA=- · =- 0·0022 radian = --0' 127'
1520
Slope at B, io = + o· 121° (due t o symmetry).
Maximum Deflection. For the maximum deflection, slope is zero
2
So EI dy = 0 = 6'15 ~ - x 3-3'375
dx 2
will give section at which slope is zero
3·375 x 2-xS-3·375 = 0
Solving this equation gives
x = l '264 m (by trial)
Now 6 5 (l '264) 3- ( t ·2: 4)'1 - 3'375 x I '264
El y,,, ,.x= ·;
= 2'272- 0'638- 4'266

=- 2'632
2'632 .,
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ym a,.=- =- 0 d017 m=- t·7 mm.
1520
.524
'\
STRENGTH OF MATERrAl.s
. . . \
Exercise 11'10-1. A cantilever 3 metres long carries a load of 1·5 tonnes/metre run
throughout its length. The free end of the cantilever is propped so that this end is brought
to the level of fixed end. Determine (i) reaction at the prop (ii) slope at the free end (iii)
maximum deflection and where it occurs.
E=2000 tonne/cm2, / = 448 cm4•
[Ans. (i) l '6875 tonne, (ii) - 0'495°, (iii) -6·72 mm at 1'275 m from free end]
11·11. SLOPE AND DEFECTION BY THE USE OF BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
Slope and deflection at a section of a

beam carrying transverse loads can be
obtained by the use of BM diagram. Fig.
11 ·15 shows the BM diagram for a portion
AB of a beam subjected to transverse loads.
Let M be the bending moment at a distance
of x from the origin A.
EI~~ = M
(bending moment at any section)
- d2y
or EI dx2 • dx= M. dx
(area of the BM diagram for a very small
length dx). Fig. 11-15

X1 X2
JEl ~~ dx= JM dx
x,
EI It != area of BM diagram between x2 and x 1
X1
Say X1 X1 ' X2' X2 is the area of the BM diagram for the values of x between x2 and x 1 •
If i 2 = slope at section X2 X2 '
i1 = slope at section X1 Xi'
then ( 12. _ 11
.)= area of the BM diagram between the sections X 2 and X1 (l)
El ...
Let us consider the differential equation again
EI Z =M
Multiplying both the sides by x . dx and integrating between the limits x 2 to x 1 we get
x. x.
EI d2y
J dx 2
x dx= J Mxdx
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'nEFLEC'rION OF .BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS S25
X2
El J x '!(x -y \= moment of the BM diagram between the s~ction X and X

about the origin A
1 2
X1
or EI [(xi i2 -Y2)-(x1 i1-Y1)]=ax where

a = area of the B.M. diagram between X2 and X 1
x = distance of the centroid of the area a from the origin A
Consider a cantilever of length /, fixed
at end 2 and free at end 1, carrying a concent-
rated load W at the free end as shown in
Fig. 11 · 16 (a). The cantilever will bend show- 1w
ing convexity upwards throughout its length.
So negative bending moment acts on every
section of the cantilever. Fig. 11' l 6 (b) shows
,l·-----......r2
the B.M. diagram for the cantilever with
B.M.= - WI at the fixed end Ca)
End 1 is the free end
End 2 is fixed end,
where slope and deflection are zero
El(i2 -i1)=area of the BM. diagram
T-Wt
2 and 1 ..J_
l W/2
=-WI x = --
2 2
Fig. 11·16
Slope, i2 = 0, at the fixed end
. W/2
So E/(-11)= - --
2
. w12
Slope, 11 = + ZEI i.e., the slope at the free end of the cantilever
Again,
El [(x2 i2-Y2)-(x1i1- Ji)] = moment of the B.M. diagram about the origin 1
. w12
Now 11 = + 2EI
i2 = 0 fixed end
X1= 0, X2= /
Y1 = ? Y2 = 0 (at the fixed end)
.
Area of B.M. diagram, a = - -
wz- 2
2
C.G. of the area from end 1,
_ 21
x= 3
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STRENGTH OF MATERiAiJS·
Substituting the vaiues in the equation above
W/ 2 21 W/3
EJ[(/xO-O)-(OXi1-Y1)] = - -2- x - =- -
3 3
W/3
EIYt = - --
3
W/3
Deflection, Yi= - EI (indicating downward deflection at the free end)
3
Consider now a beam AB of length l

simply supported at the ends and carrying
uniformly distributed load throughout its A
r 8
length. Say the intensity c,f loading is w per
unit length. B.M. diagram is a parabolic
curve as shown in the diagram 11·17 (b). Since
the beam is symmetrically loaded about its
wt
T + 't!f
centre, slope at the centre C is zero. Using the

relationship for slopes between C and A. I~
EI (ic-iA)=area of the B.M. diagram
wt2
between C and A
w/2 2
= +-g-X3X2= 24
I w/3 A·
( b)
s-, T
B.M.Ologrom
ic =0 at the centre of the beam
w/a Fig, 11· 17
So iA-.- 24El
Deftection at C. Reactions at A and C are equal,

I
wl
RA= Rs= - 2
B.M. at a distance x from the end A,
wl wx2
=yx- T
(Clockwise B.M. on the left side of the section is positive) ·,
2 2
Now EI d y - ( wlx _ [wx )
dx 2 - 2 2
d2y d ( wlx wx ) d ( wtx2 wxs ) 2

or EI dx2 x x.= -y~ T xx= -2- - 2- dx
Integrating both the sides between the po~nts C and A
C l/2
2
J wlx wx 2 3
EI
I
A
dy
dx2 x
d
x = \.-2- - 2
0
I ) d
x
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Df!FLECTION BF .BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS ,§27
6
3
EI[(icxc -yc)-(iAXA - yA)] = i -wlx- - -wx-
8
4
I
/ /2
El[( Ox ~ -ye )-(iAX0 - 0) ]=~~ 4

: - 1~:
5
- Elyc = X w/ 4
384
4
5 w/ c·md.1catmg
ye= --
384
x EI ' d ownward d efl ect1on
. )
Similarly any beam or cantilever with any type of loading can be considered and
deflection and slo pe at any section can be determined by usin g the area and moment of the
area of the B.M . diagram.
Exa mple 1t · I1-1 . A cantilever of length / fixed at one end and free at the other end
carries a load W1 at the free end and a load W 2 at its centre. If EI is the flexural rigidity of
the cantilever determine the slope and deflection at the free end of the cantilever using the
B.M . diagram.
Solution. Fig. It ·8 shows the B.M.

diagram of the cantilever of length / and
carrying load W 1 at free end and load W 2 at
the centre.
For the fixed end B
Slope, iB= O
D eflection, yB= O
Let us divide the B.M. diagram into 3

( JU.4.0logram)
parts, ai, a2 and a3 as sho wn.
Fig. 11·18
l I I 12
Ar ea , a1=- (W1 + W2)2 x 2 X 2 =- (W1 + W2) 8
x 1 = Distance of C. G. of a 1 from A = ~
W1I l W /2 ''.,
Area, a2= --2- X 2 = - - 41 - ,I
x2= Distance of C.G. of a 2 from A = l.!_

4
Area, a = -Wi_
3
lX _!__ X _!_ - - W1z2
2 2 2 - 8
x 3= {-· (d istance of C .G of a 3 fro m A)
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No~ _ -[W11
a1 + a2 + as- 8
2
+ W8l 2
2
+ W11 + W1l
4 8
2 2
J
=-[ ~1/Z + ~a/2 J
2
Now EI(in-iA) = - [ ~!: + w;,1 ]
But slope, iB=O
So, slope,
5/3
Moreover a 1x1 =-(W1+W2)
48
3/3
02X2=- (W1) 16
W1Js
a3X3= - ~
a 1x 1 +a2x2+a,x8= Js [ 5 W1
-8 6 + 65 W2 + 3 W1 + W1-
/
2 3
J
=- ~
3
[ ~
6
W1 + ; W2 J
- - [ W1Ja +J_
- 3 48
w1a]2
Now EI[(xn. in-yn)-(x,i . iA- yA)] = a1x1+a2x2 +a3x 3
=-[ ~1JS + is W2za ]
But in = O, yn = O, XA = O
Therefore,
Exercise 1111-1. A beam AB of length l carries concentrated loads W each at a

distance of a from both the ends. The beam is simply supported on ends A and B. If EI is
the flexural rigidity of the beam, determine (i) slope at ends (ii) maximum deflection.
[ Ans. ± i£; (/- a), _ ra (~_a:)]
11'12. SLOPE AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS BY A GRAPHICAL METHOD
In the Chapter 7, we derived relationship between rate of loading, shear force and
bending moment at any section of a beam carrying transverse loads producing bending in the
beam. Say w is the rate of loading, Fis the shear for~e and Mis the bending moment a~ ;i_
particular section of beaµi : ·
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DEFLECflON OF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS 529
dF
Then - = - w (rate of loading)
dx
Let us consider a case of variable load-
ing as shown in the Fig. 11 · 19. )(
• rote of loodlng
dF= -wdx ... ( l)
Integrating both the sides between X
and A [A is the simply supported end c,f the X
beam and Xis the section under consideration ] Re
we get f----
X X
02 .
A
j dF= J - wdx
Fx - F14 =- I
0
X
wdx
· ·~sJ-. .FDia ram
1
0
Fx=F.,,-Area of load diagram
between A and X
Fx= R A- Area of the diagram I A .......,'"*"...,;:.:......,~i:::;...-----f· 40
AXXA'
i.'\
= RA -G1 .. . (2) Slope diagram
(as shear force FA =- R A)
dM ~ Yx I
Similarly we know that -
dx
=F
d e fl e ction
X X d 1o q rom
or J dM= JFdx Fig. 11· 19

A 0
or Mx- MA =area of SF diagram between A to X
Bending moment, MA = O as the beam is simply supported
Therefore, M x=a2 (area of SF diagram between A to X) .. . (3)
Moreover we know that
d2y
EI dx 2 = M (bending moment)
Integrating both the sides of this equation
EI
X
J d2y
dx 2 .dx= I X
Mdx
A 0
EI/;~ l= area of the BM diagram between Aand }(

~
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530 STRENGTH OF MA TERlkLS
EI [ix -iA]=q3 [area of BM diagram (A XX)]
or . . + -as-
IX=ZA ... (4)
£/
• 1
Slope at X = slope at A+ EI [area of BM diagram between A and X]
Now 't = i (slope)
or dy= i dx
Inttgrating both the sides
X X
I dy= f i ax
A 0
yx-yA=area of slope diagram between A and X (A4'XX)
But ~t~fiection, yA=O, as the end is simply supported

So yx=a4 (area of the slope diagram between A and X)
Like this any problem can be solved.
Ex~unple 11'12-1. A beam of length I, simply supported at ends carries a concentrated

lo::td Wat its centre. Determine the slope at the ends and deflection at the csmtre. EI is the
flexural rigidity of tq~ beam. Use graphical method for solution .
wt 2
16E I
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I>EflLEc'rtoN· oli BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS. S31
Solution. Fig. 11·20 (a) shows the load diagram of a simp1y supp-orted b"eam cartyfo'g
a concentrated load W at its centre.
I WI
BM at centre =RAXz =4
( Since
We know that slope at the centre of the beam is zero, be0ause the beam is symmetfka:liy
loaded about its centre
EI (ic-iA)=slope at C-slope at A
=area of BM diagram between A and C
2
Wl I 1 W/
-- -4x -
2 x 2- -- -16-
But ie=O
. w12
So lA=- 16 EI
, W/2
Starting from AA=- 16 El
further slope diagram can be made by integrating the area of BM diagram.
Ta deiermine ix
Area of BM diagram upto X

w x Wx 2
= yxx 2 =-4-
. . + wx2
1x= 1a EI (a parab o1·1c equation
. )
4
AtC,
We know that deflection at the freely supported errd A is zero

ye_:_ YA= deflection at C-deflection at A
= area of slope diagram between C and A
W/2 I 2 W/3
=-16 El X 2 X 3 =- 48 EI
Wis
or ye = 48 El , deflection at the centre.
Deflection at any secti on X-X, i.e., yx is equal to the area of the slope diagram between
X to A, as shown by shaded area a2 in the diagram for slopes.
Exercise 11 '12-1. A cantilever of length l carries a load Wat the free end. If EI is
the flexural rigidity of the ·cantilever determine slope and deflec;tion at Hte- free end by using the
graphical method.
[Ans.
+ w12 ' WJs
2 EI - 3 El
J
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532 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS
ll '13.- SLOPE AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS BY CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD
If a beam is supported at its ends and carries any type of transverse loads, its SF
and BM diagrams can be plotted. Now if the same beam supported at its ends is shown
to carry the variable transverse loads as (a
variable load diagram) shown by the BM w
diagram then 1t is said to be the conjugate
beam. Fig. 11 ·21 shows a beam AB of length,
simply supported at ends A and B and
carrying a concentrated load Wat the point
C at a distance of a from the end A. Then
reaction
. Wb Wa
z-• RB= - / -
R.11. = -
Wab
BM at C =-z -·
Fig. 11 ·21 (b) shows the BM diagram
with maximum bending moment Wab/1 at the Fig. 11·21
point C. A beam supporting this BM diagram
as a variable load is called a conjugate beam, reactions RA' and RB' can be obtained for this
conjugate beam. Then R.-1'/EI and Rn'/EI give the slopes at the ends A and B.
In the example given above, taking moment s about the point A' of the conjugate beam,
we get
-W ab
l
a
- x-x
2
-2a
3
W ab
+--x
l
-2b ( b ) ,
a+- = Rn xi
3
Wab [ ~+~ + !:_]=Rn' Xl

I 3 2 6
~;b [2a2+ 3ab+ b2]= Rs' X l
or · Rs' = ~~b (2a + b)(a+ b) = Wab ~;a+b) as l=a+b
Similarly RA'= ~;zb ~ + 2b)(a+k) =:= Wab ~;+2b)
. R.11.' Wab (a + 2b)

Slope at the end A, LA= - EI = - 61 EI
. + Rn' + Wab (2a+b)

LB = EI = ------gz El
To determine slope at any section X-X, at a distance of x from the end A, we have to
take into account the area of the loading diagram of the conjugate beam as shown by the
s_haded portion.
E I-(ix - i11.)= area of the loading diagram of conjugate beam from A to X.
Again let us consider the conju~ate beam a nd determine BM at any section say Mx'.
Then Mx'/EI gives the deflection at the pomt X.
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DEFLECTION OF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS ~33
Conjugate beam
M .. ,= + R A , Wab
.a-~x a a
2 x3
BM at C,
Wab (a+2b) X Wa 3b
61 a-6/
Wab Wa 2b 2
=~ [a 2 + 2ab -- a2 ] = - - -
31
Deflection at C,
Example 11 '13-1. A beam 6 m long, 6T 3T

simply supported at its ends carries a load of
6 tonnes at a distance of. 2 metres from one
end and another load of 3 tonnes at a distance
of 2 metres from the other end. Determine
slope at ends and deflection under the loads
using conjugate beam method.
Given E/= 3600 tonne-metre2
Solution. The load-diagram for the
beam of 6 m length is shown in the Fig. 11 ·22
(a). For support reactions, let us take
moments about the point A A' IC
RA:
6X2+3X4= 6 RB 1
13 667 2m -t- 2m + 2m
Rn=4 tonnes ConJugote beam
( b)
RA=6+3-4= 5 tonnes
Fig. 11·22
Bending moments
At A, MA = O
At C, Mc = + 5 x 2 = 10 tonne metres
AtD, MD= + 4 x 2= 8 tonne metres
At B, Mo = O
The conjugate beam is shown in the Fig. 11'!2 (b).
Let us determine support reactions, RA' and Ro' taking moments of the forces (in this
case moment area) about the point A'
10 x 2 x { x ( j ) + 8x2 x 3+(10_:_ 8)x; ( 2+ })

+ 8 x 2 x--} ( 4+ ; ) = Rn' X l
~+48+ l~ + .JJ.l_ = Ro'X 6

3 3 3
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StRENd ti-1 OF :MkTE~ iAU
I04= RB X i
1
1 4 2
RB'= ~ = ; =17'333 Tm 2
Similarly taking moments ab0ut the point B'
8X2X } ( : )+8X2 X 3+(10-8) ( 2X ~ )( 2+ j)

+ l OX 2 X ~ ( 4~- ~ ) = R.4' X 6
_E_ + 48+ 20 + l 40 = Rl X6
3 3 3
112 . ,
RA ' = - = 18'667 T-m2
6
18'667
Slope at A =- S·l8SxIO-a radian
3600
RB' ]7'333
Slope at B =+ ~ =+ 3600 =+4'8 15 x 10- 3 radian
Considering the conjugate beam again, let us find moments under the loads.
M c ' = +.18'667x2 - ; ( ~ ) = 37'334- 6.606

10 2
=30'668 Tm 8
MD' = + 11·333 x 2- 8 x 2 x +(--f ) =34'666- 5'333

= 29'333 Tm 3
Deflection under the loads

M c' 30"668 S_ _ S
ye = ~ = 3600 = ·:,·2 x 10 a m = 8 . 2 mm
MD' 29'333
yv= EI =; = 8'15x l0- 3 m =8' 15 mm
3600
Exercise 11'13-1. A beam 8 m long simply supported at its ends carries a load of
40 kN at a distance of 2 m from one end and another load of 40 kN at a distance of 2 ri1 from
the other end. Determine slope at ends and deflection at the centre of the beam using conju-
gate beam method.
El for the beam = S0,000 kNm 2 [Ans. ±4'8 X 10- s radian, n 17 cm]
11'14. SLOPE AND DEFLECTION OF CANTILEVER WITH STEPPED SECTIONS

Uptil now we have consider~d cantilever ~nd bea~s of uniform sect.ions throughout their
length, or cantilevers beams of contmuously vatymg section. Now we will determine the slope
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DEJILECTLON OF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS S35
and deflection of cantilever with stepped
sections as shown in the Fig. 11 '23. In such
cases conjugate beam method is very useful
for finding out the slope and deflection at an)' =i xed 1--~-1_2......., . ~ :
section. In the conjugate beam method, B.M. end
+-+- +
diagram is plotted for the beam or the canti- Free end
1
lever with B.M. diagram as the load, reactions
at the ends are obtained. Then the ratio of -+- -t ---i
Reaction/ EI gives the slope at the end. Then
bending moment at any section obtained from
the conjugate beam divided by El gives de-
flection at apy section. In the case of canti-
lever, maximum slope and deflection occur at
the free end, while the slope and deflection are
zero at the fixed end. Therefore in the conju-
gate cantilever, free end becomes the fixed
end and fixed end becomes the free end, so
that the reaction and bending moment obtain- Conjugat" cantilever
ed at this end of conjugate cantilever give
slope and deflection at the free end of the Fig.11·23
original cantilever.
In the figure, there is a cantilever of length /, fixed at end D and free at end A. At the
free end a concentrated load Wis applied. The section is in steps and the moment of iner,t ia .c,f
portion DC is / 3 , of portion CB is I 2 and of portion BA is / 1 • Such that / 3 = 3/1 and / 2 P /}.f,_.
ADD' is the bending moment diagram of the cantilever. Let us draw ! diagram for the
cantilever, or the co:1jugate cantilever. Since I is variable, so in place of M we have taken
M for the conjugate cantilever.
El
BB' = - "'El.
WI
'
Reaction, R,/ at the fixed end of conjugate cantilever
_ BB' .!._ (BB"+CC') _I (CC"+DD'

- 2X3 + 2 X3+ 2
)..!...3
2
Wl ( Wl WI ) I ( 2WI WI ) I
=- 18£/1 + - 6EI1 - 3E11 6+ - 9El1 -3EI~ 6
Wl 1 Wl 2 5 W/ 2 25 W/2
= -l8EI1 - I2EI1 - 54£/1 = - 108£/1
. 25 W/ 2
Slope at the free eqd of the cantilever = - EI
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108
. . l
· 536 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Bending moment at the fixed end of the conjugate cantilever
M.4' =+ [ BB'
2
X ..!_
3
X 2:!_ + BB"X
9
_!__(
3 2
j_)
( CC' - BB" )
+\-2-- X3 3+9)
I ( I 21 ,
+cc" x+x ( ~ )+(DD';CC") x ; (2; +ti)]

Wl 12 Wl 12 WI l 51
= -[ 3El1 x 21+6ET1 x 6 + 2x6El1 x 3 X9
+-9-
2W/ 512
x Ell x18+ l Wl I 81
2x9EI~ xT x9
1
J
W/3 r l l 2- 1 8 ']
= - EI1 L8L+36+3:L'1+81 + 486
65 W/&
=- 486 El1
Example 11'14-1. A cantilever 4 m long, has moment of inertia 1200 cm 4 for 2 m

starting from free end and a moment of inertia 1600 cm 4 for the rest of the length. What load
applied at the free end would cause a maximum deflection of 2 mm What will' be the slope
at the 1ree end ?
£ = 2000 t onnes/cm2
Solution. Fig. 11 '24 shows a canti- w

lever of length l carrying a load W at its free
end. The moment of inertia for half of its
length is / 1 and for another half of its length
B _ _ __J A
J - - --.,.:.
. - - . ____, __
is / 1 • A bending moment diagram is shown
below the loading diagram. In the problem /
. f / ,, 1600 4 4 I ,_,,r---;-;-;;;--r---+-- - ~
rat10 o
1: = 1200 = 3 or 12= 3 1 _ W/
I . 8 M Orag r m
Let us first draw the conjugate canti- 1
~,-·,
__j_
M
lever diagram with ordinates EI as / is le B ~ M.4
variable.
BB'= - WI
2EI1 (' RA
BB"=- WI _ _ 3WI Con Juga t e con til eve,
2EI2 - 8EI1
Fig. 11·24
CC'=- EIWI _ _ _3WI
4Ef
-
1 1
Reiiction, RA' at the fixed end of the conjugate cantilever
BB' L ( BB"+ CC' ) I

7. + . J
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;=:-\- J· X i
DEFE.'EC'fl(i)N OF BEJ\MS AND CANTILEVERS 537
R , WI l ( 3Wi 3 EWt.. ) _1_

A = - 2EI1 X 4 + - 8£/1 - -4- 11 4
WJ2 9 WJ2 13 W/ 2
=- 8£/ 1 - 8 x 4E/1 = - 32 Er;-
. 13 W/2
or the slope at the end A of the cantilever =- 32 Eli
Bending moment MA' at the fixed end of the conjugate cantilever

WI I I 3 WI I 31.
=- 2E~ X4X3-g ~X2X4
3Wl 3 Wl ) l I 5
- ( 4£/1 - 8 E/1 X 2 X2 X 6 l
W/3 9W/3 3 x WI 51 2
= -- 24£/1 - 64£/1 - 8£/1 X 24
Wi3 r 1 9 5 J
= - Eli L24 +64+ -64
W/ 3 25
= - E/1 X 96
Deflection at the free end of the cantilever

W/ 3 25 .
= - Eli X 96 = - 0 002 in
1= 4 m
E= 2000 X J04 T/m2
11= 1200 cm4= 1200 X 10-s m4
E/1 = 2000 x 104 x 1200 :-< 10- 8 = 240 Tm2
Wx4s 25
Therefore 0'002= ~ X 96
Load at free end, W= ·oo2 x 240 x 96 0'0288 Tonne

64 x25
= 28'8 kg
13 W/ 2
Slope at the free end = - 32 E/1
13 '0288 X 42 O
=- x = - ·o0078 radian
32 240
Exe~cise 11'14-1. A cantilever 3 metres long, has moment of inertia 800 cm 4 for l m
length from the free end, 1600 cm4 for next 1 m length and 2400 cm• for the last l m length.
N !>he fry~ ~~4 a lo~d of 1 kN acts OI} the .cantilever. Determine the slope and deflecti<m at the
• o • ~ www.engbookspdf.com
free end of the cantilever. £ = 210 GN/m-.
• ' ' H •
[Ans. - 1'24X lQ · 3 ;radian, - 2·1s m1J1l
• • ' >
11'15. SLOPE AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS OF STEPPED SECTIONS
. In the article I l' 13 we have studied about the conjugate beam method for the deter-
mination of slope and deflection in beams and we considered B.M. diagram as the load
diagram over the span as the conjugate.
beam. Now as the section is varying in steps
w
we will make ; ; diagram which will be the
C
conjugate beam diagram. Reactions at the
ends of the conjugate beam give the values of 8
slope at the ends and the bending moment at
any section of the conjugate beam gives the
deflection at the section of original beam.
Fig. 12'25 shows a beam AB of length/, having
moment of inertia 11 for quarter length from
the ends and / 2 for the middle half length
The beam carries a central load W. Diagram
AC1 B shows the B.M. diagram with CC1 =
1
. i:
Lt M
e us construct t he EI .
conJugate bearn
diagram.
EE'= WI x-1-
8 EI1 R'
• WI 1 WI 8
EE= 8 X EI2 =16E!i
I WJ I WI
CC =4 X E/2 =8E/ 1 Fig. 11.2S
The beam is symmetrically loaded therefore reactions,

R,l=RB 1
or RA' = area of conjugate beam diagram upto the centre
= EE' X ..!_ X ..!_+EE"+CC' X ..!_

2 4 2 4
WI I ( WI WI ) I
=8E/1 X 8 + l6E/ 1 + 8EI1 8
W/2 3Wl I
= 64Eli. + 16E/1 X 8
is zero. www.engbookspdf.com
Since the beaqi is s~mmetricall~ Ioa~eg about * centre! slope at the 9entre of the beati
"DEFLECTION OF BEAMS. AND CANTILEVE]is°
ic-iA=area of conjugate beafb diagram froni A to C

5 W/ 2
0-iA
128 E/1
or . 5 Wl 2
-iA= 128 EI1 ... (1)
To determine deflection at the centre, let us calculate the bending moment at the centre
of conjugate beam
R , I EE' I ( I I ) ,, I i
= A xy--2-x 4 4 + 1z + EE X 4- xr
+(
CC'-EE"
2
)(-14 )-1
12
5 W/ 2 l WI I I WI /2
= 128 E/1 XT - 8 EI1 X gX T - 16 Eli X 32
W/3 WI ) l l
- ( 8 E/1 - 16E/1 8 x12
5 W/3 W/3 wts wts
256 EI1 192 EI1 512E/1 128Xl2
5 Wl 3 Wfa w12 Wfa
= 256 EI1 192 EI1 512 EI1 1536 EI1
3
W/ [30-8-3-1]
. = 1536 EI1
18 W/3 3 W/3
= 1536 E/1 = 256 EI
Deflection at the centre of the beam
3 W! 3
= 256 EI1
Example 11'15-1. A beam 5 m long
is simply supported at the encis. The moment
)f inertia for half the length from one end
:o the. centre is 1256 cm• and that for the
:est of the beam is 1884 cm•. The beam
:arries a load of 10 kN at the centre. Deter-
,,
A-~i=-~ ij-B· l '2
. ~.
nine the slope at the ends and deflection at
he centre of the beam.
E = 210 kN/mm2 •
B "1 .0 ,a gram C
Solution. Fig. 11 '26 shows a beam
,f length /, simply supported at the ends
arrying a load Wat the centre. The moment
if inertia for half the length is 11 and for
.nother half length is / 2 • Below the loading C
.iagram is the BM diagram drawn for the R'A
eam.
1
./. 2
e
R'
B
Conjugate bea m
Let us first draw the M/EI conjugate
eam because / is variable in steps F ig, 11'26
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1,1 • l
STRENGTH OF Mi\TERIIALS
, c·,_ WI
C - -
4
x -E/I
1
CC"= WI x -1- .
4 E/2
Reactions of conjugate beam. Taking moments about A

CC' I I CC" l l I
I
RB X/=-2-x 2 x3+ -2- X2x ( 2 +6)

WI 12 WI I 21
= 4 E/1 X 12 + 4 E/2 X 4 X 3
W/3 WJs
= 48 E/1 + 24 E/2
I W/2 W/2
RB = 48 Eli + 24 E/2
Taking moments about B
CC" I I CC' l 21
RA'Xl= -
2
- x2 X
3 +2 X
2-x 3
/2 CC' X 12
= CC"x
12 + 6
WI 1 WI 122
W/3 W/3
= 4 E/2 X 12+ 4 E/1 X 6 = 48 E/2 + 24 E/1
w12 w12
R A'= 48 E/2 + 24 E /1
Slope at the end A =- RA' = -...!f!.:_ ( _l +1- )
24 E I1 212
Slope at the end B
Obviously the slope at A is negative and slope a t B is positive.

Bedding moment at the centre
1 x _!_
= R A'X_!_- CC' x-
2 2 2 6
Wl 3 Wl 3 WI 12
= 96 EI2 + 48 E / 1 - 4 E/1 X 24
w1a W/3
or deflection at the centre, ye 96 E/ 2 + 96 Ef1
where W= 10 kN, l = 5 m
E = 210 X 10 6 kN/m 2
! 1 = 1256 cm\ / 2 = 1884 cm 1
E/ 1 =2 JOx 106 x 1256 X I0- 8 = 2637·6 kNm2
EI2 = 2 l0 X 106 X 1884 X 10-s= 3956'4 kNin2 1,.I .• • j ( I
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DEFLECTION OF BllAMS AND CANTILEVERS
. W/2 JV/2
Slope at the end A, ZA=- 48 EI2 24 EI1 .'. ,.,i.r.:-
1ox52 10x52
=- 48x3956·4 24X·2637'6
=- O·OOI 3164- 0'0039492 ' .~
=- 0'0052656 radian.
. w12 w12
Slope at the end B, is=+ 48 EJ1 + 24 EI2
lO X 52 lOX 5.2
= 48 X 2637"6 + 24 X 39.5 6·4
= O·OOl 9746+ 0·0026328

=0.0046074 radian.
w1s [ Eli
Deflection at the centre = 96 l l
+ Elz J
3
lO X 5 [ 1 1 ·]
= 96 2637'6 + 3956·4
= 0·00:82276 m = 8'2 mm.

Exercise 11·1s-t. A beam 6 m long, simply supported at the ends carries a con-
centrated load of 1· 5 tonnes at its centre. The moment ·0f inertia for the middle half length is
2400 cm4 and that for the outer quarter lengths is 12·00 cm4• Determine (i) slopl: at the ends,
(ii) deflection at the centre.
E = 2000 tonnes/cm2 • [Ans. .±0'008.8 ra9iat;,.
. l._5'82 mm]
: , ...
Problem 11·1. A beam ABCD, 10 m

long carries concentrated loads of 2 tonnes
and 4 tonnes at points Band C. The beam is
simply supported at ends A and D. Point B
is at a distance of 3 metres from end A and
point C is at a distance of 3 meters from the
end D. Determine (i) deflection under the
loads of 2 tonnes and 4 tonnes, W) ma:it-imum
deflection and the section of beam where it
occurs.
Fig. lh7
Solution. For ·support reactions take moments of the forces about the point A.
3 x2 + 7x4= RD
Ro = fi = 3·4 tonnes
RA+RD = 2 + 4 =±'6 1tonnes ,
RA =6- 3·4=2'6 tonne,s
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STRENGTH oF MA1ER1Ais
Consider a section k-X in the portion Cb of the beam, at a distance of x from the
end A.
BM at the section K-X,
M=2'6x-2(x-3)-4 (x-7)
or EI :~ = 2'6x -2 (x- 3)-4 (x-7) ... (!)

dy x2 2 (x- 3) 2 4 (x- 7)2
EI dx = 2'6 2 - 2 - 2 + c 1 (c0nstant of integration)
= 1·3x2-(x- 3) 2-2 (x-7)11 +c1 ... (2)
Integrating equation (2) also we get

1·3 xa (x- 3)3 2 (x-7) 3
EI y=-3-- 3 +C1 x+C2 (constant of integration) ... (3)
3
at x=O, y = O
Substituting in equation (3) and omitting the negative terms in bracket
0=C2
then at x= 10 m, y=O, i.e., at the other end of the beam
O 1·3~ J03 (10~3) 3 2 tl~-7) 3 +C X IO
; .·, . . .
So 1
-IO C1=433'33-114'33-18 =+ 301

constant, C1 = - 30' l
Equation for deflection becomes
1 3 x3 (x- 3)8 2 (x- 1)3 -30'1 X
EI y= - 3 - - 3 3
Deftection under the loads

at x= 3 m, y=yn
1'3 X 33
Elyn= 0- 0-30' I X 3
3
(omitting the negative terms in the bracket)
Ely n= 11 ·7- 90'3 = - 78'6
whel'e £ = 2000 tonnes/cm 2 =2000 x 104 tonnes/ m 2
1= 9800 x 104 mm'= 9800 x 104 x 10-1 2 m4
= 9800 X 10-s m'
EI= 2000 X IO' X9800 X 10-8 = 1960 Tm 2
ya=-
78
19
~i
=-0'040 m=-4'0 cm
at x=1 m, y=yc
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1·3 X 7 3 (7- 3) 3
Elyc 0- 30"1 X 7
3 3
= 148"633- 21 "333- 210"7 = - 83"4
ye=- ft~~ = -0"0425 =- 4'25 cm.

Maximum deflection. Let us as~ ume that maximum deflection occurs in the portion
BC. At the position dy/dx= O, deflection will be maximum. Considering the equation (2) and
omitting the term (x-7) 2
EI _dy_ = l'3 x2 -(x-3)2 -30'l = O

dx
or 2 2
1·3 x - x - 9+ 6x -30' 1= 0
or 0'3x2 + 6x-39' I = 0
or x 2 + 20x- J 30'33=0
- 20 + ./ 400+4x 130·33
X
2
= -20-+;30'35 = 5'175
At a distance of 5' 175 m from A, slope is zero.

1'3X5'1753 (5'175 3)3
Elym ax=
3 · - ~omitted term- 30'1 X5 '175
3
= 60'05 -3'43- 155'77= - 99'15
99·15
Ymax= -
1960 =- 0'0506 m=-5"06 cm Ans. ·
Problem 11 ·2. A cantilever of symmetrical cross section 3 metre long and 40 cm

deep carries a uniformly distributed load of 2·4 tonnes/metre run throughout its length. "If
/ = 50,000 cm4 and £ = 2100 tonnes/cm 2, calculate the deflection at the free end.
What is the maximum concentrated load which the cantilever can carry at a distan~e
of 2 m from the fixed end (in addition to the distributed load) .if
(a) stress due to bending is not to exceed 800 kg/cmi anywhere in the cantilever
(b) deflection at the free end of the cantilever is not to exceed 4 mm.
• I • \
Solution. Taking length in metres and load in tonnes, let us convert the units of E
and/
£=2100 tonnes/cm~= 2100 x 10' tonnes/mi
I- 50,000 cm4 = 50,000 X 10-a m4 -
- .,
El= 2100 X JO• x 50000 x 10- 8 = 10500 T-mt
Uniformly distributed load,
w= 2'4 tonnes/metr~
l-,eni th of the cantilever! r-3 ~
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Deflection at the free end,
wJ4
S= 8 EI
2"4X 34 -2'314 10-s

= 8xl0500 - x m
= 2'314 mm
Maxi•rtium bending moment occurs at the fixed end
wl 2 2'4X 32
Mma·x=--= - - = 10·8 tonne-metres
2 2
Depth of the section, d=40 cm = 0'4 m
Maximum stress due to bending
\1 d 10'8 X 0'2
-I 2 = 50000x 10-a
10'8 X 0'2
= X 104 =0'432 X 104 tonnes/m2
5
~ 0·432 tonnes/cm2= 432 kg/cm2
(a) Due to additional concentrated loaq W
f ', stress due to bending
w
===800-432=368 kg/cm2
= 0'368 x 104 tonnes/Q12.
Maximum be11ding moment occurs at
the fixed end du~ .U> the ·C~ncentrated loacl
W, at a distance of 2 m from the fixed end.
S~yl ,load is W tonnes Fig. 11·28
•• J J J ; •
;·! .! J ' ....... . Mm~x = W x 2= 2 W tonne-metre
, Mmo., d 2 w x o·2
f = - ' / - . 2 = 50,000 X w··s O·O& X 1Q+4 W
. I' . .
0'368 x 104= 0'08 x 10 w 4
W;,,4'6 tonnes.
f ~I
(b) Due ·10 concentrated load W, additional deflection AA' at the free end (See Fig.
lH:7.~ti'-·
AA'=4 mm-2' 314 mm= l'786 mm
; . .- • ,.· : r , •
= t ·786x 10- s m
(
WJ's
Deflection '11: ) ,r.D!l' = P3"EJ .
where 1'= 2 m
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DEFLECTION OF BJ:lAMS AND CANTILEVERS 545
W/ ' 2 w x 22 • _
iB, slope at B = 2 El = 2 X i0,500- = 0 J90 x lO
3
W
Slope at A will be the same as slope at B, because portion AB is not subjected to

bending due to the additional load W.
Deflection at A = AA'= BB'+iB XAB =(0'254 W+O'L90x 1 W) X 10-3
= 0·444 W X 10-3 = t ·786 X 10-a
or W=3·98 tonnes.
So the allowable load Wi s 3'98 tonnes.
Problem t1 ·3. A uniform beam of length L is supported symmetrically over a span

I ; L<L. Determine the ratio of L/L if the upward deflection at the ends is equal to the down-
ward deflection at the centre due to a concentrated load at the mid span.
Solution. Fig. 11 '29 shows a beam

of length L supported symmetrically over a w
span/. e'
Overhang AE=L-l
2
Say the central load= W
Deflection at the centre ~L ~ - ·
W/3 '
= 48EI = CC
Fig . 11·29
where El is the flexural rigidity of the beam.
W/2 .
Slope at the ends = -- = t•
16£/
Portion EA' remains straight since this portion is not rsubjected to bending. Portion
EA' follows the slope of the point E.
So the upward deflection,

AA'= i• X AE
L- L W/2 L - 1)
= t. x {\-2-)=r6EI
(
- 2-
But CC' = AA'
w1s W/2 ( L-l)

48 EI =1 6EI -2- -
or /3= 3/2 ( f - ~·)

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3L 3/
/ = 2 ---i:
or _?_ l = _l_ L
2 2
or i. =1-= 0'6
L 5
Problem 11"4. A girder 6 m long is supported at one end a nd at 1·5 m from the
other end. It carries a uniformly distributed load of 10 tonnes/metre over the supported
length of 4·5 m and a concentrated load of 6 tonnes at the overhang end. Calculate the
maximum downward deflection and state where it occurs. Given EJ= 20 x 101 0 kg cm2
Fig. 11·30
Solution. Ta_~ ing moments about A for reactions,
Rn X 4'5 = 4'5 x 10 x
4/ + 6x 6
4·5 x 1ox4·5 36
Reaction, Rn = 2 x 4·5 +4T
= 30'5 Tonnes
Reaction, R~ = 4·5 X 10+6-30'5
= 20·5 Tonnes
Consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the end C
Bending moment at the section,
Af3 = 6x+ ~ (x - 1· 5) 2 - Rn( x- 1·5)

2
2
or EI d y2 = 6x-l- __!_Q_ (x-1'5) 2 -30'5 (x- 1·5)
dx 2
2
EI d Y2 = 6x+ 5(x-t·5) 2-30'5(x - 1·5) ... (1)
dX
El dy - 6x2+ ?_ (x-1 ·s)s-30·5 (x-1 ·5)2+c1 ... (2)
b-2 3 2
where C 1 is the constant of integration .
lntegrating further the equation (2),
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6x3 5 30·5
$It = - + 12 (x- 1'5)
6 ·· 6
4
- (x-l 5)3+ C x + C - - 1 2
DEFLECfioN OF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS 547
v,here C 2 is another constant of integration.

Now deflection y=O at x= 1·5 m and x = 6 m
Substituting in equation (3) above
0=1·53+0-o+c1 x 1·5+c2 ••• (4J
30
0=63+-5-(6- 1'5)4 - ~(6--1'5)-!+6C1 + C2 ... (5)
12 6
or 1·5 C1 + C2 =- 3·375 ... (4)
6C1 + C2 = -216-170'859 + 463'218 ... (5)
or 1'5C1 + C 2 = -3·375 ... (4)
6C1 +C2 = +76'359 ... (5)
C1 = 17'718
C 2 = - 29·953
Deflection at the overhang end C i.e., at x = O
El yo=O+O- O+O + C 2
= -29'953
29'953
yo = - EI
E/= 20 x 101° kg-cm2
= 20 X 106 kg-m2
= 20 X 103 tonne-m2
29'953
So Ye = - 20 x 103 m
= -0'00149 m
=-0'149 cm
Deflection can be more than Yo in the span AB i.e. x> l '5. For this, let us find out
where slope ;~ =0. Putting equation (2) equal to zero .
5 30'5
0 = 3x2 + 3 (x - 1'513 - (x - 1'5)2+ 17'718 ... (6)
2
or 18x2 + lO(x - 1'5)3 - 30'5 x 3(x- l ·5) 2 + 6 x I 7'718 = 0
or l8x2 + lO(x 2 - 3x+ 2'25)(x - 1'5) - 9 l '5(x 2 - 3x+2 ·25) + 106'308 = 0
or 10x3 - 118'5 x 2 + 342 x- 136'317 = 0
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x= 3'87 metres (By trial aod error)
548 ~TIUlNGTH OF MA1'BRIAl.S
Now deflection at X=3·87 ril
3
Ely3 •87 =3·873+ ~ (387-1·5) 4 - ~~ (3.87-1·5) 3
2
+ l 7·718 X 3·81 - 29·953
=57.960 + 13.146-67.669 +68·568-29.953=42"052
42'052 .
Ys·s7= 2ox 103 = 0 0021 m
Maximum deflection = 0·21 cm
This shows that deflection y 3 . 87 is downward and deflection y 0 is upwards and y 8 •87 is
maximum deflection.
Problem 11 ·s. A beam of length / is hinged at one end and supported at a distance
of ~ from the hinged end. It carries a load W at the free end and a load W distributed
over a length ~ , starting from a distance of ; from the hinged end. If El is flexural
rigidity show that the deflection under the concentrated load W at the free end is
13 W/3
-432 - El
-
Solution. The loads on the beam
are as shown in the Fig. I l '31 . For support ....
--~
reactions let us take moments of the forces
Hinged end
about the point D .
X 0 j
WI+ wl ( _l
3 3
+ 61- ) = 2:!_
3
Ro ~ f •·
3
Wl + l;l X ; = ~ RB
wl = W or w= -3W- Fig. 11'31
where 1
3
So
9
or RB=-
4
w
9 I
RA = W+W- - W= - - W
4 4
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- -•:,..~ ·Y-X at a distance of x fro m the end A and extend the unit
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS AND CA:NtfLliVERS
1
B.M. at the section, M=-Wx +2-w
4 •
( x -3- )
- ~ ( x- i- r+;( ~ r x-
or
d2y
El 9 . ( x--
- =- Wx+-W [ )
dx2 4 3
- ; ( x-f r+ ; ( x-- ~ y ... (1)
El t =- w;2 + : x--f r
W (
... (2)
and
wxa + -9
Ely=--- I
W ( x-- )a
6 24 3
- ;4 (\x- f-r+ ; 4(x- ;l r+C1x+C 2 . ... (3)
Now y = 0 at x = l , and . . (r x- 21 ) term we get

om1ttmg
3 3
o= - w
6
( _J_)s
3
+o- o+c1 x .!__
3
+c 2
W/3
or C1 3l +C2 =+ 162
where C1and C2 are constants of integration ... ~4)
Moreover y=O at x = l
0= - W/3
6
+..2_ W ( l- _!_
24 3
)a
- ~ ( z- } f + ; 4 ( 1- ;z )'+c11+c 2
wta W/3 w 16 / 4 w za
O= - 6-+ 9 - 24 X 81 + 24 X 81 +Cil+Cz
W/3 Sw/4
or O= - 18- 648 +C1l+C2
or C 1J+C2 =
W/
~+
3
5
648 x w/
W/ 3 5 3W
4
but w
=, W/a
3W
5 .
= 18 +648 X - /- X !"' = w-+ 216WJS
17 w1s ... (5)
= 216
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sso STRENGTII OP MATERIALS
From equations (5) and (4).
2/ Ci= W/3 [ 17 1 J= ·w
W/3 [ 17 1 J
3 216 -162 12- 9
=j WlB
18
[fl.]
36
47 W/ 2
Ci= l!X36
C2 - 17 W/s 47 W/3- 13 /3
- 216 -12X36 X - - 432 W
So Ely=- ~x~+ i4 W(x-: r- ;4 (x-j-r

w ( 2/ )• 47 W/2 13
+ 24 x-3 + 4n x- 432 WI 3
At the free end x=O. and omitting ( x- ; ) and ( x- ; 1 ) terms we get
13
EI yA=---W/3
432
3
l3 X El
YA= 432 W/ 1s
• . at th e free end.
t h e d eflect10n
Problem 11·6. A beam AB of length/ is hinged at both the ends. An anticlockwise

turning moment Mis applied at the point C. Point C is at a distance of //4 from end A .
Determine slope and deflection at the point C. Given that EI is the flexural rigidity of the
beam. Indicate the slope of the deflected beam.
Solution. The beam AB with a
turning moment Mis shown in Fig. 11 ·32 (a).
For support reactions, taking moments
of the forces abol!t the point A, A
M=Ra x /
~~B
or
then for equilibrium

Rs=--
1
M
M
RA = -,-
-1-
t
c' .l_: cal I
A~B
If a bending moment diagram is -~ -
drawn for the beam, it will be of the shape .l -
given in Fig. 11 ·32 (b). c~ (b >
of x from the end A. Fig. 11·32
M
BM at the section, M,,= - - .x-M
1
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DEFLECTION OF BEAMS AND CANTii.EVERS 551
T o take into aecount the distribution o f bending moment, the term M can be written
as M (x- 1/4) 0 , because any quantity raised to the power zero is equal to o ne
0
So Mx--M ( x- I )
Mr=-
1 4
0
or
Mx
EI -d2y-2 = - - - M ( x- -/ ) ... (1)
dx I 4
Integrating the equation ( I)
EI ~? = M;/ -M( x-1 ) +c1(a constant of integration) .. . (2)
and Ely= ~t - 1,;, ( x- ; r + C1x+ C2

(another constant of integration) ... (3)
At x= O, y=O, term (x-J/4) will become negative a nd so it will be
o mitted
So o=o+o+c2
C2=0
At x=l, y=O ; another boundary condition
So M/a
0=6i- - zM (
1- 41 )2 + C1 /
- M/2 - 9 M/2 +c1 l
- 6 32
or C1=( 2 f -f )Ml= ~! Ml
Expr ession (2) and (3) will now be
EI dy
dx
= Mxz - M ( x-
21
..!_)+
4
__!.! Ml
96 ... (2)
3
Mx - M ( x- I
El y= 7;, )2 + 11 Mix ... (3)
2 4 96
At the point C, x=4
I,
·ax
dy . d
= 1c an y=yc
Elyc = M(/)a
_ + 11 x Ml . /
61 4 96 4
_ Ml~ 1..!_ 2_ 12
- 384 + 384 Ml - 384 M/
2
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552 STRENGTH Of ¥ArElUALS
. 14 Ml
ic= 96 EI .
12 M/ 2 Ml 2
ye= 384 EI= 32 ET
Shape of the deflected beam
Slope at the end B, at x = l
. = Ml _ 3 Ml
EI lB 2 4
+ l.!.
16
Ml=- ~
96
Ml
At a position where deflection is maximum, slope is zero. Substituting in expression (2)

dy/dx = O we get
x2 ' ( I ) . 11
2l- x-4 + 96 1= 0
x2 I 11
U-x+4+96 l= O
or x=0·48 l
ET Jm aa,= i (0"48 /)3-

I
~ (0"48 /-0'25 /) 2 + ~~ M/. (0'48 /)
= 0·018432 M12-0·02645 M1 2 +o·oss M1 2

= 0"047 M,/ 2
The deflected shape of the beam is shown in diagram 11 ·32 (a) showing thereby that
the beam is entirely lifted up from its original axis.
Problem 11·1. A propped cantilever of length l is fixed at one end and freely
supported at the other end. The cantilever is subjected to a couple M in the vertical plane
about an axis 31/4 from the fixed end. Determine the reaction at the prop and fixing moment
at the fixed end.
Solution. Fig. 1 l ) ,3 shows the

cantilever of length / fixed at end B and simply
supported at end A. A moment M in the
anticlockwise direction is applied at C, at a
distance of 31/4 from the fixed end.
Say the reaction at the prop= P

of x from the end A. Fig. 11'33
I o
BM at the section, M = Px- M = Px - M ( x-
4 )
Of EI ;~ = Px- M ( x- ~ )° , .. (1)
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Integrating equation I,
2
EI dy
dx = -Px2- - M (
x- I )
4 +c 1
wh ere C1 is the constant of integration
at x = I; fixed end dy = 0
dx
So
3M! P/2
or C1 = - 4 - - -2-
So
dy _ Px 2 - M ( x - I
EI dx - 2 4
)+3 4Ml_ p/22 .. . (2)
Px3 M ( / )2
Integrating further E ly = - - - - - x-
6 2 4 + -3 Mix
4
- -
p/2
2 x+ C2
(another constant of integration)
But at x = l, fixed end, y = O
So
or
Therefore Ely = Px
3
_ M ( x - ..!__ )
2
+ 3 Mix _ Pl x
2
+ !.!!_ _ _12 M/ 2
6 2 4 4 2 3 32
But at x = O, y = O, neglecting ( x - ~ ) a negative term
O=O+ o- o+ ~ /3 - 15 ~12
2
or P = 45 M/ = -45 M (react10n
. at t h e prop )
32/
3 321
45 M !3M
BM at fixed end, Ms - -- x l - M = - -
- 321 32
Problem u·s. A vertical pole 6 m high carries a concentrated load of 500 kg inclined
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at an a n~le of 30° to its vertical axis. The p ole is of uniform round section throughout. A
554
pull P is applied at an angle of 45° to the
axis of the pole, at a distance of 3 m from its
base. Determine the magnitude of P such that 500 kg
the deflection at the top of the pole is zero.
Neglect the effect of axial forces. 433kg
Solution. Fig. 11 ·34 shows a vertical

pole, 6 m high subjected to an inclined load
500 kg as shown.
Horizontal component of load applied
= 500 x sin 30°
= 250 kg
3m
Say the pull applied at the point C is
P kg, inclined at an angle of 45° to the axis _L..-,1-+4-~ r,-,-
of the pole. Fixed ~ncl
Horizontal component of pull, Fig. 11·34

Pn =P sin 45°= 0"707 P
Consider a section X-X of the pole, at a distance of x from the end A
BM at the section =- 250 x+PH (x-3)

d2y
or El - - = -250 x + Pn (x-3) . .. (1)
dx 2

dy x2 PH
EI - = - 250 - + - (x- 3)2+ C 1
dx 2 2
where C1 is the constant of integration
At x= 6 m, fixed end of the pole, slope is zero
i.e. , dy = 0
dx
0= - 125 (6)2,+ ~H (3)2 +c1
So C1=4500-4'5 PH
Therefore El 1x = - 125 x +0·5 PH (x- 3) + 4500- 4"5 Pn

2 2 ... (2)
Integrating equation t2)

125 xs PH
Ely = - ~ +- - (x-.3) 3 + 4500 ~- 4·5 /'H. x+ C:>
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9
DEFLECTION OF BEA.MS AND CANTILEVERS 555
where C 2 is another constant of integration
At x=6 m, fixed end, deflection, y=O
J25x6a Pn .
0=- + (3)3 +4500x6-4·5 Pn. 6+c2
3 6
=-9000+4·5 Pn+27000-27 Pn+C2
or C2=22'5 PH-18000
125 x 3 Pn
Therefore 3
3 +6(x-3) +4500x- 4'5 PH.x+22·5 PH-18000
At x = O free end, deflection is zero as per the condition given in
the problem,
So O=O+o-0+22·5 PH-1800 omitting the term (x-3)
PH=800 kg
Pull, P= O~~g7= 1131 '54 kg
Problem n ·9. A beam_of ~engtk I simply suppo~ted a~ the ei:ids carries a uniformly
varying distributed load throughout its lengt~. The load mtc:is!tY vanes from zero at one end
to w per unit length at the other end. lf El 1s the flexural ng1d1ty of the beam, determine the
maximum deflection in the beam.
Solution. The load on the beam

is as shown in the Fig. 11 ·35_ For support
reactions, take moments of the forces about
the point A.
wl
Total load on beam =
2
C.G. of the loads acts at a distance of
Fig. 11·35
~/ from the end A. Therefore,
wl 21
- x-=RBXI
2 3
wl
or Rn=
3
and RA = wl - RB = wl
2 6
Rate of loading at X , w
I
= -w.x
-
1
Total load upto X,

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556-
C.G. of the load AXX, acts a·t a distance of ~ from the section X-X
Bend(n&--t;noment at. th~-.sec;tion,
M -;+RA.x- ;;2 X (; )
3
wl wx
=T· x-v
d 2y wlx wx3 ... (1)
or El Jx2 = 6 - 6/
Integrating the equation (I)
dy wlx2 wx4 ... (2)
EI dx = T2 - 24 l + Ci
and ... (3)
At x=O, y=O
er
Moreover, at x=l, y = O
wl4 wl4
0= 36- 120 + C1 l
or
The expressions will now be

dy _ wlx2 wx4 _J_ 3
EI dx - 12 - 24 l 360 wl ... (2)
w/x 3 wx5 1
Ely=~- 120 l -360 wlax .. . (3)
Now the maximum deflection occurs in the beam at the section where slope is zero.
Therefore to determine thl! position of maximum bending .moment let us put equation (2) equal
to zero.
or
or
or
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I>EFLE0TION OF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS 551~
2-
212± J414- 28 r
15 ,
212±J 32_
15
- - ---,2---
I'
x- 2
= / 2 xo·21
x=0.5196 I
Therefore Elymaa = ;~ ('5J96 l) 3 - l;O/ ("5196) 5 - ; iv/2 x ·5t96/

3 0
= w/4[0'003897- 0·0003I 5- ·oIOl03]
. . wl 4 0'00652 0'00652 w/ 4
Maximum deflect10n, Ym"x = - E( X
EI
occurs at a distance of 0'5196 / from the end where load intensity is zere.
Problem 11·10 A h orizontal steel beam 25 cm dia and 5 m long carries a

uniformly distributed load of J tonne/metre run throughout its length . The beam is supported
by 3 vertical steel tie rods each 2·4 m long , one at each end and one in the middle. The
diameter of the outer rods is 15 mm and that of the middle rod is 20 mm. Calculate the
deflection at the centre of the beam below its end points. £ = 2000 tonnes/cm2.
Solution. Fig. J 1·36 shows a hori-

zontal beam 5 m long supported by 3 rods.
15mm 20mm ( 5- p )
Say the reaction at the middle I rod is P, then dia. dia
reaction at the outer rods will be 2 15mm
p
;-P )=( 5~P)
dia.
( 1X
w • 1T/m 2·4m
as the total load on the beam is 5 tonnes. A
s (
c__ t
Area of cross section of outer rods
2· 5 m ~
- 2· 5m
=: (l '5)2= 1'767 cm 2
----- B ---
..
Area of cross section of middle rod
Fig, 11:36 ..
Length of each rod =2'4 m = 240 cm
Extension in length of outer rods,
5- P ) 340 ~ ( 5- P ) 240
Bll = ( - 2- x 1"767,x E = -2- x 1"767 xE
= 67£'912 ( 5 -P) . ... (1 )

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558 StRENGTH OF MATERIAi..S
Extension in the length of middle rod,
ol _ !_ 240 _ _ P_ 240 _ 76'394 p

a-,, X E -3.1416 X E - E .. . (2)
Deflection at the centre of the beam,
_ 76'394 P _ 67'912 (5 - P) ... (3)

E E
Moreover, deflection at the centre of the beam, o (as per the formulae already derived)
5 w/ 4 P/3
= 384 EI - 48 EI
where /= length of the beam = 500 cm

w= rate of loading = I T/m='Ol T/cm
_ 2_ ·01 x 5004 Px 5003
0- 384 X EI - 48 EI
= ~r [32'552-10'416 P]
I of the bea~ = ~ - (25) 4 = 19174'8 cm4 where diameter of the beam is 25 cm
5002
o=Ex . [32'552 - 10·416 P]
19174 8
13 .038 [32'552-10'416 P]
- E .•. (4)
13'038( .552 _ 10. 416 P)= 76'394 P _ 67'912 (S-P~

E 32 E E
or 13'038 x 32'552-10'416 x 13'038=76'394 P-67'912 X 5+67'912 P
424'413-135·804=76'394 P-339'56+67·912 P
or (67'912+76'394) P = 424'413 - l35'804+ 339·56

= 628'169
628'169 .
P= . =4 353 Tonnes
144 306
S~P = 0'3235 Tonne
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DEFLECTION OF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS
S59
Sli = 67'912 647 912
E (5 - 4'353) · ~~~ = 0·022 cm
812= 76'394 p 76'394x4·353 = .

E 2000 0 166 cm
Deflection, ~=S/2 -8/1 = 0'166-0'022=0·144 cm

= 1·44 mm
Stress in outer rods

5- P ) I ·3235
= ( - 2 - 1·167 = 1'767
= 0·183 tonne/cm 2
_ _ P__ _ 4·353 _ .
Stress in middle rod - 3 . 1416 - 3. - 1 386 tonnes/cm 2
1416
Problem 11·11. A cantilever of length/ carries a total load P distributed over its
length/ It is supported over a prop at a distance of kl from the fixed end. Determine the
ratio of the deflection of the cantilever at the free end with the deflection of the cantilever
if it is unpropped.
Solution. Say EI is the flexural

rigidity of the cantilever. Fig .. 11 ·37 ~hows a
cantilever of length / carrymg uniformly
distributed load, w= -f- per unit length. A
prop is at a distance of kl from the end fixed
end
Reaction at the prop= P
of x from the end A Fig. 11·37
B.M. at the section is M=- wt + P(x - J+kl)
~y p p
El -dx2 -=-
-
-21X x 2 + P(x-l+kl) as w= -
1
dy _ Px 3 P ( _ )
EI dx - - 61 + 2 x l + kl 2 +C1 ... (])
where C 1 is a constant of integration
at x = l, dy = O
dx .
pza p
Therefore 0=-
61 + 2 (l - l+kl) 2 +C1
p/2 Pk2J2 p/2
or 0 - --4-
C1= ~ =6 (l -~k2)
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':'660 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
dy Pxa P pz2
So EI - = - - +- (x- J+k/) 2 + - (1-3k2) ... (2)
h ~ 2 6

Px4 p p/2
Ely= - - + - (x-l+k/)8+ - ( l -3k2)x+C2
24 I 6 6
Again at x= I, y= O
P/3 p pza
Therefore, 0= - -+ - (k3 / 3) + - (l -3k2)+C 2
24 6 6
p/a p pJa p/ak2
or C2 = -
24
- -
6
k 3/ 3 - -
6
+ -2- ' constant of integration
p/3 p p
=- - - - k3/3+ - k2/3
8 6 2
k2
2
ka
6
I p/s J
= Pis [ - - - - - - --(12k 2-4k 3 - 3)
8 - 2i
pJs
=- - (4k3-} 2k 2 +3)
24
Px 4 P p/2
Therefore Ely= - - - + - (x-l+kl) 3 + - - (l - 3k2)x
24 l 6 6
p/3
- -- (4k3 - 12k2 + 3)
24
Deflection at the free end at x=O, neglecting the ter m (x - l +kl)

pJs
ElyA= -24° (4k3- 12k2 + 3)
or
When the cantilever is unpropped deflection at the free end,
! I
yA'=-::/
So y~ = 43 kB- 4k2 + 1
YA
Problem 11·12. A circular steel pipe 400 mm bore and 10 mm wall thickness is
supported at its ends and at the centre. When the pipe is full of water the central support sinks
by 2 mm below the ends. Find the ,load on eat:h support. Draw also the BM diagram.
Given Psteel = 7'8 g/cc, Pwater= 1 g/c<'
E,rft;er= 205 kN/mm2,
www.engbookspdf.com
Solution.
Inside diameter of pipe = 40 cm
Outsip.e diameter of pipe=42 cm
Pstee1= 9·8 g/cc, Pwater= 1 g/cc.
Let us first determine the weight of water and pipe per unit length.
Area of cross section of water pipe
1t
= -4 (40)
.
2 = 400 1t cm2
Area of cross section of steel pipe

Tt
= (42 2-402)=41 1t cm2
4
Weight per cm of pipe = 400 i. x 1 +41 x rt x T8
= 226 J ·3 g=2.261 kg/cm
Weight of the pipe per metre length
=2'26 1 x 1oo x 9·g N/ m
or w=2·216 kN/m
Length of the span = 10 m
£ •= 205 kN/mm 2 = 205 x JOG kN/m 2
Moment of inertia, f =-n (424 -404 )= _1t (3364) (164)

64 64
= 27081 cm 4 = 2708l x 10-s m4
If the beam (pipe) is not supported at the centre, the central deflection would have been
5 w/ 4 5 2'216 X 104
yc=3-84 X El = 384 X 205X 106 X27081 X 10-s m
5 2·216x 104
s·J97 X 10- 3 m = S'197 mm
=-384 X 205X2 ,0'81
But the central support sinks by 2 mm only. This means that the upward reaction
provided by the central support produces a deflection of 5· 197-2=3' l 97 mm u pward.
Say the support reaction at central support

= PkN
pj3
then 3·197 mm = 3·J97 X 10- s m = El
48
p X l oa - 3· 197 IO a
8
48 X 205 X 106 X 2708 l X IO - X
3
4·1fx2·ofx 21o·s1 = 3· 197 x io-
www.engbookspdf.com
f = 3· 197 x 10-a x 4·8 x2·os xpo·s1 = 8·s2 kN
STRENGTH OF MATERJALS
Reaction at outer supports

_ T otal load on supports- P
2
_ : ·216 x ~0-8'52 = . kN
6 82
BM diagram
w= 2"216 kN/ 111
Reactions at the ends
RA=Rn= 6"82 kN
Reaction at centre= 8"52 kN
Consider a section at a distance of x

from the end A.
BM at section, M=6"82xx-~
2 A B
2 16
= 6"82 Xx- 2 · X x2
B M Diagram
2 ( b)
= 6"82x- 1·J0 8 x2 Fig. 11·38
MA = O
M2= 6·s2x2- 1·108 x4 = 9·208 kNm
(This sh ows BM at a section 2 m away from cn <l A)
M2-5=6·82x 2·5-1 · 1os x 2·5 2 = 10· 125 kNm
I
M 4 = 6"82 X 4- l "108 X l 6= 9"552 kNm
M 5 = 6·s2 x 5- 1"108x 25=+ 6·4 kNm
F ig. ! 1·38 (b) shows the bending moment d iagram.
Problem 11"13. A long steel strip of uniform width and thickness 2·5 mm is lyin g
on a level fl oor. Its one end is passing over a roller of 4 cm d iameter lying on the fl oor at
one p oint. For wh at distance on either side of the roller will the strip be clear of the ground.
What is the maximu m stress induced in steel strip ?
Psteet= 7·8 g/cm 3
E=2 x 100 kg/cm2.
w: wt o1 strip p er unit length

B
t
4cm d ia.
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Solution. Say the strip is clear of the ground for a distance/ from the point where the
roller is lying.
Reaction R at the roller is the upward force at the end Band w is the weight of the
strip per unit length acting downwards on the strip.
Slope of the strip at A where the strip just leaves the ground is zero and slope of the
strip at the point B where the strip smoothly passes over the roller, is also zero.
Consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the end B.
wx 2
BM at the section, M = Rx- - -
2
EI d2y = Rx- wx2 ... (l)
dx2 2
Integrating equation (I)
EI dy = Rx
2
_ wxa +C 1
dx 2 6
dy
At the point B, x=O - = 0
'dx
or O= O-O+C1 or C1 = 0
So EI dy = Rx2 _ wx 3
dx 2 6
Rx3 wx4
Ely= - - - +C2 (another constant of integration)
6 24
Now y=O at x =l
3
or O= ~ - -; { +c2
or
w/4 ms
C2=24·--6-
Rx3 wx 4 w/·1 R/3
Therefore Ely = -6- - 24 + 24 - --6-· ... (3 )
But y= 4 cm (roller dia) at x = O

4
-El x4= wl - RJ3 ... (4)
24 6
But at x=l dy =O
' dx
R/2 w/3
So 0 = -z- --6-
or R =.!:!l
3
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564 StRtlNGTH OF MAtERIALS

w/ 4 wl /3 w/ 4
- 4 EI= 24 - 3 x7; = - 72
or /4= ~~~Jg_
w
w=weight of.the strip per unit length
7'8 X b X 0"25
1000 kg/cm
where b is breadth of the strip

bt 3 b X 0·25 3 b
1=12 = 12 - 768
E = 2 X 10 6 kg/cm2
_ 288 x2x I06 Xb _ .
I4 - 768 x 7 ·8 x 0 . 25 b x 1000-3 846x 108
Length, /= 140 cm
Maximum bending moment occurs at the point A,
w/2 w/2 wl 2 w/ 2
Mmax= R/-
2 = -
3-2 = - - -
6
7·8 X 0·25 b 140 X 140
1000 X 6
bt 2 b X 0·25 2 b
Section modulus, Z=T = 6 = 96
Maximum stress induced in strip
Mmax 7·8 x 0 '25 b x 140 X 140X96
= -:z- = 6000Xb
= 611'52 kg/cm 2 •
Problem 11'14. A long flat str ip 4 cm wide and 2·5 mm thick is lying on a flat
horizonta l plane. One end of the strip is lifted by 20 mm from the plane by a vertical force
applied at the end. The strip is so long that the other ends remains undisturbed. Calculate
(a) the force required to lift the end (b) the maximum stress in the strip. Weight density of steel
= 7"8 g/cm3 •
E=2 x 106 kg/cm2.
w = weight of the str ,p per
( uni t leng:h
6
.l._j,.....J<----i - - . -
A p 2cm
- ------ e - - - -- - -
Fig. 11·40
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bEFLECTiON OF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS 565
Solution The strip is lifted from the ground by 2 cm by a force as shown in the
Fig. 11 '40. The slope at the point A where the strip just leaves the ground is zero.
Say the reaction at A =R

Taking mome,1ts of the forces about the point A
I
w/x
2 =PX/
or P= !'!l_ ... (1)
2
Consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the end B.

wx2
BM at the section, - M =- Px+-
2
d2y wx2 ... (2)
or EI -dx2 = - Px+ -2-

EI dy __ Px2 + wx +c1 3
dx - 2 6
But dy = 0 at x= l
dx
0= - pt+ w~3 +c1

wzs p/2
or Ci= -
6 -+ 2 (constant of integration)
dy Px 2 wx3 w/s p/2

So EI ax=---y+ - 6- + 6 - T ... (3)
Integrating the equation (2) further

Px 3 wx3 w/3 p/2
Ely= - --+M -
6 6 x+ 2 x + C2
But y = O at x = I
P/ 3w/ 4 w/4
0= -
6 + 24 -
6 + 2p/a +c2 (constant of integration)
or
Px 3 wx 4 w/3 P/2 pJa w/ 4

Therefore Ely= - - - + - - - - x+ - x- - + -
6 24 6 2 3 8
at x = O, deflection, y = 2 cm
P/3w/ 4 wl
So -EJ X 2=- +
3 8 but P = ---
2
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STRENGTH OF MAi:ERIAts
w/4 wI4 wI4

- 2EJ = - 6 + s = -·24
or I'= 48EJ
w
bt 3 0'0625 4
Strip. b=4 cm, t='25 cm l=rr = ~ cm
E= 2 x 106 kg/cm2
w=wt. of strip per cm length =

4
x ·~t~ 0
1 78
x · kg
7'8
= 1000 kg/cm run
I'= 48X2X 10s 0'0625 X 10a= 0'641 X 10s

7·8 X 12
Length, /=90 cm
Force required to lift the load,
P= ~ O'OCYZ8,X 90 = 0 . 35 kg
2 2
Maximum bending moment,
w/2
Mmax=y since the beam is simply supported at the ends
Mmax= 0'0018 X t
9
= 7'8975 kg-cm
bt2 4 x o·252 0·25

Section modulus, Z= 6 = 6 = - 6- cma
. Mma• 7'8975
Maximum stress in stnp = ~ = 0 .25 x 6
= 189'54 kg/cm 2
Problem 11·1s. A cantilever 3 m long carries a uniformly distributed of 20 kN/m
for l '5 m length starting from the free end. Its free end is attached to a vertical tie rod
2·4 m long and 16 mm in diameter. This tie rod is initially straight. Determine the load
taken by the rod and the deflection of the cantilever .
£ = 208 kN/mm\ / = 800 cm4
Solution. The F ig. 11 '41 shows a
cantilever 3 m long, carrying udl of 20 kN/m
over 1·5 m length. The free end of the canti- w : 20k N/m
Tie rod
lever is attached to a tie rod. 24 m
Say reactioru 0ffered by tie rod= P kN
A, Area of tie rod
= : (16)2 = 201 '06 mm 2
p P .
Stress in tie rod = A 201 .06 Fig. 11.41
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£ = 208 kN/mm2
Length of the rod =2·4m
P 2·4 0·051 P
Extension in tie rod, 'M= 201 ·06 X 208 = 1000 metre
Consider a section X-X at a distance of x from end A and continue the uniformly
distributed load upto the section XX as shown and compensate this extra load by applyi ng the
load in the opposite direction as shown in the Fig .
2
B.M. at the section, M = Px- wx + ~ (x- 1·5)2
2 2
where w= 20 kN/m
d2
or EI d: = Px - I0x 2 + IO (x- 1·5)2 ... (1)
x-
Integrating equation ( L) we get
EI dy = Px2 - IOxs + _!Q_ (x- 1·5):s+c1

dx 2 3 3
(constant of integration)
But dyl = 0 at x= 3 m, at fixed end

~x
2
or O= P X3 _ I0 X27 ..!Q_ (J. 5)s+c
2 3 + 3 1
or 0 = 4·5P- 9o + 11 ·25+c1
c1 =1s·15-4·5 P
dy Px 2 10x3 JO
El dx = -- - - - + (x - 1·5)s+1s·75 _ 4·5 P .. . (2~
2 3 3
. Px 3 10x 4 10
Ely=
6 -- ~ +
12 (x- 1'5) 4 + 78'75x-4'5 Px+C2
where C~ is a nother constant of integration

At x = 3 m, y=O, at the fixed
O= P x 3a _ lO XSl +..!Q_ (l ·5)4 + 78'75 X 3- 4'5 P x 3+ C
6 12 J2 I
=4·5 P-67'5 + 4'2188+236'25-13·5 P+ C2

=- 9P+I72'97+C2
or C 2 =9P-172'97
3 4
Therefore Px-
Ely- - - -10x lO
+ -12 (x-t·5) 4 +18'15x-4·5Px+9P-I12·97
- 6 12
at the free end X= O, neglecting (x- 1·s) term we get
www.engbookspdf.com
ElyA = 9P - 172'97
568
0·057 P
But deflection at free end =- (indicating downward moment)
1000
o·os7P 9P-112·91
Therefore - 1000 = EI
E/= 208 X 106 X 800 X 10- s kNm 2 = 1664 kNm2
o·os7P 9P-112·97
- 1000 = 1664 -
(-0"09485-9) P=-172"97
112·97 .
Load taken by the rod, P= . =19 0 kN
9 09485
Deflection of the cantilever

0'057X 19"0
m (indicating downward deflection)
1000
=-1'083 mm.
Problem 11·16. A cantilever of circular section of length/, carries a . load w at its

free end. The diameter of the cantilever for 2/3 rd of its _length starting the free end is D
while the diameter for the rest of the length 1s 2D: Determmc the slope and deflection at the
free end. E is the Young's ir.odulus of the matenal.
Solution. A cantilever of length l

and diameter D for 21/3 and 2D for l/3 is
shown in the Fig. l.l "42. Load applied at the w
free end is W.
Let us consider the cantilever in two A
C
parts AB and BC.
B. M . at any section in the portion AB
= -Wx - - 21 r, I . i.12
3 --j- 3
( x varies from O to ~)
B.M. at any section in the portion BC Fig. 11·42
=-Wx
( x varies from ~ to l )
Now E ~~ = J (since / changes from one portion to another portion)
Wx ... (1)
- - -[-
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MolJlent of inertia?
I _ 1t (2D)4 nD 4
2- 64 = -4-
or l2=l6 I1 ... (2)

From equation (1),
I
E dy
dx
I
I= J- JY~-
21/3
I1
dx+
l
Jr- Wx
/ 2
dx
0 0 2ll3
2//3 I
E[ic-iA] ~:: _l [ -
/1
Wx2]
2
+ _I
/2
I- wx212
0 21/3
=_ W X ~{: _ W ( / 2 _ 4/2 )
211 9 212 9
-- -5- xw12
2Wl 2
-=- - --
9/1 3211 9
69 W/ 2
= - 288 / 1
But i.=O ; slope at the fixed end C is zero.

. 69 W/ 2
So -£1,4=- 288 '1
. 23 W/ 2
or IA = + · · - - ... (3)
96 E/1
Deflection.
2
E d Y2 = _ Wx but / is different in two portions
dx I
Multiplying both the sides by x dx and integrating,
I 21/ I
f d2y _ f Wx 2dx f Wx 2dx
JE dx2 . x dx - J- I1 +j- /2
O O 2ll3
I 21/3 I
or E[ x dy -y
dx
J-1_ I+'-
-1
Wx3
3/1 ,
Wx3
3I2
I
0 0 21/3
SW/3 3W ( 8/s)
or E[(/ X ic - Y•)-(OXiA - )'A)]= - 81 / 1 - 3/ /3- 27
2
but ;• ....:..yc=O at fixed end,

8W/ 3 3W/ 3 19
So + Ey,4 =-· 8iii- ~ x 27
=- ~W/3 [ 19-
s+ 16 J because /2 = 16 /~
' . . ~
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147 W/3
or EyA = - 81 X 16 11
. 147 W/ 3
Deflection at free end, YA= - 1296 X E li
Problem 11'17. A round tapered bar acts as a beam over a span L. The diameter
at each end is D which uniformly increases to 2D at the centre. A load W is applied at the
centre of the beam while the ends are simply supported. If Eis the Young's modulus of the
material, derive expression for the deflection at the centre of the beam. Compare this deflection
with the deflection of a simply supported beam over span L, carrying central load W but of
uniform diameter D throughout the length.
Solution. Fig. 11 '43 show a beam

of length L simply supported at the ends and
carrying a central load . The diameter at the
ends is D and at the centre it is 2D.
Central load= W
~
L L
Reactions, RA=Rn= T T
(since the beam is symmetrically loaded) Fig. 11'43
Consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the end A
B.M . at the section, M= +- x

w
2
or
Diameter at the section,
D 2D
Dx= D+ L/l . x= D+~. x
= D+ k x where k = 2D
L
~ _ _E
2
So E d y = _!±'._ £ Wx
dx 2 2 X n: X Dx4 - n: X (D + kx)4 (1)
Integrating E _dy__ 32 W
dx - 1r
J(Dx+dxkx) 4
32 W [
=-,..-
X 1
-3k(D + k x )3 - (-3 '.·)(- 2k)(D+kx)?,
J+c~
-
where C 1 is the constant of integratien.
l dy
at X= --, dx; = 0, because of symmetry
7
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DEFLECtION OF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS S7 1
At the centre, diameter =2 D
So
32 W[
O= - i t - -
L/2
3k (2D)3 6k2 ~2D)2 J+c1
Ci=-lt-
32 W[ 2x8D3X
L 3k + 6k X4D~
1 J 2
4 wr L
= -lt-L 6k D 3 + 3k
1
2 D2
J
4 [ L I l
= -3;- XW 2k DS + 1c2 D2 ..,
_ 2D
where k- L
Therefore Ci= ~
4 W[ 2D3
L X 2D
L + DI2 X 4D 2
£2 J
4W 2L2 2 WL 2
= ~ x 4D4 =~ JJ4
E dy __ 32 Wx 32 W 2 WL2
Therefore dx - 3rck (D+kx)a rt6k 2 (D+kx) 2 + 3~ ~ ... (2)
Integrating equation (2) ·

32 [
Ey=- 3nk
I xdx
(D + kx) 3
J
-
32 W
6nk2
J(D +1kx) 2 +
2
3n
WL2
754 x
32 W [ X I J-
Ey= - 3nk - 2k (D +kx)2 - (-2k) (- k) (D + kx)
32 W 2 WL2x
- 6rck 2 X (- Ik)(D+kx) +~ x-.D4 ·-+C2
where C2 is another constant of integration
16 Wx 16 W 16
Ey=+ 3nk2 (D +b)2 + 3nk3 (D+kx) + 31;k3 (D+ kx)
2 WL2x
+ 3-; D.- +c2
16 Wx 32 W 2 WL2x
= 3nk2 (D+kx) 2 + 3rck3 (D+kx) +~ ~ + C2
Moreover at x = O, deflection y = O
32 W
So 0 = 0 + 3rrk3 D +C2
32 W
C2 = - 31;k3 D
16 W x 32 W 2 WL2x 32 W
So Ey= 3rck2 (D+kx) 2 + 3rr.k3 (D + kx) + 3; ~ 31rka
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512 sttn:NGTH OF MATERtAi..s
Deflection at the centre

L
y=ye at x = -
2
L
D+k - = 2D
2
16 W L L2 32 W
Eye=~ X 2 X 4D 2 (2D) 2 + 3n (2D/L)3 (2D)
2 WL2 L 32 W
+ 1;x J54 X y- 3nk3 D
-- -WL3[
- -2l + 2+ 1- 4
3nD4
J
WL3
= - 6nD4
WL3
ye =
6n ED4
Problem 11'18. A round tapered

cantilever of length 2 metres supports a load w
W at its free end. The diameter of the
cantilever at the free end is 8 cm and at the
fixed end diameter is 16 cm. What is the
maximum value of W if the maximum stress
developed in the section is not to exceed 800
kg/cm 2 • Under this load what is the deflection 16c m ~
at the free end.
E= 2 x 106 kg/cm2
Solution. Fig. 11 '44 shows the canti-
lever with load W at the free end.
Maximum bending moment occurs at Fig. 11'44
the fixed end and
Mmax= WI= W X 200 kg-cm
Section modulus, Z at the fixed end l.
nD3 n x 163
= 32- = 32
402' 125 cms
Mma== fZ
where /=800 kg/cm 2 allowable stress
200 W= 800 x 402'125 cma
W= 4 X402'125=1608'5 kg
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Diameter at the section,
16-8
D.,,=8+ 200 · X
= (8+0·04 x) cm
Moment of inertia at the section,
I,:
Ix= ~ (8+o·o4x)'
BM at the section, M = - Wx
2
So El d y = -Wx ... (1)
X dx2
2
E _d_ Y_ = - Wx 64 Wx
or dx 2 -_-ff
___ (_8_+_o_-o_4_x_)" ... (1)
n(8+o·_o 4x)'
64 ·,
· dy 64 W
E dx =- - i t -
J(8+0·o
xdx
x)
· ' . .
+C1 (constant of mtegrat1on)
.
4 4
Let us determine
r xdx
j (S + o·o4x)4=
J( xdx
8 +kx)4 where. k = 0'04
f
=x f (8 + kx)4 - JJ (S + kx)4
dx dx X
-3k(8+kx}3 +
dx
J 3k(8+ kx)8
X
3k(8 + kx)3 3k X 2k (S+ kx) 2
X 1
=- --=--=-=3
3k(S+ kx) 6/c2 (8+kx) 2
I
.• I
dy 64 W X 64 W
So
E dx = -ff- X 3k(8+kx) 3 + .,,. (6k2)(8+kx)2 +Ci
Now at x = 200 cm, y = O

k = 0'04, kX200 = 8
64 W X 200 64 W
Therefore O= 1;X 3k (16} 3 + rt X 6k2 X 162 + C1
= 8'2893 w+s·2s93 w+c1
or C1= - 16'57860 W _
dy _j_~W x x . 64W 1
E
dx - TC X3k (8+kx)3 + ,; X6k2' X (S+kx)2 .16:57860 w
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stltENcn'H OP MNi'ERIAE.S
64 W - K a constant
Let us put 3ttk - 1
64 W
6
rck'J. = K2 another constant
dy = K
E dx x 1 ... (2)
1 ( 8 +kx)3 +K2 (8 +kx)2 16'5786 W I ii
Ey=K1 J(:+d:x)s +K2 f (8 ~~x) 2 - 16'5786 Wx+c2

(a constant of integration)
:/
(!I,
K.1 X r dx , 1 .
=- 2k(8+kx)2 K1 j -·2k(8+kx)2 + K2 -k(8 + kx)-16 5786 Wx+C2
K1 X ~1 .. 1 .K2 .
=- 2k(8+kx)2 + 2k(-k) x (8+kx) - k(8+kx) - 16 5786 Wx+C2
I
K2 . . .
2k(8+kx)2 2k 2 (8+kx) k( 8 +kx) - _16 5786 Wx+C2
I
Now at x .:_ 200 cm, y=0,
8+kx= l6 cm at x=200 cm Putting this condition
O K1X 200 K1 K2
= - 2k 06 )2 2k2 (l 6) k (l 6) - l6'Sl86x200 w + c 2
C2 = 9'7656 K1 + 19'5312 K1 -t l'5625 K2 + 3315'72 W

64 1
=(29'2968)x W + ' 5625 x 64 W +3315'22 w
3nk 6nk2 ,
=4973 '5676 W+ 3315'7202 W+3315'22 W
= li604'508 W
At x = O, y = yma.
·, Ki, x 0 K K..
E Ymax =- 2k(8)2 2 (8) - k (;) - 16'5786Wx o+ 11604'508 w
Kik2 - 8k
= - 16 K2
+· 11604' 508 w
64 W 64 W
- - 31tk X l6 k 2 6,rk2X8k-+ ll 604 'S08 W
= -6631'44 W-663L'44 W+ 11604'508 W
=- 1658'37 W
1658'37 X 1608'5
be:tlection, yma~=- x· = - 1·333 c1b at the free end
2 106
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Problem 11·19. A cantilever 2 metres long is of I section of depth 100 mm and

/ = 168 cm4 • A load of 20 kg is dropped at the free end of the cantilever from a height of
20 cm. What is the instantaneous deflection at the free end of the cantilever. What is the
maximum stress developed in the cantilever ?
E = 2 x 106 kg/cm 2.
Solution. Say the instantaneous deflection at the free end of the cantilever
= Si
Say P is the equivalent gradually applied load
P/3
then St= 3EI
p St X 3£/
or /3
3 X 2 X 106 X 168
P = S, x 2oo x 2oox200
=126 s, ... (1)
Falling load, W=20 kg
Height through which load falls,
h = 20 cm
1 1
Now W (h+S,)= P S, = X 126 S, 2
2 2
20 (20+S,) = 63 s,2
or 63 8;2-20 8,-400=0
S _ 20+,/ 400+63X4X400- _ 20+318' 12
,- 126 - 126
=2'6835 cm
Equivalent load, P = l26X2'6835=338'12 kg
M mnx, Maximum bending moment
Pl=200x 338'12 kg-cm
/=168 cm4
Depth of the section, d= 10 cm ,o
Mma:. d
200X 338'12 XS
Maximum stress = -1- X2= 168
= 2012'6 kg/cm2
Problem 11·20. A cantilever 6 m long is supported at the free end by a prop at the
same level as the fixed end. A uniformly distributed load of 1 tonne/metre run is carried on
the cantilever for 3 m length starting from the free end. Determine the reaction P at the prop
a nd deflection at the centre of the cantilever. El is the flexural ri~idity of the cantilever.
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Solution. Consider a section X-X at

a distance of x from the end A. Extend ,..__ _ X ----.1
the uniformly distributed load upto the
w: I T/m
section XX and apply load in the opposite
direction also from the centre of the cantilever
upto the section XX, so as to maintain
equilibrium, and in reality the total load and
its distribution is not changed.
Fig. 11·45
B.M . at any section X-X,
wx 2 w(x-3) 2
M = Px--- +- - --
2 2
2
or EJ _d Y. =Px-0·5 x2 + 0·5 (x- 3)2 - (I) as w=l T/m.
dx2

dy Px2 x3 (x-3) 3
EI dx = - 2- - 6 + 6 +Ci (constant of integration)
at x=6 m, fixed end, !!l.. = 0

dx
= P x 62 63 (6-3) 3
Therefore O 2 -6+ 6 +ci
or C1 = 36-4·S-18 P = 3I·S-18 P
EI dy - Px2 ~ + (x-3)s +<3t·S-I8P) ... (2)

dx - 2 - 6 6
Integrating the equation (2),

· ~ Px3 x4 (x-3) 4
E/y -
6 - 24 +~ +(31 •5- 18 P)x+C2
(constant of integration)
at x = 6 m, y = O ·
63 6 4
Therefore O= p~ - ;; + ( -;}) +(31 '5-18P)6+C2
0= 36P-54+3·375+ 189-108 P+C2

or C2 = 72 P - 138·375 P
So EI;=· ~t ~ ~~ + (x-:;_;)' +(31 '5- 18 P)x+(72 P-138'375)

... (3)
Now at x = O, y=O, substituting in equation (3) we get
,· O= o-o + o + o+ nP- 138'375
Of ' :, " '.

l(t P= --rr-
13g·375
= l '921875 Tonne~
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DEFLECTION OF BEAMS A ND CANTILEVERS 577
Equation for the deflection becomes

Pxa x4 (x- 3)4
Ely= -·-6-- 24 + 24 +(3 1"5-34"59375) x
- Pxa - x4 + (x-3)4 -3"09375 x

- 6 24 21
Deflection at the centre of the canti lever i.C'., at x= 3 m

3a 34
Ely. = l '921875 X
6 .- 24 +0-3 '09375 X 3
= 8'6484375 - 3'375 - 9'28 !25
--= 4'007813
4"007813
y,.= El
Problem 11·21. A beam of length 3a simply supported over a span of a, with equal
overhang on both the sides. It carries a uniformly distributed load w per uni t length over the
overhang porti on of both the sides. Determine,
(i) slope and deflection at the overhang end
(ii) deflection at the centre of the beam
Use moment area method. El is the flexural rigidity of the beam.
Solution. The loading diagram of

the beam is shown in the Fig. 11 "46.
Total load on beam = 2wa
Beam is symmetrically loaded so the
reactions, RB= Ro=wa
B .M. diagram
wa2
MB = Mn = - - 2
-
Since there is no load on the portion 5a
B to D. The B.M. will remain constant T
between B and D. The B.M. diagram upto Fig. JJ·46
C can be considered into two parts A1 and A2
as shown.
Now a rea
Now El(ic - iB) = area of the B.M. diagram between B and C
-El iB= -
wa 3 as slope;, = 0 due to symmetrical l oading
4
wa:i
io. = + - -
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or 4 r::,
578 STRENGTH OF MATERIAL~
Similarly El(in - iA) = area of B.M. d iagram between Band A
wa 2 a wa3
= - - x -=- -
2 3 6
. EI.IA =
EI zs- - --
waa
or 6
. wa3
But E!zs=+-
4
. wa 3 wa3 5
So -E/1.4= - -6- - -4- -- --wa
12
1
or
Deflection at A
ET[(xn . in -yn)- (xA . iA - yA)= first moment of the area A 1 about the end A
was 3a wa'
= - 6- - x -4- = --8-
where xn= a, yn = O
. wa3
ID = + 4EI , XA = O
4
J
EI ) - 0 - 0 X iA + YA = - -wa'
EI [( a. waa -
8
wa4 wa4
4 +YA,El= - -8-
Deflection at A, yA = J1 [- wt -w:4 ]=- ~;.;'

Deflection at C
E![(xc X ic-yc)-(xo x is- y n)]= moment of the area A 2 about the end A
El [ ( 3 a x 0 -yc ) - ( a x 4wa
2
E 1 -0
3
) J
= - waa x ( Sa )
4 4
wa4 5 4
- Elyc - - - = -
4 16 wa
-ye= Ell [ w4a' - 156 wa' J= -16EI

wa'
wa4
Deflectjon at C, ye= 165{
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DEI!tECtroN OF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS 579
Problem 11'22. ,A beam 4 m long is simply supported at its ends. lt carries a uni-
formly distributed load of 2 tonnes/metre over 2 m length starting from one end. Determine
slope at ends and deflection at the centre of the beam, using conjugate beam method.
E=2000 tonnes/cm2 , 1=4000 crn 4
Solution. Fig. 11 ·47 (a) shows the
Wc2T/m run
loading diagram of the beam of 4 m length
with udl of 2T/m over AC, 2 metres length. A Fr:J::O::a:ii=q,=----~ B
For support reactions, let us take moments of ~=3T C R .11
the forces about the point A . 2m 2m 8
2X2 X 1=4R» a
ReaGtion, R»=l Tonnes
Total vertical load=2 X 2 Tonnes
Reaction, RA=4-1=3 T
A' r-----i~i-,---~ 9 '
B.M. diagram
'R~c 2•133-4 Trrf
MA=O
Mi, B.M at a distance of 1 m from ..__ _ 4 m - - - " " I
end A
00::2 ·25Tm
wx2 2
=3Xl- =3- X 12 =2 Tm Do": 2·O Tm
2 2 Conju gct r. beam
( b)
Mc=3X2 _1_ X4=6-4=2 Tm
2 Fig. 11·47
M,nax occurs between A and C,
wx2
M .. = RA . x - - - (a parabolic curve)
2
= 3x-x 2
Putting d1:/x'° = 3-2x= O for maximum B.M.
x=t·s m
2
So M1 .5= 3x1·5 - 2 X I'52 = 2'25Tm (sayoccursatpointD)
Fig. 11 '47(b) shows the conjugate beam

with a loading diagram A'D'C'B'. Before we
determine R.11 and Rn' for the conjugate beam,
1
let us note the properties of a parabolic

curve.
Fig. 11 '48 shows a parabolic curve

ef, covering an area efg, breadth B and
Height H.
2
area under the parabola, a 1 = BH
3
area a 2 , above the parabolic curve
1 Fig. 11·48
= BH
3
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5 3
C.G. of a1 iies at a d1stance of B from C or B from g ,
8 8
Similarly C.G. of area a 2 lies at a distance of ! from C or ~B from f
Taking moments about the point A.
1·5x2·25x }( ~ x 1·5 )+<2·25-2)(0'5) ( 1·5+ ~ x o·5)x;
0
+2xo·5x(1·5+ /)+2x2x ~ ( 2+~ )=R11'x4
or 2· 109375+ l '6875 x ·08 33+ 1·15+5·3333=4RB'I

2· 110+0· 1406+ l '75+5'333=4RB'
RB' = 9·3336 = 2·3334 Tm2

4
R,i' =2·25x i·5x; +0·25xo·5 x ·; +1+2-2·334
=2'250+"0833+3-2'334 = 3'000 Tm·2

1
. R11
Slope at the end A, 111 = - EI
E=2000 T/cm 2 = 2000 X 104 T/m2

1=4000 cm"'= 4000 x 10-s m4
E/= 800 Tm2
So it..= - ~ = -~·~0375 radian = - 0'215°

8 0
. _ + Rs' 2·3334
Slope at end B, IB- EI = 800
= + 0·0029 radian = + .o· t 67°
Moment Mc' from conjugate beam diagram
= RB'X2 - 2 X~ X 2._
2 3
= 2'3334 X 2 - l '3333 = 3'3335 Tms
Deflection at the point C,
M ·' 3·3335
ye = E{ = - 800 = 0'00417 m = 0'417 cm
SUMMARY
1. For a beam or a cantilever subjected to bending moment M,

d2y
EI ax£=M
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I
•
bEFLECT!ON OF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS 581
where EI is the flexural rigidity and section is uniform
and ·axz-
E d2y = T
M ( . h . bl . )
Wit vana e sect10n .
2. For a beam of length /, simply supported at ends and carrying a load Wat its
middle
WJ2
Slope at ends = ± -16-El
.
M ax1mum d fl . WJa
e ect1on at centre=
48 El .
3. For a beam of length J, simply suppor ted at its cuds and carrying a uniformly
distributed load w per unit length throughout its length
WJa
Slope at the ends = ± -- -
24 EI
. d fl . 5 w/4
M ax1mum e ection at centre= X El ·
384
4. For 1a cantilever of length L, carrying! a concentrated load Wat free end,

w12 wza
Slope at free end= El, deflection at free end = ·fET.
2
5. For a cantilever of length/, carrying a uniform ly distributed load w per unit length
throughout its length
•l •••,,
Slope at free end

'I
w/4
Deflection at free end = 8El .
6. For a beam of length l= a+b, simply supported at ends carrying a load Wat a
distance of a from one end,
Wah (a+2b)
Slope at one end = - - 6- ~ , r i
Wah (2a+ b)
Slope at the other end =+ 6 EI I
Wa 2b2
Deflection under the load= - El ·
3 1
7. lf a load W is allowed to fall through a height h on a beam or cantilever at a

particular point and a, is the maximum instantaneous deflect ion produced then
w (h+a,)= t P a1
where Pis the equivalent static load which when applied gradually produces deflection a,.
8. If a cantilever of length l, carrying uniformly distributed load w per unit length
is propped at the free end such that the free e nd is brought to the level of the fixed end, then
reaction at the prop is 3w//8.
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5$2 STRENGTH OF MATERIAtS
9. If a beam of length i simply supported at its ends carrying uniformly distributed

load w per unit length is propped at the centre, so that centre of the beam is brought to the
level of the ends, then reaction at the prop is Sw//8 .
10. If a bending moment diagram is plotted for a beam carrying transverse loads and
two sections•are considered at distances of x 1 and X2 from one end
EI (i~-i1)=area (a) of the BM diagram between X2 and X1
El [(X2 i2- Y2)-(x1 i1-Y1)] = Ax
where x=distance of CG of area R, from one end.
•
B . M. Oio'<;irom
Fig. 11'49
11. If a bending moment diagram is plotted for a beam carrying transverse loads,
then bending diagram shown over the length of the beam as a variable distributed load, is
called a conjugate ·beam. The react!ions·at the ends o~tained for the conjugate beam, divided
by EI give slope at the ends. The bending moments at any section obtained for the conjugate
beam divided by EI gives deflection at that section.
1. A simply supported beam of length 2 metres carries a concentrated load 3 tonnes at

its centre. If EI=5000 tonne-metre2 for the beam, the maximum deflection in the
beam is
(a) I X 10-a m (b) Sx 10- 4 m
(c) 2 X 10-, m (d) 1 X 10-4 m.
2. A beam is simply supported at its ends over, a span /. If the load applied at the middle
of the beam is W, the minimum slope in the beam is
w12 W/2
(a) 16 EI (b) 3 EI
w,~
(c) 2 El (d) None of the above.
3. A_ beam simply supported at its ends over a span of 4 metres carries a uniformly dis-
tributed.load of 1·5 tonnes/met'i'e run throughout its length. If EI= 2500 tonne-metre2
the maximum deflection in the beam is '
(a) 0·2 mm (b) 0'8 mm
(c) 1.6 mm (d) 2·00 mm.
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oI!FLECTION OF BEAMS AND CANTILEVERS 583
4. A beam of length /, simply supported at its ends carries a uniformly distributed load w
throughout its length. The centre of the beam is propped so that centre is brought to
the level of ends. The reaction at the prop is
(a) wl (b) 0'5 wl
(c) 0'625 wl (d) 0·75 wl.
5. A cantilever of length L, carries a load Wat the middle of its length. If EI is the flexural
rigidity of the cantilever, the deflection under the load is
W/3 w1s
(a) 24 EI (b) 16 El
Wl 3 W/3
(c) 3 EI° (d) 2 El .
6. A cantilever of length L, carries a load Wat its middle. The slope at the middle of the
cantilever is 0. The slope at the free end is
(a) 2 8 (b) 1·5 0
(c) e (d) o·s 8.
7. A beam of length (a + b) simply supported at its ends carries a concentrated load Wat a
distance of a from one end. If El is the flexural rigidity of the beam, the deflection under
the load is
Wa 2b2 Wa 2 b2
(a) 4 (a+ b) El (b) 3 (a+b) EI
Wa 2 Wb-~
(c) 6(a+ b) El (dJ 6 (a + h
8. A beam of length 6 m, carries a concentrated load Wat its centre, such that BM·at the
centre of the be.am is 6 tonne metre. If El is the flexural rigidity of the beam, then
deflection at the centre is
36 18
(a) El (b) EI
9
(c) EI (d) None of the above.
9. A cantilever of length 4 metres carries uniformly distributed load w throughout its length.
If the maximum bending moment in the cantilever is 8 tonne-metres, and EI is its flexural
rigidity, the slope at the free end of the cantilever is
64 32
(a) T Ei (b) 3 EI
16
(c) ET (d) None of the above.
6
10. A cantilever of length 4 metres carries a uniformly distributed load of 2 kN per metr,e
run throughout its length. The free end of the cantilever is propped such that the level
of the free end is the same as that of fixed end. The reaction offered by the prop is
(a) 8 kN (b) 6 kN
(c) 3 kN (d) 2 kN
ANSWERS
l. (d) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a)
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{). (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (b) (c)!
EXERCISES
11·1. A beam ABCD, 6 metres long, simply supported at ends A and D carries con-
centrated loads of 2 kN and 5 _kN at points B and C. Points B and Care 2 metres away .from
ends A and D respectively. Determine
(i) deflection under the loads of 4 kN and 5 kN

(ii) maximum deflection and its position. £ = 2 x 105 N/mm 2 , !=3600 cm4
[Ans. -0'315 cm, - 0·333 cm, Ymu = 0'313 cm ,
at a distance of 3'0945 m from end A]
11 ·2. A cantilever of symmetrical cross section of length 4 metres carries a load of

30 kN at its free end. If /=32000 cm4 and depth of the section is 36 cm, determine the
defl ect ion at the free end. £=200 kN/mm 2•
What is the maximum rate of uniformly distributed load which the beam can carry
(in addition to the concentrated load) over 2 m length starting from the fixed end if
1
(a) stress due to bending is not to exceed 100 N/mm2
I I f'
, (b) if the deflection at the free end is not to exceed 14 mm.
[Ans. 10 mm, (a) 28'88 kN/m (b) 54'857 kN/m]
11 '3. A beam 6 m long, is supported at one end and at a distance of t ·5 m from the
o~hc1: end. ft carries a concentrated load of 80 kN at over hanging end and a uniform ly
distributed load of 80 kN/m over a length of 4·5 m commencing from the overhanging end.
Deter:mine deflection and slope at the overhanging end of the beam.
EI= 15 x 101 2 N mm 2 [Ans. 16'8 mm, 0·014 radian ]
11'4. A beam 6 m long, hinged at one end and is supported over a span of 4 m, with
an overhang o f 2 m. It carries a load 4 tonnes at the free end and a uniformly distributed
load of 2 T/m run over a distance of 2 m starting from a point 2 m from the h inged end.
Determine the deflection under the concentrated load.
£ = 2000 T/cm 2 , !=3600 cm 4 [Ans. 0"9028 cm]
n·s. A beam AB, 6 metres long is hinged at both the ends. A clockwise turning
moment of 6 T onne-metres is applied at a point C of the beam. Point C 1s at a distance of 4
metres from the end A. Determine the slope and deflection at th e point C.
£=2000 tonnes/cm2, /=8000 cm4 [Ans. -0· 143°, +3·33 mm]
11·6. A propped cantilever of length l is fixed at one end and freely supported a_t t he
otp.er end . The cantilever is subjected to a couple M in the vertical plane about an axis //2
from one end. Determine the reaction at the prop and moment at the fixed end.
[Ans. : ~ , fJ
11·1. A vertical pole 4 m high carries a concentrated load of 80 kN inclined at a n
~ngle ~5° to the axis of the pole. The pole is of uniform. round section throughout. A p ull P
1s _applied at an angle of 45° to the axis of the pole at a d istance of 2 m from the base. Deter-
mme the magnitude of p so that the deflection at the top of the pole is zero. Neglect the
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~ffect of ~xia.J fon;:es in th e role, · lAn~.
3g5'72 kNJ
11 ·s. A beam 6 m long si mply supported at its ends carries a uniformly increasing
distributed load throughout its length. The loading rate is zero at one end and increases to
30 kN per metre at the other end. Determine (i) slope at the ends, (ii) deflection at the
centre of the beam.
E= 200 kN/mm2, !=5131 '6 cm~ [Ans. - 0'7°, + 1·2°, 2'46 cm]
11 '9. A horizontal steel beam 4 metres long carries a uniformly distributed load of
2 kN per metre run throughout its length. The beam is supported by 3 vertical steel rods,
each 2 metres long, one at each end and one in the middle. The diameter of the end rods is
5 mm and that of the central rod is 8 mm. Calculate the deflection at the centre of the beam
below its end points and the stress in each tie rod.
E=200 kN/mm2 , I for the beam = 750 cm4
\Ans. 0'605 mm, 77·04 N/mm 2 (outer rods), 99'07 N/mm2 (middle rod)]
11 '10. A cantilever 4 m long, carries a uniformly distributed load of 1 tonne /metre

run throughout its length. It is propped at a distance of 2'4 m from the fixed end. The
reaction offered by the prop is 4 tonnes. Determine the ratio of the deflections at the free
end of the propped cantilever and that ofunpropped cantilever. [Ans. -0'152]
11·11. A circular steel pipe 50 cm bore and 52 cm outside diameter is supported at

each end and at the middle on a span of 10 metres. When the pipe is full of water the middle
support sinks by 3 mm below the ends. Find the load on each support and draw the B.M.
diagram .
p,1,e1=7'8 g/cc, pwato , = 1 g/cc, E=2000 tonnes/cm2
[Ans. 0·253 Tonnes (central), 1·4795 Tonnes (outside supports)]
11·12. A long steel strip of uniform width a nd thickness 3'6 mm is lying on a level
ground. Its one end is passing over a roller of 4'5 cm lying on the ground at one point.
For what distance on either side of the roller will the strip be clear of the ground. What is
the maximum stress induced in steel. p.,,.,= 7'8 g/cc, E = 2 10 kN/mm2
[Ans. 176 c m, 67'22 N/ mm2]
11'13. A long flat strip 50 mm wide and 3'2 mm thick is lying on a flat horizontal
plane. One end of the strip is now lifted 30 mm from the plane by a vertical force applied
at the end. The strip is so long that the other end remains undisturbed. Calculate (a) the
force required to lift the end (b) the maximum stress in the steel.
p,tee1= 1'8 g/cc, E = 21,000 N/mm2 [Ans. 6'97 N, 23'24 N/mm2]
11 ·14. A cantilever 2 m long carries a uniformly distributed load of 1 tonne/metre run

throughout its length. Its free end is attached to a vertical rod 2 m long and 2 cm diameter.
The bar is initially straight. Determine the load taken by the rod and the deflection of the
cantilever. E = 2000 tonnes/cm 2, != 600 cm 4 • [Ans. 0·739 tonne, 0'235 mm]
11 ·1s. A cantilever of circular section of length 200 cm carries a load 1 kN at its

free end. The diameter of the cantilever for half of its length starting from the free end is 4
cm and the diameter for the remaining length is 8 cm. Determine the deflection at free end.
E=200 kN/mm2 • [Ans. l '90 cm]
11'16. A beam of rectangular section has a uniform breadth 4 cm and depth which
varies from 6 cm at each end to 18 cm at the middle of the length. A second beam is of the
same material, of the same length and breadth but of uniform depth 18 cm throughout. Find
the ratio of the maximum deflection of the first beam and that of the second beam when each
i~ subjected t o a central load W and simply supported at their ends. [Ans. 2·123 W]
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586
11 '17. A cantilever of length J ·6 m is of tapered square cross section throughout.
The side of the square section at the free end is 8 cm and that at the fixed end is 12 cro . A
load of 4 kN is applied at the free end. What are the slope and deflection at the free end.
E=200 kN/rom 2 • [Ans. +o· 148°, -2·3 mm]
4
11·1s. A cantilever of length 2·4 m is of section with depth 25 cm and I= 37 I7·8 cm •
How much load can be dropped onto the free end of the cantilever from a height of 15 cm,
so that the maximum stress developed in the section is 80 N/mm 2 • What is the instantaneous
deflection at the free end. E = 2X 105 N/mm 2 • [Ans. 195'05 N, 6'144 mm]
11'19. A cantilever of length / is supported at the free end by a prop at the same
level as that of the fixed end. A unifor mly distributed load of w per unit length is applied
on the cantilever starting from its centre and upto the fixed end. Determine the reaction of
the prop and deflection at the centre of the cantilever. EI is the flexural rigidity of the
cantilever.
7 -13 w/4 ~]
[ Ans. 128 wl, 6144 EI
11·20. A beam of lenth 4 metre is simply supported over a span of 2 m, with equal
over hang on both the sides. It carries a uniformly distributed load of 2 tonnes/metre run on
the overhang portion on both the sides. Determine (a) slope and deflection at the overhang end
4
(b) deflection at the centre of the beam. Use moment area method. E=2000 T/cm2 , !=2000 cm •
[Ans. +0·19°, -3'125 mm, +1·25 mm]
11·21. A beam ABCD, 6 metres long, simply supported at ends A and D carries con-
centrated loads of 2 kN and 5 kN at points Band C. Points B and Care 2 metres away from
the ends A and D respectively. Determine (i) deflect ion under the loads of 2 kN and 5 kN
(ii) maximum deflect ion and its position. E= 200 kN/mm 2 , I= 3600x 104 mm 4
[Ans. -0'3!5 cm, -0·333 cm, Ymax=-0'313 cm,
at a distance of 3'0945 m from end A]
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12
Fixed and Continuous Beams
In the previous chapters on SF and BM diagrams and deflection, we have studied about
the beams and cantilevers. Cantilever is fixed at one end and its other end is free or propped.
Beams considered were either simply supported at the ends or hinged at one or both the
ends. The beam at the simply supported ends or hinged ends has some slope while its
deflectio n is zero. The cantilever at its free end has same slope and same deflection too, and at
its fixed end there is fixing couple exerted by the support keeping slope and deflection zero.
Now we will study about the bult in, encastre or fixed beams which are constrained at the
support so that slope and deflection both remain zero at the support. The support exerts
restraining couple, the direction of which is opposite to the direction of the bending moment
produced by the transverse loads on the beams. There is unique value of the fixing couple
required at the end, if the restraining couple exerted by the support is less than this, there
will be some slope at the end and if the restraining couple is more than the required unique
value, then slope at the end will be on the other side of the zero position. The fixing couples
exerted by the supports can be easily worked out.
Further we will study about the continuous beams. A beam is said to be continuous
when it is supported over more than two supports. Curvature of the beam at the intermediate
supports will be convex upwards, therefore, support moments will be opposite in sign to the
bending moments produced by transverse loads on the beam. Moreover in the case of
continuous beams, the slopes at the supports are not necessarily zero.
12·1. FIXED BEAMS-B.M. DIAGRAMS
A fixed be.-im can be considered as equivalent to a simply supported beam plus a beam
of the same length having fixing couples at the ends. Fig. 12· 1 (a) shows a beam ABCD of
length l fixed at both the ends, carrying uniformly distributed load w per unit length over AB
and a point load W at C. This fixed beam is equivalent to the sum of a simply supported
w w w M9
~ X + r-- -+x-'--- -i)
D
o'
--11.? --t-=-;~~ ~ (- ve) ( - ve)
(-v,)
D MA~MB
B. M. Diogram 6.M . Dia grom
of fixed beam ot s s beam
Fixing coup les
(f ) ( d) (e )
Fig, 12·1
587
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beam ABCD of same length and carry{ng same loads and a beam AD of length / with couples
MA and MD applied at the ends, as shown by Fig. 12·1 (b) and (c). Fig. (d) shows the bending
moment diagram of the simply supported beam. We have taken the convention that bending
moments producing concavity upwards in the beam are the positive bending moments, there-
fore BM diagram shown in Fig. (d) is a positive bending moment diagram. Fixing couples at
the ends try to bend the beam producing convexity upwards, therefore the BM diagram of
fixing couples shown by (e) is negative. Fig. ( /) shows the combined bending moment
diagram for simply supported beam and the fixing couples or the bending moment diagram
for the fixed beam. The bending moments above the line A'D' are positive moments and
those below the line A'D' are negative moments. Points P 1 and P2 are the points of contra-
flexure.
BM at the section as S.S. beam =Mz
BM at the section due to fixing couples=Mx'
=MA+ (MD-MA) X
I
M, Resultant bending moment at the section
=Mz+ Mx'
12·2. SUPPORT MOMENTS-FIXED BEAMS

Bending moment at any section,
M = Mz+Mx'
d2y d2y
or EI--2 = M,, + M,,' or EI dx2 • dx= M ~dx+M~ 'dx ... (I)
dx
Integrating over the length of the beam
I I I
I 2\= J
EI
0 0
Mx dx+ I
0
Mx' dx
EI (iD-iA) = a+ a' ... (2)

where fo =slope at end D= O, as end D is fixed
it1 = slope at cnri A = O, as end A is also fixed
a = arca of BM diagram considering the beam to be simply
supported
a' = area of BM diagram due to fixing couples
=-( Mt11Mo) l ... (3)
or .. a+a' = O
a=( _¥A1MD ) / . .. (4)
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FIXED AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS
This shows that area of the Mx diagram is numerically equal to the area of the Mx'
diagram.
Consider equation (1) again a nd multiply both the si<,ies by x and then int~~ate over
the length of the beam
l
I Il
I ,
I
d2y , dx= M ,, . X dx+ M,, , X dx
El X dx2
0 0 0
I
or El J x 1x-y j=ax+ a'x'

0
El [(I x in.;....yD)-(o x iA-yA)]=ax+ax'

But at th_e fixed ends, both the slope and. deflection are zero.
Therefore ax+a'x'=O ... (S)
where x=distance of the CG of Mx diagram from end A
x'=distance of the CG of the Mx' diagram from end A.
Since a=-a'
So x=x'
i.e., the centres of gravity of a and a' lie on the same vertical line.
Now about the origin A,
a'x'=+ [ MA, ; c; )+MD. ; ( ~ )]
12 z2 -,J 1 2
= +[ MA. ~+MD. 'T =+ 6 (MA+2Mo)
2
or - ax= + a'x'= -(MA + 2MD) ~ ... (6)
With the help of the equations (4) and (6) fixing couples at the ends are worked out.
12'3. FIXED BEAM WITH A CONCENTRATED LOAD AT THE CENTRE
Fig. 12·2 (a) shows a beam ABC of

length /, fixed at both the ends A an~ ·C .and
carrying a concentrated load Wat its centre
B. Fig. 12'2 (b) shows the SF diagram for
the same as for the simply supported beam
with a concentrated load W at the centre.
Due to symmetrical loading about the centre
of the beam fixing couples,
MA = Mc
When the beam is simply supported

at ends, maximum bending moment occurs
at the centre,
WI
MB= 4
ABC is the Mx diagram and AA'C'C

is the Mx' diagram www.engbookspdf.com
Fig. 12'2
WI l W/ 2
Area a= 4 Xz = -
g-
Area of Mx' diagram . a'=+M.4. l
But a+a'=O
a=-a'
WP
So MA . l =- - -
8
w1
or .MA = M c= - -
8
These fixing couples are equal a ud opposite at ends a nd balance each other a nd impose
no additional reactions at the supports. Therefore the SF diagram for the fixed beam is the
same as the SF diagram for a simply supported beam in this particular case. The p oints of
cqntraflexure P 1 and P 2 lie at //4 from each end as is obvious from the diagram le).
Let us determine slope and deflection at any point
d2y I
El dx2 = M = Mx + M x
=-WI + Wx ... (1 )
8 2
dy WI Wx 2
EI dx = - - - x+ - 4-+Ci (constant of integration)
8
at x=O, fixed end A, slope is zero .
Therefore O=-o+o+c1 or C1=0
dy _ _ Wix + -Wx 2
El dx - 4 4 .. . (2)

Wlx2 Wx 3
Ely=- ---ri> +
12+c2 (constant of integration)
at x=O, fixed end A ; y ~ O
So O=- O+ O+ C1 or C 2 =0
EI - Wlx2
y-- 16
+ wxs
12 ... (3)
Maximum deflection will occur at the centre, x= 1

El y ma•=- 16
WI ( / )~
2 W ( I
+12 ,2 )s
w1s W/s
El yma•= - 64 + 96
W/a
yma•= - 192 El
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FIXED AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 591
This shows that the maximum deflection for a fixed beam of length / and a load Wat
the middle is only one fourth of the maximum deflection of a simply supported beam of length
/, with a concentrated load W at the middle.
The obvious effect of fixing couples at the ends is to (1) to reduce the magnitude of
bending moment throughout the length of tho beam (2) to reduce the slopes and deflections
considerably (3) to make the beam stronger and stiffer.
Example 12·3-l. A beam of length 6 m is fixed a t both the ends carries a concentrated
load 40 kN at its middle. Determine (i) fixing couples at the ends (ii) maximum deflection.
£ = 200 kN/mm2, / = 3600 cm4.
Solution.
Length of the beam, 1= 6 m
Concentrated load at the centre,
W=40 kN
E = 200x 106 kN/m 2
1=3600 cm~ = 3600 Y 10-s m4
El = 200X 106 X 3600 X 10-8 = 7200 kNm2
(i) Fixing couple at the ends
WI 4x6
=-- - =- - - =- 30 kNm
8 8
. d fl . W/3 40x6 3
(iiJ Maximum e ect1011 = -
192 EI 192 x noo = -0'00625 m =-6'25 mm.
Exercise 12'3-l. A beam of length 8 m, fixed at both the ends carries a concentrated
load 2'4 tonnes at its centre. Determine (i) fixing couples at the ends (ii) maximum deflection.
E=2000 tonnes/cm 2 , ! = 5112 cm'
[Ans. -2 tonne-metres, 5'6 mm]
12·4. FIXED BEAM WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
Fig. 12'3 shows a fixed beam of length A

I carrying uniformly distributed load iv per X
lw
unit length throughout its length. X
X
If the beam is simply supported
maximum bending moment occurs at the e
(a)
centre and Mmam=w/2/8. ACB is the Mx
diagram with a parabolic curve. AA' B' B is
is the bending diagram due to fixing couples. wt 2-*-
~ f4 /,..
As the bea m is symmetrically loaded
about its centre,
wl
-~~1 A
Reactions RA=Rn= -
2
and fixing couples
2 w/2
a1 Area of Mx diagram = -X/X -
~ ~
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STl{ENGTH OF MATER!IALS
= w/3
12
a', Area of M x' diagram = M AX /= M nx /
But a'= -a
w/3
MA l =-12
w/2
So M A= - 1 2
Then AA' P1 C P 2 B 'B is the resultant bending moment diagram for the fixed beam
with points of contraflexure at the p oint P 1 a nd P 2 • To determine the points of contraflexure
consider a section X-X at a distance of x from end A.
wx2
Bending moment, M =-MA+ R A . x- =0
2
w/ 2 wlx wx 2
- 12+2-2 = 0
or 6x~-6lx+ l 2=0
61±-.f 36/ 2-24/2 6l±2if3 l l I
x= 12 12 2±2v3
Points of contraflexure lie at a distance of //2'1'3 on both the sides of the centre.
Bending moment at the centre
w/2 w/2 w/2
=-g- - 12 =+ 24
BM at the ends=fixing moments
w/2
=-12
For slope and deflection let us consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the end A.
BM at the section,
d 2y w/2 wlx wx2

or E l - = - - + - -- .- ... (I)
dxz 12 2 2
Integrating equ:ation (1), we get

dy wl 2x wlx2 wx3 . • •
El dx =-
12 +--4 - -·- -+c1 (consta,nt of mtegrat1on)
6
at x=O, : =0, (at the fixed end)
E/ XO= - O+ O-O+C1 or C 1 =0
dy wl 2x wlx2 ,wxs
So El-=---+-- - - •.. (2)
fl~ I~ 4 9
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FIMIID 'A:ND CONTINUOUS BEAMS
EI y= - -wJ2x wlx2 wx 3 4
24 + 12 - 24- +c (constant of mtegrat10n)

2
. .
at x = O, y=O, (fixed end)

EJX0=-0+0-0 + C2 or C2 =0
Maximum deflection take places at the center x = l/2, y= ymam (because the beam is
symmetrically loaded about the centre)
yma.,= -
3;/EI (indicating downward deflection).
This shows that maximum deflection of a fixed beam carrying uniformly di~tributed
load is only 1/5 the maximum deflection of a simply supported beam of same fength and section
and carrying uniformly distributed load throughout its length.
Example 12'4-1. A beam 6 m span has its ends built in and carries a uniformly
distributed lo~d of 500 kg per metre run. Find the maximum bending moment and the
maximum 'deflection.
E=2000 tonnes/cm2, !=4800 cm4.
Solution. Span length /= 6 m
Rate of loading, w=500 kg/m run = 0'5 tonne/ metre run
£ = 2000 toime/cm 2 = 2000X 104 tonne/metre2
! = 4800 cm4 = 4800X 10-s rn 4
E l = 2000 x 10- 4 x 4800 X 10-8 = 960 tonnc-metre2

w/2 o·s x 6x 6
= - =- 4·5 tonne-metre
12 = 12
Maximum deflection,
wl4 0'5X64
Ym a.,= - 384 El =- 384x960 - = -0·00176 m = -1·76 mm.
Exercise 12·4-1 . A fixed beam of length 8 m carries a uniformly distributed load of

w kN/m run. Determine w if
(i) maximum bending moment is not to exceed 36 kNm
(ii) maximum deflection is not to exceed 1/2000 of the length.
EI=
. 7200' kNm 2 [Ans.
.
(i) 6·75 kN/mrun,. (ii) 2·7 kN/m
'
run] ~
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12·s. FIXED BEAM CARRYING AN ECCENTRIC LOAD
Fig. 12·4 (a) shows a fixed beam of )I
length/ currying a concentrated load W at a w

point B, at a distance a from end A. In this X
case, the load on the beam is not symmetri- 8 X
cally applied about its centre, therefore M A a . /. b MC
will not be equal to Mc. e (a)
The bending moment diagram for Mx
is shown by ABC with maximum bending
moment at Band equal to Wab/1.
The bending moment diagram for

Mx' (due to fixing couples is shown by
AA'C'C)
Wah I JiVab
Area, a=-l-X2=-2- ... (i)
Area, a'=( MAiMc) z ... (ii)
or ( MA!Mc) I= - ~ab ... (iii)
To determine ax, let us divide the area a into two triangles i.e., ABB' and BB'C.
Moment of a about the end A
__ Wab a ( 2a ,Wab b ( + b)
ax - - l- x2 3/+-/-x2 a 3
_ 2Wa3b + Wab 2
(3a+b)
- 61 61
= Wab (2a+b)
61
.
smce a
+b
=1
1
and a'x' = (MA+ 2Mc) ;
But a'x'= -ax

(MA + 2Mc) !:.._ __ Wab (2a + b)
6 - 6 ... (iv)
From equations (iii) and (iv), we get

JiVab
MA+Mc = --z-
Wab
MA+2Mc =- - -2 - (2a+b)
1
fixin~ couple, M c= - Wab (2a+b)+ w.ab = - Wab ( 2a+b _ 1 )

.. 12 .1 ! I
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iiIXEb AND CONTINUOUS. BEAMS 595
Wa 2b
=--z-2 -
2
Fixing couple, MA=- Wab (2a+b)+ 2Wa b
/2 /2
=- Wab (2a+b- 2a)= - Wab2

/2 /2
In this case b>a, therefore MA> M c (numerically) the unbalanced couple (M..t-Mc)
will be balanced by a reaction R, upwards at A and downwards at C
Wab
RXl=MA-Mc= - - 12 -(b-a)
Wab
R = - ~ (b-a)
R..t'= Wb , and Re'= Wa

I I
(for the beam simply supported at the ends). The SF diagram is shown by Fig. 12·4 (c) by the
diagram AA'B'BB"C'C.
The bending moment diagram for the fixed beam is shown by Fig. (b), marked by
AA' P 1 B P 2 C'C, with P 1 and P 2 as points of contrafiexure.
Reactions at the ends
, Wb Wab
RA=RA + R=--+ (b - a)
1 13
Wb/ 2 + Wab (b-a)
/3
Wb 2 (b+3a)
= /3
Rc=Rc'- R= Wa - Wab (b-a)

/ /3
=-,- Wa Wa2
[12-b (b-a)]=Ja (a+3b)
For slope and deflection consider a section X-X in the portion BC at a distance of x
from the end A.
Wab 2
BM at the section = RA x- - 12- -W (x-a)
EI d 2y _ Wb 2 (b+3a)x Wab2 _ W ( _ )
dx2 - /3 12 x a ... (l)
Integrating the equation (l)
EI dy Wb 2 (b+ 3a)x2 Wab2 W(x-a)2

213 -- 2- . x- +c1
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dx 1 2
t =0 at x=O, :. C 1 =0 (constant of integration)
El dy _ Wb 2 (b+3a)x 2 Wab2x W(x-a )2 ... (2)

dx - 213 - z2 2

Wb 2 (b + 3a)x3 Wab 2x 2 W(x-a)s
Ely= 6/3 - 21-2- - 6 +C2
( const.~nt. o.f in,t~gnitj9.:q)
y=O at x=O, So, C 2 =0
Wb 2 (h + 3a)x 3 Wab 2 x 2 W(x-a) 3 ... (3)
Then Ely= 6l3 - - - 212 6
For the deflection to be maximum, slope has t o be zero at that particular section in a
beam. Let us determine the section where deflection is m_aximum.
d Wb 2 Wab 2 W(x-a) 2
Putting EI _L=O=-- (b+ 3a)x2 - - - (x)
dx 2/ 3 z2 2
2 3 2 2
or (b3+3ab -2alb x- l (x -2ax+ a )=0
2 )x2
x 2 (bs+ 3ab2- /3} + x( 2al3 - 2alb2 ) - a2/ 3 = 0

x 2(-a3-3a 2b'l+2al {/2 -b2 )x- a2/3=0 as l= a.J.-b
or -xZ(a+3b)+2l (a + 2b)x -/3= 0

x 2 (a+3b)-2l (a + 2b)x+I3 = 0
21 (a + 2b)-..f [21 (a+2b)]2-4l 3 (a+3b)
X 2(a+ 3b) ·- - ·- -
l (a+ 2b)-/ 4 a2 +4ab+4b2 - a2- ab- 3ab- 3b 2

- (a+3b)
l (a + 2b)- lb al+2lb-lb
- (a+3t,) a+3b
(a+b) I J2
a_+3b a+3b
/2
. ~ubstitu.ting x a+ 3b , we get
Wb 2 (b+ 3a) /6 Wab2 /4
EI y1n ... = 61 3 X (a+3b) 3 - ~ x (q.+3b) 2
_ _'!"b 2 (b+3a) /3 _ Wabi/ 2 _ W ( b2-ab

- :
)a
2
( a~ 3b -a r
- 6 (a +3b) 3 2 (a+ 3b)2 6 · a+3b ,
WbHb + 3q)(q,+ b) 3 - 3Wab2 (q + b)2 (a + 3b)- W(b2-ab)B
- 6 (a+3b)S
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~I,XijD. 4"ND CONT INUOUS BEAMS
_-1!'.:_[ -
- 6
4b3a3-12a2 b4
(a+3b)S .
J
- - ~ W (a+3b)(b 3a 2) 2 WbSa 2
- 3 (a+3b) 3 =- 3 (a+3b)2
2 Wa 2b 3
Ymaz=-3 (a+3b)2 EI
Deflection under the load W can be obtained by taking x=a in equation (3)
, Wb 2 (b+3a)a3 Wab2 a2
Ely.= 6/a . - 212
Wa3b2(b+3a)-3U Wa3b 2 )
- 6/B
Wa3 b2 Wa 3b3
= -6/S [-2b] = - ~
. downwar d defl ect1on

EI ('Illd'1cating
waaba
ye= - 313 . )
Points of Inflexion
portion AB. B.M. at any section in p ortion AB
Wb2 (b + 3a)x Wab2
M= ts - --,2-
=0
x=b~ a' distance of the point of contraflexure from end A.

3
Portion BC. B.M. at any section,
M=Wb2(~s+3a) x - ~~b2 - W(x-a)= O
Wb2 (b+3a)x- W!ab 2 - W.(x - a)/3= 0

(bs+3ab2 )x- (a + b) ab 2 -(x-a)/3 = 0
or (bs+ 3ab2-/3 j-x= ab 2 (a+b )-a/3
(-as-3a2b)x=a[b 2/-/3 ] since l=a+b
l[b2 - l 2 ] l[l2-b 2 ] _ l(a+2{!)
x= -a2.- 3ab= a(a+3b) - a+3b
distance of point of cootraflexure from end A.
Example 12·S-l. A built in beam of 6 m span carries a concentrated load of 60 kN

at a distance of 2 metres from the left ha~d end Find the position and amount of maximum
deflection. E=200 kN/mm2 , I= 13600 cm4 •
Solu:tion.
Length of the beam, 1=6 ill
Distances a = 2 ill
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b=4m
598 STRENGTH OF MATEltl.\LS
Central loaci W=60 kN

E=200 X 108 kN/m 2 I-13600X 10-s m'
E/=200X L3600x 10-a kNm11 =27200 kNm 2
p
For y,nall>, x= a+ 3b from left hand end
- 6B = 3]64 =2'57 ffi

2+3x4
2 W a2b3 2 • 60 X 22 X 43
Yma~=-3 (a+3b)2El=-3X (2+3 X4) 2 x27200
2 60X4X64 .
=- 3X 14Xl4X27200 =- OOI 92 m
=-1'92 mm
Exercise 12'5-l A fixed beam of length 7 metres carries a concentrated load of 3 tonnes
at a distance of 3 metres from left hand end. Determine (i) support moments (ii) position of
the points of contraflexure from left hand end (iii) deflection under the load. Given
E/=1600 T-m2.
[Ans. (i) - 2'938 Tm, -2' 122 Tm (ii) 1'615 m, 5'133 m
from left hand end (iii) -3'15 mm]
12'6, ALTERNATE METHOD FOR DETERMINING SUPPORT-MOMENTS, SLOPE

AND DEFLECTIONS FOR FIXED BEAMS
To determine support moments and deflecti@ns etc., for fixed beams carrying any type
of loading it is not necessary to draw M~ and M,,' diagrams as shown in articles 12·1. One
can assume the support moments and support reactions and determine their values using the
end conditions. Further the slope and deflection at any section of the beam can be determined.
Consider the case of a fixed beam of length I carrying an eccentric load W, at a distance of a
from the left hand end A as shown in the Fig. 12'5. Say the support moments at A and C
are Mc and MA and reaction are R.,.,, and Re respectively.
B.M. at the section, M = MA+RA.X-W(x-a)
or EI day3 = MA+RAx-W(x-a) .• ,(1)

dx
' .I Integrating the equation (1),

dy x2
EI dx = MAx + RA
:! I
2
:. :.l' W(x-a) 2
- -- - - +Ci
2
where C1 is the constant of integration.
Now at x = O, fixed end A, ~~ =0
0= 0+0-(omitted term)+C1 Fig. 12'5
C1 =0
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So ... (2)

x2 x3 W
Ely=MA. 2+RA. 6 - 6 (x - a)3 +C2
at x=O, fixed end A, y=O
O=O+O-(omitted term)+C2 or C2= 0
x2 xs W .
6 - 6
So Ely = MA +RA (x - a)3 . .. (3)
2
Now at x = l, fixed end B, ~~ = 0 and y = O
Substituting in equations (2) and (3), we get

J2 w
O=M,1./+RA. 2 -2b2 ... (4)
as (l-a) = b
12 1s Wbs
O=MA. 2+RA 6 - -6- ... (5)
Solving the equation (4) and (5), we get

Wab2 Wb 2(b-j-3a)
M11 = - -12-, R A= /3
This is what we have obtained in article 12'5. Equation (1) now becomes
EI d 2y = _Wab 2 +Wb (b+ 3a) -W( _ )
2
dx2 /2 zs x x a
Successive integration of this equation will yield the equation for slope and then for
deflection and we can derive expressions for yma• and yn etc.
Example 12·6-t. A fixed beam 8 m long carries a uniformly distributed load of

2 tonnes/metre run over 4 m length starting from left hand end and a concentrated load of
4 tonnes at a distance of 6 m from the left hand end. Determine (i) support moments,
(ii) deflection at the centre of the beam. El = 1500 Tm2 •
Solution. Fig. 12'6 shows a fixed

beam ABCD carrying uniformly distributed
load of 2T/m from A to B, 4 m length and 4 T ' ioT
load at C, 6 m from end A. Let us assume w: 2T/m
that RA and Rn are the support reactions and X
M A and Mn are the support moments.
Taking the origtn at D and x positive towards B
left, consider a section X-X at a distance of X
x from the end D, in the portion BA . x--~
B.M. at the section,
M=Mn+Rn xx-4(x-2)
w Fig. 12·~
- - (x-4) 2 where w= 2T/m
6
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600' STRENGTH OF MATERtA'LS
d2y ... (1)

oi: EI dx£ =MD+Rv.x-4(x-2)-(x-4)2
Integrating the equation (1), we get

dy x2 (x-4) 3
EI dx = Mv .x+ RD. -2(x-2)2 - +C1
2 3
x=O, 1x = 0 at fixed end D

O= O+ O+omitted terms+c1
di: C 1 =0
So dy M
EI dx= +R ~ - 2(x-2)2- (x-4)3 ... (2)
D. X D. 2 3

x2 . xs 2 (x-4)'
Ely=MD - - +RD - ·---(x-2) 3 - - - + C2
2 6 3 12
But at x=O, y=O, at fixed end D

0 = 0+0-omitted terms+c2 (constant of inegration)
C2=0
4
Ely=MiJ xz +Rv _x:__l.._(x-2)3_(x-4 ) ... (3)
. 2 6 3 12
Now at .t=8 fn, a t ·e nd A, -~~ = 0, y=O

, 64
0 = 8 Mv +32 RD-72- ... (4)
3
512 64
0 = 32 Mv + RD-144- ... (5)
6 3
FMm equations (4) and (5),

Rv = 4'875 Tonnes
Mv=-7'833 Tonne-metres
RA = 4x2+4 - 4'875 = 7'125 Tonnes ·
Equation for 13.M. M = MD+RD.x-4(x-2)-(x-4)2

= -7'833+4'875 x-4(x-2)-(x-4)2
at x = 8 m, M = MA
S6 Af,4 = - 7'833 + 4'875X 8-4(6)-(8-4)2

= - 7'833+ 39-24-16
= - 8'833 T-m
So the support moments are M A=- r833 T-m and M.p = -7'83~ Tm
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To determine the deflection at the centre, x = 4 m from equation (3J

42 43 2
Eiyc=MD.
2 +RD.
6 - 3 (2)3-0
4 16
Elyc =-7'833 X 8+4'875 X ~ -
3
= -62"664+52-5"333 =- J 5·997
15'997
Ye= - =-0'0106 m=-10'6 mm
1500
Exercise 12'6-l. A fixed beom 6 m long carries point loads of 40 kN each at a dis-
tance of 2 m from each end. Determine support reactions, support moments and deflection at
the centre of the beam E=205 kN/mm2, / = 3200 cm4 •
· [Ans. 40 kN each; -53'333 kNm at both the end; 11'!8 mm]
12'7, EFFECT OF SINKING OF SUPPORT IN A FIXED BEAM
If one of the supports of a fixed beam ____ e____

sinks, its effect on support reactions and
support moments can be calculated.
A B
Let us consider a fixed beam of length ~-.i:::..:::-:..=-:..::-:.:-:.:-:..:-~ &
/ and flexural rigidity El as shown in (a)
Fig. 12·7 (a). Say the support B sinks by 8
below the level of support A. J_
12EI 6 ,....~..,...,,,.....,-.-,......
, ..-,.,...,,,....,.,~,.....,..;?
We know that ~ t,,,,,,,,,,,_d
d4y
EI dx""i =rate of loading
T S.F.Oiagram I_J_
1 (b)~ · GEio
=0 (in this case) j ~+T
EI ~;a =C1 (constant of integration)
at x=O, say reaction is RA
-e;-Vu
6t.i6
B.M.Oiogram
( C)
f
dSy
EI dx 3 = R A ... (1) Fig. 12'7
Integrating further
d2y
EI dx 2 =RA.x+C2 ... (2)
Say at!x=O, end A, support moment is MA

C2 = MA
d2y - . .
El dx2 - RA.x+MA ... (3)
Integrating again
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at x= O, :7x = 0, slope is zero at fixed encl

or
2
dy x ... (4)
So EI dx = RA. z+MA.X
Integrating ·again
x3 x2
Ely = RA y+MA 2+C4
at x= O y= O,
O= o+o+c1
Therefore
But at the end B, y = - 8 (sinking of the support downwards)

/3 /2
-EH= R A. y +MA . ... (5)
2
Moreover at x = l, :~ =0, at the fixed end B
O= R A. -i/2 + MA.I ... (6)
2MA
or R A= - -,-
From equation (5)

2MA /3 /2 MA.[2
- EIS = - --
1
x 6 -t-MA. i=+ - 6-
MA = _6 EI 8
/2
RA = - 2MA - + I2EJ 8
l - /3
For equilibrium, Rs= - R A= - 12EI8

/3
Using equation (3) we can find the support m oment at end B i.e., at x=I
M = 12EI8 XI - 6EI8 - +6E/8
B /3 /2 -- /2
Fig. 12·7 (b) shows the SF. diagram and 12'7(c) shows the B.M. diagram for the beam
with one support sinked.
If a fixed beam carrying a central load W has one support lower than the other by 8,
WI 6Ef8 . .
then the support moment at the hi ~hcr ~oc;I. will be - T - - 12
- and at the; low~r end 1t will
\>e _ _WI
~ ,~ .
+ 6EI8
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t:JXED AND CONTINUOUS BEAMs"
Example 12·1-1. A beam of 7 m span is built in at 60th the ends. A uniformly

distributed load of 20 kN per metre run is placed on the beam, the level of right hand support
sinks by 1 cm below that of the left hand end. Find the support reactions, support moments
and deflection at the centre. £ = 208 kN/mm2, / = 4520 cm 4•
Solution. Fig. 12"8 shows a fixed beam of length 7 m, with uniformly distributed
load of 20 kN/m throughout its length.
w : 20 kN/m B
A X \ Ms _L &= l e m
MA x-jX ~
RA RB
I· 7m
Fig. 12·8
The support B sinks by 8,

8=1 cm= ·Ot m
£ = 208 kN/mm 2 = 208 x 106 kN/ m2
/ = 4520 cm4=4520 x io- s m4
E/=208 X4520 x 10- 2 = 208 X45"2 kNm2
If the beam support does not sink, then
w/ 2 20 X72
MA'= MB'=- u = - - - = -8 1"666 kNm
12
20 1
R A'= R o'= ~I = ; = 70 kN
After the sinking of the support B
M _ _ w/2 6EI 8
Support moment, A - 12 - 12
=- . _ 6 X 208 X 45"2_X ·ot

81 666
49
= - 81"666- 11"512= - 93'178 kNm
w/ 2 6EI 8
Mo = - 12 + ~ = -8 1"666-1-11'512
=- 70·1 54 kNm
_ !.1!.!_ 12 El 8
Reactioni;:, R A - 2 -\- /3
= 70+ l 2 X208X 45'2 X'0l

7 x 7x 7
= 70+ 3·29 kN = 73'29 kN
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RB = 70-:3"29 = 66'71 kN
STRENGTH OF MA TERIA-LS
Consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the end A

wx 2
B.M. at the section, M=M,1+R,1.x--
2-
2 20x2 ... (1)
or EI d Y2 =-93 '178+73'29 x - -
dx 2
EI t x2
=-93'178 x+73'29 -
2
10x3
- - - +o
3
( constant or' integration is zero because dy = Oat x=o)
dx
Integrating further Ely=-93'118 E-+73'29 £.__ lOx4 + o

2 6 12
(constant of integration is zero because y=O at x=O)
At y = 3"5 m
Elye=-93'178 X \
52
+ ·;x
73 2 3 53
·
10 X 3'54
12
=-570'715+523'718-125'052
=-172'049
Deflection at the centre,

172'049
Ye= ·- X . =-0'0183 m
208 45 2
=-1"83 cm
Exercise 12 7-1. A fixed beam 4 m span is built in at both the ends. A concentrated
load 6 T onnes is placed on the middle of the beam, the level of the right hand support is 6 mm
below the level of left hand support. Find support reactions, support moments and deflection
at the centre of the beam . . Given E=2 x 107 Tonnes/m 2 , 1= '6 x 10-4 m4
[Ans. 4'35 Tonnes, 1'65 Tonnes; -5·7 T-m, - 0· 3 Tm; - 4'67 mm]
12'8. CONTINUOUS BEAMS

T he analysis of continu ous beams is similar to that of fixed beams. Each span of a
continuous bea m is considered separately and M. diagram is plotted i.e., B.M. diagram con-
sidering the ends of each span as simply supported. Upon these M.: diagrams of all the
spans (though considered separately), Mx' diagram for support moments is superimposed.
Mx' diagram for each span is of opposite sign to Mx diagram. As soon as the support
moments are evaluated, the resultant bending moment diagram Mx+ Mx' is completed for
whole of the beam. Considering the bending moment at any section i.e., M~+ Mx', is deter-
mined. Then successive integrations of bending moment equation give slope and deflection at
any section.
In the case of fixed beams we considered slope at the fixed ends to be zero but in the
case of continuous beams, slopes at the supports are not necessarily zero.
To obtain support moment we will use the Clapeyron's theorem of 3 moments, which
gives a relationship between the support moments at 3 consecutive supports of a continuous
beam.
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FIXED AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 60§
Let us consider first :the continuous beams carrying oniy the u niformly distributed
loads . Consider two consecutive spans AB and BC of a continuous beam , of lengths /1 and l2
and carrying uniformly distributed load w1 and w2 per unit length respectively as shown in
Fig. 12'9.
Fig. 12·9
Say the support moments at A , B and C are MA, Ms and Mc respectively, these
support moments are of negative sign.
Span BA. When this span is considered independently, there will be reaction at
t h e supports A an d B, equal to W1/1 an d maximum bending moment will occur at t h e centre,
2
equal to wt 12
• The B.M. diagram .Ma:. will be a parabola as shown. Taking the origin at
B and x positive towards left
2
,
B. M . at t he section, M ., = -W1l2-X - ·-W1X- (positive bending moment)
2
M~ is shown by the line ab on the diagram 12·9
B.M. at the section due to fixing couples,
M .. ' -- M B +(MA-MB)
I X
1
(negati\•e bending mom001t shown by cb on the Fig.)
Resultant bending moment at the section= M,. - M..'

2 2
or EI d y =w1l1 x _ w1x - MB -(MA-MB ) x ... (1)
dx2 2 2 11
EI 1x =~1~x2 _w;(- Mo.x -( MAfiMn ) ·;2 +C1 ... (2)

(C1 is constant of integrati9n)
At x= O i.e., at the end B, ~~ = +iB
So C1 = EI iB
t =EI w~t +(
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W1 ~X2 - +M».x MA4MB) ~2 +EI iB ... (2)
STRENGTH OF MATERiA'CS
EI
y
= w1l1xs - w1x4
)2 24
+M B x2
2
3
+ (MA x ~ +Elin . x+C2 (constant of integration)
4 Ms)
at x=O, y=O at the end B

O=O-o-o+o+c2
C2=0
Ely= w1Zixs - W1X4 + Mnx2 + (MA-MB) . x6s +EI is. x
So 12 24 2 11
at x=/1 y=O i.e., at the end A
O=W1/i4_ W1f14 +M8 l12 +(MA-MB) /13 +EI. I (3)

12 24 2 /1 · X 6 zn . 1 . ..
O= + W1/14
24
+M
B •
_!l_
2
+M
A •
.!1._
6
__Ms.le_
6
+EI. I
lB . 1
or ... (4)
Span BC. When this span is also considered independently, there will be reactions at
Band C equal to wt" and B.M. diagram will be parabolic with maximum bending moment
at the centre and equal to wf22 . Taking the origin at B and x positive towards right,
consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the end B.
2
. = +W2l2 x- -W2X2
B.M. M,. at t he section - ( , •
pos1t1ve B.M . )
2 2
M/ at the section, i.e., bending moment due to support moments Ms and M c,
M X '= M s + (Me-Mn)
12 • X (negative B.M.)
Bending moment Mx is sbown by de and Mx' is shown by f e in the diagram

Resultant bending moment= Mx - Mx'
or EI !!2 _ W2l2X _ W2X22 +M + (Mc -Mn) x ... (5)

dx2 - 2 2 B /2
El dy =w~l2 x
2
_
3
w2 x 2 +M + (Mc- Ms) ~+C
dx 2x 2 2x3 s.x /2 2 3
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where C 3 is the constant of integration
at the end B, x = O, t = iB' (say)

So El. is'=C3
2
El dy _ w2l2 x _ w2xl_ +Mn.x
dx - 4 6
(Mc-Mn) ~+EI., ... (6)
+ /2 X 2 .ln
Integrating the equation (6) also

4 2
Ely= w2l2~~- W2X +Mn x
12 24 . 2
3
+ (Mc -12 Mn) x 6x +El.
lB X
I +c
4 ... (7)
C4 = 0 as at x=O y=O
Moreover at x=/2 , i.e., end C, y=O
4
O= W2l24 _ w2'2 +M f,} (Mc-Mn) 123 +EI . , I
]2 24 B. 2 + z2 X 6 • IB z
O= ~212_:+ Mn 12 + Mc 12 Ms. /2 +EI , l., B

24 2 6 6
O= w2 l2
3
+ Ms 12 + Mc 12 +EI in'
24 3 6
3
W2 /2
or +6Elin'+(2Mn+Mc ) 12= -
4 - ... (8)
Adding the equations (4) and (8)
+ 6EI(ia+ is')-2Ms (l1 +l2)+MA l1 + Mc 12
W1 /i3
=- - 4 - - - 4- -
W2 /2
8
... (9)
But is'= - in as the direction of x has been reversed. In the portion BA we took x
positive towards left and in the position BC we took x positive towards right.
Therefore MA. l1 +2Mn (!1 +l2)+Mc 12
=-( 1
W/
3
+ 2
3
W~/ ) .. . (10)
This is the well known Clapeyron's theorem for three moments for support moments
for 3 consecutive supports for a continuous beam carrying uniformly distributed loads. If
there are n supports for a continuous beam, the two ends being simply supported. Then three
will be (n- 2) intermediate supports and (n-2) equations will be formed so as to determine the
support moments at (n- 2) supports.
Example 12'8-l. A c_ont_inuo us beam of leng!h 2/ is supported over 3 supports with

span / each. A uniformly d1stnbuted load w per umt length acts throughout the length of the
continuous beam. Determine support moments, support reactions and maximum deflection
in the beam. Ef is t4e flexural ri~idit?' of the be~m.
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STRENG:rH OF MATERIALS
Solution. Fig. 12· 10 shows a con-

tinuous beam ABC of length 2/, span lengths X X w
AB and BC of I each, carrying a uniformly ~:rcp:l'.:::o::i::l:O:;n::ca:~ai:.c::n C
distributed load w per unit length. B
X
The beam is supported only on two
e ______
Ra e __ RC
spans AB and BC, the support moments at
A, and B will be zero.
MA = Mc=O Fig, 12· 10
Moreover /1 =/2 = /, w1 = w2 = w as given .
Using the equation N o. (10)
3
W1/1 W2/l
MA l1+ 2MB ( Zi+Z2)+ Mcl2= - - 4 - - -4-
w/3
In this case 2Mn U+l)=-
2
w/3 w/2
Mn= - p;r = - -8-
while plotting the Mx diagram for each span, maximum bending moment+w/2/8 occurs at
the centre of.the spans AB and BC and BM diagram is parabolic as shown. AB'C is the Mx'
diagram for bending moment due to support moments. The resultant bending moment
diagram is shown with two points of contraflexure.
Support reactions. We know the magnitude of support moment MB, therefore

taking moments of the forces about the point B
I w/ 2 •
+ RA. l-wl . =- i.e., Mn
2 2
R A2= . !l_( wz2
2
- wz2 )- 3wl
8 - 8
Due to symmetry about the central support B
3wl
Rc=RA=-s-
Tot~l load = wl+wl= 2wl
.· . Reaction,
Fig. 12· 11 (a) shows the BM diagram for the continuous beam having support moment
wz2
MB= - -- ·
8
Conside~ a section X-X at a .distance of x from the end A in the span AB.
·, .·.·. -SF ~t the section F=+ RA - WX (note that upward forces on the left side of the section
ate positive)
3w/
F=+ - - - wx
8
F= + 3wl at x=O
~
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F = - 5wl
g at X=
I
F'= -_J_
8
wJ+-24 wl= +-2.. wl
8
Similarly SF can be calculated in the portion BC.
0 C
A b
---- ~ e2
----<-+!1---
w
ab= cd =
82
/ w£ (a)
BB= -
8 B .M.Oiag rom
S.F. Diagram
(b)
Fig. 12 · 1 l
Fig. 12·11 (b) shows the SF diagra m for the continuous beam. To determine slope a nd
deflection Jet us consider only the portion AB, since the beam is symme1rica lly loaded about
its centre Band deflection curve for BC will be the same as for AB.
wx2
BM at the section = RA.X---2-
d2y 3wl wx 2
or g- x - 2
El dx2 = - .. ( I )
Integrating equation (1) two times

dy 3wlx 2 wx3
El dx = -16- - -6- +Ci .. . (2)
31-dx 3 wx4
and EI y= ~ - ¥ + C1 x+ C2 ... (3)
at x=O, y = O, so C2 = 0
at x = l, y = O, end B
wJ4 wJ4
! ! O= if - i 4 +c1 I
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6W
w/s
Ci = -
48
dy 3wlx 2 wx3 w/a
El - d = - 16_ __6_ _ 48
X .
For the deflection t o be maximum, dy/dx = O at the particular section.
3wlx2 wx 3 wl3
So -- - - - - - =0
16 6 48
or 9/.i:2 - 8x 3 - i 3 = 0
(x-1) (/2 + /x-8x 2 )= 0
So x= l
or 8xL /x-J2= 0
1+ ,f f2+3'tl 2 /+/X 5'744
x= . lo 16
= 0'4215 I
Substituting this value iij ~s;iµ,ation ( 3)
wl . w w/a
El ymux = l6 (0 4215 H~- (.0'42151)4-
24 48 (0'4215 l)
= wl' [0'.00468-0'0013-0'008"78]
= -0"0054 wz•
y,,,a~= - 0"()054
E l wl~ c·md"1catmg
. d own war d d cflect10n
. ).
Example 12·8-2. A continuous beam ABCD, 13 metres long simply supported with
spans AB= 4 ro, BC= 5 m, CD= 4 m carries uniforml y di stributed load of 1·2 tonnes/metre
run over AB and CD and J ·6 tonnes/metre run over BC. Determine (I) support reactions, (2)
support moments.
petermine the deflection at the centre of the portion BC.
Given £ = 2 100 tonnes/cmi, l = 4.00D cm4..
Solution. In this problem
/
1
= 4 m, /2 = 5 m, /3 = 4 m
Rate of load ing

w1 = 1'2 T/m, w2 = 1'6 T/m
A /h1a:;l~~c,.'tjp:n::ra.1~it:cd)lD
w3 = t·2 T/m.
Ro
Since the continuous beam is sym-
metrically loaded about its mid point, the
support m oments Mn = Mc and at ends of ab c e f • 2·4 Tm
~he beam, moments, M A=MD= O. e d = 5 Tm
8.M.Diagram
Moreover reactions
R A=RD and Rn= R c Fig. 12·12
\]sing the theorem of 3 moments for the .s pans AB and BC

M,i = O
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W1/i3 W2/l
M..t . !1+ 2Mn (!1 +/2) + Mc. 12=- - 4 - - -4
-
1·2x 4s 1·ox 53
Ox 4+ 2MB (4+5)+5 Mc=-
4 4
18 Mn + 5 Mc=- 19·2-50=- 69·2
But Ms =Mc (due to symmetrica:l loading about the centre of the continuous beam)
23 Ms=-69·2
MB=3·009 T-m = Mc
To draw the BM diagram, let us find out.
Maximum BM, Mz for sp-an AC
= wt12 = 1·2;42 = + 2"4 T-m
Maximum BM, Mx for span BC

IV2f22 l '6 X 52
=-g- = = + 5 T-m
8
Max-imum BM, M., for sp'an CD
1V3/a"· 1·2 X 52 -
- + 2·4 T-m
=-s-= s
Fig. 12·12 shows the BM diagram where AB'C'D is the Mx' diagram due to support
moments and Ab B, B d C, Cf D a-re the Mx diagrams for spans AB, BC and CD respectively.
The resultant bending mom ent diagra m is shown by positive a nd negative areas.
Support reactions. Taking moments of the forces about the point B
2
RA X 4- 1Vi X '1 =Mn
2
1·2x 42 = -3·009
2
4 R A- 9'6 = 3'009
RA= l -65 Tonnes = RD
Tota1 vertical load on beam
=4X 1·2+5 x t·6 + 4 x 1·2 = 17·6 T onnes
. 17'6 - i'65 - I .65
Reaction, RB = Rcact1011, R e= - - - = 7· 15 Tonnes
2
To determine the deflection at the centre of the span BC , let us :consider a seetron at, a,
distance of x from the end B, in span BC.
w.x2 . t ·6A,a
B.M . at the section = Mn + Rn.x - = -3'009+1· 15 x -
2 2
2
or EI d y- =- 3'009 + 7' 15x - o·g x~ .. .(i)'
d >.i2
Integrating equation ( 1) we get

dy x2 x3
EI - = -3 ·0o9 x+ 7 15 -· - - o·g .:
dx ' 2 J
+c 1
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'6-12 S1'RENGTH OF MATERIALS
dy .
At the centre of the span BC, dx = 0, because the continuous beam is symmetrically
loaded about this point. So taking x=2'5 m

2 ·52 0'8 x2·5a
0= - 3'009 x2·5 + 1·i5 x
2
- -
3
+c1
c1 =4· 161+1·5225-22·343= -10·653
Therefore, EI 31:'.-=-3'009 x+1·15 x.:__ o· 8 xa -10'653 ... (2)
dx 2 3
x2 1· 15 x 3 0'8 Xx4
Ely=- 3·009 -
2
+- 6
-- 12
- 10'653x+C2
C2 = 9 because at x = O, y = O
4
So
3
Ely = - 3'009 x 2_ + 7 · 15 x - o· 8 x x -10'653 x
2 6 12
Maximum deflection occurs at the centre i.e. , at x = 2·5 m
2·52 7·15x2·5 3 0'8X2'5 4
Ely ma,,=- 3·009 x - - + -10'653x25
2 6 12
= - 9'403 -!- J9'401 - 2'604-26'632= -19'238
.E/ = 2100X 104 x40,000X 10-s Tm 2 = 8400 Tm 2
19 ' 238 0'0023 2·3 mm
Y»•u"' - 8400
Exercise 12'8-l. A continuous beam ABC, 10 m long simply supported over A, Band
C with AB= 4 m, BC= 6 m carries uniformly distributed load of 12 kN/m over span AB and
10 kN/m over span BC. Determine the support reactions and support moments.
[Ans . RA = l4'85 kN, Rn = 69'25 kN, Rc = 23'9 kN, MB =-36'6 kNm)
Exercise 12·8-2. A continuous beam ABCD of length 3/ supported over 3 equal
spans, carries uniformly distributed load w per unit length. Determine support reactions and
support moments.
[ Ans. 0'4 wl, 1·1 wl, 1· 1 wl, 0·4 wl ; 0, - 7~ 2
, - ~~, 0 J
12"9. THEOREM OF THREE MOMENTS-ANY LOADING
Let us consider two spans of a conti-
nuous beam. Spans AB and BC of lengths 11 Diagram
a:iJ.d 12 respectively carrying uniformly distri- L ,
buted load and concentrated loads as shown .
To determine support mom~nts, first of all
let us construct the Mx diagrams of both the
spans i.e. the B.M. diagrams considering the
spans AB and BC independently and ends are
simply supported. Diagram A a B is the M x
diagram for span AB and diagram B cd C is
the Mx diagram for span BC. Say MA, Mn
and Mc are the moments at the supports A, B
and C respectively. Diagram AA'B'C'C is the Fig. 12'13
Ml ·diagram due to the support moments.
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FI:X:El:> AND CONTJNUOUS BEAMS
Consider the span AB, and a sectton at a distf!,nce of x from.end A (i.e., origin at A and x
positive towards right) ·
B.M. at the section = M x+ M .'
dy 2 / 1 ,
or EI dxz = M x + M x , multiplying both the sides· by x and integrating
/1 11 11
or EI I~~
0
x dx =
0
j M x x dx+ J M ,i'.xdx
0
.. . (1)
/1 /1 11
E ll X Efx - y \=l M x.X dx+ JM x'.x dx
0 0 0
El[(/1 iB - 0) - (0 X iA - 0)] = a1 x1+ai'x' ... (2)
or EI 11 iB=a1 ~'i +ai'x'
where a1 =area of the Mx diagram for span :AB (A a B)
x 1 = distance of C. G . of a 1 from the end A
a / = area of Mgi' diagram (AA'B'B)
x i' = distance of C.G . of the diagram a1 ' from the end A
or ai'x i'= (MA + 2Mn) r

/ 12
So E I 11 in = a1 x1 + (MA + 2 MB)
6
or El in=~1 x1 + (MA + 2Mo) !.l_ ... (3)
l1 6
Now consider the span CB, or igin at C and x positive towards left, a section at a dis-
tance of x from end C.
d2
B.M. at the section, E l d~ = M, + Mx'
Multiplying both the sides by x dx a nd integrating over the length of the span B.C
/1 /t /1
EI
0
I ~~ X dx = !
0
r
M , xdx+ M x'
0
X dx ... (4)
I:
or E I Ix ~~ - y j= a2x 2 +az'x/
0
El[(/2 • iB' - 0) - (0 x i n- O)] = a2x 2 + a'x 2 '
or 1
El 12 iB = a2x2+ a2'x 2'
where a 2 = area of the M x diagram for the spa n CB (C de B)
x2 = dista nce of C .G. of a 2 from end C
a 2 ' = area of M x' diagram (CC'B'B)
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x~' = distance of C.G. of a2' from the end C
STRENGTH OJ! M&TER.JA,1.6
. - I- I -
or Elis'= a2x~ + a2 X2 = a2x2 +(MA+2Ms) 6/2 ... (5)

12 12 12
Adding the equations (4) and (5),
El in + EI in'= + G2X2 + MAl1 + 2MB(l1 + 12) + Msl2
a1x'1
': f
11 12 6 6 6 . .. (6)
But slope is= -iri' because we have taken x positive towards right in span AB and x
positive towards left in span CB.
6ari 6a i t
So MA/i+2MB(l1 + 12)+ Msl2 +---1 + - 2 - = 0 .. . (1)
11 12
The areas a 1 and a2 are positive as per the conventi(;)ns. we have taken, so the support
moments MA, Ms and M c will be negative.
If the span AB carries only the uniformly distributed load w1 per unit length and span
CB carries only the uniformly distributed load w2 per unit length then
6a1i 1 -6 X 2_ X / X W1/12 X _!1 X I - W1f18 - /j
11 - 3 i 8 2 7; - -4- as xi= 2
6a2i2 x 2 x I x w2l22 12 1 w!
2 2
3 _ 1
- =6 3
-/2 2 - 8- X 8 X 7; = -4- 2
as X2= 2-
and we obtain
wJp3 w /,i.,3
MAl1 +2Ms(l1 +l2)+ M c l2 = - -- - 2
4 4
as already derived in article 12·8.
Example 12·9-1. A continuous beam ABCD, 12 m long supported over spans AB -= BC
=CD= 4 m, carries a uniformly distributed l'oa'Cl of 3. tonnes/metre run over span AB, a concen-
trated load of 4 tonnes at a distance of l m from pomt /3 on support BC and a load of 3 tonnes
at the centre of the span CD. Determine support moments and draw the B.M. diagram for the
cantinuous beam. ·
Solution. Fig. 12· 14 shows the conti- b
nuous beam A'BCD, witli equat spans, span
AB with a uniformly distributed load of 3T/m,
span BC with a concentrated load 4T_at a
distance ·of I m from B and span CD with a
central load of 3 tonnes.
Let us construct M x diagram for each
span.
Span AB. ab, Maximum 0ending
w/2 3 X4 2
moment= - = -- =6 Tm
8 8
Fig. 12·14
2
area a1=6 X4 X = 16 Tm 2
3
a1i 1=16X2 = 32 Tma
(origin at A and x positive towards right)
4 X l X3
SpaaCB.. Mma•, cd= _ = 3 Tm
4
Taking again at C and· x p@sitiNe t0wards left.
_ ~)x J, 3 X lf 1 ) 3 10
a2x2= 2 -(-2)+ 2 \ 3+ ·= 9+ x =14Tms
3 2 3
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Problem 13·3. A hollow circular shaft is required to transmit 300 metric horse
power at 200 r.p.m. The maximum torque developed is 1·5 times the mean torque. Deter-
mine the external diameter of the shaft if it is double the internal diameter if the maximum
shear stress is not to exceed 800 kg/ cm2 • Given G=820 tonnes/cm2 •
•
So 1ut1on. M ean torque, T moan 300n: xX 4500 = 1074·3 k g-met re
2 200
Maxmimum torque, Tma:11= 1·5 Tmea1i= 1611'45 kg-metres=l61145 kg cm
Say external diameter =Dem
Thus internal diameter =O"SD
Polar moment of inertia. J= ..!!.._[

32
D4- (0·S D)4]= n: X 1SD4
16 x 32
Now ~ = D~ 2 (q is maximum shear stress)

100 X l611"45 X l6 X 32 2q 2 X 800
15n:D4 =·D = D
or D 3 = 100 x 1611 '4SX512 = I0 .
94 27
1600x lS x n
Shaft diameter, D = 10·3 cm.
Problem 13·4. A solid bar of a metal of diameter 50 mm and length 200 mm is

tested under tension. A loa d of 10,000 N produces an extension of 0·0051 mm. When the
same bar is tested as a shaft, a torque of 4000 Nm produces an angular twist of 1 degree.
Determine the Young's modulus, shear modulus and Poisson' s ratio of the shaft.
Solution. Diameter of the shaft=SO mm
Direct stress, f = 4 x IOOOO = 5·093 N/mm2

n:X50 X50
Change in length, Sl= o·co51 mm
Strain, €- O·OOSl = 2"55 X 10- 5 N/mm 2

- 200
5 93
Young's modulus, E 2·55·oX 10- 5 -- 1·997 X 105 N/mm 2
Torque, T = 4000 Nm= 4 x 10 6 Nmm

Polar moment of inertia,
..d 4 n: X 504
l = ~= =61 '359 X l04 mm4
32
Shear modulus, G= Jt where 8= 1; radian

0
4 X 106 X200 X 180
= - 6i:-3s9 x 104 x re o·747 x 10s N/mm2
E 1·997
:Pojs~c;m'~ ratio = ig- I = ;ixo-747 - 1= 1·~37- t = o·337
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tT©RSl0N -~89
Efficiency = 60%
500 3
Input supplied by shaft= ~.~ oo =25 x 105 kg-m
R.P.M.=200
'25 X 105
Torque on the shaft, T= XTCX =I989'43 kg-m=l98943 kg-cm
2 200
Say the diameter = dcm
Maximum shear stress, q=500 kg/cm 2
TC
T=I6d3 Xq
198943
or d 3= 16 x =2026'4141 cm 3
TC X 500
Shaft diameter, d=12'65 cm.

-/\.' Problem 13·2. A solid circular steel shaft is transmitting 200 Horse power at
300 rpm. Determine the diameter of the shaft if the maximum shear stress is not to exceed
80 N/mm2 and angular twist per metre length of the shaft is not to exceed 1°.
G=80,000 'N/mm2
Solution. H.P. =200
· Power transmitted =200 x 746 Watts per second
=200 x 746 Nm per second
2X TCX 300 ,
Angular speed, w= = 31 416 rad/second
60
Torque, T= 200x 746 4749·2 Nm
31 '416
=474'92 X 104 Nmm
(a) Considering the maximum sh~aring stress as the criterion for design
dB= 16 X474'92 X 104 = 302'34 X }03
·rrx80
d = 67'15 mm
(b) Considering the -maximum angular twist as the criterion for design
T G0
rcd4 X 32= - 1-
8 = l O = -2:_ radian
180
1= 1 m = lOOO mm
d4 = 32 Tl
rcGO
4
= 32X474'92X l0 X lOOO x 180 = 3464'58 x 104
-TC X 80000 X TC
d= 7'672 X 10=76'72 mm
The diameter of the shaft should not be less than 76'72 mm so as 't o keep the maximum
~tress and an~ular twist within the limit~. ·
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STRENGTH OF MA:fERIM.Sl
Now T = 2'r1 X,Ai + 2-r2X A2

4 X 106 Nmm=2X 15 X 103 X-r1+ 2.x 7'5 X lQ3 X T2 ,
2000 = 15 T1 +7' 5 T2 ... (1)
0 in cell I =0 in cell 2
1
So (a1 r1-a19Ti)= A G (a2T2- a12"1)
2 2
130 Tl - 60 T2= ~: (160 T2-60 T1)
But A1 =2
A2
So I 30 "1 - 60 't'2= 320 't'2- l 20 T1
250,-r 1 = 3'80 -r2 or, -r1=1'52! -r~ ... (2)
Substituting in equation (1),
15 X 1'52 T2+7•5' -t2=2000'
2000
Shear flow, -.2 = - - ::;:6·&00 N r1mm·
30'3 ·
Shear flow,
100·33
Shear stress in rectangular part ;= --5-- = 20·06 N/mm2
//,
'·
S1tear ·stress ..1:tJ. tnangu
· Iar · part= •661
. ' = 26· 4· N/ mm2·
25
~.
rt,•,
~ ..
I•
)
Ex,ercise 13'15-1. A steel &irder is of ,,1·2.cm

the sectiouts·h.Qwo..in.,F;-iru 13:36. It~ has uni-
form thickp.ess of l '2 c,m throughoµt. What
is the'.a,itowable~torqu~. if=the- m a-x-inwm shear
stress is not to exceed 300 kg/cD;l.2. What / 12
will be, tht;:angular twist per metre length of ' 1-2cm .cm
the girder.;, What is the stress in the middle
web<:of1th,ts~,ct;ion G=820 ton~esj.cm2
[Ans. 2073'6 kg-metre, 0 26°, 12cm 12cm
sties:dn midµle web is
zero] Fig U 3·36
Problepi 13'1. A cirqular shaft· running at 200 rpm transm:it.s1 p Ci>;We!r to a crane
lifting a, load oft5: tonn~s.ah a1speed of 5 metres/second1 If tb.~ effi~i.~ncy of, the gearing system
of the crane is 60' 0 / ~ , determine the diameter of the shN't: if· th~- ma·xiJ;BuDJ· sh.earing stress is
not to excee<J. 500 kg/cm11 :
"" ~ a
Solution. ·
Load lifted, W = 5 tonnes = 5000 kg
Speed of lifting = 5 metres/second
Qutput per( tl}jJl~ = ~QOQ X 5 X 60 kg-metp~
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TO~SION 687-
where 2-r2 Ai' is the moment due to the shear flow T2 in the middle web
Total twisting moment, T =T1 +T2
= 2-r 1 A 1 +2T 2 A 2 ... (4)
For continuity the angular twist per unit length in each cell will be the same. For
closed thin sections.
hut in this case shear flo w is changing, so
0= - 1 - J -rds
2AG t
Say a1= f ~s for cell l including the web
a2= f ~s for cell 2 including the web
a 12 =
rf. -ds-
y for the web
1
For cell I, 1
0= 2A1G g(a1 't"1-012't"2) ... (5)
1
For cell 2, 0= A G (a2T 2 -a12T1 ) ... (6)
2 2
From equations (4), (5) and (6) shear flow T1 , T2 and angular twist O can be worked
out.
Example 13'15-1. The Fig. 13·35 shows the dimensions of a double-celled cross section
in the form of a rectangle and a triangle . A torque of 4 kNm is applied ; calculate the shear
stress in each part and the angle of twist per metre length. G= 82000 N/mm 2.
Say shear flow in rectangular cell = T1
---150mm---
Shear flow in triangular cell = -r 2 r!;:::::===j;::==:::::::;~-. ' .'
5m r,1
Area A 1 = 1:-0x J00 = 15 x 103 mm 2
Area A 2 = ..!22
2
x 4" 125 2 -75 2 1oo!l.'m
= 150 x 100 = 7'5 X 10s mm2

2
Line integrals
150 100 100 150 _ 130
. ai = -5- + -5- + s+T-5-
= 150 + 125 + 125 = 160

a2 2·5 2·5 2·5
150
al 2 = -2·5 = 60
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1SOx 10-2
radian/cm length
8X 188
=0'1 x 10-2 radian/cm length
=0' l radian/metre length= 5·7° per metre length.
Exercise 13'14-1. A T section with flange 10 cm X l cm and web 19 cm x 0'8 cm is
subjected to a torque 2000 kg-cm. Find the maximum shear stress and angle of twist per metre
length. G = 82,0000 kg/cm 2 •
[Ans. 270'78 kg/cm 2, 1'275° per metre length]
13'15. TORSION OF THIN WALLED MULTI-CELL SECTIONS
The analysis of thin wailed closed sections can be extended to multi-cell sections.
Consider a two cell section as shown in the Fig. 13'34. Say the shear flow in cell I is -.1 , in
cell 2 is 't' 2 and in the web shear flow is -r 3. Now consider the equilibrium of _shear forces at
• I ' .. ' j I • ,\-. ;if

..
.... . .. ~11-'""'
•'
t
•~ L • o.
·.,,
w e b·.
-~
. '-
1.,-........ ;.
Fig. 13·34
the junction of the two cells, ta~i_ng _a small Iength 'M.

The comple91entary shear stresses qi,
ti, t 2 and t 3
q 2 and q 3 are shown on th~ ~o~g1tu~mal se~t10n~ of length ?i/ ~ach but thicknesses
respectively. For the eqmhbrmm m the d1rect10n of the axis of the tube.
q1t1'M- q2t28l-q9 t 8 81= 0
or ... (1)
Shear flow -r1= shear flow 't'2+shear flow -r 8 • This is equivalent to fluid 'flow dividing
itself into two streams.
Moreover shear flow in web, 't' 8 = 't'1--r2
Now twisting moment T 1 about O due to -r1 flowing in cell I
- T1 = 2 -r1 A1 ... (2)
where .... · A1 = area of th~ -~ ll I
Twisting moment T2 about 0, due to 't'2 in cell 2
T~=2't'i(A2+A1')-2-r2A 1 ' ... (3)
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tell~10N
In the case of channei section and i sectiofi,

Torque, T =t GS (b1t13 +b2t:i3+b8 ta3)
Angle of twist per unit lell'gth,
3(['
0= 3
Gf rb; t,a
i= l
q= maximum shear stress
3T 3T
- ,...,.(b.,...1-t-~-..P-b- t-~2-+-,-b-r-~2.,.....) - -..,,.
,3 - - -
1 2 3
G ~bt ft 2
i=l
In the case of Angle Section and ·r Section,
3T 3T
O= -...,2- - - , and q= 3
·GI i=1
b, t,a Ii= l
b, 1,2
Example 13'14-l. An I section with flanges 10 c:m X 2 cm and web 28 cm X l cm is

subjected to a torque T=5 kNm. Find the maximum shear stress and angle of twist per unit
length. G=80,000 N/mm2 •
Solution. G = 8 X 104 N/mm2 = 8 X 106 N /cm2

Torque T = 5 .kNm = 5 X 105 N cm
2 Flanges, b = lO .cm, t = 2 cm
l Web b'=28 cm, t'= 1 cm
3
~b,t,2= l0 x 4+I0 x 4+28 x 1= 108 cm 3

i=l
4
'I,1>11, = ,W ,<,8·+ :IO X•8 +2£ ·x fl·= i.S8·(;m

3 4
'i=·l
3T 3 X 5 X ·to;;
Maximum shear stres6,~=~3~ - ~ =- · tdS
I ·b, t,~
i=l
= 1·39 x 10 4 N/cm 2 = 139·0 N/mm2
Angular twist per unit length, 0= JT . 3 >; 5x 10 5
G!b,
6
8Xl0 X l 88
t?
-i=i
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STRENGtH OF MNfBRJrKh.;
Exercise i3"13-i. A thin rectangular

steel section is shown in the Fig. 13·31. Deter-
mine the torque if maximum shear stresc; is
35000 kPa. If the length of the shaft is 2
metres, find the angular twist.
:' .r-·- t 6:;--n r
G=82000 N/mm2 • :I 10mm I j70mm
Ans. ·[2 .94 kNm, 1·2°]
Exercise 13"13-2. A tubular circular 6mm
section of mean radius 50 mm and wall ,thick- ~-- _ _ _ :!J
;DtlSS 5 mm is subjected .to twisting moment
·such that maximum ,shear stress developed is
80 N/mm2 • Another tubular square section ·1--,oomm --I
of same wall thickness 5 mm and same cir- '
cumference as that of circular section is also Fig. 13·31
subjected to the same twisting moment. Find
the maximum shear stress developed in square section. [Ans. · 101 "86 N/mm 8]
13'14. TORSION OF THIN RECTANGULAR:SEC!I'IONS
Figure 13·32 shows a thin rectangular

.section subjected to the torque T. Thickness
t of the section is small i-n .comparison to its
wiath ·b. This section ·consists only one
'boundary. ln this case maximum shear stress
t
occurs at y= ±
2. T.hin rect,an,gulor section
If ·.0=ar1:gular twist per unit length
Ji=Torque on the section Fig. ·13·32
T=! btS GfJ ... (1)
Angle of twist per unit len,gth,
1 3T ... (2)
0= G · bt3
?,(I'
q= maximum shear stress = :I: bt 2
These resu1ts ,can be applied ,to sections ·built up of.rectangular strips and having only
one boundary such as Angle Section, ,/ ,section, T and ..channel section:; as shown in Fig 13'33.
Fig. 13·~3
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TORSION'
Angular twist tor the thin box section;

T J, ds
e= 4A 2 G j-t-
where area A = 3aX2a = 6a 2
J:.ds _ 3a + 2a + 2a + 3a _ 10a
jt t t t t t
8= T X lOa = 10 Ta = l OT
4 x (6a 2) 2 • G t I44a4 Gt 144 Gaat ... (2)
But 0'=8
32 JOT
So
Gr. >< 8 l -a 4
= 144 Ga3 t
32 x 144a3 t = 10,; x 81 a4
= 10n X 81 a= O'SS
t 32 x 144 a
Example t3·13-2. A shaft of h ollow square section of outer side 48 mm and inner
side 40 mm is subjected to a twisting moment such that the maximum shear stress developed
is 200 N/ mm2 • What is the torque acting on the shaft and what is the angular twist if the shaft
is 1·6 m long. G= 80,000 N/mm 2 •
Solution.
Thickness,
Outer side = 48 mm
Inner side= 40 mm
Mean side=44 mm
t= 4 mm
I
I
I -
I
r -----~-r
Area, A= 44 x44 mm2 I I L.4m_m
Maximum shear stress,
Shear fl.ow,
q = 200 N/mm 2
-r = qX t
r
L'.: - - _
/j
!JJ
= 200 x 4 = 800 N/mm length /- 44mm--J
Torque on the shaft T = 2A-r
\ .
.. =2x44 x 44 x 800 N mm Fig .. 13·30
. .r .1
= 1548°8 Nm= J·5488 kNm
q ,,:, ds _ 200 .I, ds
8, per unit length = -2AG :r-t -
2 x 44 X 44 x 8 x 104 j T ·
Fig. 13·30 shows a hollow square section;
3!_ = 44 X4= 44
t 4
200 44
0 per mm lengt h = 2 x 44 x 44x x 8 x 104-- 0·2s4 x 10- 4 ra d.1an
Length of the shaft = 1·6 m= l600 mm

Angular twist in shaft = 0·28 1 x w- 4 x 1600
= 0·04545 radian = 2·6o degree.
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Example 13"13-1. A thin walled box section 3a X 2a X t is subjected to a twisting

moment T. A solid circular section of diameter d is also subjected to the same twisting
moment. Determine the thicknees of the box section (a) if the maximum shear stress developed
in box section is the same as that in solid circular section, and d = 3a, and (b) if the stiffness
for both is the same under the same torque.
Solution. Fig. 13 ·29 shows the thin walled section 3a x 2a X t and a solid circular
section of diameter d.
./t
t' ..
-
t '\
+- 2a
'
3a
Fig. 13·29
Torque= T
Maximum shear stress in circular section,
16T
q= - -
1r.d3
. b . . T
Shear flow m ox section, -r = A
2
2A = 2 x 3a >-: 2a = l2a2
taking a>>t .
Ma ximum shear stress in box section,
'
q
T
=, T
= 2At = tXl2a 2
T
=
T
12a 2 t
But q' - q
16T T
rrd 3 12a 2t
or 192 a2 t = 1r.d3= 1r.(3a) 3
27 1r.a .
t= = 044a
192
Angul ar twist for solid circular shaft ( T)
T n:d4
or 0' = - where J= - -
GJ 32
but d = 3a
{)' =I...._ X 32 ... (1)
G n X~l 4
{4
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TOMIONL . 6!H·
llT=q. t . lz lls
=, . (h lls) where lls is the base and· his· the altitude of the ·
triangle shown shaded in the Fig: 13"28.
llT=, . 28A where llA is the area of the triangle.
Total torque, T=~T. 21lA = 2,. ~8A = 2.". A .
A=area enclosed by the centre line of the tube. This is an equation generallyj ·know.01
as Bredt-Batho formula.
To determine the angular twist, consider the twist in the small element of peripheral
length lls and axial length Ill and thickness t as·.shown -in Fig. 13"28.
Shear force on the. small element,
llQ:-T . lls= q . t . lls
displacement at the edge be or ad=ll (say)
shear stram,
. a
y=Tt
llu, strain energy fol"'the small element
=illQ. ll= (i q.t. lls. ll) = } q.t. lls r 81=$ q . y. t lls. Ill
q2
= 20 X (t ; lls Ill)
because shear strain, y=-J -

T shear flow
Now q= or 1:= q. t
t thickness
Substituting for q,
Shear strain energy, llu= ~
2G
xa/ . ~
t
T Torque
Moreover -.--
- 2A 2 x area enclosed by the centre line of the tube
ra lls
llu= 8A2G X ll/. t
Let us take ll/=l,
T2 lls
au for the small element of unit axial length= SA2 G x - -
1
Total stram . 1engt h o f tu b e, u= SAy 2G

. energy per umt
2
.
f ds
t
Using the Castiglianos' theorem

. () ar
au
angular twist, =
0= Angular.twist per unit.length =_r__ rf. ds

4A 2 G 'f t
T
Again 2A = T ( shear flow) ('
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680 STRENGTH OF MAmruAJ.S
13'13. TORSION OF THIN WALLED SECTIONS
Consider a thin walle.d tube subjected to twisting momeQt. Th_e ,th_ickness of the tube
need not be uniform along its periphery. Let q is the sl}.ear stress and t is the thickness at any
point in the boundry . Consider a small element abca 6f1ength ~s··~tfon·g -the -periphery. Say
the thicknes~ at cd is t1 and_ shear stress at cd is qJ., ~q.e thic!cn,~~~ ~t ~.Q ,i~ t2 p.;d the shear
stress at ab 1s q2 • There will be complementary shear stresses m the direction· parallel to the
axis 00'. Say the thickness along the axis remains the samf . Consider a sm~ll length lil
along the axis. (See Fig. 13'27)
Fig. 13· 27
Complementary
~. ..,, shear stress
. on surface, a'b'ba = q2
Complementary shear stress as surface, c' cdd' = q1
For equilibrium, qz.t2.'8!-q1 t1ol= O
or q2t2 = q1f1 = 't', a constant= se ear force per unit lengtl
The qu~n.tity q.t, a constant is called shear fl.ow 't'. No w con~idey the ~orque ~ue tc
the shear force oq ·a ·sma!l element of length, 8s. Say the shear stress 1s q and thickness 1st.
Shear for?~ acting R~ the ~mall element,
8a =: :.8s= q.t;§s (as shown in the Fig. 13·~8)
Moment of the forc,e 8a at the centre 0 = 8r = h8a
where his the moment arm of force, 8a about 0.
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~ORSION 679
' Initially stretched

/mem bra.ne C
IZZJ .L · w - t i x ture
~
Membr a ne before dtflection Stction at
Re c tangu l or hole 1n
Deflection contour
fixture I 1nes
(a )
Membrane ofter deflection
( b)
Fig. 13 ·25
Fig. 13'26 (a) shows fa membrane o any shape stretched initially with tension T,
subjected to internal pressure p and the membrane is blown up as shown. Initial tension T
on the element abed is shown in Figs. (a) and (b). Say fslope at the end a is CJ1 and at'b its
slope is 'I+ ,6oc. Shear stress q is shown perpendicular to)he slope at different points. ·
t~
·. ~
T
T
T
~~xr- y B
'" X
T T • I
o(+D.«
T T
..______..._
b _ _ _ _,__ _ X
a
:r~-o1.;v,--.-~:
- I I
(a)
Fig.13·26
The thickness of the rubber membrane, the pressure used and the pretension affect the
leflections. With the help of travelling microscope, deflection at grid points on the membrane
.re noted down and deflection contours are plotted. From deflection contours, slope at any
,oint can be determined. Knowing the results of a circular cross section, the membrane is
alibrated for a circular ·c ross section under given pretension T, internal pressure p and metnp-
ane thickQess t.
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STRENGTH OF MATERiAi.$
~xa~p~e 13'11-1. A shaft of equilateral tria!1gular section of side 40 mm, is subjected

to an axial twisting moment T. Determme the magmtude of T if the maximum shear stress
is not to exceed 100 N /mm 2 • What will be angular twist in 2 metres length of the shaft?
G=80,000 N/mm 2 •
Solution. q= IOO N/mm 2

Side, a= 40 mm
15v3T T = 2asxq
q= or
2a3 15¢'3
2 1 05
x ;~~I00 _ ~~~1~ = 4'927 x J0 5 Nmm
Angular twist per metre length,

15 X v3 X4'927 X 105
80,000 X (40)4
= 0'0625 x 10- 3 radian/mm length
= 0'0625 radian/m length
Angular twist in 2 metres length
= 0'0625 X2 = 0' 125 radian= 7'162 degrees.
Exercise 13·11-1. A shaft of equilateral triangular section of the side 6 cm is sub-

jected to the torque of 4 X 106 Nmm. Determine (i) maximum shear stress developed
(ii) angular twist over 1 metre length of the shaft. G= 84,000 N/mm 2
[Ans. (i) 240'55 N/mm2 (ii) 5'73°]
13'12. MEMBRANE ANALOGY
The anal ysis for the determinatio n of shear stress and angular twist in non-circular
shafts is quite complicated and involved. In such cases . simple experimental techniques can
be used for the analysis. Prandtl has introduced membrane analogy for non-circular sections,
in which a thin rubber sheet initially stretched to a uniform tension is fixed at its edges. The
area bound by edges is of the shape of the non-circular section. This stretched rubber shee1
or membrane is subjected to an internal pressure and the membrane is deflected. If the slope~
deflections of the membrane are taken at different points, then following observa tions are
made.
,.
( 1) Slope of the membrane at any point is proportional to the magnitude of shea1
stress at that point.
(2) The direction of shear stress at any point is obtained by drawing a tangent to t h<
deflection contour lines of the membrane at that point or in other words the direction of th<
shear stress i's ,Perpendicular to that of the slope.
(3) The twisting moment is numerically equivalent to twice the volume under th,
memberane i.e., volume under the bulge ACB shown in the Fig. 13·25 (b). Figures abov,
show a thin rubber stretched under initial tension in a fixture wit h a rectangular cut o ut
Initial tension T on the membrane is large enough to ignore its change when the membran,
is blown up by a small internal pressure p. '
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I
dep ress e·d
( concav ity)
A---l.~~~-1-~ ~-1~C 2a
~k---u ---~1---
i-- b -j
I
e levated
( conv J x 1t y'
Fig. 13·22 Fig. 13·23
Example 13'10-1. A shaft of elliptical section with minor axis 2a and major axis 2b
is subjected to a torque of 2 kNm . If the maximum shear' stress in the· shaft is not to exceed
80 N/rom 2, determine the major and minor axis, if b= I ·5 a. What will be the angular twist
in a metre length in this shaft under· the given t orque? G= 80,000 N/ mm 2 •
Solution. b= 1·5 a
M . h 2T 2 X 2 X 106
ax1mum s ear stress, q= na2b = TC X a2 X .
15 a
4 106
or x 120 = 10'61 x 103,
•- TC X
a -
a=22 mm
Minor axis = 44 mm
Major axis = 66 mm
Angular twist per mm length
T a2 +b2 2 X 106 (222 +332) o· L02 x 10-s radian
= 6 X - n;a3/J3 = 80,000 X 228 X 333
0 per metre lenglh = 0' 102 radian= 5'89 degrees
Exercise 13'10-1. A shaft of elliptical section ; major axis 6 cm, minor axis 4 cm,
is subje~ted to an axial tw!stirig ~oment of 200· ~g-metre. What is the maximum stress de-
vt!loped· in the section and what 1s the angular twist per metre length G= 400 toi:mesfcm2 .
[Ans. 106 1 1cg/cm 2 , 17'24°]
13·i·l . TORSION OF A SHAFT WITH EQUILATERAL TRIANGULAR SECTION'

Fig. 13 ·24 shows an equilateral triangle
section of a shaft subjected to the twisting
moinent T. Say a is tne side of the equilateral
triangle. Maximum shear stress occurs at
the centre of the sides i.e., at point D , E and
Fas shown in the Fig.
Angular twist per unit length
15,v3T
- Ga•
Max'imum shear stress,
l 5./3T
q= 2a3
At the corners of the tria'.n'gle i.e., at F'ig. 13'24
4, B and C shear stress is zero.
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stiuiNarH oF MA'I'ER1At~
Exampie 13·9-2. A rectanguiar shaft 6 cm X 4 cm made of steel is subjected to a

!orque of 300 kg-.metre. What is the maximum shear stress developed in the shaft and what
ts the angular twist per metre length. G= 0·8 x 106 kg/cm2 • Use approximate relationship.
Solution.
Torque, T=300 kg-m= 3 x 104 kg-cm
Longer side, 2b=6 cm, b=3cm
Shorter side, 2a=4 cm, a=2cm
G=0·8 X 10 kg/cm2
6
. T(3b + 1'8a) 3 X 104(3 X 3+ 1·8 X 2)

Maximum shear stress, q
8
a2b 2 = x x
8 9 4
= 1312'5 kg/cm 2
Angular twist per cm length
= k . a2+b2 T
16a3 b3 x G
where k = 3·645-0'06 X ~ = 3·555
0 per cm length - 3·555 X (4 + 9) X 3 X 104 6 - o· A50 10- 2 d"

- 16 x 27x8x·8x 10 - v x ra ian
0 per metre length = 0'050 X 10-2 x 100 radia n
= 0·050 radian = 2'865 degrees'.
Exercise 13'9-l. A rectangular shaft of sides 60 nirli' x 24J mm made of stee1r is
subjected to a torque such that the maximum stress . developed is 800 kg/cm 2. What is the
magnitude of the torque and what will be the angula'.r twi~t in a length of· l( metre of the
shaft. G= 800 tonnes/cm2. Take values of constants· ffb m' the table.
[Ans. 71 40 kg-metre, 3'3 degree]
Exercise 13'9-2. A rectangular shaft of steel 9'6 cm X 6 cm is subjectecl to' a torque
such that the angular twist in a length of I metre is 1··5 degree. What is the magnitude of the
torque and what will be the maximum shear stress developed in tlie ··shaft: 61== 80,mJOr N/mm2
use approximate analysis. [Ans. 8' 8 kNm, 291 '76 N/mm2 ]
13· to. TORSION OF ELLIPTICAL SECTION SHAFT
For the elliptical section shaft , the expression·s for maximum shear stress and angular
twist per unit length are
2T T T a2+ b2
q= n·a2b a nd 6= GJ = 7; X ~
Maximum shear stress occurs at the ends of the minor axis as shown in Fig. 13'22.
i.e., at the points Band D. Fig. 13·23 shows tlie contour lin'es of constant displacement. The
convex portions of the cross section where displacements in the direction of axis of the shaft
are positive. Where the surface is depressed, depressions are shown by dotted lines.
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TORSION 615
T a2 +(1·5) 2a 2 T
- G 16a3 (l .5)3 a3 k G x 16.615 a4 k
k=3"645-0'06x 1'5=3'645-0·09=3'555
T X 3·555 = 1 T
O=-G-x_1_6 ·_615 a4 4·674 x Ga'
If we compare the results of maximum shear stress and angular twist, from two analy-
sis, we can find some negligible difference between the two cases .
The maximum intensity of shear stress q, occurs at the centre of the longer side as
shown in the Fig. 13'20. Fig. 13' 21 shows the distortion of the ends of a shaft of square
section.
~
2b
convex
b
X ridge'.;
concave
q
~
valleys
w O r PI n g of ·o square
section
Fig. 13·20 Fig. 13· -1
Exatnple 13"9-1. A 50 mm X 25 mm rectangular steel shaft is subjected to a torque

of 1'8 kNm . What is the maximum shear stress developed in the shaft and what is the angular
twist per unit length. G= 80 GN/m 2.
Solution. G=80 GN/m 2 = 80 X 109 N/m 2 = 80 x 10a N/mm2
Longer side, 2b= 50 mm, b= 25 mm
Shorter side, 2a=25 mm, a= 12'5 mm
Torque, T=1'8 kNm= l'8X 106 Nmm
T
Maximum shear stress, q= K2 a2b
From tables for : = 2, K2= 0'508, K=3 '664
0'508 X 1'8 X 106

q= . X = 234"08 N/mm 2
12 52 25
Angular twist per unit length,
T l '8 X 106
e GKa b 3 3
80 X I0 X3 '664 X12'53 X25
= 0' 1257 x 10-3 radian per mm length
= 0'1258 radian/metre length
= 7·2 degrees per metre length
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TABLE 13'1
b/a K K1 K2
1 2'250 l ' 350 0'600

1·2 2'656 I '518 0'571
l '5 3'136 )'696 0'541
2·0 3'664 1'860 0'508
2·5 3'984 1'936 0'484
3·0 4'208 I '970 0'468
4'0 4'496 1'994 0·443
s·o 4'656 1'998 0'430
10·0 4'992 2·000 0'401
oc 5'328 2·000 0·375
Expressions for (} and q can be approximately given as follows and one does not need to
refer to table of constants
_ T(3b+ 1'8a)
q- 8a2b 2
a2+b2 T
O= k · 16a3b3 X G
where k = ( 3'645-0'06 : ) approximately.
F or the sake of comparison let us take !l..a = 1·5

From tables K= 3'136, K1 = 1'696, K2 = 0'541.
T T . T
Maximum shear stress, q= K2 b = 0'541 X a2 x . a =0 360 x as
02 15
T T T
e= GKa3b = GX 3'136 X a 3 Xl '59- 4'704Ga"
From approximate analysis

. _ T(3b + 1'8a) _ T(3 x 1·sa+ I 'Sa) T
Maximum shear stress, q - b - ( ) =0'35 X -
8a2 2 8 X a2 X 1·Sa 2 as
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673
All non circular sections are distorted under torsion to a greater or lesser degree. For
sections nearer to circle, these effects of distortion are less marked as in the case of elliptical
section.
~he detailed analysis of the torsion of non-circular shafts which includes the warping
of the sections is beyond the scope of this text book. However the results of the theory deve-
loped by St. Venant and Prandtl for the calculation of maximum shear stress and angular twist
are summarised in this chapter.
Rectangular Sect~ons
Torque I=(ll6
where GJ=Torsional rigidity of the
· shaft
0=angular twist per unit
l~ngth
J=Ka3 b
Angular twist,
T
O= GKa 3 b
The value of constant K depends upon
the ratio of !l.__, where 2b is the longer side of
a
the rectangular section and 2a is the shorter
side of the section as shown in Fig. 13'19. Fig. 13·19
The values of K for various ratios of _!!._ are

a
shown in the Table 13'1.
Ta
Maximum shear stress, q= K 1 -
J
where Kl is another constant again depending upon the ratio of !!_.

a
or q=K1 :a~b :L.

= a~ = K2 a~
where K = K1_
z K
The constants K, K1, , and K 2• are shown in

. Table
• 13·1 T
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672 ' STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Bearing stress in key, J- ~

-t/2
2148 5
xz -- o·sx10
' - 429·7 kg/cmt
-
Exercise 13'7-J. A shaft of diameter 6 cm is transmitting 20 horse power at 300
r.p.m. The shaft is connected to a pulley of axial width 12 cm with the help of a key
14 mm X 1-2 mm (deep). Determine the shear and compressive stresses developed in the key .
Take I1H.P.=746 watts per second. [Ans. 9·423 N/mm 2 , 21'98 N/mm 2]
13'9. TQR.~lON QF NON-CIRCULAR SHAFTS
I~ the case of circular shafts, we assumed that sections transverse to the axis of the
shaft are plane before the application of a twisting moment and remain plane after tlj.e shaft is
twisted by a twisting moment. Moreover we have proved that volumetric strain in a shaft is
zero and a circular section remains a circular section of the same original diameter when the
shaft is subjected to torsion. But when shafts of non-circular seytions are subjected to torsion,
plane sections before torsion do not remain plane after a twisting moment is applied on them.
The plane sid~s also do not remain plane and high and low areas exist giving a series of valleys
and ridges. Fig. 13'18 (a) shows a rectangular shaft with grid lines drawn it. Fig. 13' 18 (b)
shows the same rectangular shaft after torsion and warping. The distortion of l:l. phine
surface by the formation of high and low regions is termed as warpin~.
A 8
0
C
13 ·18 (a) Rectangular shaft be fore torsion

an.d warpin g
, , I ·~~· ...~·'·
13 18 ( b) Rectang ul ar shaf t after torsion and

warping .
r1 dge
( c0 nvex1tY,)
warp 1,ng
Change of shape ( d)
ot cross sec tion
( C )
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TORSION _ _ 671
13·s. STRESSES DEVELOPED IN KEY
Shafts transmit power through gears,

flywheels, pulleys etc. which are keyed to the
shaft with the help of various types of keys. Rectangular
key
Here we will discuss only rectangular type
\cey as sh own in the Fig. 13 · 17. The
breadth and depth of the key are b and t
respectively and half the key is embedded
in a keyway provided in the shaft and half
the key is embedded in the key way provided
in the hub of the pulley, flywheel, gear etc.
Say the shaft is transmitting torque T .
Shaft diameter= D
Then tangential force or the shear
force acting on the periphery of the shaft,
T 2T
Q= D/2=D ... (1)
Fig.13 ·17
Say the length of the key=/
Section of the key subjected to shear force = b X / (shown by section GH)
Shear stress developed in the key= E 1r1 = ... (2)
Section of the key subjected to compressive force= ~ x/ (shown by section GB)

Bearing stress or compressive stress in key
Q 2Q 4T
= tl/2 = y = Dtl ... (3)
Same shear force Q acts as a compressive force on faces BG and DH.
Example 13·1-t. A shaft 5 cm diameter, 1·5 metres long is transmitting 15 horse
power at 200 r.p.m. The shaft is connected to the pulley of axial width JO cm by a key of
breadth 1· 2 cm and depth 1·o cm. Determine the shear and compressive stresses developed in
the section of the key.
Solution. H.P.= 15
R.P.M. = 200
Torque on the shaft, T = 15 X 4500 kgm
2,; X200
= 53.714 kg-m=5371'4 kg-cm
Shaft diameter, D= 5 cm
Tangential force on shaft,
5371 4
Q= · 214s·5 kg
2·5
Width of the key, b = 1·2 cm
Length of the key, I= 10 cm
Thickness of the key, t = 1 cm
Sh ear stress in key, q= /x.bQ = 2148 5

lO X .1. --119·05 k ~; cm2
4
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Then q, at any_radius r= -i~ Xr
where q=maximum shear stress at R2

Strain energy for the elementary cylinder
4r.q2/r 3dr
= GD 22 where D2 = 2R2, outer diameter
Strain ~nergy for the whole shaft,

Ra
U
= 4nq2/
GDz2
r
Jr
3 d
r
R,
= r.q2/
GR22
I
R:
I
.3 d·-= rr.q2/ [ R24 -
I GR22 4
R14
4
J
R1 .
r.q2/
= 4GR? CR?- R12)(R22+ R12)
= :~ (-R
2
2tf!~ ) [1t/(R2 -R12)] 2
q2 R22+R12
= 40
X R 2
X Volume of the shaft
2
Example 13"7-1 . A solid circular steel shaft of diameter 50 mm and length 1 metre
is subjected to a twisting moment of 5000 Nm. Determine the strain energy absorbed by the
shaft.
G for steel=78400 N/m m2
Solution. Maximum shear stress developed in the shaft
16 T 16 X 5000 X 1000
q= -,,.ds = r. X ( 50)S = 293"718 N/m.m2
Volume of the shaft =: 2

(50) X 1000 = 1963500 mms
.,
• ~ • I
·=1963'5 X 10s mms

q2
Strain energy absorbed, U= XVolume of the shaft
20
I ' (203'718) 3
.= x
2 78400
X I963'5X 103 Nmm = 267'554 Nm
Exercise 13'7-1. A hollow circular steel shaft of outside diameter 40 mm and inside
diameter 20 mm, length 1200 mm is subjected to ~ twisting moment so that the maximum
stress developed in the shaft is 150 N/mm2 • Determme the shear strain energy developed in the
shaft. q = 78400 N/mm 2
~' 1 ' .
[Ans. 1'01'43
! ,
Nm]
I
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TOltSION'
Equivalent twisting rilomen't,

T e= .f M2-t--T2·= ,/ 102 +33"422= 34'88 kNm
(ii) Maximum principal stress,
32 M. = 32 X 22·44 X 1000 X 1000 = . N/
,_39 19
2
Pi = Ttd3 • n X 180 x 180 x 180 mm
(iii) Maximum most shear stress,
16 Te 16x34'88 X lOOO x 1000
q,,,.x= nd 3 = nX180XI80 X 180 = 3o·46 N/mm2
Exercise 13'6-l. A solid shaft of diameter d is subjected to a bending moment

M = 15 kNm and a twisting moment T = 25 kNm. What is the minimum diameter of the
shaft if the shear stress is not to exceed 160 N/mm2 and direct stress is not to exceed
200 N/mm2 • [Ans. 97'6 mm]
13·7. TORSIONAL RESILIENCE OF SHAFTS
Consider a circular shaft of dia meter

D and length. l subjected to twisting moment.
. q'2
Strain energy per unit volume= -
2G
where q' = shear stress
G= modulus of rigidity
Now consider an elementary cylinder
at radius r and radial thickness dr and length
/, as shown in Fig. 13' l 6. Fig. 13·16
Shear stress at any radius,
where q is th~ maximum shear stress.

q,.2 2q2,.2
Strain energy per unit volume = = GD 2
20
Volume of the elementary cylindet = 2rcr/ dr
Strain energy for the elementary cylinder
2q2r2 . 4,;q2/
= GD2 X 2i;r I dr= G/)2 ,.a dr
Strain energy for the solid shaft,

R
= r .3 - 4•q2/ R'
4nq2/
U GD2 j , dr- GD2 X 4
0
_
- _g:.__
4G x ( _!:_ 2
- .!t.__
4 D J ) -· 4G X Volume of the shaft
For a hollow shaft, maximum shear stress occurs at the outer radius.
inner radius a.n d R 2 is the outer radius.
Say R1 18 the
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Maximum principal stress at the section
nd3
or Pi X I6 = M+ v M 2+T2
or n:d3 M + 4M 2 +T2
P1X 32 = 2
The bending moment corresponding to the maximum principal stress is termed as

Equivalent Bending Moment, Me.
or M,-M+4XF+T 2
2
Similarly maximum most shear stress developed at the section
or
The twisting momc!nt corresponding to the maximum most shear stress on the surface
of the shaft is termed as Equivalent Twisting moment, Te
So
Example 13'6-1. A solid shaft of diameter 180 mm is transmitting 700 kW at 200
rpm. It is subjected to a bending moment of 10 kNm. Determine
(i) Equivalent bending moment and twisting moment
(ii) Maximum principal stress on the surface of the shaft
(iii) Maximum most shear stress.
Solution.
Power transmitted = 700 kW=700 kNm p er second
Speed = 200 RPM
200 X2n:
- rad/second= 20'914 rad/sec
60
700
Torque on the shaft, T=. = 33'42 kNm
20 944
Bending moment, M = lO kNm
(i) Equivalent bending moment,
Me = M+VM +T2
2
2
10+ ,/102+ 33·422 = 22'44 kNm
- 2
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i'oRsjoJ!.i 661
Fn, Normal force on inclined piane
= Q1 sin 0+Q2 cos O (compressive for equilibrium)
Fn= -qXBCxsin 0-qXAC cos 8.
Normal stress on the plane AB
BC . AC
f,,.=-q AB xsm 8-q AB cos 0
= - q cos 0 sin 0-q sin 0 cos 0= - q sin 20
NormaLstress is maximum when 0= 45°, 135°
f 11m ax =- q, +q
Tangential force on the inclined plane, Ft=Q 1 cos f:l-Q2 sin 0.
If Ji is the tangential stress, then
BC AC ·
ft=qx AB Xcos 6- q AB sin O= q cos2 0-q sin20 = q cos 28
Shear stress is maximum when 0=0, 90° ftm a-,, = +q-q
Moreover shear stress is zero when 0=45°, 135°.
This means that fnm aa;= +q, -q are the principal stresses acting 011 the surface of
the shaft as shown in Fig. 13·14.
Principal stresses are+q, -q, 0 at a point on the surface of the shaft
Principal strains are €1 = -Eq + qE €2 = -q _ _g___ E3 ==9._ + !L_=O
m E mE mE mE
Volumetric strain, €o=E 1 +E 2 +€ 3 =0.
This shows that in a shaft subjected to pure torque, there is no change in volume.
q p
I
= +q
r p =- q
2
p , p are the pri nc, pol
1 2
»tresses
Fig. 13"14
(ii) Shafts subjected to twisting mom.ent and bending moment shnul-
taneously. Shafts transmitting power are subjected to bending moments due to belt tensions
on pulleys, normal force on the gears etc. in
addition to the twisting moment . Fig. 13 · 15 M M
shows a portion of a shaft transmitting po"".er,
subjected to twisting moment T and a bendmg
moment M. Say the diameter of the shaft is \
~--
_11
\' ___ _ 1
d. Maxm. direct stress, f is developed on the
.,, I
surface of the shaft and a maximum shelir - f
stress q is also developed on the surface of the I

shaft due to T. Fig. 13.15
32M 16T
f = -r;d3 aud q = ---;aa
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(a) The magnitude of T if the maximum stress in steel is not to exceed 90 N/mm2 •
(b) The maximum shear stress in the aluminium shaft.
Show that the shear strain at a point is linearly proportional to its distance from the
centre of the shaft.
Given Gstee1=3"1 Galuminium
[Ans. (a) 12"087 kNm (b) 4g·3 N / mm2 l
t3·6. STRESSES IN SHAFTS SUBJECTED TO TORQUE

(i) Shaft Subjected to Twisting Moment only. When a shaft is subjected to pure
torsion i.e., only to the twisting moment, maximum shear stress is developed on the surface on
q
----A
ql[Z]t,pl,m,nta,y
B-
q -- C s hear st ress·
.
complementary
:; hear stres s
~0
a, sio 0
Fig. 13·!3
the shaft as shown in Figure 13 · 13, where q is the maxi mum shear stress. The longitudinal
shear stress q shown is the complementary shear stress.
Consider a small element of unit thickness on the surface of the shaft. The stresses on
the planes AC and BC are the shear stresses q each.
Shear force on plane BC,
Q 1=q X BC X 1
Shear force on plane AC,
Q2 =q X A~ 1,
Re1?olvin$ these forcel, par~Hel and perpendicular to the inclined plane A.8,
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TORSION 665
0s Ts
(b) Angular twist per unit length = Ts = J._s_G_s
3'5 X 105
- -128- - -- -
,r X 80 X I05
where Gs=80 X 105 N/cm 2
= 1'09 x 10-4 radian=0'00623 degree.
(<;). Wh~n the torque is applied at a centre of the shaft, the torque will be equally
divided but the nature of the torque in one half portion of the shaft will be opposite to the
nature of the torque in the other half because the net angular twist between the fixed ends is
0A+0n=O, or 0A= - 0c,as shown in figure 13·11.
So, now the torque on steel shaft
Ts' =l'75 x 10s N cm
Torque on copper shaft
Tc'=2'25 X 105 N cm
~'1%,coppec shaft
A _ - . ~- . __ Ll
- __ B
Maxm. stress in steel shaft, TA(n

<
>:' i~C
<( < > ; '] T
34'815 l '
qs'= --,-- .L , <I •
2
= 17'407 N/mm2
Maximum stress in copper shaft, Fig. 13'11
23'90
qc'=-- = 11'95 N/mm 2
2
Exercise 13'5-l. A horizontal shaft 200 cm long, rigidly fixed at both the ends is
subjected to an axial twisting moment T1 = 30 tonne-cm and T2 = 30 tonne-cm at distance of 80
and 150 cm from one end. Both the twisting couples are acting in the same direction.
Determine the end fixing couples in magnitude and direction and find the diameter of the shaft
if the maximum shearing stress is not to exceed 1000 kg/cm 2 •
Determine also the section where the shaft suffers no angular twist.
[Ans. 10·5 tonne-cm, 10'5 tonne-cm; 4'63 cm-shaft diameter, 123'07 cm
from the end from which the distances for moments are given]
Exercise 13'5-2. A shaft o( 2m length is of different sections as shown in the

figure 13· 12. Determine the ratio of the torques in the portions I and II, if the diameter of the
portion II is 1·5 times the diameter of the _.
portion I. Determine the value of the torque T
T if the maximum shear stress in the shaft is ,------~
ij.~t to ex;ceed 80 N/mm2 and diameter of the
portion I is 40 mm.
[ Ans. L!_=!_i 4'063 k Nm

Tu 81 '
Fig. 13'12
Exercise 13'5-3. A solid circular steel shaft is enclosed in an aluminium hollow shaft
so as to make a compound shaft.
The diameter of the steel shaft is 60 mm and the outside diameter of the aluminium
~haft is 100 mm . This compound shaft is subJected to an axial torque T. Deierrµirw,
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STRENGTH OF MATEltlALS
qs, Maximum shear stress in steel shaft

16 Ts 19"364x 16
n X4 3 - n- x
64
= 1·5409 tonnes/cm2
Maximum shear stress in copper

Tc 5 20·636 5 .
= Jc x
2 = 17
n- x
2 =0 966 tonne/cm2
Example~13· S-3. A solid circular steel shaft is encased in a copper hollow shaft so
as to make a compound shaft. The diameter of the steel shaft is 8 cm and the outside dia-
meter of the copper shaft is 11 cm. The compound shaft of length 200 cm is subjected to an
axlnl torque of 8 kNm. Determine
(a) Maximum shear stress in steel and copper
(b) Angular twist per unit length
{c) .What will be the maximum stresses developed in the steel and copper if the torque
acts in the centre of the shaft and both the ends are securely fixed.
Given G steel = 2 G copper, G steel=80 kN/mm2
Solution. Torque on the composite shaft.

=80 kNm=8 x 105 N cm2
Say Ts=Torque shared by steel shaft
Tc=Torque shared by copper shaft
Ts ls = Tc le but ls=lc in this case and Gs=2Gc
Gs Js Ge Jc
.I!_= ..!E__ X Js = 2 _I!
Tc Ge Jc Jc
Polar moment of inertia, Js = ; (84)= 128 n- cm4

3
• • I'\"
Moment of inertia, Jc= (11 4 -84 )=329"53 n- cm4
32
So Ts = 2 X 128 n- . = 0- 77?
Tc 329·53 n-
Ts=o·777 T c
T = Ts+Tc
0·777 T c+ Tc=8 x 105 N cm
or Tc= 4;50x 105 N cm and Ts = 3·so x 105 N cm
(a) Maximum Shear Stress
Ts 3·5 X 106
In steel shaft, q, = Js x 4 = 128 R X
2
=3481·5 N/cm or 34.815 N/mm 2
_ Jc . _ 4·5 x 105 x 5·5
ln copper shaft, q.- Jc X 5 5 - 329"531t
=7390'72 N/ctn2 or 23·90 N/mQla
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TORSION :663
TBX/ 8 = 1'5615X0'6
Angular twist at D,
GJ GJ
Say ee1 represents 9c ex '0625
and DD1 represents 0v at l '5625
The position of the section where angular twist is zero can be determined from end A
'0625 )
x=O 6+0·4 ( . +. =0·6+0·0t 54
1 5625 0625
=0'6 154 m=61'54 cm from end A.
Fig. 13·9 shows the torque distribution diagram and angular twist variation diagram.
Example 13'5-2. A composite shaft is made by joining an 80 cm long solid steel shaft
with 80 cm long hollow copper shaft as shown in the Fig. 13'10. The diameter of the solid shaft
is 4 cm, while the external and internal diameters of hollow shaft are 5 cm and 3 cm respectively.
Determine the maximum shear stress developed in steel and copper shaft if the torque T applied
at the junction is 40 tonne-ems. · :~. ·
~
Given G steel=2 G copper
Solution. Polar moment of inertia of
solid shaft,
4 Solid steel shaft
TC X4
Js= - - =8rc cm4 copper
32
length, ls=80 cm shaft
Polar moment of inertia of copper
shaft,
Jc= _!!_ (54 -34)

32
= 17,; cm'
Angular twist in steel shaft
8s = 0c, angular twist in copper shaft Fig. 13'10
Say Ts=Torque shared by steel shaft
Tc=Torque shared by copper shaft
Now Ts x.J!.. = Tc X I!:_

Js Gs Jc Ge
but ls = lc and Gs = 2 Ge
So Ts = Js X Gs = ~ X Z=~
Tc Jc Ge 17 re 17
16
Ts = Tc
11
B Ts +Tc= 40 tonne-cm'
..!§_Tc+Tc= 40 or Tc = 20'636 tonne-ems
17
'.{'$=40 - 20'63(>= 19'364 tonn~-vtn~
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and 100 cm from the end A and are in the anticlockwise direction looking from the end A .
Determine the end fixing couples in magnitude and direction and calculate the diameter of the
shaft if the maximum shearing stress is not to exceed 80 N/mm2 •
Determine also the section where the shaft suffers no angular twist.
Solution.
Say the end fixing couple at A= TA
end fixing couple at B=Ts
Torque on the portion CD

= TA-2'5 kNm r,r~;y1 _L
·1. 5625
L: ::1 _
1& A A
Torque on the portion DB !i~4375·

=TA-2·5+4·0 Torque distribution r-1-
= 1'5+TA kNm ~ED
Total angular twist between A and B
= 01 +02+08
=0 (as both the ends are fixed) Fig. 13·9
0= TA. fi + (TA - 2'5)12 + (TA+ l'5) /3 ..··.:.
So
GJ GJ GJ
where = 0'6 m, 12= 0'4 m, 13 = 0'6 m
/1
TA x 0·6+(TA-2·5) x o·4+(TA+ 1·5) x 0·6= 0

, I
1'6 TA-1+0'9 = 0
0·1
TA =~=+·0625 kNm
TB = 1'5+ TA = 1'5625 kNm

Twisting moment in the middle portion CD
1, ., · . = 0'0625- 2'5=- 2'4375 kNm
Therefo~e' maximum twisting moment . .: \.. . . • • J ~. ~
:~.... :' :· ..u. ~:

= 2'4375 kNm = 2'4375 x 106 Nmm
Say the shaft diameter =D mm
Maximum shear stress; q= 80 N/mm 2
DS= 16 T 16 X 2'4375 X 106
rc X q re X80
= 155'1757 X 10a mms
D = S'372 X 10 mm
Shaft diameter, D= 53'72 mm
.... .::3
Angul~r _t lvist at C, .. 8c= T AG/1 0'06~ x o·6
i ;
1
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TORSlON 661:,
Angular twist in b oth the shafts at the junction is the same i.e.,
0,1 = 0n ... (1)
T .
8
Fig. 13·7
Say GA and Go are the modulii of rigidity of the materials of the shafts A and B ; 1A
and J n are their polar moments of inertia. Then,
BA= TA 11_ 80 = Tnln
GA 1A' Gnln
or
TAlA
GA 1A
Tnls
= GnJn or
TA
-- =lA- . GA
- .· -,/in
Tn Jo Go · IA
If the two portions are of solid circular sections as shown then,
rcDA4 rcDn4
J,1=-w and ls = ~
Now consider a shaft consisting of a

solid round bar encased in · a tube or hollow
shaft which may be of different material as
shown in Fig. 13'8, subjected t9 the torque T .
External torque T
= TA +Tn
A
= resisting torque of shaft A
+ resisting torque of hollow
shaft B
Again the angular twist in both the solid and hollow shafts is the same because both
are rigidly fixed together and there is no relative displacement between them when the torque
is applied,
So 8,1=80
TA IA Tnln
J,1G,1 = JnGn but IA = is in this case
TA GA lA
Tn = G;;x ·J B
4
~
Where lA= T
rcD
and Jn =
32 (D/•-D 1')
Example 13'5-1. A horizontal shaft 160 cm long, rigidly fixeq at both the ends is
subjected to axial twisting moments of T1 = 2'5 kNm and T 2 = 4'0 kNm at distances of 60 cm
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Determine the total angular twist in the shaft if G=8 X 10' kg/cm'
Solution. The dimensioned sketch of the shaft is shown in the Fig. 13 ·6.
Taking lengths 11 =50 cm, 1,=40 cm, ! 3 =60 cm
Diameters D 1 =3 cm, D,=5 cm, D,=4 cm, D 4 =6 cm·,
Polar moment of Inertia . i)
4
1,, 111811 .•
11X3
J1 = 81" m•
31=~C . _..~ l
-..~·-
11X 54 . 625 "

32 32
T
lOi~ " cm•
I
J,= ; 4
(6 -4 4)=
2
Fig.13'6
T, torque, = 100 kg-metre= 10,000 kg-cm
Angular, twist, 0= T[JL+Ja..+.I!

G J, J, J,
J
iOOOO [ 50X32 40x32
= 8xl05 11X8l +-;,x625 + 11Xl040
60x32 J
= io [6'288+0'652+0·588J
7' 528 0'0941 d'
ra ian= 5· 39°
.. ' I . =go""-=
Ex~.:W..e 13·4l A tapered circuli:r shaf~ 2 m long, having 80 mm diameter at one

end and 50 mm \liameter at the other end 1s subiected to a torque 5 kNm. Determine the
~gular twist in~ s~aft if G=84 kN/mm'. [Ans. 4'66 degrees]
Exercise('',4-2. A circular shaft ABC subjected to a twisting moment T has the
following dtmensLJs,
Length AB:'.50 cm, a hollow portion with external diameter 8 cm "and internal'
diameter 4 cm
Length BCc,;so cm, a tapered portion, 8 cm diameter at one end B and. 4 cm dia-
\ meter at the other end C.
DeterminP. ·J.e torque T to produce an angular twist of 3° in the shaft if G= 84 kN/n . , /
[Ans. 6'8~ ~~
13 5. COM~OUND SHAFTS .
.Consi.Aer a compound shaft consisting of two portions A and. B, which may

different mater\ials and different dimensions. The external torque T acts at the junct
the two portio11s.
, Exte~ria I torque, T=TA+Tn
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A+ Resisting
= Resisting torque at fixed end
... _,.:a D
torque a
I
A I twist B= EI!_ X (D, +D,D, + D,
2 2
)
ngu ar},' 3,, G D,' D,•
Now let s consider another case of a
shaft of varying. iameters in steps as shown
in Fig. 13·5 sub~ected to a twisting moment T. ,TT-,-~11, -
There are thre'\e portions of the shafts with 6
di\!,.!l]J\ters 1). i, V~ and D3 and axial lengths 1,, D3 D2
. h 2 ant., ,,. .i;spectJVely.
Polar moment of inertia of the sections T
are
"D,•
J,=32
nD.' Fig. 13·5
J,=~
The total angular twist between the ends A and B is
Tl,
0= 01 +e ,+e,= GJ, Tl, Tl,
+ GJ, + GJ,
=I....[J,_
G J,
+..IL+~
J, J,
J
Exatnple 13'4-1.• A tapered circular shaft, 100 cm long having 6 c
end and 4 cm dia.neter at the other end is subjected to a torque so as to r,
twist of l '5°. Determine the required torque if G=80,000 N/mm•
Solution.
Length of the shaft = 100 cm
Diameter, D1 =4 cm
D,=6 cm
Modulus of rigidity, G=8 X 106 N/mm'
Angular twist, 6=1'5°=\'5 X ; = ; radia11
1 0 1 0
= 32 Tl ( D,'+D,D,+D,')
3,, G D13 D,3 _
Substituting the values we get
I
f \! " 32 TX 100 ( 36+24+ 16 ·)
120 = 31'X8Xl0 6 216X64
L, ... 3,, 2 xsx 10• 216x64
\ Torque, . T 120X3200 X -76=112202'32 Ncn
1 l· .
i = l 122·02 Nm
\ A circular shaft ABCD, subjected to a twisting
1 Example 13'4-2.
etihas the following dimensions.
I jJ .
. . •
Length AB=60 cm, a hollow portion with ~xter;

meters 6 cm and 4 cm
BC=40 cm, a solid portion with diameter
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c.D=50 cm, a solid portion with ~eter 3
, .
·.658 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
124 _D 14= 143000X 192 =l 4566

,; X 600
D 14=20736-14566=til 70
Internal diameter
Exercise 13·3-1. A solid circular shaft of diameter 6 cm is transmitting 80 horse
power at 200 revolutions per mmute. Determine the maximum shear stress developed in
the shaft. [Ans. 1350·95 kg/cm2)
Exercise 13.3-2. A hollow shaft of internal diameter 50 mm and external diameter
100 mm is transmitting horse power at 250 revolutions per minute. What maximum horse
power can be transmitted if the maximum shear stress in the shaft is not to exceed 70 N/mm2.
[Ans. 45"22]
13·4. SHAFTS OF VARYING DIAMETERS
Let us consider a circular shaft of

length /, tapered from a diameter D 2 to D1
over the length/, as shown in the Fig. 13"4.
The shaft is subjected to an axial torque T.
Consider a small strip of length dx at
a distance of x from the end of diameter D 2.
Diameter of the shaft at the section,
D.=D2-( D2~D1 ) x
=Dz-kX
- D 2 -D1
where k- l Fig. 13·4
Polar moment of inertia of strip section,

J = rr.D,, 4 _ ,;(D 2 - kx) 4
" 32 - 32
Angular twist over the l_e ngth dx ,
dO = Tdx _ 32 Tdx
G lx - G X 7(D2 - kx) 4
Total angular twist, e-J

-
I
32 T dx
Gn(D 2 -kx) 4
0
32 T
3 Gnk
[ 1 1
(D 2 -k[)S - D,l
J
, Puttin~ the value of k
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TORSION :M,-1
E:1eercise 13'2-2. A torsion test specimen of gauge length ,20 cm and diameter 2 cm,
when tested under torsion failed at a torque of 4250 kg-metre. Determine the modulus of
rupture of the material. [Ans. 2705'6 kg/cmZ]
13·3. HORSE POWER TRANSMITTED BY SHAFT
If a shaft subjected to torque T is rotating at N revolutions per minute, then

power transmitted by the shaft in one minute = 2n'NT
HP, Horse power transmitted by the shaft= 7 !~:~o if Tis in Nm as 1 watt= 1 Nm
. . HP = 2nNT 1'f T 1s
metnc . m. k g-metre.
4500
There is slight difference between metric horse power and horse power.
The maximum shear stress developed on the surface of the shaft will be
q= ~~ in case of solid shaft of diameter D
q= T't'(i>!~~ 14
) in case of hollow shaft of diameters D 1 and D2 •
Example 13'3-l. The maximum shearing stress developed in 80 mm steel shaft is

60 N/mm2 • If the shaft rotates at 300 revolutions per minute, find the horse power transmitted
by the shaft.
Solution. D, shaft diameter =80 mm

Maximum shearing stress, q= 60 N/mm 2
Torque on the shaft, T't'D 3 q rt X803

T=
16 = 16
x 60
= 6031'8 X 103 Nmm = 6031'8 Nm

Number of revolutions/ per minute, N = 300
HP transmitted _ 2rcNT_ 2'71'X300X6031'8=

- 746 X 60 746 X60 254 .
Example 13'3-2. A hollow shaft of external diameter 12 cm is transmitting 400

metric horse power at 200 revolutions per minute. Determine the internal diameter if the
maximum stress in the shaft is not to exceed 600 kg/cm 2 •
Solution. Metric horse power = 400

Revolutions per minute = 200
m HP X 4500 400 X 4500
Torque, T 2rcN = 2rc x 200
= 1430 kg-metres=I43,000 kg-cm.
Now Xq
X600
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-fiS6 STRENGTH OF MATtikt:ALS
13"2. MODULUS OF RUPTURE
.
The torsion formula J
T
= -G0 = Rq
has been derived taking the assumption that shear
1
stress is proportional to shear strain, i.e., the proportional limit of the material is not exceeded.
Many a times it is desired to . determine the maximum torque at which the shaft fails by
fracture.
It has been observed experimentally that even after crossing the proportional limit, a
circular section remains a circular section of the same diameter upto the angular twist at the
ultimate stage. This shows that the strain at a point is still proportional to its distance from
the centre while the stress at a point is no longer proportional to its distance from the centre of
the shaft.
I
Stress 0
A
Torq ue lStrai r,
I
I
Fig. 13'3
Fig. 13·3 shows a torsion test specimen of diameter D and gage length l 0and shear
stress and shear strain distribution along the radius of the shaft at the st age of fracture. ·
Say Tma~= maximum torque at which the test piece is broken
Max. shear stress, q' =

16
[;;t" (for a solid shaft)
i6Tn1 a~ D2 f
= n(D24 _Di4) ( or a hollow shaft)
· Toi'§ rt\ajEifrlum sliear stress calculated by using the origihal Torsion formula ls ternit!d
'. as iliBchlili~ of hif>tUi'e.It cart be observed that it is hot the actual shear stress at the si.itface
but it is a hyphothetical stress which would exist if the shear stress-shear strain curve is a
sb'aigl\t litte or tlit sliear stress distribution is linear along the radius of tfie shaft. Howev~r
if the modulus of ru~iure i<i known for a itiatetial, the torque teq uited to produce fracture in
the shaft can be determined.
Example 13'2-l. A t orsion test specimen of __gage length 250 mm and diameter
i .s..mm,1 when test~d ijnder torsion failed at a torque of 828 Nm. Determine the modulus of
rilfjtlife fa··tM hiaffirial. .
SSlufioia. TdrEj_ue at failute, T=828 Nrh=828bOO Nmin
Shaft dlameter, D= 25 mm
16T 16 x 828000
Mochilus of tupturc1 q= TTP~ = n X ~25)3 = 269'9 N/ m~2
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TORSION 655
J= ; (64 -4 4 ) = 163.5"63 cm 4
Angular tw ist 8= I 5
• 0
= 1·sxi.
180
Tt
= 120 d"
ra w n
Modulus of rigidity, G= 8 X 105 kg/cm2

5
Torque, T = !}~,!_ -· 8 X I0 X tt X 1633"63
1 -- 200 X 120
= 1"7i x 10:; kg-cm
Shear stress at outer surface,
T J ·71 X10 5
q= J X Rj = 1633" 63 X6 = 628 "05 kg/cm 2
Shea r stress at inner surface,
Example 13"1-3. A circular shaft of 25 mm diameter is tested under torsion. The

gauge length of the test specimen is 250 mm . The torque of 2120,000 Nmm produces an
angular twist of 1°. Determine the modulus of rigidity of the shaft.
Solution. Diameter of the shaft= 25 mm=D

'7TD4 nX25 4
Polar moment of inertia, J= = 38349"6 mm4
32 32
Angular twist, 8 = 10 = .,,

ra d"1an.
180
Torque, T = 2120,000 Nmm
length = 250 mm
Modulus of rigidity, G= Tl__ 212oooo x 2so x 1so 79 . 18 x lMN/mm2 •

0] - 7t X 38349"6
Exercise 13·1-1 A steel shaft for which the modulus of r igidity is s·2 x 105 kg/cm2 is
twisted by 2° in a length of 2SO cm. The diameter of the shaft is 8 cm. Determine the torque
required and the maximum shear stress developed. [Ans. 449 kg-metre,- 132 kg/cm 2 ]
Exercise 13"1-2. A hollow circular steel shaft having 100 mm external diameter and
60 mm internal diameter is subjected to a twisting moment of 6 kNm. Determine
(a) Shear stress at the inner and outer surfaces of the shaft.
(b) Angular twist over 2 metres length of the shaft.
G for steel=80 kN/mm 2 • [Ans. 21"06 N/mm2, 35·1 N/mm2, 1·01 degree]
Exercise 13·1-3. A hollow shaft having 4 cm external diameter and 2 cm internal
diameter is tested under torsio n. The gage length of the test specimen is 40 cm. A torque of
6200 k~-cm produces an an~ular twist of 1·s
0
l)etermine the modulus of rigidity of the shaft.
•
(Ans. 4"0?, X 105 k~/cm 2]
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= Polar moment of inertia of

a hollow circular section
T GO q q,
1 =-,- = R
2
=r ... (3)
Fig. 13'2 shows the shear stress distri-
bution along the radius of the hollow shaft.
Maximum shear stress occurs at the outer
radius R 2 and minimum shear stress occurs at
the inner radius R 1 .
F ig . 13·2
Exam.pie 13·1-1. A circular steel shaft of 30 mm diameter is subjected to a torque of

0"56 kNm. Determine,
(a) The maximum shear stress developed in the shaft
(b) Angular twist over I metre length ?f the shaft
(c) The shear stress at a point which is at a distance of 1 cm from the centre of the
shaft. G for steel -:-82 x 103 N/mm2.
Solotion.
Diameter, D = 30 mm
Radius, R=l5 mm
Torque, T = 0·56 kNm = 0"56 x 106 Nmm
54
Polar moment of inertia = 1t x; = 79521"75 mm~
(a) Maximum shear stress,

T 0"56 X J06
q= T X R = L• X 15= 105"63 N/mm2
7952 75
(b) Length of the shaft = 1 m = 1000 mm
0"56X 10°x 1000
Angular twist, e=IL
GJ 82 x 10a x 7952 L·75 = 0"0858 radia n
=4"92°
(c) Shear stress at t = l cm = IO mm
63
qr= L X r= IOS- X 10 = 70"42 N/mm 2
R 15
I
Exam.pie 13'1-2. A steel shaft for which the m.)dulus of rigid ity is 8x 105 kg/c~2 i·s·
twisted by 1°30' in a length of 2 metres. The shaft is hollow with inside diameter 8 cm and
outside diameter 12 cm. Determine the torque required.
Calculate the stresses at the inner and outer surfaces of the shaft.
Solution. Polar moment of inertia,
i.
J= (R/·- R/•)
2 I '
R 2=6 cm, R 1 = 4 cm, length l=2 m= 200 cm
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Shear stress developed at radius r
,. q. r
= q=q-
r
- -R
D/2-
Shear force on the elementary ring,
q.r q21er 2
oF= 21er dr -R -- =-r dr
Moment of the shear force on ring a bout the centre of the shaft,
2nr2 2rrr 3
oT= ~ q.dr.r = ·y q dr
T--otal twisting moment of resistance,

R R
T= J2;·3 q . dr= 2;q ,.a_dr l
0 0
_ J-
- R
q x R_4 _
4 - R \
_:f_ ( rcR~)
2
4
But 1e: =l, polar moment of inertia of the solid circular section
Therefore ... (2)
where q = maximum shear stress at radius R

q, = shear stress at radius r
R~ Radius of the shaft
rcR 4 1eD 4
J=-2- =32
Hollow Shaft
Say R1 =inner radius or D1 = inner diameter
R2 =outer radius D 2 = outer diameter
Twisting moment of resistance,
Rs
21er 8
R2 i
T= - - qdr
R1
because maximum shear q occurs at the mnimum radius which is R2 i.e., the outer radius in a
hollow shaft
= ]2 x J
Where J = 1- (R24- R~')= ;2 (/)2•-D-i•)
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Sh.ENGTH OF MATERIALS
(b) The shaft is not distorted initially.

(c) The displacement at a p oint in the shaft is proportional to its distance from the
ceiatre of the shaft or consequently the shear strain at a p oint is proportional to its distance
froin the centre of the shaft.
(d) Cross sections perpendicular to the axis of the shaft which are plane before the
shaft isJ wisted remain plane after the shaft is subjected t o the twisting moment.
(e) The twist is uniform along the length of the shaft.
13"1 SHEAR STRESS AND ANGULAR TWIST IN SHAFT
If a shaft, is acted upon by a pure torque T (meaning thereby that there is no bending
moment Mon the shaft) about its polar axis 001 , shear stress will be set up on all transvetsp
sections as shown, in Fig. 13 · 1. · •
To investigate the shear strain, shear stress and angular twist produced in the shaft
under torque T, consider ~ circular shaft of diameter D, length / fixed at one end and subjected
to the torque T on the other enq. At the fixed end there will be equa l and o pposite reaction
to torque T. A line Ct, initially drawn on the shaft parallel to the shaft axis has taken the
new position CA' after the sh aft is twisted. The angle !:.AC A' is called the shear angle ,f, or
shear strain and the an¥le L AOA' is called the angular twist, 0.
At any radius r at a d istance of / from the fixed end, the peripheral displacement
BB' = r(J
Shear angle, or shear strain
BB' 8
,f,, = - - = r - - or ¢,r G( r
1 1
Say the shear stress at radius r is q,
Then ~ =r T where G= Modulus of rigidity of the material
(J
q,= r - -. G or q, C( r
1
i e., shelf strain q)r and shear stress q, at any radius are proportional to r~ . The maxi-
mum value of shear stress will correspond to the maximum value of r i.e., at the surface of the
shaft.
D
Say shear stress at the surface = q at r= -
2
D 0
So q= - · x
2 1 .G
q 6 q GB D
D/ 2 7f = -,- where R= - ... (1)
or = -
1 x G or 2
Moreover it has been shown in Fig. 13' I (c) that t he angular twist at any section is
proportional to its distance from the fixed end and 0/ I is a unique value for a particular shaft
subjected to a certain amount of torque. Therefore, the shear stress at a particular radius on
a ll transverse sections of the shaft is the same.
Let us determine the torque which is tra nsmitted from section to section. Consider
an elementary ring of thickness a, at the radius r [Fi~. 13·1 (d)] .
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13
Torsion
The shafts carrying the pulleys, gears etc., and transmitting power are subjected to the
twisting moments. '!he shaft is distorted when it is transmitting power. To determine the
angular twist and the shear strain developed in the shaft under the twisting moment or the
torque, following assumptions are taken :
(a) The material is homogeneous and isotropic i.e., its elastic properties arc the same at
all the points of the body and in all the directions.
'·
•f1!'• I
/
t-----
Cb) Variation of sh ear a nole along the raciius at o

parti~ular secti on. ·
t/.
'\::~
l t'-1
~o
et·-a-,-e-=-a.-f.i..
I
Variation of she or stress
(c) Variation of angular twist along along the radius
the length . (d)
Fig. 13·1
(651)
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mid span. On CD, there is another concentrated load of 8 tonnes at a distance of 1 m from
end D. Determine support moments and support reactions. Draw a dimensioned B.M.
diagram for the beam. [Ans. - 4 Tm, - 4'625 Tm, 0; 8'843 T, 8'314 T, 4'843 T]
12·11. A continuous beam ABC, having equal spans AB= BC= l carries a uniformly
distributed load of w per unit length on whole of its length. The beam is simply supported at
the ends. If the support B sinks by 8 below the level of the supports A and C, show that
reaction at B is
R B= ~ - 6E/8
4 /8
12·12. A continuous beam ABC of length 8 m is supported over two spans AB and
BC of equal lengths. A concentrated load 20 kN is applied at the mid point of AB and a
concentrated load of 60 kN is applied at the mid point of BC. Determine the slope at the
supports A, Band C. E= 200 kN/mm2, / = 20,000 cm4
[Ans. 0, - 0·5 x 10-s radian, +1·ox 10-s radian]
12'13. A continuous beam ABCD, 10 m long, fixed at end A, supported over spans
AB and BC, both -i m long has an overhang CD = 2 m. There is a concentrated load of
5 tonnes at the centre of AB and a uniformly distributed load of 1'5 tonnes/metre run from B
to D. While the supports A and C remain at one level, support B sinks by 2 mm. The
moment of inertia of the beam from A to S-is 2000 cm4 and from B to D it is 1500 cm 4 • If
£ = 2000 tonnes/cm\ determine the support moments and support reactions.
[Ans, - 3-38 Tm , - 1' 04 Tm, - 3 Tm ; 3'085 T. 4'425 f , 6·490 T]
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FIXED AND CONTINUOUS BP.AMS 649
12·2. A steel girder 20 cm deep has a spau of 4 metres and is rigidly built in at both
the ends. The , loads on the girder consists of a uniformly distributed load of 30 kN/metre
run on the whole span and a point loan Wat the centre of the span. Find the required point
load if the maximum stress due to bending is not to exceed 80 N/mm2 •
The section of the girder is symmetrical about XX and YY axis. I.:11=8000 cm 4.
Determine also the maximum deflect ion. E = 200 kN/mm2 •
[Ans. 48 kN ; -2·25 mm]
12·3. A beam of span l is fixed at both the ends. A couple Mis applied to the beam
at its. centre, about a rule horizontal axis at right angles to the beam. Determine the fixing
cou]5les at e_a ch support and slope at the centre of the beam. EI is the flexural rigidity of the
beam.
[ Ans. AJ (in the same direction at both the ends), Mt ]

16 EI
12·4. A rung of a vertical ladder is in the horizontal plane. Rung is perpendicular to
the vertical sides of the ladder. Length of the rung is 4B and distance between the rungs i& B.
Ladd';!r is made of a circular steel section. If a vertical load W is carried in the middle of a
pattici.Ilat rung, find the twisting moment at the ends of the rung. E, 1eci=208 icN/mn\2,
G,teei=80 kN/mm 2 [Ans. 0'303 WB]
12·s. A fixed beam of length / carries a linearly increasing distributed load of intensity
zero at the left hand end to w per unit length at the right hand end. Determine (i) support
reactions and (ii) support moments. Given EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam.
[ Ans. 0·15 wl, 0·35 wl; _:_ ~~

2
, -1~ J
12·6. A conti@ous beam ABC, 12 m long is supported on two spans AB=BC= 6 m.
Span AB carries a uniformly distributed load of I '5 T/m run and span BC carries a uniformly
distributed load of 2·4 T/m run. The moment of inertia e,f the beam for the span AB is / 1 and
that for the span BC is 12 • If I 1 = ! / 2 , determine support reactions and support moments.
[Ans. 3· 15 T, 14·4 T, 5'85 T; Ms=8' 1 Tm]
12'7. A continuous beam ABC of length 12 m, with span AB and BC each 6 m long,
carries a uniformly distributed load of 1·5 T/m run from the end A upto the centre of AB and
from the end C upto the centre of CB. D etermine the reactions and moments at the supports.
[Ans. 2'885 T, 3"230 T, 2'885 T; Ms =- 2·954 Tm]
12·s. A continuous beam ABCD, 18 m etres long, rests on supports A, Band C at the
same level; AB= 6 m, BC= IO m. The loading is 2 tonnes/metre run throughout and in
addition a concentrated load of 4 tonnes acts in the centre of the span BC and a load of
2 tonnes acts at D. Determine the reactions and moments at the supports. Draw the B.M.
diagram . [Ans. 2"75, 22·4, 16"85 T; 0, -19·5 Tm, -8 Tm]
12·9, A continuous beam ABCD, 15 m long supported over 3 equal spans AB, BC and
CD. Span AB carries a point load of 8 Tonne_s at its centre. Span BC carries a uniformly
distributed load of 2 tonnes/metre run throughout its length and span CD carries a point load
of 6 Tonnes at its centre. The level of the f;Upport C is 5 mm below the levels of A, Band D.
Determine support moments and support reactions. E = 2000 tonnes/cm2, /=12000 cm4
[Ans. M s =- 5'366 Tm , M c = - 3"156 Tm; 2·927, 10'515, 8'189 T and 2"369 T]
12·10. A continuous beam ABCD, IO m long supported over two spans BC and CD,
each 4 m long, has an overhang AB of 2 m. The ov~rhang portion is loaded with a uniformly
gistributed load of 2 tonnes/ metre run . On BC: there 1s a concentrated load of lQ T onnes a~ th9
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5. · A'beam fixed at both the ends carries a uniformly distributed load of 10 k N/m over its
,i entire'span 'of 6 m. The berrd'ing moment at 'the' centre· of the beam, is
(a) 1S kNm (b) 30 kNm
(c) 45 kNm (d) ,60 kNm
,,6) .,A: beani\@f length 4 ,m, fixed at both·the ends .carries a concentrated load at its centre .
. ;4f 1W,=6' t.@nnes and,E/forthe beam is 2000 tonne-metre2 , deflection at the centre of the
beam is
,, ·• (<ll}"o·1. mm (b) l'Omm
(c) 10 mm (d) None of the above
)-/
A continuous beam 8 m long, supported over two spans 4 m long each, carries .a Ulili-
formly distributed load of I tonne/metre run over its entire length. The support moment
at the central s,u pporris
(a) 2 Tm (b) 3 Tm
I
1
(t) 4lfm (d) ·4·5 Tm (Tonne-metres)
. .,, ,J,.) 1,
' .
1 8. 'J\'cort\.inuous' beam 12 m long, supported over two spans 6 m each, carries ·a concentrated
load 40 kN each at the centre of each span. The bending moment · at ' the central
support is
(a) 90 kNm (b) 60 kNm
(c) 45 kNm (d) 30 kNm
9. A fixed beam of length /, sinks at one end by an amount ll, If EI is the flexural rigidity
of the beam, the fixing couple at the ends is
(a) El 8/12 ·' .~ · ~b) ·3·El ·8/l2
(c) 6 El 8/12 (d) 6 El 8//3
I
10. A continuous beam 8 m long, supported over two spans 4 m each, carries a uniformly
distributed load of 1 tonne/metre run\ over its entire length. If the reaction·at one end
supports is 2·5 Tonne, the react.ion at the central support will be
(a) 1·5 Tonnes (b) 3 Tonnes
(c) 4 Tonnes (d) 5·Tonnes
ANSWERS
> 1. . (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a)

\. !
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b)
EXERCISE
I
•· • 12'1;'" A girde'r of 9 m span is fixed horizontally at the ends. A downward vertical

•1
load of 4 Tonnes acts on the girder at a distance of 3 metres from the left hand end and
an upward vertical force of 4 Tonnes acts on the girder at a distance of 3 metres from the
right hand end. Determine the reactions and fixing couples. Draw the SF and BM diagrams
for t4e (?eam, · ~A,ns. :;l:1'92q Tonnes i =f2'667 Tonne-µietersJ
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FIXED AND CONT JNUOUS BEAMS
8. For the two consecutive spans AB= Ii and BC= /2 of a continuous beam carrying
any type of loading, theorem of 3 mo ments is as follows (when A, B and C supports are at the
same level) ·
(i) M A l1 +2MB (li+l1)+Mcl2+

6
~:il ~:i2
+
6
=0
where a1 :t\ = first moment of Mx bending moment diagram for span AB, considering
the origin at A. (In M, diagram span AB is considered independently as
simply supported)
a 2 x2 = .first m oment of M,, bending m o ment diagram for span BC, considering
C to be the origin.
(ii) if support B is below the level of A by o1 and below the level of C by o2, theorem
of 3 moments will be
MA . li+2Mn(fi + L2)+ Mcl2 + 6a1x'1 + 6a2x' 2 _ 6EI! 1 _ 6E/o2 =O.

/1 /2 /1 /2
9. For the two consecutive spa ns AB= /1 and BC= /2 of a continuous beam, if the end
A is fixed and spans carry any type of loading, a n imaginary span AA' of length zero can be
considered by the side of BA and theo rem of 3 moments is m odified as follo ws (for span A' A
(zero length) and AB) : -
2MAl1 +Mnl 1 + 6 a1(~:-xi) 0
where a 1 = area of Mx bending moment diagram for span AB
x1 = distance of CG of area a1 from end A.
MULTIPLE CHOICE Q.UESTIONS
I. A beam of length 6 metres carries a concentrated load 60 kN at its centre. The beam is
fixed at the both the ends. The fixing couple at the ends is
(a) 90 kNm (b) 60 kNm
(c) 45 kNm (d) 30 kNm
2. A beam of length I fixed at both the ends carries a uniformly distributed load w per unit
length, throughout the span. The bending moment at the ends is
(a) w/ 2/4 (b) wf2/8
(c) w/2/ 12 (d) w/ 2/16
3. A b eam of length /, fixed at both the ends carries a concentrated load W at its centre.
If El is the flexural rigidity of the beam, the m aximum deflection in the beam is
(a) W/3/192 EI (b) W/3/96 EI
3
(c) W/ /48 El (d) None of the above
4. A .beam of length/, fixed at both the ends carries a uniformly distributed load of w per
Uillt length. If EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam, then maximum deflection in the
beam is
(a) 5 w/4/384 EI (b) w/4/384 EI
(c) w/4/48 EI (d) 111/4 / 192 El
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.... ·,
646 StRENGtlI OF MAtE.R IAts
SUMMARY
,, , 1. If a beam is fixed at both the ends, then slope and deflection at both the ends
are zero.
2. For a fixed beam. AB, of length I ax+a'x' = O
~hete · ' ax= first moment of the area a of the B.M. diagram about the point A (con-
sidering the beam to be simply supported at the ends)
a'x' = first moment of area a' of the B.M. diagram due to support moments,
about the point A
~ I
= (MA+2Ms)
6 and a' = (MA+Ms)
2 .
3. For a beam AB of length /, fixed at both the ends carrying a concentrated load W
at its eentre,
,·. ,. -Wl
Fixing couples, MA = Mn =
8
WI
B.M. at the centre of the beam=+
8
. -w1a
Deflect10n, y.,.a.,= EI (at the centre).
192
4. For a beam AB of length /, fixed at both the ends carrying a uniformly distributed
load w throughout its length
/2
Fixing couples, M A= Ms =- w
12
w/2
B.M. at the centre of the beam =+ 24
I' / , . w/4
Deflect10n, ym 0 .,=- EI (at the centre).
384
,. •. 1 5. For a beam AB of length/, fixed at both the ends, carrying a load Wat a distance
of a from end A, ( a< ~ )
. . coup1es, M A= - -Wab2 Wa2 b

F1xmg -2 - , Ms = - ~
1
. Wb (b+3a 2 _ Wa 2 (a + 3b)
Reactions, R11= 13 an d R s - za
· 2 Wa 2b 3
Deflection, yma~ = - 3 (a+ 3b) 2 El'
6. In a fixed beam, if one support sinks by o, then fixing couple at the ends due to
sinking of support is §J;§ where/ is the length between th e supports.

7. For the two consecutive spans AB and BC of a continuous beam, carrying
uniformly distributed load w1 over AB of length /1 and w2 over BC of length / 2 , Clapeyron's
the0rem of 3 moments gives the express ion for support moments MA, Ms, Mc as
'M..t/i-+ 2/lfs(l1 + l2) + Mcl2 + Wit+ wtz8 = 0.
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FJXED AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS
10 MA+ MB=- 260'416X6 _ 6 X210X 106 X 18000X 10-8 X '001

So 5
5 5
·10 MA+5MB=-312"5-45'36 =- 351"86 ... (2)
Again using the theorem of 3 moments for the spans AB. and BC and-noting , that B is
below A and C by 1 mm and rpoment of inertia for AB is 18000 cm 4 and for BC it is 12000-cm4,
5MA + 2MBX5 + 2MBX4 + 4Mc
I1 11 /2 12
=_ -~a 1 x1 _ 6a2x"2
Iifi
+ 6£/101 + -r;_r;-
6£/202 h
w ere 1>1=ll2=
'OO
l m
1212 1111
Multiplying throughout by / 1 we get
5MA + IOM B+8MB x iL + 4Mc x !i = - .6a x

12 / 2
1
11
1
-
6a2 x2 x .!L + 6Ef1 I>
12 12 11
+ (yE/1 °·. .(3)
/2

18000 \ ( 18000
5MA+ IOMB + 8MBX ( )+4McX 12000 )
12000
6x260"416 6 X 160 X ( 18000 )
5 4 12000
+6x210Xl06 Xl8000xl0-sx·oo1 ( ~ + !)
or 5MA+22MB+6Mc= -3 l 2'5- 360+ 102'06
5MA +22MB+6(-20) = - 570· 44
5MA+22MB= -510'44 + 120= -450'44 ... (4)
From equation (2)
5MA + 2'5MB = - 118"93 ... (5)
or From equations (4) and (5)
19·5 MB= -271'51 or MB=- 13'92 kNm
MA=- 28'83 kNm and Mc = -20 kNm.
Support reactions. Taking moments about the point B,
- 20x5+4Rc -40 X2 = MB, or 4Rc = -13'92+180
Reaction, Rc= 41'52 kN
Taking moments about the point A
- 20X I0 +9Rc+5RB - 40 x. 1- 5 X lO X 2'5=MA
- 200+ 9 x 41 ·s2+5RB - 2so- 12s = -:- 28'83
SRn =- 28'83 + 605 - 373'68 or 5RB = 202'49
1 · 11
..
i
Reaction, Rn= 40'5 kN

So Reaction, RA = 5 x 10+ 40 + 20- 41 '52-40'50= l lOL.. 82 02= 27""98 kN
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·644 . STRENGl;H,OF MATElUAtS
w12 w12
EI in= 0 - 0 - - - , or in = - E I
8 8
But the slope will be positive at B, i.e., in=+ : ; because we have reversed the
direction of x .
Problem 12·1s. A continuous beam ABCD, 10 m long, fixed at end A, supported
over spans AB and BC ; AB= 5 m and BC= 4 m with overha ng CD = 1 m . There is a uni-
formly distributed load of 10 kN/ m over AB, a concentrated load 40 kN at the centre of BC
and a concentrated load 20 kN at the free end D. While the supports A and C rema_in at are
level and the support B.sinks ,b y 1 mm. The moment of inertia of the beam, f·r0m A to B
is 180,00 cm4 and from B t o D is 12000 cm 4 • If E = 210 GN/m2, determine the support
moments and support reactions.
Solution. Fig. 12·34_ shows a con-
tinuous beam ABCD, fixed at A supported d
over AB and BC with overhang CD. The
span A B = 5 m, BC=4 m an d overhang
CD = 1 m. On span AB, a ud_l o f 10 kN/ m
and on span BC, a point load 40 kN acts. At 20 kN
the free end there is , a concentrated load of
20 kN. t: - - - P.:i::n::¢:Y;X::a::J¥ ---l-...:...._:...:t-J
First of all let us construct the M"
diagrams for AB and BC.
B.M. at the centre of AB 5m - -1-4--4 m
w/2 1oxs2 AA" :-28-83 kNm
= - 8 = . 8 . ='• 31'25
. kNm = a b
I
se: =-13·92 kNm
as shown in the Figure . The curve AbB is a CC :: - 20 kNm
parabola. w : 10kN/m
B.M. under the central load, span BC
4 Fig. 12·34
= WI = 40 x =40 kNm = cd
4 8
as shown in the Fig. 12'34.
OriginatB, a1~\ = 31'25 X 5 X ~ X2"5 = 260'416kNm3
Origin at A, a 1x1 = 2~0'416 kNm_3

I 4
Origin at B, a 2 x2 = 40 X ~ 2= 160 kNm 3
2
Origin at C, a2x 2= 40 X ~ X 2= 160 kNms
Support Moments. Support moment at C , M c= - 20 x 1 = - 20 kNm

Consider an imaginary span A ' A of length O using the theorem of 3 moments (with
sinking suport) for spans A' AB.
MA'X O +2 M A (O +~) + 5Mn = - 6a1x1 + 6EI11 s ... (l )
/1 /1 11 11/i /1 1
because moment of inertia is different in two portions, the theorem of 3 moments has been
modified as above. Moreover level of B is 1 mm below the level of A or in ·other words leve
of A is I mm higher them the level of B so o= -1 mm. E = 210 X 109 N / m2= 210 x 106 kN/ m 2
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l>hCEt> AND CONTINUdlJS BEAMS 643
3 3
- W(l + n)== - - W
32 8
l+n= 4 or n=3
3 3W/
So Mc= - - Wl(l+n) = - -
32 8
Reaction, R,4 = -
w
8
To determine reaction RB let us take moments about the point C
I
Rc x l-nW x = Mc
2
Rc X l-1'5 Wl= -·375 WI, or Rc= t·125 W
Slope at C. Substituting x=l in equation (4)

. • /2 w 12 w12 w/2
Elzc=RA.
2 - 2 x 4 + 48 - 48
W 12 W/2 w12
=8X2--8- =- ) 6
W/2
ic = - 16 El
Slope at B. To determine slope at B, let us consider a section in the portion CB,

taking origin at B
d2 = Re . x - (3WJ ( x - -
EI -2... /) as 11 = 3
dx 2 2
= 1'125 Wx - 3w( x- ~)
Integrating two times the equation (6)
2 3W (
El
dy
dx =Re . Tx - -2- x- 2l )2 +ca .. . (7)
Ely= l'l25
x
W6 -
3
3W (
-6- x- TI )a+cax+C4
· ... (8)
C4 = 0 because y = O at x = O at end B.
Moreover y = O at x = lat point C
w1a W
So O= l'l25-- -
6 2 x ( 81a ) +C3 /
W/2 1· 125 W/ 2 12Wl2 w12
Ca = J(5 - 6 - ~= - -8-
)2
cl; = Re . 2x
2
d
El - 23 W ( x- 2I w12
--8-
dy . . . ( x- ' ) t
But at x = 0 , dx =rn, o m11tmg 2 . erm.
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; (5.42 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
I
M c= - - } WI ll +n) .. . (1)
3
where MA=Mn= O
as the beam is simply supported at the ends
Taking moments about C
Wl 3
RA. 1- = M c=- Wl(l + n)
2 32
RAI= ~I - ; WI (l + n)
2
W 3W
RA =
2 - 32 (t +n) .. . (2)
Now consider a section X-X a t a distance of x from end A
B.M. on the section as shown = RA. x- ~( x- ~ )
or
2
EI d y = R,ix- _w {x- .!....) ... (3)
dx 2 2 \ 2
= RA .E,__ ~ ( x-_}__ ) + c 1
2
EI dy ... (4)
~ 2 2 2
Integrating equation (4) also
Ely= RA . ~
Constant of integration, C 2 = 0
3
-
because at x = O,
~( x - -~
y=O
r +C1 x+C2 ... (5)
Moreover at x = I, y= O
So Ja W{ I a
O= RA. 6 - 6 \ 2) +C1l
or w12 12
Constant of integration, C1 = ~ - RA.
6
E!y = RA ~
3
- r( ~ r+( :~
x-
2
-RA. ~) X ••• (5)
Moreover El
dy
dx- x2 W
= RA. 2- -2
(
x- 2-/ )2 +(w12
48 - RA.
12 )
. .. (4)
6
But at x=O, t} = 0 as given in the problem.
Omitting the term ( x- ~ )

2 12
EI X 0 = 0- 0+-W/ - RA or
48 6
W 3W W
R,1= 7: - n
(l + •z) = S
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Reaction, Re = Mn + !:!_212_
/2 2
w111 _i iv2 / 2
R n = w1 I1 + W 2 I2 - R , 1 - R c= - Mn" Mn
Reaction, - ,- - - - - - - - -
2 2 /1 .. - 12
= W1l1 + ::Y2l 2 + w1/ 1 2 .• + w)? 6EI:8
2 2 8U1 + l2) 8l1U1 + l2) 211 2 / 2
+ . W1l1 3 + W2l1 2
6EI 8
8(/1 + /2)/2 8(/1 + /2) 2/1/22
but W1 = W2 = 1V
Rn= w(l 1 +l2)

2
+ 2
wl1 + wl2 -1-
2
wl?
8(11+ )/2 ' 8U1+f2)/1
+- iv/1 3 3EH( I
8(/1 + !2)/i - ~
I)
Y; T /2
Rn= wU1+ l2) + w(fi3 + l28) .- 3£8 (/1+ 7t)
2 8/112 // /22
Problem 12·14'. A beam AB of length 2/, simply supported at its ends is propped at
the mid point C to the same level as the ends. A concentrateq. load W is applied at the mid
point of AC and a concentrated load nW at the mid point of CB. For what value of n, slope at
the end A will be zero. Determine the slopes at B and C. Given EI is the flexural rigidity of
the beam.
Solution . Figure 12·33 shows a
continuous beam of length 2/, with span
AC= l and CB=/.
. Load at the mid point of AC is W and
load at the mid point of CB is nW.
Ar-~~~ -¥--:+-L~~s
Let us construct M ,, diagram .)(
AA As
Wl -~--e
Mm a., on span AC, ab =
4 -:- o b= w~ c d:nwt
4 4
- WI l I W/3
a1x 1= 4 X 2 X2 = ~
(about the origin A)

Span CB
. nWl
MmJz= Cd= - .-
·4
_ nWI l l nW/3
a2,t'2=-4- X 2 X 2 = 16
<about the origin C)
Using the theorem of 3 moments
M,1l + 2Mc (2l) + Mnl= - 6a1x 1 - 6a2x 2 = --· 6W/3 - 6nW/3
· I1 l2 I 6/ 16/
- ---rr
4Mcl=
6Wl 2
(. 1 + n)
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Problem 12'13. A conti~uous /lBC havin1g two spans AfJ= /1 and BC=/2 carries a
uniformly distributed load of w per uni't length on its whole length. The beam sfirip1y rests
on the end supports. If the ~upport B sinks by an amount 8 below the level of tile supports A
and C, show that the reacti'on at B is
R wU: + 12) w(/1 3 t/23 ) 3E/8(11 +l2)
B= 2 + 8/2/2 /i2 /l
Solution. Let us first of all cb"rtstru'ct the Mx diagra·m for, bo·t h the ~p~µs AB and BC,
i.e., drawing B.M . diagrams considering the spans AB and BC independently. Maximum
Mx Diagra m
Fig. 12·32
bending moment wfi occurs at the centre of AB arid AbB is tTie B.M. curve wltlcli ls para-
. . h b W1/12
b 0 1IC Wit a = -- ·
8
wf 2 .
2 2
Similarly maximum B. M, occurs at the centre of BC and BdC is the parabolic
8
2
B.M. curve with Cd - W2l2
8
•
4
.2, ~;/i.? X / X /i W1l1
Now G1X1= "f X 8 1
2 =~
. ,...2 .
G2X2= 3 X
J.. W2l22 X I ' 12 -
8 2X 1-
W2l!4
24 .
Support moments MA '."' Mc"."O since the beam is simply supported at the ends. U~ing
the equation of 3 moments with a smked support
2 Mn(/i +!2 )+ 6a1x1 + 6a x2 __ 6E/8 _

2 EIS = O
11 12 11 12
.J
2MnU1 + l2) + 6 X,t1:1l1~

.2411
+ 6f2l2" -6E/8 ('1+!2
2412 11/2
)=o
M8 _ _ .w.1li8. _ w~/23 • + 6EI8
- 8(/1+12) 8Cl1+l2) 2/i/2
Taking moments of the forces about the point i3
W1l1 2
Af R / W2lii •
RA I1 - -
2 = B, c 2 - ~ = Mn
Of
R'A== Mn + w1 l1
/l '
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PIXED AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS t. 639
20X4
Span DE, B.M. under the load= - - = +20 kNm
4
30x4
Taking origin at B, a2 x2 for span BC= - - x 2= 120 kNm 3
2
2
origin at D, a3 x 8 for span CL? = 8
3 X 30 X4 X2= 160 kNm
origin at C, a3x 3 for span CD = I60 kNms
4
origin at D, a 41\ for span DE= 20 X X 2 = 80 kNm 3
2
Using the Clapeyron's theorem of 3 moments for spans BC and DC,
6
6
M o.4+2Mc (4+4) + MDX 4 + X/2 x2 +
2
=0 a(s
3
where 12 =4 m, / 8 = 4 m
4X (-30) + 16 Mc+4MD+ ~ X 120+ : X 160= 0

- 120+16 Mc+4 MD+180+240= 0
or 16 M c+4 MD = -300 ... (I)
Again using the theorem of 3 moments for spans CD and ED,
4Mc +2Mv(4+4) + 6asxs + 6a4x4 =0
ls I,,,
Since ME = O, as the beam is simply supported at the end E.
4 Mc+ l 6 MD + 6 x4l60+ 6 x480 = O

4Mc+ 16 Mv+240+ 120 = 0
or 4Mc+ 16 MD = -360 ... (2)
or Mc +4 Mv = -90 ... (3)
From equations (1) and (2),
15 Mc=-210, M c= -14 kNm, MD = -19 kNm
Diagram AB' C' D' E is the M x' diagram for support moments. Resultant bending
moment diagram is shown by positive and negative area.
Support reactions. T aking moments about the point C
-lO X 7 - 30 x 2+RnX 4= M c
- 70 - 60+4Rn =- 14
Reaction, Rn= 29 kN
Also -10 x ll - 30 x 6 - 15 x 4 x 2+ 8 Rn+4 R c =Mn
- l 10- 180- 120+8 X 29 + 4Rc = - 19
4 Rc=-f-- 178 - 19 = -159
Reaction, Rc= 39'15 kN
4 RE-20 x 2= MD
4R£ = 40- 19 = 21
Reaction, , RE= 5'25 kN
Reaction 1 flp = 10-\-30+ 15 X 4-\- 20 - 29 - 39'75- 5'25 = 46 k-N
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STRENGti-1 oti MA'tERIALS
Since MD = O as D is the simply supported end

4
i4Mc+4Mn+48+ ~ +1·5x3000 x ·006 = 0
14Mc+4Mn+ 69'333+27 = 0
14Mc +4Mn =- 96'333 ... (2)
From equations (1) and (2),
Mn =+ 1·233. Tm
Mc =- 7'2333 Tm
In the Fig. AB'C' D is the Mx' diagram or the diagram of support · moments. The
resultant bending moment diagram is shown with positive and negative areas.
Support reactions. Taking moments of the forces about the point B on both the
sides.
RAX 3- 10 X 2= 1'233
RA = 2 r 233
7·077 T
3
RDX1+Rc x4- 6 x 8 - 3 X4 X 2= 1'233
7Ro+4Rc = 73'233
Moments about the point C,
3Ro-8 X 2= M 0 = -7'2333
Ro = 16- 7'2333 2·922 T
3
4Rc=73'233-7Ro = 73'233- 7 X 2'922
= 73'233-20'454= 13' 194 T
Rn= 10+8 + 12- 7'077- 2.922 - 13'194 = 6·807 T
Problem 12·12. A continuous beam ABCDE is 15 metres long. It has an overhang
of 3 m length AB and supported on 3 spans 4 m each. A concentrated lo::id of 30 kN acts at
the middle of span BC; a uniformly distributed load of 15 kN/ m run acts over the span CD
and a load of 20 kN acts at the middle of span DE. A concentra ted load of IO kN acts the
free end of the beam. Determine the support moments a nd support reactions.
Solution. Fig. 12·31 shows the conti-
nuous beam ABCDE, 15 m long carrying
loads as given in the problem.
10 kN
B.M. at A = O
A E
B.M. at B=- 10 X 3 Re RE
~3mRs 4m 4m 4m
Mn = - 30 kNm
w = 15kN/m
Let us construct Mx diagrams for
,s pans BC, CD and DE. Fig. 12'31
\ ! ' .
30 x 4
Span BC, B.M. under the load= - - = + 30 kNm
!!. I\
4
WX 42 15 X 42
Span CD, B.M. at the centre= - - = - - - = +30 kNm
8 8
(a parabolic curve)
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/
FIXBD AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS
Mx Diagrams. Span AB
lOX 1 X2 20
B.M. under the load =
3 3 Tm (shown by ab)
= 20 X _!_ X ( ~) + ZO X l__ X ( 1+ ~ )
3 2 3 3 2 3
_ 20 11
100 _ ~Tm3
- 9 9 - J
Span BC
3X4 2
Max. B.M. at the centre = - - = 6 Tm (shown by cd)
8
a2 x2 about the point C = 6 x 4 x ; x 2=32 Tm 3
Moreover a 2 x2 about the point B= ~2 Tm3

Span CD
8xlx2 16
B.M. under the load = =-- Tm (shown by ej) .
3 3
a3 x3 about the point

16 1 2 16 2 I 2 )
D=T x 2 x 3 + 3 x 2 x , 1+3
16 80 96 32
= 9 + 9 = 9 =T urns
Now EI= ?,OOO x 104 x J5000x 10- s Tm2 =3000 Tm2
Using the equation of 3 moments with a sinking support, for the sp_ans AB ar:~ CB.
2MB (3 + 4)+Mc X 4 + 6 X ,40 +~ 4
- 6 El 1,1 _ 6 EI 32 -_ 0
3 3 3 4
Since M A= O as A is simply supported end
80
14MB + 4Mc+ 3 + 48 - 2 x 3000 o1 - 1'5 X:3000.o2 = 0
where 1> 1 = 02 = 6 .mm ==;-0'006 .m

,B.is b.t::low the level of A by 6 mm = i\ = 0'006 m
B.is below the level of C by 6 mm =' 2 = 0·006' m
.$0 14 Ms + 4Mc+ ~O + 48 - 2 X3000X0'006-l'5 x 3000 x ·oo6= 0

or I4M n+ 4Mc+ 7,4 '667- 36--27= 0
I4Ms+4Mc = - 1I'661 ... (1)
Again using the equation of 3 moments with a sinking support for the spaqs BC and
DC. (Support C is 6 mm higher than the support B or o2 = - 6 mm, support C and D are at
the same level so o3 = 0)
2Mc(4+3) + Ms x 4 +6:32 +~;~2 _ 6E/(;·Oo6)_0 = 0
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S'FR<ENGTH ,OF ,MA11BRIALS
Support reactions. Taking moments .about ,the point B

12RA-4'5 X 16 x 8 = Mn = -123
12R-t=576- 123=453
.Refl.qion RA= 37'75 T
~g~!ll, 16Rc- 6X20 x lO=Ms=- 123
l6R c= 1200- 123= 1077
Reaction, Rc=67·31 T
Reaction, Rn= 16 x 4·5 + 20x 6- 37·75 - 67·3 t = 86'94 T.
SF diagram
Portion EA F=-w1 X
-=O at x=O
=- 4·5 x4=- 18T atx = 4m
Portion AB F= -w1 x+ RA= -4'5x+ RA
=- 18+37'75=+1 9·75 T at x = 4
= - 4·5 x8+37·75 =+1 ·75 T x=8 m
= -4·5x12 + 37'75 =- I6·2sT atx= l2m
= -4'5X 16+37 '75 =-34'25 T at X=·16 m.
F= -4'5 X 16-·wix-16)+RA+ Rn
= - 72 - w2(x- l 6) +37·7s+86'94= ~2'69-:w2 (x-,lq).
= 52'59T at x= 16 m
= 52'69 -6(20 -1 6)
= +28'69 T at X= 20 111
= 52'69-6(24 - 16)= + 4·69 T at x= 24 m
= 52'69-6(28 - 16) = - 19'3 1 ,T at x = 28 m
= 52'69- 6(32-16) = - 43' 3 1 T at x= 32 m.
Pottion CE F= - 16 x4·5+RA -l- R B+ R c- w2 (x- 16).=+ J20 -, 6(x- 16)
= 120-6(32-16) = - 24 T at x=32 m
= 0 at x=36 m
The shear force diagram is shown in the Fig. 12·29 (b).
Problem ,12:11. •A beam ABCD, 10 m long is supported over 3 .spans, AB=3 m,
BC=4 m and CD = 3 m. On AB there is a point load of 10 tonnes at a distance of 1 m from
A. On BC, there is a uniformly distributed load of 3 tonnes/metre run throughout and on CD
there is a point load of 8 tonnes at a distance of 1 m ·from ,D. The·level of .s upport;B·is 6 mm
below the levels of A, C and D supports. Determine support moments and support reactions.
E = 2000 tonnes/cm 2, l = 15000 cm 4.
Solution. Fig. 12·30 shows a conti-

nuous beam ABCD, over three spans AB, BC
and CD as given in the problem. Load on
AB is 10 T at a distance of 1 m from A, on
BC, there is a uniformly distributed load of
3T/m and on CD, a point' load of 8 tonnes at
a distance of I m from end .D. Let us first
draw Mx diagrams for each span indepen-
dently.
•F.ig.,12;30
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FIX!!) ANO CONTINO'ODS BEAMS 635
Again, Re X 7-4x 5= - 2·045, 7Rc = 20-2'045=I7·955

Reaction, Rc = 2'565 T
Reaction, RB_= 2x 1+2x2+4-J·988-2·565=S"447 T.
Problem 12·10. A continuous beam of length 36 metres is supported at A, Band C.

The span AB is 12 m long and the span BC is 16 metres long. The overhang is equal on both
the sides. The beam carries a uniformly distributed load of 4'5 tonnes/metre run from one
end (near the point A) upto the point Band a uniformly distributed load of 6 tonnes/metre
run from the other end upto the point B. Determine the reactions and moments at the supports.
Draw the B.M. and SF diagrams.
Solution. Figure 12·29 (a) shows a
continuous beam 36 m long, supported at A,
Band C as given in the problem. Say the end d
points of the beam are E and F.
Uniformly distributed load from E to
B=4'5 T/m. Uniformly distributed load from
Fto B=6 T/m.
Bending moment at A, ( -) ( -)
MA = - ·w1x42 =-4'5 X 42 A a B C C
2 2
=-36 Tm 4m 12m 16m t.m
Bending moment at C, (a) , B. M. Oiagram
B
w X4 2 42
Mc =- 2 =- 6x -
2 2
=-48 Tm.
To determine support moment at B,
let us first draw the Mx diagram for AB and
BC.
Bending moment at the centre of AB
- 4·5~ 122 +8 1 Tm c"
S.F. Diagram
Bending moment at the centre of BC
6 162 Fig. 12·29
= \ =+ 192 Tm
Taking origin at A, a 1 ~'i= 81 x 12 X; x6 = 3888 Tm 3
Taking origin at C 1 , a2x 2= 192X 16 X.; x8 = 16384 Tm 3

Using the Clapeyron's theorem of 3 moments
12MA + 2MB(I2 + 16) + 16Mc+ 6 x3888 + 6 x 16~84 = 0

12 16
- 36x I2+56MB- 48 x 16+ 1944 + 6144= 0
56M B= -8088 + 432 + 768 = - 6888
Afy= - 123 Tm
EA'B'C'Fshows the Mx' diagram due to support moments. Diagram with positive and
negative areas shown is the resultant bending moment diagram.
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634
4
-1-J{ R11' x--w X2(x- 1 l) - ~; 2 (x-2) 2 } xdx
2
2 4
= 1( 3
2·5 x2- ~ ) dx+J{ 2'5x2 - 2x(x- 1) - x(x-2) 2 } dx
0 2
as w1 = 1 T/ m and w2 = 2 T/m
2 4
a1 x 1 = j( 2'5x 2- ~
3
) dx--1- J( 4_'5x -2
x 3 - 2x ) dx
0 2 .
-
- I x3 - -x4
2·5 -
3 8
2
I+I xa -
4'5--
3
4
x4 -x2 \
4
0 2
-+ ~
- 3
- 2-t-( 4·5 X ~
3
- 256 _ 16 ) -
4
(4'5 X8 _ _!~-4
3 4
J
/
= 14 +96-64 - 16- 12-1-4 + 4= + '.350 Tm3

3
4 x 2x 5 40
Span BC, B.M. under the Joad - - 7- = 7 Tm
_ 40
Taking or igin at C, a2:c2= 7 -
2
x ·i x (
/4)
3 +740 x 25 x ( 2+ 3 5)
Using the Clapeyron's theorem of 3 moment
2MD(4 -t?) = - 6 X a1 x1. _ 6a2x 2

11 l2
0
22Mn = - 6 X ;Q x { - 6x ~ -x ·f
= -25- 20=- 45
Mo = - 2'045 Tm.
Now if the Mr diagrams for spans AB and BC are plotted then resultant B.M. diagram
is shown by the positive and negative areas. .
Support reactions. Taking mo ments about the point B
RA X 4 - 2X 1 X3-2X2Xl = - -2'045
4RA = 10 - 2'045 = 7'955
J?.4 = 1'98S T
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PIXED A:ND CONTINUOl:IS BEAMS 633-
4
Taking origin at C, a2 x2 = 20 x x 2=--= 80 kNm 3 (for span BC).
2
The moment of inertia of the beam is difLrent in two spans, the theorem of 3 moments
can be modified as follows :
but
and 11 = 212
Equation ( I ), can be written as
2Me X 6 + 2MnXj+ 6 x 648 x 6 x 80 = 0
212 I2 2/2 X6 I 2 X4
or 6Mn+8Mn +324+ 120=0
14Mn=-444, or Ms= -31"71 kNm
AB'C shows the Mx' diagram for support moments. The bend ing mo ment diagram
with positive and negative areas shows the resultant bending moments.
Support reactions. Taking moments at the point B
R AX 6- 12 x 6 x 3=- 31 "71, 6RA=2l6-31 "71
Reaction, RA=30'71 kN.
Again, Rcx 4- 20 X2= -31"71, or RcX4=40-31"71
Reaction, R c:= 2"07 kN
Reaction, Re= l2 X6--{-20-30"7J-2"07=59"22 kN.
Problem 12"9. A continuous beam ABC of length l l m is loadcJ as show;1 in

the Fig. 12"28. Determine the reactions at the supports A, B and C and the supp.lrt m i.n ~nt
at B.
Solution. Figure 12"28 (a) shows a w1 : IT/m run
continuous beam 11 m long supported at A, w2 : 2T/m run
Band C and carrying loads. I T/m from A 4T
for 2 m length and 2 T/ m from B for 2 m
length on span AB. On span BC, there is a
concentrated load 4T at a distance of 2 m
from end C.
Support moments MA = Mc=O as the
beam is :::imply supported at the ends.
M_. diagrams. Considering the beam
AB independently, taking moments about the
point B,
C
Reaction ( b)
R./= l X2X3t2 X 2X 1 = 2. 5 T BB : - 2·045Tm

Fig. 12·28
Rn'=2+4- 2"5 = 3"5 T
2
. at A , a 1 -x1=
Ta k .mg on.gm J( R Ax-
I W1X2
-- )
2
x dx
Q
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STRENGTH OF M!AllEIUAtL9
a
-wJ
= - a/2 (/x 3 - x4) dx .
0
14 5
- - a% [ : - ~ ]- -
2;al2 [ 5/a 4 -4a 5] - - ; ;:
1 (51-4a).
Support r-eactions. Total load on beam = wa
2
Taking moments about the point A ,
M A=+MB+ R BI- ;a ( /- a+ ; )
-wa 3(51-4a)+
. Rn x /- wa ( I - 2a ) = - wa 2 (IOJ2+6a2-5a/)'
2012 2 3 3012
wal wu 2 wa 3 wa 4 wa 2 wa4 waa
RBI-+ 2 - 3 +
4/ - 5/2 - 3 - 5/2 6/ +
_ wal _ 2wa 2
_ 2wa 4
+ 5waa
- 2 3 5/ 2 12/
4
R _ wa ·- 2wa~ _ 2wa +--2_ wa3
Re·action, B- 2 3/ 5/3 12 /2
= ~~~ 3 (30/3 -40a/2-24a+25a2/)

Similarly taking moments of the forces about the point B
wa a
Mn=MA + RA. I- - - X
2 3
or - ;;,3
2 1
2
(5/-4a) = -;;~ (tOl 2 + 6a 2- 5al) + R Al- wt
wa 3 wa 4
-wa2 wa4 wa 3 wa 2 5wa3 2wa4 wa2
-"4f + 5/2 = -3- - 5/2 + T + RAl- 6 - - 12b + -512 + 2= R.t. I
- 5wa 3 2wa 4
wa 2 wa2
Reaction, RA = 1212 +
5]a"" +
-:y = 6013 (- 25al + 24a2 + 30/2).
Problem 12·s. A continuous. beams, ABC, 10 m long is supported on two spans
AB=6 m and BC= 4 m. Span AB cames a umformly distributed load of 12 kN per metre
run and span BC carries a concentrated load of ~O kN as its centre. The moment of inertia
of the sectioDI of the beam for the span A!3 1s 11 and that for the span BC is l z. If 11 = 212 ,
determine support moments and support react10ns.
Solution. Let us construct the M,,,
diagram for both the spans AB and BC as b
shown in the Fig. 12·21.
Span AB, maxm. bending moment
w/2 12 x 62
occurs at the centre=
8= - 8- = 54 kNm
w:12kN/m
Span BC, B.M. under the load
I1
_ WI _ 20 x 4= 20 kNm 6 m-.._..._4 m
- 4 - 4
Taking origin at A, a1 ~\=i x 54 X 6 X 3
= ~4~ kNm3 (for span AB)
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FIXED AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 6'.H
From equations (I) and (2),

Tb 9Wb2 3Tb
GJ =16EI - 2EI
9 G I b2 3 b G J
T= 16 x wExf·T - 2 x T. b'ExT
9 840 3 840
= 16- Wb . 2100 x 2 - 2 x TX 2100 x 2
=0'45 Wb-1·2 T
or 2'2T=0"45 Wb, T=0'2045 Wb.
Problem 12·1. A fixed beam of length / carries a linearly increasing distributed load
of intensity zero at the left hand end to w upto a distance a from the same end. Dete1mine,
(I) support reactions, (2) support moments. Given EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam.
Solution. Figure 12'26 shows a fixed

beam of length I carrying a linearly increasing
distributed load of intensity zero at end A and
w at a distance of a form end A.
of x from the end A. I
R9
Rate of loading at the section=~ . w
a Fig. 12·26
w
Elementary load for small length dx= - . x dx
a
Refer to article 12·s, and considering wx dx as eccentric load

a
- ( : x dx ) x (l- x)2
Support Moments, dMA = - - - - - - , - - - -
12
(- : . x dx )cx2)(1-x)
dMB= /2
a a
Support moment, MA= - -
Jr~
a/2
x 2 (/-x) 2 dx= - ~ f( x 2 l2 +x'- 2/x3)dx
a/2 J
0 0
-w [ a a3
21 . a
= a/2 T 12 + 5--4-
6 4
J
ra 2
=- w L3
a'
+w - uaa ]
-wa2
= 30/2 (1Q/2+6a2-15a/]
Similarly the support moment, MB

-_ _
J
r(: • Xd X ) (x2 }(/-x)
0 /2
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,6·30 STRENGTH OP MATERiAtS
Problem 12"6. A rung of a vertical ladder is in the horizontal plane. Rung is

perpendicular to the vertical sides of the ladder. Length of the rung is 3b and distance between
the rungs is b. Ladder is made of steel of circular section. If a vertical load W is carried in
the middle of a particular rung find the twisting moment at the ends of the rung.
E= 2100 tonnes/cm2 (for steel), G=840 tonnes/cm2 (for steel).
Solution. F igure 12·25 (a) shows a ladder in which length of rung is 3b and distance
between rungs is b. When a load Wis applied at the middle of the rung, it will bend' and the
T T
.I
1------<_j_
b • ' 1 .
ACB - Mx Diagra m
AA BB'-: M;o,agro m
(a)
Fig. 12·25
slope at the ends will not necessarily be zero, but say the slope at A is -i and at B slope is
+ i, as shown in Fig. 12·25 (b). There are fixing couples Teach at the ends, which do not
completely fix the beam AB but a. small amount of slope r emains at both the ends. Fig. 12'25 (c)
shows the BM diagram Mx and Mx'. i.e., ABC is Mx diagra m, i.e., considering the beam
to be simply supported a nd diagram A' ABB' is the M x:' diagram, i.e., BM diagram due to
nxing couples.
Now EI (in- iA) = area of Mx diagram - area of Mx' diagram
. . 3Wb 3b
El( + i+i) = X - 3b X T
4 2
9 2
2Eli= ~b -3Tb ... (1)
Considering the twisting of shorter side of ladder i.e., AD or BC.

T Gi
y = ,;- where G= Modulus of rigidity
i = angular twist
b= length of the circular bar AD under twisting
moment T
Now J = 2l
for a circular section. J = Polar moment of inertia
(Detailed study of twisting of members will be m ade in Chapter 13 on Torsion)
i ' .· So i= ~f .. (2)
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FlXEO AND ·CONTINUOUS BEAMS
Integrating equation (1), we get

2 2
Eldy =-Mi x+ Wx - W ( x- ..!_ ) + c 1
dx 4 2 2
At dy .
x= 0 , sl ope dx =-z.
Therefore - E/i= O+ D- omitted term + c 1
or C1 =-Eli
So Elic = -Mix+ w;2 _ ~( x - ~ r-Eli ... (2)
Moreover a t
l dy
X= - - = 0 because the beam is symmetrically loaded
2 ' dx
about the centre.
Putting X= ; in equation (2)

2
0 = - Mi .!_ + W/ -·0 - Eli
2 16
or Ml ) Wl 2 • ( Ml+ 2EI) W/2 . w12
i ( -2-+ El = 16' 1
2 = 16 ' z= 8(Ml+ 2EI)
2
I at t h e end = M'z= S(Ml+
. . coupe
or t h e restrammg MWJ Elf
2
Rewriting the equation (2),
dy (
El dx= - M 8( M
W/ 2
----=-
l+_2_E_l,-
) Wxz W(
) ·x +-4- - 2-\ x--il )2
. - Eli ... (2)
Integrating the equation (2) a gain
2
Ely=-M( 8(~;EI )) ~ +~;3-~( x-,& r - Elix+O. d (3)

(Constant of integration is zer o because at x = O, y = O and the term ( x - ~ ) is to be
omitted).
l
Deflection at the centre y = yn a t x =
2 . Substituting in equation (3) , we get
w12 ) 12 W/3 1( w12 )

Elyn = -M ( 8(Ml + 2EI) g + 96 - O- EI 2 ~(Ml+2EI)
4
MW/ W/ 3 ( W/3 )
= - 64(Ml+2EI) + 96 -EI 16(Ml+2EI)
W/a W/ s
= - 64(Ml+ 2EI) (Mt + 4EI) +96
= W/3
192
[
2 _ 3(Ml+ 4EI)
M l+ 2EI
J
=w1s c x ~!!-J-_1E1- 3Ml- 12§_LJ- w 1s r - M/- 8EIJ
192 Ml+ 2EI - 192 c. Ml + 2El
Yn= _ I92EI
W/3 [ Ml+SEI
Ml+ 2EI
J
negative sign indicates downward deflection,
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628 StfRBNG'tH .oii MA'fERIALS
O=MA. L+ R ,, • 122 - M ( 23/ ) ... (4)
/2 l3 2Af/2
O=MA. 2 +RA. 6--9- .. . (5)
From .~quat.ions (4) ~nd (5),
RA=+ 11, MA=O
For equilibrium Rn=- ~ 11_

3 I
Take equation (I) and put x=l, B.M. a t C= M c
Mc=O+t(i_ M ) -M=j_M- M= M
3 I 3 3
Fixing couples at support A, MA=O
M
at support C, Mc=+-
3
To determine slope at the point B, Jet us use equat ion (2J and put x = l/3
Elin = OX ..!_ + ±_ M X _!:__ - 0= 2Ml
3 3 / 18 27
. 2Ml
~lope at B , IB = 27EI ·
Pr,9bJ~pi 12·s. A beam of span / carries a load W at its middle. It is so constrained

at the end!'i that when the end slope is i, the restraining couple couple is Mi. Prove that
2
magnitude of restraining couple at each end is MW/
- - /
(ML +2EI) and that the magnitude .of
8
. . W/3 ( ML+ 8EI)
central deflection 1s 192 £/ Ml+ 2El ·
Solution. Figure I 2·24 shows a beam

of length / with a central concentrated load
W. The beam h as end slopes - i at A and w
+i at C . As per the condit ion given X
Restraining couple at A= MA = - iM. B X C
Since the bea.m is loade~ symmetrically ••I l.-f w R
~
2
about the centre, reactions X 2= C
w Fig. 12·24 I '•

RA= Rc= 2
Consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the end A in the portion BC,
B.M. at the section =-Mi+ -} (x)-W ( x - ; )
c[2y W I / )
or EI - = - Mi+ - (x)-W1 x- -- ... (I)
dx2 2 , 2 r'
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FIXED ANb · CONtJNUOUS BEAMS 627
Maximum deflection will occur at the centre of beam.

Substituting x=4 min equation (5 ), we get
2
43
E. / . Ym'•x= MA. l4 +RA.
6 - ~
w X 44 3 ·59
- 6 (21~
2 4 2X256 8 X 3·59
=8 ( - ; -2·5w ) + ~ ( 8 +nx 3·59 )
24 6
64
= 8(- ]0·667- 2·5 X 3"59)+ (J 3· 385)-2["333-4.787
6
=- 157· J 36 + 142"773- 21. 333- 4"787 =- 40·485 T-ma
El= 2000 X I0+4 x 60,000 x 10-a= l2000 Tm2
40"485
ym".,= - - 0·00337 m
12000
= - 3'37 mm (showing downward deflection"\.
Problem 12'4. A beam of span / is fixed at both ends. A couple M is applied to
the beam at a distance of 1/3 from left hand end, about a horizontal axis at right angles to the
beam. Determine the fixing couples at each support and slope at the point where couple is
applied.
Solution. Figure 12'23 shows a fixed
beam of length l. At the point B an anti-
clockwise moment Mis applied. Point B is
at a distance of //3 from end A . Let us say
R 11 and R e are the r eactions at supp orts A
and C and MA and M c are the support
moments at A and C respectively.
Consider a section X-X at a d istance
of x from the end A F ig. 12·23
B.M. at the section = M A+ R A . x- M ( x - } r

0
El 2d2 2 = MA + R Ax-M ( x- -I ) ... (1)

dx 3
Integrating equation (1 ),
EI ~~ = MAx+ R A { - - M ( x-+)+o ... (2)
(Constant of integration is zero because ddy = 0 at x= O, at end A)

.x
Integrating furt her equation (2),
x2
El y=M,4 . T+RA
x36 - M(
2. x- 3/ )2+o ... (3)
(Constant of integrati on is zero, because y = O at x = O, fixed end A).
dy
At the end C, x = I, -;Ix = 0, y = O
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or ... (4)
... (5)
or . " ( 5)
[Dividing equation (5) by 4 throughout]
Equating the equations (4) and (5), we get
32RA_512 -28 W- 64 RA- 256 _36W
3 3 3 3
or 96RA - 512 - 84W= 64RA-256 - 36W
32RA=+256+48W
RA=8+ I'5W ... (6)
This is what we have considered.
Again taking equation (4) and dividing throughout by 8, we get
MA + 4RA - ~
3
- 3'5W= O
4
MA = ~ +3·sw- 4(8 + 1·sw)
64 .
= 3 +3 5W-32- 6W
2 3
= - ; - 2·sw=-( ; + 2·sw) ... (7)
To determine the maximum let us determine the B.M. at the centre of the beam
w 42
Mc= MA+RAX4- ~ -W(4·2)
32
=- -2·sw+4(8+1·sw) - 16- 2W since w= 2 tonnes/m
3
32 . 16 .
= - - 2 5W+ 32+ 6W- 16-2W=--+1 SW.
3 3
This shows that support moment is maximum.
32+ 7'5W
So Mm.,.,= tonne-metres
3
= (32 + 7·: W)JOO T-cm =/XZ
. 60 000 I
Z = sect1on modulus = is = d/ 2 =4000 ems
/ =0'5 tonne/ cm2
( 32 +? SW) X 100= 0'5 X 4000=2000
3
0T 32+1·sw= 60
60-32 28 .
W= - H = 7T= 3 59 tonnes 1 each.
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FIXED A<NDi C©NfHNtJOUS BEAMS 625.
Problem 12'3. A steel girder 30 cm deep has a span of 8 metres and is rigidly built
in at both the ends. The loading on the girder consists of a un·iformly distributed load of
2 tonnes/metre run on the whole span and 3 equal point loads at the centre and the quarter
Slp'aln points. Find the magnitudes of t he point loads if th~ maximum stress due to bending is
o·s tonnes/cm2 •
The section of the girder is symmetrical about X-X and YY axis and Ixx=60,000 cm 4 •
Determine also the maximum deflection E= 2000 tonnes/cm2 •
Solution. Figure 12·22 shows a fixed
beam 8 m long carrying uniformly distributed
load of 2 tonnes/metre run throughout its
length. Then it carries 3 point loads say W
each, at distances of 2 m, 4m and 6m from
the end A.
Since the beam is symmetrically
loaded.
Reactions RA = RE, RA= 2 xs+ 3 w
2 Fig. 12·22
=8+1'5W
Fixing couples, MA = ME
Consider a section at a distance of x from the end A.
wx2
BM at the section is M = MA + RAX- - - W(x - 2) - W(x- 4) - W(x-6)
2
d2y wx2
EI dx 2 = MA + RA. x -- - W(x- 2) -- W(x-4)-W(x -6) ... (I)
2
Integrating equation (I),
dy RA x 2 wx 3 W(x - 2) 2 W(x - 4) 2 W(x - 6) 2
EI dx =:= M A . x + - 2- - - 6- - 2 - . 2 - 2 +o ... (2)
(Constant of integration is zero because at x = O, ; ~ = 0 at fixed end and terms (x-2),
(x - 4), (x - 6) are omitted).
Again integrating equation (2),
x2 X3 wx' w w (x-4)3- w
Eiy= MAT + R A 6- 24 6
(x-2) 3 - -
6 6 (x - 6)3 + 0 ... (3)
[Constant of integration is again zero because at x = O, y=O at the fixed end and terms
(x-2), (x- 4), (x - 6) are omitted].
At x = S m, ;fx = 0, y = O at fixed end. Substituting these values in equations (2)

and (3) we get
2 x 83
0= 8MA + 32RA- - r - - Tw (6) 2 -
W
2- (4) 2 -
W
--y (2) 2 ... (4)
~ ~
4
0= 32MA+ ga:A - 2; 4S - X 63 - X 43 - : X23 ... (5)
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S'.fRENG;I'H qF MATBR,~l;,S
(Constant of integra tion is zero, because y= O at x = O and terms (x -4) and (x-6) are
to be ommitted at x=O)
At the end D, x= 12 m, d y = 0 and y = O.

X
Substituting these conditions in equations (2) and (3) we get

0= 12MA+ 72RA - 256+ 72 ... (4)
2048
0= 72MA + 288RA- + 144 .,. (5)
3
Dividing equation (4) throughout by 12 and equation (5) throughout by 72 we get
MA + 6RA- 15'3333 = 0 ... (6)
MA + 4RA - 7'4815 = 0 .. . (7)
From these equations
or 2RA = 7"851 8 or RA= 3'9259 Tonnes
MA = 1S'3333 -- 6RA = + 15'3333- 6 X 3'9259
=15'3333- 23"5554= -8'2221 Tm
Rel\c~ions RA + RD= 8 -4=;= 4T
RD = 4- 3'9259 = 0·0741 Tonnes.
~If.~ ~~c~ D~~m
FAB= +3·9259 Tonnes
FBc = 3'9259 - 8= - 4'0741 Tonnes
Fc J? =-4'0741 + 4= - 0'0741 T onnes.
Bending Moment · Diagram
MA = -8'2221 Tonne-metres
Mn =-8'2221 + RA X4= -8'221 -J= 4 X 3·9i59
=- 8'2221 + 15'7036= 7'48 I 5 Tonne-metres
Mc =- 8'2221 + ~A X 6 - 8(6- 4)
= - 8'2221 + 3'9259 X 6-16= - 24'2221 +23'5554
=-0'6667 tonne-metres
MD=-8'222l+RA X 12-8(12-4)+ 4(12- 6)
= - 8'2221 +47'1108-64 + 24 = -1' ll 13 tonne-metres.
Fig. 12·21 (a) shows thy S.F diagtam, 12 ·21 (b) shows the B.M. diagi;am w,.b.ere P1 and
p~ are the points of contraflexure.
I,
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.. FIXED ·AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS
Further integrating the equation (2)

. . · ., ! •. ,
Wa(]- a)x 2 wxs W(x-a)2
Ely=- 2/ +-6-- 6 +o
(Constant of integration is zero because y=O at x=O)
At x = a, deflection y=ys under is the load W
So Wa(l- a)a 2 Wa3 Wa 3 l Wa 4 was
Ely 8 = - 2/ + 6 - - 2/ + 21 + 6
Wa 3 Wa 4 Wa 3
=- - -
3
+ 21 =- ~(2l-3aJ
Wa3(2l- 3a)
y n= - 6EI 1 (indicating downward deflection)
At I d efl ect1on
x= T, . at t h e centre 1s
. y,nu:z:
'.J /
Elymax=-
Wa(l-a)
2l
12 W /3 W ( /
x 4 + 6 x 8 - 6 T-a
)a
Wa(l- a)l + W/ 3 _ W (I~_ 3 · . 3 )
= - 8 48 6 . 8 a3 - 4 a12+ 2 a•t
Yma" = -
W(3l- 4a)a 2
24 EI
c·ID d.1catmg
. d
ownward deflection)~'.
Problem 12·2. A girder 12 m span is fixed horizontally at the ends. A downward

vertical load of 8 tonnes acts on the girder at a distance of 4 m from the lefl hand end and an
upward vertical force of 4 tonnes acts at a distance _of 6 m from the right hand end. Determine
end reactions and fixing couples and draw the bendmg moment and shearing ·fan;~_ diagrams
for the girder.
Solution. Figure 12·20 shows a beam
ABCD, 12 m long, carrying a downward load
4T at a distance of 4 m from end A and an
upward load 4T at a distance of 6 m from end
D as given in the problem. Let us assume
R~ and Rv are the support reactions and MA ,
MD are the support moments.
of x from end A.
B.M: at the section = MA + RA x -8(x- 4)+ 4(x- _6) · -
d2y
or EI dx 2 = MA + RA. x-8(x-4)+4(x-6) .. . (1)
Integrating equation ( 1)
dy x2 8 4
El dx. = MA . x + RA 2 - 2- (x- 4) 2 + 2 (x - 6)2 + 0 ... (2)
(Constant of integration is zero because CZ = 0 at x =O and the terms (x- 4) and

(x- 6) arc to be omitted)
Integrating equation (2) also
x2 x3 8 4
Elt = M A .
2- + RA _.
- 6. - 6. (x - 4)3+ - Q (x - 6)a+ o ••• (3)
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STRENGTH OF MATJ;llUAI,S~
Probiem 1:2'1. A beam of span / is fixed at both the ends. Two loads Wea:ch are
placed at distance a from both the ends. Show that (i) the bending ,moment at the centre is
3 2
I ' ,· u d efl ect10n
wa.i (··) · und er e1t /- 3a) , c···)
. her loa d.1s Wa (EI w deflect10n
. at t he m1"ddle of t h e
6 1
. Wa2 (3I-4a)
bearn 1s 24 El
Solution:. Fig._q· 19 (a) shows a fixed w w
beam of length '/ carrying concentrated loads
I~ X(aJC
X
W each at a distance of a from each end.
Sin\;e the beam is symmetrically loaded about
i{scentre
a..L_ce-20) a
Reactions, RA = Rv = W each -le C '
E;. ,: ~·:: :t~v~>;::: '\...--,- ~i-
Fixing couples MA=Mv.
' .
Figure ABCD shows the Af,, diagram
C-vc>-tr~
A
~
-
0
ra
i.e., when the beam is considered to be simply ( b) 0
supported, witli' BM at Band C equal to Wa. Fig. 12' 19
a a
A=;= ~ax +Wax +Wa(l-2a)
2 2 ' ... ,
= Wa 2+ Wal-2Wa 2= Wa(l-a) .. ... (1)
Then diagram AA'D'D is the Mx' diagram i.e., BM diagram due to fixing couples A
andD.
Area A'=MAX l=Mv xi
= -A (area of the B.M. diagram considering the beam to be
simply supported)
= -Wa(l-a)
. _ Wa(]- a)
or ·~1' ·. lv/A - .- 1 = MD.
Wa 2
Therefore, B.M. at the centre= Wa -
Wa(I-a)
1 =
Wal-Wal+ waa
1 =-,- .
Since the beam is symmetrically loaded about its centre, the slope at the centre of the
beam will be zero. Let us consider a section X-X at a distance of x from the end A in the
portion BC of the beam. (We need not consider a section in the portion CD) .
B.M. at the section, M=MA+RA x- W(x-a)
d2y
El- =- Wa(l-a) +Wx-W(x-a) ... (1)
dx2 I
. ' ~.,. J· ' . '
EI. dy = - Wa(l-a)x + Wx 2_ W(x-a)2 +o .. . (2)
; .:1), -- · , . . dx I 2 · :· 2
imb ")/ '.< ,, • "·
1-r•··n' ' (Cdnstant··of integration is zero because ~= 0 at x = O and the term (x-a) is
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Fl'xEb AND CONTiNUOUS BEAMS 621
-40- 3MB+ 20Ms + 4Mc = - 88
17MB+4Mc= -48 .,.(3)
Again applying the theorem of 3 moments for spans BC and CD
6 X 16 6X24
4MB+2Mc(4- 14)+ 4MD=- - - - - - =-60 Tm2
4 4
But Mo = 0 since the end D is simply supported
So 4MB + 16Mc=-60'
or MB+4Mc=-15 ...tli)
From equations (3) and (4}, 16Mn=- 48 + 15 = -33
Mn=-2'0625 Tm ... (5)
4Mc=- 15-Afp=- 15+2·0625=-12'9375
M c= - 3'234 Tm
From equation (1), 12MA= - 80 - 6M B = - 80+ 2'0625 X 6= -'67'625
MA =- 5'635 Tm
Figure AA' B'C'D is the Mx' diagram due to support moments. Figure wilh positive
and negative areas shows the resultant bending moment diagram.
Support reactions. Taking moments about the point C
4RD - 6X2= Mc =- 3'234
4Ro = 12-3.234= 8'766
Reaction, Rv= 2' 19 T
Now taking moments about tb e point B
8RD+4Rc-6X6-6x2= M n= - 2'0625
8 X2'19 + 4Rc- 48 = - 2'0625
4Rc= 48 - 2'0625-17·52= 28'4175
Reaction, Rc = 7'10 Tonnes
Taking moments about tbe point A.
14Rv + 10Rc+6RB - 12 X 6-6 X 8-6 X 2 = M A= - 5'635
14X2'19+ lO X 7' I0 + 6Rn-72-48 - 12= -5'635
30'66 + 71 ·0+6Rn-132 =- 5'635
6Rn= 132- 5'635-71-30'66
6Rn = 24'105
Reaction, Rn = 4·11 T
Reaction, RA = 6+6+0- 2·19 - 1·10- 4·11 = 4'6 t.
Exercise 12·11-1. A continuous beam ABCD, fixed at end A is supported over points
B, C and end D . The lengths of the spans are AB= BC =CD = 6 m each. The beam carries
a uniformly distributed load of 20 kN/m run throughout its length. Determine ,support
moments and reactions.
[Ans. - 62'31, - 55'38, -76'154, 0 kNm; 61'16, 115'37, 1-35·11, 47·:3 11i?N]
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M .4'x0 + 2MAO+l1)+Mn. /1 =0- 6(a 1)(7-x;)
·1
or 2M"A . l1+M». l1+ 601Ur-:i\) 0 ... (1)
If the other end of the continuous beam is also fixed, a similar equation cab be
obtained by imagining a zero span to the right of the fixed end and then applying the theorem
of·three moments.
Example 12·11-1. A continuous beam ABCD, 14 m long rests on supports A, B, C

and Dall at the same level. AB=6 m, BC= 4 m and CD=4 m. It carries two concentrated
loads of 6 Tonnes each at a distance of 2 m from end A and end D. There is a uniformly
distributed load of 1.5 Tonnes/metre over the span BC. Support A is fixed but support D is
free. Find the moments and reactions at the supports.
Solution. Fig. 12 18 shows a con- (-ve)
tinuous beam ABCD fixed at the end A and
simply supported at the end D, with three
spans AB, BC, CD of 6 m, 4 m and 4 m res-
~--1---.:.iJSl~:ds:.::xxi!l".-....Ll~ 0
pectively. Let us first draw the M " diagrams ·8 WC
for the 3 spans.
4m 4m
Span AB :1·5T/m
w
ab :8Tm cd:3Tm et ::6Tm
6x2x4
B.M. under the load = 6 =8 Tm Fig. .
12 18
TakingoriginatA, a 1 x1 =
8
f 2(j ) + 8·~ 4 ( 2+ ~ )=~2 +1!0- 64Trb.a
3 )= 3 + 3-- 3 = 80 Tma .
8 4 8 2 128 112 240
Taking origin at B, a 1x1 = x2 ( -?__
3 ) + x2 ( :4+ 2.
Span BC
Taking origin at B,
Taking origin at C,
Span CD
.
T a k mg . . at D,
ongm a 2 -x 3=6X 4 2 = 24
--x Tm a.
2
Consider the imaginary span A" A = 0 length . Applying the theorem of 3 moments
M ./ ' x 0+2MA(0 + 6)+ MBX6 = 0 -
6
at 1
(about the origin B)
6x80
12MA+ 6MB = - - - . = - 80 Tm 2
6
I2MA + 6MH= - 80 Tm 2 ... (I)
Applying the theorem of 3 moments for the spans AB and BC
. 6X 64 6X 16
6MA + 2Mn(6 + 4 J+ 4Mc = - - - - -4-
6
6M.. + 20Mn+4kfc =- 88 Tm 2 ., ... (2)
From equation(!), 6MA =- 40- 3Mn
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FIXED AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 61~
12'11. CONTINUOUS BEAM WITH FIXED ENDS
If a continuous beam has fixed ends, then equations for support moments can be derived
considering that slope and deflection at the fixed end are zero. Fig. 12·17 shows a continuous
beam supported at A (a fixed end) and · other suppcrts B, C, D etc. In the analysis let us
consider only two spans AB and BC. Mx diagrams for AB and BC are constructed, i.e., BM
diagrams are plotted considering the spans AB and BC independently. Say for the span
AB and BC carrying any type of transverse loads, M x diagrams are A e B and B f C
respectively.
Mx Oi agrarn
c'
Fixed
, end
A
A B C
Imaginary -x2
end
I
e1 - ----e2 _
1 1
AA :MA 88 = MA
cc' = Mc
Fig. 12·17
Considering the origin at B, x positive towards left, BM at any section -at a distance of
x from B
= Mo:+M.,'
or El ~; = M .,+ M..' ... (I)
Multiplying both the sides by xdx and integrating over the length /1
/1 /1 l1
EI r xdx = JrMx . xdx + J M"', . xdx
2
J ddxy 2 •
0 0 0
f1
I
I
dy
El x dx -y 1= a1 U1-x'i)+ T12 (Ms+2MA)
. . 0
But at the fixed end, at x= 11 ,
t = 0, y= O
at B, x = O, y = O,
thus making the left hand side of the equation equal to zero.
Therefore, 2/vfA li + M.s 11 + 6 a1 (~i-xi) o •.. (1)

1
This relati onship can also be obtained by considering Clapeyron's a n imaginary span
A'A of length zero and bending moment at A', M 4' = 0 and using the Clapeyron's theorem of
3m~~b. ·
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Curve A b B is parabolic.
Taking origin at A and x positive towards right
a 1 x1 = first moment of Mx diagram for span AB (considering the
beam AB independently)
=f~ X 12'5X 10 X 5=416'67 Tm8 ,
Span BC. Maximum bending moment occurs at the centre

WI I2x5
Mm nx = = -- =15 Tm
4 4
M* diagram is a triangle A d C.
Taking origin at C and x positive towards left
a2 i 2 = I 5 x 5 x 2·5 = 93'75 Tm 3
2
Using the equation (5) of article 12·10,
6 x 4J6·67 + 6 x 93'75 +2M 8
IO 5
where 1>1 =1>2=0·o1 m
11 =10 m, 12=5 m
El = 2000 X J04 X 30,000X 10-s Tm 2 =6000 Tm2
El 1> = 6000x O·Ol = 60 Tm3
So 250+ 11 2'5 + 30 Mn- 6 X 60 - 6 X 60 =0

10 5
30 Mn=- 362'5 + 108
or Mn =- 8'483 Tm
AB'C shows the Mx diagram for the continuous beam. The resultant BM diagram is
shown by the Fig. 12' I6 with positive and negative areas.
Support JnoJnents. Taking moments of the forces about the support B

RAX10- IOX5 = - 8'483 (Mn)
Reaction, R A= 4'151 T
Also Rex 5-12 X2'5 =- 8'483
Rex 5= -8'483 + 30
Reaction, R e= 4·303 T
Reaction, Rs = JO + 12-4'151- 4'303 = 13'546 T.
Exercis~ 12·10-1. A girder IO m long is supported at the ends and has an intermediate
support at 6 m from one end. It carries a concentrated load of 12 tonnes at the middle of
each span. The intermediate support is I ·2 cm lower than the end supports, calculate the
re~ctions at th~ supports.
/ = 25000 cm 4 1 £ = 2100 tonnes/cm2
(Ans. 5'36251 13'59381 S-04J7 TJ
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BIXED AND .CONTINUOUS BEAMS 617
or EI 11 iB+EI 81 =a1 x1+ a1' xi'

or El iB= a1X1 + a1'x_{__ El 81 ... (2)
/1 /1 11
where a 1 :i1 =first moment of the a rea of M x diagram
ai'x 1=first moment of the area of Mx' diagram
=(MA+2Mo) T
/ 2
01
a1x1
. B=
EI 1 - - + (M A + 2M B ) - El 81
11 - --
~ 6 ~
6
or 6 Elio= a 1 x1 +(MA + 2MB) 11 - ?!},I _81 ... (3)
/1 /1
Similarly considering the span CB, with origin at C and x positive towards left we
can write
... (4)
where ii/ is the slope at B, taking x p ositive towards left, t herefore, in' = - in, i.e., slope at B
taking x positive towards right.
Adding equations (3) and (4)
6 a1 x1 6 a2x2
0= - - + + M11. '1+2Mn (11+!2)+ Mc . /2
11 12
6 El 8 1 6 EI ~
2
11 ~~,2~ ... (5)
From this equation. support moments a re determined.
Example 12·10-1. A girder 15 m long is supported at the ends and h as an inter-

med iate suppor t at 10 m from one end. It carries a concentrated load of 12 tonnes at t he
midd le of 5 m span and a uniformly distributed load of 1 tonne/ metre run over a ~pan of 10 m.
The central support .is l cm lower than the end supports. Calculate support moments and
support reactions.
E=2000 T/cm2, 1= 30,000 cm4 •
Solution. Fig. 12·16 shows a con-
tin uous beam ABC, 15 m long, span AB= IO m d
carrying uniformly distributed load o f I
tonne/metre and span BC= 5 m carries a con-
centrated load of 12 tonnes at its centre. The
level of su pport B is I cm below tne levels
of A and C. ~~~~a~~~_,,,t~~c=!, 6
Since the beam is simply su pported at
10m--->-5m Re
th e ends, moments
Ral
ab= 12· 5 Tm ,
Let us construct the Mx diagrams
Cd= 15 Tm ,
Span AB. Maximum bending moment
oc9urs at the centre Fig. 12· 16
w/2 l x l02
/vf,,.ax= - ~- = 12' 5 T-11)
8
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6LJi STRENGTH OF MATBRIAJ,S
Moreover Ms = RD x 8-3X (8-2)+Rc x4-4(8-7)

- 4"05 = 1·2~75x 8- 18+4Rc-4
Rc=2'0125 T
Total vertical load on continuous beam =3x4+4+3=19 Tonnes
Reaction RB= 19 - RA-RD-RD= 19-4"9875-l '2375-2"0125
= 10·7625 Tonnes
Exercise 12·9-l. A continuous beam ABCD, 16 m long, supported over spans
AB= 6 m, BC= 4 m and CD= 6 m, carries a concentrated load of 6 tonnes at a distance of
a
2 m from end· A, uniformly distributed load of 1·5 tonne/metre run over the span BC and
a concentrated load of 6 tonnes at a distance of 4 m from the point C. Determine support
reactions and support moments. Draw the resultant BM diagram.
[Ans. 2·278, 6'722, 6'722, 2·278 T; 0, - 10·33, - 10'33, 0 Tm]
12'10. SUPPORTS NOT AT THE SAME LEVEL IN A CONTINUOUS BEAM
Consider two spans AB and BC of a continuous beam of lengths /1 and /2 respectively.
Say the support B is below the support A by 81 and below the support C by 1>2• These
I·
Fig. 12'15
level differences are very small as compared to span lengths and are,not so large as shown
For span AB. Mx diagram Ab Band for span BC, Mx diagram B c C are
in the diagram.
constructed. Say MA, Mn and Mc are the support moments and AA' B'B is Mx' diagram
for span AB and BB' C'C is the Mx' diagram for the span BC.
Span AB. Consider a section at a distance of x from the end A (i.e., taking origin
at A and x positive towards right),
BM at the section = M .. + Mx'
d 2y I
or El -d.x- = M .. + Mx ... (1)
Multiplying both the sides by xdx and integrating,
/1 /1 11
JEl~~ · xdx,..,;J Mxx. dx+JMx' x dx
0 0 0
/1
dx -y \= a1 x- 1 + a1 xi
I
El x dy
0
I - I
or El (!i x iB+ l> 1)- EI (O x iA- 0)=01 x1+ai'x1'

<becau~e qow~ward 9e~e(?tio11 is ta~en as ne~ativ~) ·
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FIXf!D AND CONTINU0US BEAMS
Using the equation for 3 moments

6
MA X4+2MB(4+4)+McX4=- x 32 - 6 x 14
4 4
But MA=O because the beam is simply supported at end A
So 16 MB+4 Mc=-69 Tm3 ... (1)
Span BC. Taking origin at B and x positive towards right
_ 1 2 3X3
a 2x2 = 3 x 2- x -f + -- x (I + 1) = 1+9= 10 Tms
2
Span DC. Maximum bending moment occurs at the c.e ntre,
WI 3x 4
Mmax= - = -- = 3 Tm
4 4
3x 4 ·
a 3x3 = - 2- X2=12 Tm3
Using the equation of 3 moments
MBX 4+ 2Mc(4+4)+MD X4= -

6 2 2
ax
4
-
6aaxa
4
=-6( !Q_
4
+E
4
)=-33
But MD = O because the beam is simply supported at end D
So 4MB+16 Mc =-33 ... (2)
16 Ms+4Mc = -69 ... (1)
16 Ms+64 Mc =- 132 . .. (2)
Substracting equation (1) from equation <2)
60 M c = - 63
Mc=- 1·05 Tm
Substituting the value of M c in equation (1)
16 MB - 4 X l '05 =- 69
16 Ms = -69+ 4'2= - 64'8
MB= - 4'05 Tm
Mx' diagram AB'C'D is drawn with BB'= -4'05 Tm, CC' = -1'05 Tm.
Resultant bending moment diagram is shown in the Figure with +ve and -ve areas.
Support reactions. Taking moments of the forces about the point B
MB = RA X 4-w x 4 x 4
2
- 4"05 = RA X4-3 X8_
24 - 4 ·os 4'9875 T
RA
4
= onnes
Similarly taking moments of the forces about the point C
M c= Rv X 4- 3 X 2
- 1'05= 4Rv-6
]?..p = l '2375 Tonne:j
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toRSloN 691
Problem. 13'5. A solid marine propeller shat't is transmitting power at 1000 r.p.m.
The vessel is being p ropelled at a sp::ed of 20 kiloinet<!rs p er h our for the expenditure of 5000
horse pow.!r. If the effbency of the propeller is 70°/o and the greatest thrust is not to
exceed 600 kg/cm2, calculate the shaft diameter and the maximum shearing stress developed
in the shaft. '
Solution. Say the direct thrust = P kg
Useful work done per second as the output
= Px2ox
- 36001000 5·5555 P kg-metre=5Ss·55 Pkg-cm
Efficiency =10 °/o
555 ·55 p = 793 ·643 P kg-cm
Input work - 0·1
H .P.=5000
Work done per second 5000 X 4500 = 375000 kg-m

60
= 375 x 103 kg-m =375 x 106 kg-cm
So 793·643P=375 X 106
P=0"472 X 10s kg
Allowable direct stress in shaft=600 kg/cm2
Shaft diameter, d= I ~
\ / ff X 600-
-J
4,_x--.,,.-
o·-,,47=20--x- 10:---5 _ 10 .0
'11: x 600 - cm
5 45
Torque on the shaft, T- 000 x 00 =3·58 x 103 kg-m = 3·58 x 105 kg-cm
- 2i; X 1000
Maximum shearing stress,
5
_ 16 T _ 16 X 3'58 X l0 = l . k /
q - i;ds - i; x 10s 823 27 g cm2 .
Problem 13'6 A circular copper shaft is requ ired to transmit 60 horse power at
200 rpm. Determine the diameter of the shaft if the maximum shear stress is not to exceed
60 N/mm2 •
The solid shaft is now replaced by a hollow copper shaft with the internal diameter
equal to 75 °/0 of the external diameter. Determine the external diameter of the shaft if it is
required to transmit the sam~ horse p~wer at the same rpm and the maximum shear stress
produced is also the same. Fmd the weight of the matenal saved per metre length of the
shaft, if copper weighs g·9 gm/c.c.
Solution. H.P.= 60
Work done =746 X 60 x 60 Nm per minute
RPM=200
746 x 60 x 60 = . N
· Torque, T 2207 4
2n x 200 m
= 2207·4 x 10s Nmm
. h 16 T
Maximum s ear stress, q= ~ where d=shaft diameter
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stRENGTH op MATERtA..br
d3= 16X2207.4X103 187'369Xl0;i

TCX60
Shaft diameter, d=51'2 mm
Hollow Shaft
Say external diameter
Internal diameter

J= !!
32 [ D -_!!_
4 4
256 X D _ J
- re X 175 D4 = 0'067 D4
- 32X256 '
Torque, T=2207"4 X lOll Nmm
Maximum shear stress, q= 60 N/mm 2
T q
y= D/2
2207"4 X 103 _ i2_
0'067 D 4 O'SD
DS= 2207'4 X 10s =274'55 X 10a
0'067X 120
External diameter, D=6'5 X 10=65 mm
Internal diameter, d=48'75 mm
Area of cross section of solid shaft
=~ (5'72) 2 =25'697 cm2
4
Area of cross section of hollow shaft
= : (6'5 2 ·-4"875 2 )= 14'517 cm.a
Weight per metre length of solid shaft = p X 100 x 25'697 gm

Weight per metre length of hollow shaft = p x 100 x 14 ·.s 17 gm
Saving in weight per metre length
= p X 100 (25.697 - 14·517) = p X 100 X 11' 18= 9"5 kg
(taking p= 0'0089 kg/cms)
A hollow shaft is better than a solid shaft because the material near the axis of the
solid shaft is not stressed upto the economical limit (i.e. th'e maximum allowable stress}.'
Problem 13·7. A solid alloy shaft of diameter 6 cm is coupled to a hollow steel shaft
of same external diameter. If the angular. twist, per unit •length of hollow shaft is 80 ~er cent
of the angular twist of all~y shaft, _determine the• intemal diameter of the steel ' shaft. At
what speed the shafts will transmit power of 200 kW. The maximum shearing stress in steel
shaft is not to exceed 1000 kg/cm2, while in all'oy shaft it is not to exceed 600 kg/cmz
G. for steel = 2'0 G for alloy
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Solution. The torque transmitted by the hollow steel shaft and the soiid alloy shaft
is the same, since they are coupled together.
Ts Gs0s TA GABA
Ts = - ls- and JA -- -IA- -
But Ts=TA
JsGs8s JAG.-.6,1
So
ls /,1
But again ~
ls
=!i_ X 0'8
IA
(as given)
So 0'8 Js Gs=JA GA
JA GA JA
Js= 0- 8 X Gs = T6 as Gs=2 GA
rcx 64 re
=:fax1 ·6 =32 (64 -d )
4
where d= internal diameter of hollow shaft

or 64 =64 Xl '6-1'6 d 4
777'6
d4 = - - = 486 or d=4'695 cm
1'6
Maximum allowable stress in steel = lOOO kg/cm 2
Maximum torque which can be transmitted by steel shaft
1000 re . 1000
= Js x - - = n (64 -4 695 4) X - - =26507'25 kg-cm
3 3
Similarly the maximum torque which can be transmitted.by the alloy shaft
=n
w 600
<64)= - - = 25446'96 kg-cm = 254"47 kg-meter
3
So the maximum'allowable torque= 25446'96 kg-cm
Power transmitted = 200 kW
1 kW = 102 kg-m
2
200x 102= 254'47 X rt:ON
Revolution'S per minute,

N = 200 X 102 x 60 = 765'48 RPM
2rc X 254'47 .
Problem. 13·s. A solid circular steel shaft is rigidly connected to a copper tube to
make a torsional spring as shown in the Fig . 13'37. The useful length of the shaft and the
tube is 40 cm. The diameter of the shaft is 2 cm and the internal diameter of the tube is
2·4 cm and external diameter is 2'8 cm. Determine the maximum stresses in steel and copper
if torque T = 1000 kg-cm is applied at the end A and find the total angular twist.
Given G,1ce1=800 tonnes/cm 2, G,o 9 p•r=400 tonnes/cm2
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694 . STRENGTH OF MATERiALS
Solution.
Diameter of the steei shaft=2 cm Shel shaft
External diameter of copper tube
=2'8 cm ,~ A \ copper t ub e
I
Internal diameter of the copper tube B
=2'4 cm -''
Polar moment of inertia of copper '
tube,
n
J •= (2'81L2'42)
32 Fig. 13·37
=2'7744 cm"
Polar moment of inertia of steel shaft,
,;
J,= 4 =1'5708 cm4
32 x2
Torque, T= 1000 kg-cm
Maximnm stress in steel shaft
T 2 4000
=7, X2 = 1'5708
q,=636'62 kg/cm2
Maximum stress in copper tube,
T 2'8
qa=y;x y
1000 . .
= . x 1 4=504 61 kg/cm 2
2 7744
Tl Tl
Total angular twist, ll = 0.+ 9•= G,J, +G. la
= 1ooo x 4o [ 8oox 1o~ox 1·57o8+4oo x 1006x2·7744]_

= [0'0318 + o·0360] radian = 0'0678 radian= 3'885 degree.
Problem 13'9, A solid circular steel shaft is surrounded by a thick copper tube so as
to form a compound shaft. If the copper tube shares double the torque shared by the steel
shaft, determine the ratio of the external diameter to the internal diameter of the compound
shaft. G,te•1= 2 G0 opper.
Solution. The angular twist per unit length in the compound shaft is the same in
steel shaft and in copper shaft.
Say diameter of steel shaft =d
External diameter of copper shaft=D
Polar moment of inertia of steel shaft,
nd1
J. = --
32
Polar moment of inertia of copper shaft,
,;
lo= 32 (D"-d")
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TORSION . 695
Torque on copper shaf, T. = 2 x Torque on steel shaft, T,

0c {},
or J • . G, . 7; = 2J, . G. 7;
but + is the same for both
So J.Gc= 2J, G, but G,=2 G.

So J. = 4 J .
__!__ (D4-d4) =4 X ~ (d 4)
32 32
or D4= 5 d4
Ratio of diameters, { =1'495 .
Problem 13·10. A steel shaft of diameter 200 mm runs at 300 r.p.m. This steel
shaft has a 30 mm thick bronze bushing shrunk over its entire length of 8 metres. If the
maximum shearing stress in the steel shaft is not to exceed 12 N/mm 2 , find (a) power of the
engine, {b) torsional rigidity of the shaft.
Gata.1=84,000 N/mm2
Go,on•, =42,000 N/mma
Solution. Steel shaft is encased in bronze shaft, therefore, angular twist due to the
twisting moment will be same in both the shafts.
0,, angular twist in steel shaft
T. l,
- -
- J.
xG,
- •.. (l)
where T,= torque shared by the steel shaft

J, = polar moment of inertia of steel shaft
G,= shear modulus of steel
/, = length of steel shaft = 8000 mm
Similarly, Oo angular twist in bronze shaft

To lo
= -y; X Go ... (2)
But 0,=eo
T, l, To I&
So - x -G, = -
] 8 Jo
x Go
T, - J,
- xGs
- because /,= / o
To - Jo Go
J, = ;
2
(200) = ~ x 16 x 108
Jo = _!!_ (2604 - 2004)

32
where 260 mm-Outvr di~. of \>ron~e shaft
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STRENGTH OF MA'fElUALS
•TC
= 32
X29'698 X 108
T, TC 16 X !Os 32 84,000 = .
Therefore, 1 0775
. Tb = "}i X TC X 29'698 X 108 X 42,000
q, Maximum shear stress in steel shaft = 12 N/mm 2
16
q = rtdT3 . wh ere d = d iameter
" o f the steel shaft
16 X T,
12
TC X(2Q0) 3
T,= TC XI 2 x<200)
16
3
=1 8'85Xl06 Nmm
Tb = .'(; = 17·494 x 106 Nmm

1 75
ffotal Torque = T . +Tb=(l8"850 -t- 17'494) X 10" Nmm
I'
T = 36'344x 106 Nmm
Angular twist, 0= T. z.
= 18'85 x 10 6 x 8000
J , G,
; X I08 X 84000
= 0 '01 143 radian= 6508 degree
Torsional Rigid ity ~= eT = 36' 344 x 106

O·O
1143
= 3179·7 x I 06 Nmm/radian
Power of the Engine = 2i. NT Nmm

= 2Xn X 300 x 36'344 x 10 6 Nmm where N = 300 rpm
= 600·TC X'36"344 X 103 ·Nm / minute
= lOTC x 36'344 x 103 Nm/second
= 1141"78 kNm/second = l141'78 k Watt.
Problem 13·11. A solid circular uniformly tapered shaft of length l, with a small
angle of taper is subjected to a torque T. The diameter at the small end is D and that at the big
end is 1· 1 D. Determine the err or introduced if the angular twist for a given lengt h is deter-
. mined on the basis of the mean diameter af the shaft.
Solution.
Small end diameter =D
Big end diameter = 1"1 D
Torque =T
Length = l
Say modulus of rigidity = G
Angular twist in tapered shaft,
2
0= 32 Tl ( D 2 + D32 D 1 + Di2 )
37i G D1 D~a-
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(li1
_ 32 Tl[ (1'1 D)2 +1·1 D2 +D2 ] - 32Tl 3'3J
- 3nG (1 · 1) 3 D6 - 3iG i
X ·33:1 D'
=( 32nGTl ) 3·31 .
3·993 D4
=( nGD4
32 Tl ) (0 . 8290)
Mean diameter, Dm= 1·05 D

Angular twist in uniform shaft of diameter D,,,
, 32 Tl
0
'ffG X (1'05 D)4
32 Tl 1 32 Tl
= ~ X 1·2155 D' nGD4 (0· 8227)
Percentage error = 0'8290-0'8227 100=0'76 0/

0'8290 X 0
Pfobi~itt i3·12. A vessel having a single propeller shaft 250 mm in diameter running
at 200. rpin is re-engined to two propeller shafts of eq~al cross .sections and producing 50 °/ 0
more horse power at 500 r.p.m. If the workmg shearing stress m these shafts is 20 per cent
more than the single shaft, determine the diameter of the shafts.
Solution. Say the metric horse power developed by the single shaft
2rt X 200 x T 1
4500
Torque, T 1 4500 X H 1 = 3. 58 H1
400 1l
Metric horse power developed by two shafts = 1·5 H 1

m HP developed by each shaft= 0·75 H 1
nue,
Tor-i T 0·75 H1 X 4500 - 1·0743 H
2 21t X 500 - 1
I.!.= 3'58 = 3·33

T 2 1'0743
1l
Now T 1 = l6 d 1 3 X q
T i -- ~16 d3
2 Xq
' where q' = 1 ·2 q (as given)
it T1 d1 3 1
= 16 d}X 1·2 q or T2 = dl Xf2
So 3' 33 = (?~0)ax I
di X I ·2
3- (250) 3
d2 - . X . = 3910'16XJ03
1 2 3 33
Diameter of shafts, d2 =15'75 x 10= 157'5 mm.
Probleiµ 13'13. A st6el shaft 10 cm diameter is solid for a certain part of its length
ahtl hbllow fot Hie remainder part of its length, with an inside diameter of 4 cni. If :a. pure
ttitq~~ is ~\:>plied of such a magui~ud_e t~at )'.ielding just occurs ou the surface of the s6HP part
of the shaf't, <letermme the depth of y1eldmg m the hollow part of the shaft. De~ermine .,, ' ·
*e an~les of twist per unit len~h for the two parts of the shaft.
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Solution. Solid shaft is of radius

5 cm, . but hollow portion is of outer radius
5 cm and inner radius 2 cm. Therefore, polar Solid shaft
moment of inertia of hollow portion is less
than the polar, moment of inertia of the solid
portion. So when yield stress has just reached
I
the surface of the solid shaft yielding has
occured at radius r in hollow shaft or between
r and 5 cm, material of the shaft has yielded
and say the stress in this region is uniform q, .
Torque on the solid part, 0 5c m 9 2cm 5cm
Radius- Radius--'>
T= ; X sax q,=62'5n; q., ...(1)
Fig. 13·38
Torque on the hollow part, T=T1+T2
T1 =torque on the section upto radius r (elastic region)
T 2=torque on the section between rand 5 cm (yielded region) ..
n; (r4-24) ,i
T1= r . ,q,=y(r 4 -l6)q,
2
5 5
T 2= f 211:r qv . dr. =q; f211:r
2 2
dr
I' r
2
So -: (r 4 -16)q., + ; q., (125-r3]= 62'5rr q., ... (2)
2
4
16 +1- (125-rs) = 62'5
,. -
2r 3
3r 4 -48+ 500r-4r4= 315r
r 4-125r+48 = 0
r= 4'865 cm by trial and error
Depth of yielding = 5-4'865 = 0 '135 cm= l'35 mm.
Ratio of angular twist (say based on the elastic part of both the solid and hollow
parts)
0 91 = !!..L in hollow shaft
1i r
0 2
J2
= t
in solid shaft
81//1 5 5 .
or 82//2 = -r- = 4'865= 1 028
Ratio of angular twist per unit length = l '028.
Problem 13·14. A flanged coupling has n bolts of 25 mm diameter arranged
symmetrically along a bolt circle of diame~er 300 mm. If the diameter of the shaft is 100 mm
and it is stressed upto 100 N/mm2 , determme tlw vatu~ of 11 if the sqear ~tress in the bolt§ i§
pot to ex~ed 50 N/mm2, · ·
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Solution. Diameter of the) haft
= 100 mm t,olt circle
Maximum stress in shaft
q=lOO N/mm2
Torque on shaft
ff
= l6 X (100)3 X 100
=19.635Xl06 Nmm
Radius of the bolts circle
=150 mm Fig. 13·39
Shear force on all the bolts
19 6 6
Q= · : ; ; l0 = 13'09 X 10' N
Say the number of bolts =n
Area of each bolt = : (25)2= 490·88 mm2
Maximum stress in bolt =50 N/mm2
Therefore Q 50
nx490·88
13'09 X 104
Number of bolts = SOX 490 . 88 . 5·33 say 6 bolts.
Problem 13'15. Fig. 13'40 shows a vertical shaft with pulleys keyed on"it. The-shaft
is rotating with a uniform velocity at 2000 r.p.m. The belt pulls are indicated and the 3 pulleys
are rigidly keyed to the shaft. If the m:iximum shear stress in the shaft is not to exceed 50
N/mm 2 , determine the necessary diameter of a solid circular shaft. The shaft is supported in
bearings near the pulleys and the bending of the shaftjmay be neglected.
Solution. Torque on pulley A
= (3000 -900) X 10 N cm
= 21000 N cm
Torque on pulley B
=(1800-1000) x 12·5 N cm
= 10000 N cm
Torque on pulley 0
= (2000-lOOO) x 11 N!cm
= 11000 N cm
This shows that shaft is rece1vmg
power at pulley A and is transmitting power
to machines through pulleys B and C.
So the maximum torque on the shaft
=21000 Nern
= 21 x 10a N cm = 21 x 104 Nmm
Shear stress permissible,
q = 50 N/rnm2
So the shaft diameter,
as 16 Tmae 16 X2 1 X 104
rr.q = 'IT X 50
=2'139 x 104
Shaft diameter,
Fig. 13'40
d= 2'776x 10 = 2776 mm.
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STRENGTH OP MA7:'fWI:~
. .
Problem 13'16. A solid shaft of diameter l l cm is transmitting 700 kW at 200 r.p.m.
It is also subjected to a bending moment 15 k Nm and an end thrust. If the maximum
principal stress developed in the shaft is 200 N/mm2, determine the magnitude of end thrust.
Solution. Power transmitted=700 kW = 700 k Nm/second.

Speed = 200 r.p.m.
2oo x21r
20·944 rad/~ec
60
700 x 1000 . .
Torque, T= . Nm =33422 459 Nm=33 4 X 100 Nn.im
20 94
Shaft diameter, d=ll cm = llO mm·.
Shear stress developed in the shaft,
16T 16 X 33"4X ] 06
q= - - = 127'8 N/mm~
nd 3 TC X (11 0) 3
Bending moment on shaft, M=l5 kNm = 15 x 106 Nmm

Say / 1 =d irect stress due to bending developed in the s~aft
_ 1td3 _ TC X (1,10)3
Then M - 32 X/1 or 15Xl06 - 32 X/1
_ l 5X32Xl0 6 N/ 2
or f1- TC X(l-10)3 mm
/ 1 = 114'792 N/mm 2 •
Say t µe direct stress due to end thru-st is /2 then •resultant direct stress
/ = / 1-/2 (when/1 is tensile)
= / 1+ /2 (when f~ js com.pi:~sive)
Now maximum principal stress,
pma~= { + J({ r + q2; or 200= { +.J( { f + 021;·:-;

or (200 - { r =( { r+(l27'8)2
4 X 104 +{ { r -200/= (-f )2 + (127'8)2

or 200 / = 4 X 104 -.l '278 2 X 104= 2)67 X 104
f = 118'39 N/rnm2.
Taking f 1 and / 2 ,both compressive
/ 2= 118'390- 11 4'792 = 3'598 Nfrm.µ12
Area of cross sec~ion of shaft = ~ ( 11 0) 2 = 0'950 x 104 mrn2
End th:rust, P= 0'950 X 104 x 3·59~
= 3'418 X 104 N = 34'18 .kN.
Now consideriug /2 = ! +/1, the maximum principal stress develope.El ·in ithe shaft would
be more than 200 N/mm 2 ~o not permissible.
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Pr~,b.lem J3'f7. -~ ~b..af.t is subjected to b::rtding a1,1d twisting monients. ·T he greater
prjnpip{!;l §t i~~1l 4eyeloped iI;l ,t.he 1lh;:tft is numerically 6 times the minor principal stress.
:O"i.([email protected] :fue r.s1JiP .9f l?eq.ding moment and twisting moment and the angle Mlhich the plane
Qf gr,e_a,~~, Pr~~cjpaj. (>tr.es~ l)li;i.;l.<es with the plane of b~nding stress. ··
Solution. Say M = Bending moment
T=Twisting moment on the section of the shaft
d=diameter of the shaft
/-stress due to bending moment
q=shear stress due to twisting moment
Pi, greater principal stress= f + J({ r+q2 ... (1)
p 2, minor principal stress= { -J ({r +qz
In Fig. 13"41, AC is the plane of bend-

ing stress of the shaft. BC is the plane
parallel (o t)le axii; of the shaft.
From (l), {: =-6
since p 2 will be negative if P1

is positive, ~s ,i.s obvious
from the expressions (,1) Fig. 13·41
M+,/M 2 +r2
or
M-,/Afa+T2 = - 6 ... (2)
or M + v M 2 +T2 =-6M+6{M2 +r2

or -5{ f,1 2 +T2 = - 7 M
or 25 T2= 24 M 2
or M = _{ 25 =1"020
T \J 24 ·
M=l :020 T ... (3)
Now bending !it:i:ess, f= 32M

nd2
16 T
Shear stress, q= nd3
Say 6= angle which the plane of greater principal stress makes
with the plane of bending stress
2q 32 T nds
tan 20= 1 -= nds X32 M
= _ir = 1·~20 = 0"980

28= 44° 24' or 6=22° 12'.
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_STRENG1'H OF MATEitiAts
Problem 13'18. A soiid shaft transmits 2000 kW at 200 revolutions per minute. The
maximum torque developed in the shaft is l '8 times the mean torque. The distance between
the bearings is l '8 metres with a flywheel weighing 5000 kg midway between the bearings,
Fig. 13·42. Determine the shaft diameter if (a) the maximum permissible tensile stress is
60 N/mm2 (b) the maximum permissible shearing stress is 40 N / mms.
'
Solution.
fly w heel
Power developed =2000 kW beoring JI bearing
=2000 kNm/second
Speed =200 r.p.m.
200
= X21t rad/sec
60
=20'944 rad/second
Therefore mean torque,
T _ 2000 X 1000 Fig. 13'42
m- 20'944
=95492'7 Nm
The maximum bending moment due to flywheel occurs at the centre of the shaft
Wxl
Mmo,=--
4
where . W= weight of the flywheel
/ = distance between the bearings
M _ 5000X 1·8 _ k
max - - 2250 g-m
4
= 2250X9'8 Nm = 22050 Nm
Mm ax= 22'050 x 10s N m
Maximum torque, Tmaz= l'8 Tm= l'8X95492'7 Nm
~ 171886'86 Nm = l71'866 x l03 Nm
Now equivalent bending moment
M _ Mmax+ 4"Mmaa, 2 + Tm ax2
o- 2
22'050 X 103+ ,./ (22'050 X lQ3)2 + ( 171 '886 X 103)2

- 2
3
22·osox 10s + 10 4"486'20+29544"79
= 2
22'050 X 103+ 103 X 173'294
2
3
= 97·672 x 10 Nm = 97'672x {0 6 Nmm
Equivalent twisting ru.oment,
Te = { M ma•z+ T '"""z
= 4" (22·osox I0 3) 2+ (111·886 x 1os)2
. = 173.294 x 103 Nm = l73·294 x 10s Nmm
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TORSION 703
'
(a) Say d=diameter of the solid shaft
f = allowable tensile stress
rcd3 rcd3
Then Me=nXf, or 97'672 X L06 = ~ X60
ds= 97 ' 672 X 32 x 10 6 =I6.58l2x 106

60ir
d=249·7 mm
(b) Say q =allowable shearing stress
Td3
Te=--- Xq
16
'lld3
10° x 173°294= ~ x40
d 3 =I73'294x I6x 10° = . x

22 064 106
40rc
d=280.5 mm
Therefore the shaft diameter to withstand the allowable stresses is 280'5 mm.
Problem. 13'19. A shaft of rectangular section is transmitting power at 200 r.p.m.
lifting a load of 6 tonnes at a_ speed of ~O . m etres per mit?ute. TJie efficiency of the crane
gearing is 60 °lo and the maximum perm1ss1ble shear stress Ill shaft 1s 40 N/mm 2 • If the ratio
of breadth to depth is 1·5, determine the size of the shaft and the angle of twist in a length of
4 metres.
If G= 78400 N/mm2 •
Solution. Work done per minute = 6000 X9'8 X !O x 1000= 58'8 x 10 7 Nmm
Efficiency of gearing =60 °/ 0
58'8 X 107
Input work per minute = 98 X 10 7 Nmm
o·6
N= 200 r.p.m.
98 X }07
Therefore torque T 779857 Nmm
2rc X200
For the r ectangular section, longer side
= 1'5Xshorterside, or a = l'5b
Moment of resistance
0·5 b) 2 x b2 2·25 b4
= 3 X 1'5 b+I·8 b Xq 6·3 b X 40
or 779857= 0· 357 bSx 40
779857
b3 - = 54590 mma
- 40xo·357
Shorter s ide, b = 37'93 mm
J.,on9er side, a = 37'93x 1'5 = 5(>'895 mm
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• •\ JJGJ.lJ ,
d2 +b2 Tl
Angle of twist, 0=k . asbs x -G -
where k = 3'645 - 0'06 x !!:.. =3'645-0'06 X ~=3'555

b b
2 2
r._ . 56'89? +37'9~ X 779857X4000
(I-
3 555 X 56'895 3X37·93s 78400
= 0'0658 radian =3"77 degree.
Problem 13·20. A shaft of elliptical section with major axis 40 mm and n1inor axis
25 mm is subjected to a twisting moment of 250 Nm. Determine the maximum shear stress
developed in the shaft and the angle of twist in a length of I metre. 0 = 78400 N/mm 2
Solution. Torque, T=250 Nm=250X 1000 Nmm
Minor axis, a=25 mm
Major axis, b=40 mm
lt
T= ba2 q
16
where q= maximum shear stress at the edges of minor axis
= 16X 250,000 = 50 .93 N/mm2
q 1tX40 X25 2
i_ij (l'l2+b2) T_l
A:n~ulat twist, 0= -;- asbs X 0·
= ___!£ X (25 +40 2
)
2
X 250,000X lOdO
lt '253 X 403 78400
= 0;036 radian = 2·d7 degree.
Pro'tiem ilit. A closed tubular section of mean radius ~ a nd radial tll.idHiess t and
a tube of the same radius and thickness but with a longitudinal slit are subjected , tp the same
twisting moment T. Compare the maximum shear stress developed in both and also compare
the angular twist in these tubes.
Solution.
Mean radius =R
Thickness, =t
Closed Tubular Section
Maximum shear stress q1 = (2r;!t)R

t ... (1)
qi= 2tr.R2 t
slit
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'FORS.ION·. 105

01 - T ... (2)
- GX21rR3t
Tubular section with a small s lit . This can be tr~ated. as a thin rectangular
section of width 2n:R and thickness t.
. h 3T 3T
Max1mum s ear stress, q2 = btz = 2 nRt 2
3T
Angular per unit length, 02 = n:
2
2rcRt 2 t
3T 3R
01 T 2nRt 3 t2
a;-= Gx 2reR 3t x 3T = 3R2
t<<R
So the closed tubular section is much more stronger and stiffer than ~he open tubular
section with a slit.
Problem 13'22. An extruded section in light alloy is in the form of a semi-circle of
mean diameter 8 cm and thickness 4 mm. If a torque is applied to the section and the angle
of twist is to be limited to 2° in a length of 1 metre, estimate the torque and the maximum
shear stress. 0 = 26000 N/mm2 •
Solution. The semi circular section having only one boundary can be treated as thin
rectangular section of width rcR and thickness t.
Width, b = rrR = n: X40 mm
Thickness, t = 4 mm
4° 'fT 4tt
Angular twist per mm, 8=
1000
x
180
= 180000 radian
0= _]I_ or T = G0 bta
Gbt 3 3
T= 4'11' 26000 X(rc x 40)(4);l
180000 X 3
= 4866'1 Nmm = 4'866 Nm
_ 3T 3 x 4866'1 _ .
Maximum shear stress, q - bt 2 = n: x 40 x ( )2 - 7 26 N/mm2
4
Problem 13'23. An I section with flanges 50 mm X 5 mm and web 140 mmx 3 mm
is subjected to a twisting moment of 0·2 kNm. Find the maximum shear stress and twist per
unit length neglecting stress concentration. G= 80,000 N/ mm2 •
In order to reduce the stress an.d the angle 0f twist per unit length, the I section is
reinforced by welding steel plates 140 mm x 5 mm as shown in the Fig. 13'44. Find the
maximum stress due to the same twisting moment. What is then the value of twist per un.it
~en~th:, · · ·
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706 STRENGTH OF MATBRiALS
Solution.
I section _j_
5mm
Flanges 50 x 5 mm
Web 140X3 mm 51nm,, ,Jmm 1
5mm
~
I:bt 2 =2 X 50 X 52+ 140 X 32
=2500+ 1260=3760 mms
l:b1S=2X50'X 125+140 X27
- ~ :4- ~
I
I+ -e ' +
= J2500+ 3780 mm4 145 I 140mfT!

= 16280 mm4 rn m I
L l
Maximum shear stress
3T 3X0'2 X 106 I
q= Ibt2 = 3760 I
= 159'57 N/mm 21 -..j 25mm 25mm'

~5mm

i.-«5mm-j ·
3T 3X0'2Xl06
= G!.bt 3 =80,ooox16280 Fig. 13'44
=0'463 x 10-s rad/mm
Reinforced I section. As shown in the Fig. 13'44, there are two cells of area
A1= A2= 22'5 X 145 mm2= 3262'5
22'5 22'5 145 145
Line integrals a1 = a2 = - - +
5 5 + 3 + - 5 - = 86.33
145
a 12= = 48'33
3
Say the shear flow in cell l is T1 and shear flow in cell 2 is T2 Then
T , Torque = 2 -r1 A1+ 2 T 2 A2
= (T1 + -r2)(2 X3262'5) = 6525 (T1 + T2 )
1 1
2A1G (a1T1 - a12T2) =2A2G (a2T2-a12 T1)
But A1= A2
So 86'33 -r1 -48'33 T2= 86'33 T2 - 48'33 Ti or T1 = -r2
T 0·2 x toG
Ti=T 2= 2 x 6s25= 2 X6525 15 ·~ 2 N/mm
Maximum shear stress = ~ 1 = ~ = 3'065 N/mm 2

t 5 ·
1
6= A G (a1-r1-a12 T2)
2 1
15'32(86'33-48'33) _ . - 3
= 2 x 3262·5 x 80,000 - O OOll x 10 rad/mm
;=0'0638 X 10-a de~ree/ mm= 0'0638°/metre lenst4
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toilsioN 707
Problem 13'24. A thin waiied section is of two cells one dosed but other having a
small longitudinal slit as shown in Fig. 13·45, The section is of uniform thickness t through
out and it has dimensions 2a X a as shown It is subjected to a twisting moment T. Determine
(i) Torque shared by each cell (ii) maximum shear stress in both the cells (iii) angular twist per
unit length, if G is the shear modulus of the section.
Solution.
dell I
Area, A=a2
~ ds = 4a
:r t t Q
Say shear flow in the cell is -.

Say the torque shared by cell 1 is T 1
e1 T21 rf. ds
= 4A G 'f-t- Fig. 13·45
T1 4a Ti )
=4xa'xGxt = Gast ... (l
Cell II. Open section,
a a
Breadth, b=a+a+
2 +
2 =3a
Thickness, =t
'f.bts= 3ats
~bt 2 =3at 2
Say the torque shared by cell 2=T2
3T:i 3T2 T2 ... (2)
Angular twist, ell G"i.bt 3 = G3ats = Gats
But both cells I and II are integral, for continuity 81 = 82
Ti Ts
Ga3 t = Gat 3
Tiat 3 =T:ia8 t or T 1 t 2 =T2a:i
T1 _ a:i a2
T:i _ , 2 or T1 = T2XF
a:i ( a2+12 )
But T = ~+~=~x~+~=~ - 1-2 -
Tt:i Ta2
T2 = ca2+1:i)' and T1= (a2,t-t2) •.. (3)
Maxim.um shear stress in cell 1

T 1 = 2-.A=2x-.xa2
T1
"• shear flow = 2a 2
qi, maximum shear stress,
=,= -t T1 Ta 2
2a t = 2a t(a2+t 2)
2 2
T
= 2t(a2+ta)
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~TRENGTH OF MAfflEitNUI
'Max1muin shear stress in cell 2
3T2 3 X Tt2 T
q 2 = I bt2 = (a 2 +t 2)(3at2 )
3T2 3 XTt 2 T
01 = 02 = G~bts
SUMMARY
T q G0 q,
1. Torsion formula y =Jf= , =-;:-
q=maximum shear stte·ss
where T=Twisting moment
. . nR4
J =Polar moment of mertia =
2
R = Radius of solid shaft
G=Shear modulus
0= Angular twist
/= Length of the shaft
qr= Shear stress ·at any radius r
For a hollow shaft with inner dia D 1 and outer dia D 2
J = ·.!:_ (D 24 - D/)
32
Torsion formula will now be
32 T 2q
TC(D/- D14 ) D2
2. Torsional rigidity of the shaft = GJ
3. Modulus of rupture q' =

16
:;"x (in a solid ·shaft)
16 Tm ax D2 . , ,
= n(D24_ D/•) ~m a hdllow ·shaft)
where Tmax = max'.Mnum torque uptil faHure ·ofthe shaft
4. Horse power ~r,ansmitted by a shaft
, '2:r~NT
HP= 746x 60
-Wliete N = Revoluti ons ·per tninute
T = Torque in Nm
. 2rr.NT
Metnc HP = 4500 where T = irorque ·in kg-metre
5. If there are several shafts in series, same torque Twill act on each of them
T otal angu Iar twist 8 __
G 11
I_(
!_1 -1-- j_~ +-.b
12
~ \
J3 I
'
where /1 , l2 and /8 ar~ the lengths of the .sh afts
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6. For a compound shaft, where two shafts are co-axial or where torque acts at the
junction of the two shafts.
Angular twist, 01=82
T1 J1 G /
- = - x -1 x -2
T2 J2 G2 11
Total torque, T=T1 +T2
7. A shaft subjected to twisting moment T, such that the maximum shear stress is,
q, then principal stresses on the surface of the shaft are +q, -q, O
8. A shaft subjected to bending moment Mand twisting moment T simultaneously.
Equivalent bending moment, M, =

· M+'\IM 2 +r2
2
Equivalent twisting moment, T.= 4 2
M +T2
9. Strain energy in a solid shaft subjected to twisting moment
U= !~ x volume of the shaft

where q=maximum shear stress
10. Strain energy in a hollow shaft of diameters Di, D 2 subjected to twisting moment
U=
q2 (
D22+n1
D 22
2)
X volume of the shaft
,
40
11. Stresses in a key connecting shaft to the pulley are
2T
Shear stress = Dbl
4T
Bearing stress = Dtl
where T= Torque, h= breadth of the key,
t = thickness of the key, /=- length of the key
0
D = Diameter of ·the shaft

12. Rectangular section shaft longer side b, shorter side a subjected to twisting
moment T.
. T(3b + 1'8 a)
Maximum shear stress, q= ga2b2

0= k where k = 3'64S - ·065 x 1-
a
Maximum shear stress occurs at the centre of the longer side.
13. Elliptical section shaft, major axis 2b, minor axis 2a.
. 2T
Maximum shear stre-ss, q= 1;a2b
T a2+b2
Angular twist per unit length, is= 0 X r;asba
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".-
710 STRENGTH OF MA TERiAtS
14. An equiiaterai triangular section shaft

15 3
Maximum shear stress, q= v
2a3
xT
15 3
Angular twist per unit length, 0= v' T
Ga'
where a=side of triangle
15. Membrane Analogy for shafts of non circular sections

(i) Slope of the:membraoe at any point is proportional to the magnitude of the shear
stress at that point.
(ii) The direction of shear stress at any point is perpendicular to that of slope at
that point.
(iii) The twisting moment is numerically equivalent to twice the volume under the
membrane.
16. For a thin walled section subjected to twisting moment T
T
Shear flow, 't'= A
2
where A=area enclosed by the centre line of the tube
Shear flow, -r=shear stress q x thicknes~ t
. . 1 h 0 T J:.ds
Angul ar twist per unit engt , = 4A2G'f t
where :} ~s is the line integral or the ratio of length divided by thickness
17. For a section built up of thin rectangular sections such as I, T, channel etc., subjected
to twisting moment T
3T
Maximum shear stress, q= ~bt2
3T
Angular twist per unit length, O= G~bt 3
18. Torsion of thin walled two-cell section
Shear flow
Twisting moment
T1= 2't'1A1 T2= 2't'2A2
Ai, A 2 are the areas enclosed by the centre line of the cells I and II respectively
't' 1 = shear flow in cell I
't' 2 = shear flow in cell II
-r 3= shear flow in middle web
1 1
0= 2A1G (a1T1 - a12 -r2) = 2A2G (a2-r2-a12-r1)
where a 1= f> ~s for cell I including web
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TORSION
.711
a2= § ~s for cell II including web
a12= 1 ~s for the middle web.

1. A solid shaft of diameter d and length l is subjected to a twisting moment T. Another
shaft of the same material and diameter d and length o·s l is also subjected to the same
twisting moment T. If the angular twist in shaft A is 8, the angular twist in sh a ft B is
(a) 28 (b) 0
(c) 0·5 8 (d) 0·25 0
2. A solid circular shaft A, of diameter d, length l is subjected to a twisting moment T.
Another shaft B of the same material, of diameter d but of length 2/ is subjected to the
same t wisting moment T. If the shear angle developed on shaft A is </: , the shear angle
developed on shaft B is
(a) 2</> (b) ¢,
(c) 0·5 ,f, (d) 0·25 ,f,
3. A hollow circular shaft of inner radius 3 cm and outer radius 5 cm and -length 100 cm is
subjected to a twisting moment so that the angular twist is 0'01 radian. The m aximum
shear a ngle in the shaft is
(a) o·ooos radian (b) 0'005 radian
(c) 0'003 radian Id) 0'0006 radian
4. Torsional rigidity of a shaft is given by
(a) T/G (b) T/J
(c) GJ (d) TJ
wh er e T = Torque, ! = polar moment of inertia
and G~ Shear modulus
5. A hollow shaft of outer radius IO cm, inner radius 4 cm is subjected to a twisting
moment. The maximum shear stress developed in the shaft is 50 N/mm 2 • The shear
stress at the inner radius of the shaft is
(a) 125 N/mm2 (b) 50 N/mm2
(c) 30 N/mm 2 (d) 20 N/mm2
6. A steel shaft A, of diameter d, length / is subjected to a bending moment T. Anot~er
shaft B of brass of the same diameter d, length l is a lso subjected to the sa me twisting
moment T. If the shear modulus of steel is twice the shear modulus of brass, and the
maximum shear stress developed in steel shaft is 50 N/mm 2, then the maximum shear
· stress developed in brass shaft is
(a) 200 N/mm2 (b) ~lOO N/mm2
(c) 50 N /mm 2 (d) 25 N/mm2
7. A sohd shaft diameter 100 mm, length 1000 mm is subjected to a twisting moment T, the
maximum shear stress developed in the shaft is 60 N/mm2 • A hole of diameter 50 mm is
drilled throughout the length of the shaft. By h ow much the torque T must be reduced
so that the maximum shear stress developed in the hollow shaft remains the same .
(a) T/2 (b) T/8
\c) T/15 (d) T/16
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7.h2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
8. A stepped shaft of steel 150 cm long is

subjected to a twisting moment T. For
100 cm length, the shaft diameter is 4 cm
and for 50 cm length, tbe shaft is of
diameter 2 cm. The shaft is shown in
figure 13'46. If the angular twist at A
is e, then total angular twist at B is Fig. 13'46
(a) 17 8 (b ) 16 0
(c) 9 0 (d) 8 0
9. A solid circular shaft is subjected to the twisting moment such that the maximum shear
stress developed on this shaft is 40 N/mm 2 • The maximum principal stress developed on
the surface of the shaft is
(a) 80 N/mm 2 (b) 40 N/mm2
(c) 20 N/mm~ (d) None of the above.
10. A solid circular shaft A of diameter dis transmitting 100 HP at 200 r.p.m. Another shaft
B of the same material but hollow with outer diameter d and inner diam(;:ter o·s d is
transmitting 200 HP at 400 RPM. If the maximum shear siress developed on shaft A is
150 N/mm2 , the maximum shear stress developed on shaft B will be
(a) 320 N/mm 2 (b) 240 N/mm2
(c) 160 N/mm2 (if) 150 N/mm2
11. A steel shaft A of diameter d, length/ is subjected to a Iwisting moment T. Another
shaft B of brass, diameter d, leo.~h 0·5 / is also subjected to the same twisting moment T.
Shear modulus of steel is 2 ti m~s the -shear modulus of brass. If the angular twist in
shaft A is 6; then the angular twist in shaft B is
(a)20 (b)0
(c) o· 5 0 (d) 0·25 0
12. A shaft of lOO mm diameter 1s keyed to a pulley transmitting power. The breadth of the
key is 20 mm and its thickness is 20 mm . If the shaft is subjected to a twisting moment
of: 1000 Nm, and its keyed length is 10 cm, the shear stress developed in the key is.
(a) 100 N/mm 2 (b) 50 N/mm2
(c) 10 N/mm 2 (d) None of the above
13. A shaft of rectangular section b X a is subjected to a twisting moment T. The ma,ximum
shear stress occurs at
(a), \h,e ends of diagona,ls (b) the centre of the longer side
(c). at the centre of the shorter side (d) none of the above
14. A shaft of elliptical section is subjected to a twisting moment. The ma.ximum sh~ar stress
occurs at the -
(a) at the centre of the ellipse (b) at the ends of minor axis
(c) at the ends of major axis (d) none of the above.
15., I',,. stretchedi men:ibranf;: u_nder pi:es.sur~ i~ used to find the shear stres.ses in asp.aft of
rectangu.l~i; section subJected to tw1stmg moment. The maximum stress occurs at the
poj.nt where
(a) deflection is maximum (b) deflection is minimum
(c) slope is maximum (d) slope is zero
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TORSION 713
16. A shaft of thin square section with mean perimeter 16 cm and wall thickness 0·25 cm is
subjected to a twisting moment of 16 Nm. The maximum shearing stress developed in the
section
(a) 2 N/mm2 (b) 4 N/mm2
(c) 8 N/ mm 2 (d) 16 N/mm 2
17. A Tee section flange 10 cm x 1 cm and web 10 cm X 1 cm 'is subjected to a torque of

500 kg-cm. The maximum shear stress in the section is
(a) 25 kg/cm 2 (b) 50 kg/cm!
(c) 75 kg/cm2 (d) 100 kg/cm 2
ANSWERS
1. Ic) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d)

6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (b) Js. (c)
16. (a) 17 . . (c).
EXERCISES
13'1. A hollow circular steel shaft revolving at 150 rpm transmits power to a crane
lifting a load of 80 kN, at a speed of 2 metres/second. If the efficiency of the gearing system
is 70%, determine the size of the shaft. The external diameter is l ' 5 times the internal dia-
meter and the maximum shear stress in the shaft is 80 N / mm 2 • Calculate also the angular
twist in the shaft over a length of 2 metres. Given G for steel= 82 kN/mm2
[Ans. 90'3 mm, 60'2 mm ; 3'88 degree]
· 13'2. A solid circular shaft is required to transm it 250 metric horse power at 600 r.p.m.
The maximum torque developed in the shaft is 1·3 times the mean torque. Determine the
diameter of the shaft if the maximum shear stress is not to exceed 1200 . kg/cm2. Calculate
also the angular twist per 100 cm length of the shaft. Gsteet= 800 tonnes/cm2.
[Ans. 5·475 cm ; 2'99°]
13 3. A hollow circular steel shaft is transmitting 150 metric horse power at 200 r.p.m.
The maximum torque developed in the shaft is 40% more than the mean torque. Determine
the external and internal diameters of the shaft if the maximum shearing stress is not to exceed
JOO N/mm2 and the maximum angular twist per metre length of the shaft is not to exceed 3°.
The external diameter is d ouble the internal diameter of the shaft . Gsteel= 82 x 10s N/mm2.
[Ans. 74'2 mm, 37· 1 mm]
13'4. A solid bar of a metal of diameter 2 cm and length 20 cm is tested under
tension. A load of 500 kg produces an extension of 0'032 mm. At the same time the change
in diameter is observed to be 0·00112 mm. Determine E, G and 1/m for the material.
Ans. [0'9947 x 106 kg/cm2, 0'368 x 106 kg/cm2, 0'35]
13'5. A hollow marine propeller shaft with diameters ratio 0'6, is running at
150 r.p.m. It is propelling a ve_ssel at a speed of _30 knots, at the expenditure of 8000 H.P.
If the efficiency of the propeller 1s 85%, and the d11 ect stress due to thrust is not to exceed
80 kg/cm2, calculate (a) sh aft diameters (b) maximum sh ear stress due to torque.
· ! ~1w t = 9'515 metre/second ~Ans. 28'65 c~1 17'19 cm ; 950'4 k?/cm2J
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I
714 STRENGTH OF MATERI~J.~
13·6. Co)llpare the t9rques which can be transmitted by solid and hollow shafts for a
given maximum shear stress, if the weight per unit length of the shafts is the same and both
are made of same material. The internal diameter of the hollow shaft is 0·6 times the external
diameter. [Ans. 0'5885]
13'7. A solid circular steel shaft is
rigidly connected to a steel tube to make a Tub~
&pring as shown in the Fig. 13·47_ The shaft C
1s prevented from rotation at the end C and
a torque T is applied to the tube at the end
A. The useful length of the shaft and tube
is 50 cm. The diameter of the shaft is 3 cm,
the internal diameter of the tube is 3·5 cm and Fig. 13·47
the external diameter is 4 cm. Determine the
torque at the tube if the maximum shear
stress is 11ot to exceed 200 N/mm2 • Given Gsteet= 80,000 N/mm2 • Moreover_ calculate (a) the
ratio of the maximum shear stresses in shaft and tube. (b) the total angular twist.
[Ans. 0·353 kNm, (a) 3·59, (b) 5'76 degree]
13·s. A solid circular shaft of diameter 30 mm is surrounded by a thick c?pper. tube

of 50 mm external diameter so as to form a compound shaft. The compound shaft ts subJected
to a torque of o·8 x 106 Nmm. Determine
(a) torque in steel shaft and copper tube
(b) maximum shear stresses in steel and copper
(c) angular twist per 100 cm length of the compound shaft.
Given Gsteel=2 Gcopf/er= 80,000 N/rnrn 2
[Ans. (a) 1'84Xl05,6'16X101 Nmm
(b) 34'7, 28·8 N/mm2 (c) 1'656 degree]
13·9. A steel shaft of diameter 6 cm runs at 250 r.p.m. This steel shaft has a I cm
thic~ brqnze bushing shrunk over its entire length of 5 metres. If the maximum shearing stress
irr steel shaft is not to exceed 700 kg/cm2, find (a) Power of the engine (b) Torsional rigidity
of the shaft. Gsteel= 840 tonnes/cm 2, Goronu = 420 tonnes/cm 2 ,
[Ans. (a) 215'6 horse power, (b) 4450 kg-m/radian]

13·10. A solid circular shaft uniformly tapered along its length is subjected to a twist-
ing moment T. Radius at the big end is 1·2 times the radius at the small end. Determine
the percent error introduced if angle of twist for a given length is calculated on the basis of the
~ea:n radius. [Ans. 2·72 °/0 ]
J£ql. A vessel hl;lving a single propeller shaft 30 cm diameter running at 150 r.p.m.
is re-engined to two propeller shafts of 20 cm diameter each running at 250 r.p.m. If the
workin'g shear stress in these shafts is 10 per cent more than the single shaft, determine the
r~tio Qf the horse powers transmitted by these two shafts with that <>.f single shaft.
[Ans. 1 ·087]
13'12. A steel shaft of lO mm diameter is solid for a certain part of its length and
hollow fo:r th~ remainder part of its length with inside diameter 30 mm. If a pure torque is
applied of such a magnitude that yielding just occurs on the surface of the solid part, determine
~he q.~pth of yieiding in the hollow part of the shaft. Determine a,Jso the ratio of angle of twist
per UJlit length for the two parts of the shafts. [Ans. 0'84 mm, l '02]
13'13. A flanged coupling has 8 bolts of 2 cm 9iameter each, arranged symmetricaJLy
along the bolt circle diameter of 24 cm. 1f the diameter of the shaft is 8 cm and stressed upto
J ~onne/cm2~ calculate tp,e -;hear str~ss in the bolt~. [Ans. 333·33 k~/cm2~
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715
13'14. Fig. 13'48 shows a vertic~l
shaft with pulleys keyed to it. The shaft 1s
rotating with a uniform angular speed of
1500 r.p.m. The belt pulls are indicated and
the 3 pulleys are rigidly keyed to the shaft.
If the the maximum shear stress in the shaft
is not to exceed 60 N/mm2, determine the
necessary diameter of the shaft, which is
solid. The shaft is supported in bearings
near the pulleys, so that the bending of the
shaft may be neglected.
[Ans. 17'205 mm]
13'15. A solid shaft of diameter 8 cm

is transmitting 500 HP at 500 r.p.m. It is
subjected to a bending moment 25000 kg-cm
and an end thrust. If the maximum principal
stress developed in the shaft is 1400 kg/cm2,
determine the magnitude· of end thrust.
[Ans. 27'15 Tonnes]
13'16. A solid alloy shaft of diameter

500 mm is coupled to a hollow steel shaft of
same external diameter. If the angular twist
per unit length in steel shaft is limited to
75 % of the angular twist per unit length of
solid shaft, determine the internal diameter
of hollow shaft. At what speed, the shafts
will transmit 150 horse power. The maximum
shearing stress in steel shaft is not to exceed
100 N/mm 2 and that in alloy shaft it is not to
exceed 50 N/mm 2.
[Ans. 41 '32 mm, 858 revolutions
per minute] Fig. 13'48
13'17. A shaft subjected to bending and twisting moments simultaneously. The

greater principal stress developed in the shaft is numerically 4 times the minor principal stress.
Determine the ratio of bending moment and twisting moment and the angle which the plane of
greater principal stress makes with the plane of bending stress. [Ans. 0'75, 24°18']
13'18. A solid shaft transmits 1200 horse power at 300 revolutions per minute. The
maximum torque developed in the shaft is 1·4 times the mean torque. The distance between
the bearings is 1·2 metre with a flywheel weighing 2000 kg midway between the bearings,
Determine the shaft diameter if (a) maximum permissible tensile stress is 800 kg/cm2, (b) the
maximum permissible shearing stress is 500 kg/cm2 • [Ans. (a) 14'36 cm (b) 16 cm]
13'19. A shaft of square section is subjected to twisting moment 400 Nm. If the
maximum shear stress developed in the shaft is not to exceed 40 N/mm 2, determine the size of
the shaft and angle of twist in a 2 metre length of the shaft. G=78400 N/mm2.
[Ans. 36'36 mm, 2·377 degree]
13'20. A tubular section of mean radius 10 cm and thickness 1 cm having a small
longitudinal slit cut into it, is subjected to a torque such that the maximum shear stress is
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50 N/mm2 Datermine the torque 011 the section, and the angular twist for 1 metre length of
the shaft. Compare its strength and stiffness with that of a closed tubular section of the same
dimensions. G=80,000 N/mm2 • [Ans. 10472 Nm. 1 ·04 rad/metre length ; 1 : 30, 1 : 300]
13·21. An extruded section of brass i.s in the form of a semicircle of mean diameter
90 mm and thickness 4 mm. If a torque of 5 Nm is applied to the section, determine the
maximum shear stress developed in the section. What is the angular twist per metre length.
[Ans. 6"63 N/mm 2, 2'435°]
13·22. An I section with flanges 50 mm x 5 mm and web 65 mm x 4 mm is subjected
to a twisting moment of tO kg-metre. Find the maximum shear stress and the angle of twist
per metre length. G=820,COO kg/cm 2 • Neglect stress concentrations.
In order to reduce the stress and the angle of twist per unit length, the I section is
strengthened by welding steel plates 65 mm X 5 mm at the ends of the flanges so as to make a
section of two cells. Find the maximum stress due to the same twisting moment. What is the
angular twist per unit length. '
[Ans. 847'4 kg/cm2, 0·22 radian/metre ; 31 ·74 kg/cm2, 0'0014 radian/metre]
13"23. A thin walled box section has

two compartments as shown in Fig. 13'49.
The thickness of the section is constant. What a
is the shear stress in both the cells . Take
a= 10 cm, t=0"8 cm. What will be the
angular twist per unit length. G= 80,000
N/mm2 • [Ans. 2"484 N/mm 2 , 0·397 N/mm2 • -c--a-~-- a
0"036° per metre]
Fig. 13°49
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Springs
The springs are commonly used to absorb the energy provided through an external
force in the form of strain energy and to release the same energy as per the requirements. In
the case of clockwork, the strain energy in the spiral spring is stored through winding the spring
and the resumption of the spring's original shape takes place very slowly. In various
mechanisms, springs are provided as a means of restoring the original configuration against the
action of the external force. Springs are also used to absorb shocks such as the springs of
buffers of railway rolling stock and the springs on the wheels of the vehicles and the effects of
the blow on the rolling stock or the vehicles are reduced.
&M
I
I/
/
-t- 6
......
',
\
\ ·~/
' ' ' /
K
D
--~1
____ ,... .:.-
I
I
--
C
/
,.-
I
N
M
ol • heHx angle\,,
,
M: T sin r/.
T/: T cos~..
W = Axial load
M a::Axlol moment
4
...... _O~<-:,
.
-- t /
WM
·
,
M
tr· ;!;.
Helical spring under axia 1•
load W and axial moment M.
Fig. 14·1
717
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718 STRENGTH OF MATER~ALS
14'1, HELICAL SPRINGS

When the axis of the wire of the spring forms an helix on the surface of a right circular
cylinder or a right circular cone, a helical spring is obtained. But here we will deal only with
the helical sprin--gs, when the coils of the springs form a cylindrical surface. The conical springs
are not within the scope of this book.
I
Figure 14' 1 sho.ws coils of a helical spring subjected to axial load or axial moment.
ABCD is the helix described by the spring wire. The axis of the spring wire forms a right
circular cylinder of radius R, O'K= R, the axis of the cylinder being O'O, which coincides with
the axis of the spring. The line KBL is the generator of the cylinder. MB is the tangent to
htilix at the point B. M N is perpendicular to the axis of the spring. If the axis of the spring
is vertical then MN is horizontal. The angle LNMB is called the angle of helix of the spring.
Let,us take
R = radius"of the cylinder as shown
= mean radius of the coils of the spring
rl= helix angle
n=number of coils in 'the spring
. . . . 2nR
Length of t he spring wire m one co,1s= - - .
cos Cl
2
Therefore length of the spring wire in n coils= nnR ~21enR
cos oc
If is very small angle as in the case of close coiled helical springs.
ot
Let us consider first the effect of axial load W only.

Close coiled helical spring. When the coils of the springs are so close to each other
that they can be regarded as lying in planes at right angles to the axis of the helix, the angle at is
very small and cos oc :::: I.
Say the diameter of the wire= d
. . J = ~d'
Po1ar moment of mertia,
32
Since cos Qt = 1
'
Direct shear force on any section= W(axial load)
T:WR cos'-
Wcos ~
t - - - -- R
0
Fig. 14·2
Twisting mom~nt on each cross section = T'=T cos ,,.:::: T

=WR
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Direct shear stress,
q0 = ~:::, which is uniform throughout the section

Maximum shear stress due to twisting mom~nt
q= WR x .!!._ = 16WR
m/•/32 2 nd3
As is obvious from the figure 14'2, the direct shear stress q0 is added at the inner side of
the spring and substracted at the outer side i.e. the resultant shear stress at the inner radius of
the coil will be more than the resultant shear stress at the outer radius of the coil.
.t
wire diam ete r
Fig. 14·3
Moreover consider a small element mm'n'n of the spring wire subjected to twisting
moment. The cross section mm' rotate~ with respect to the cross section nn'. Due to thy
twisting moment, the angular displacement of the point m with re&pect n is the same· as tWe
angular displacement of the point m' with respect ton'. But the distance mn is smaller than
the distance m'n'. Therefore the shearipg. strain at the inner surface mn will be more than the
shearing strain at the outer surface m'n'.
Taking into account, the above observation, the maximum shearing stress in the sprifitg
wire is given by the following equation by some researchers-
16WR( 4k'-1 0'615 )
qma(I)= nd3 4k' -4 + -k-,-
where ···. ' k'= 2R
·. . d
=spring index and ~erm in the bracket determines the

correction factor
Example t4·t-1. A close coiled helical spring of mean coil radius 4 cm is made of
a steel wire of diameter 8 mm. If the a~ial load on the spring i.s 10 kg, determine t:he maximum
shearing stress developed in the spring wire.
Solution.
Spring index, k'= 2R
d
when: R = mean coil radius= 4 cm
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« = wire diap:ieter = 9'8 ¥~
STRENGTH OF MATER!ALS
k'= 2X4 =10

o·8
Axial load, W=lO kg
_ 16X 10X4f( 40-1 0"6)5 )
So qf'llax- 11X0"83 40-4 + 10
=397"88 (1 "0833+"0615)
Maximum shear stress =455'49 kg/cm3
Exercise 14·1-1. A.close coiled helical spring of mean coil diameter 50 mm is made
of a steel wire of 6 mm diameter. If the maximum shear stress developed is 90 N/mm2, what
is the axial load applied on the spring. Ans. [129' 8N]
14'2. CLOSE COILED HELICAL SPRING SUBJECTED TO AXIAL LOAD
Again consider a small element mnn'm'

of the spring wire subtending an angle dt at
the centre of the spring. Say under the action Axis of spring
of the twisting moment T= WR, the angular
twist is se. . - .~?.f :-
The vertical deflection along the axis
of the spring
=d8=R86
Angular twist,
SS=TRdt
GJ
because Rd~= dl= length of the shaft
considered
d8 = R80= TR2d~ _ WRSd~ W Axial load
GJ - GJ
because T on any section is WR Fig. 14·4
21m
WR 3 WR3
Total axial deflection, 8=
f
0
! GJ d~= w- . 21tn
where n=number of turns and total angle subtended by the coils

at the axis of the spring
~= 2,rn
. . f . . . nd'
J = po1ar moment o f mertia o sprmg wire sect10n = - 32
S= WR 3 X 21tn X 32 64nWRS
Axial deflection, G X 1td.t Gd'
Stiffness of the spring = Load per unit axial deflection = :

. Gd"
Stiffness, k = nRs . i.e., the axial force required to yX~end or compress the sprin 9 by
64
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~ 9nit axial defl.ectiQJ:\:
SBRINGB, 721
Example 14 2-1. A close coiled helical spring made of round steel wire is required to
carry a load of 800 N for a maximum stress not to exceed 200 N/mm2 • Determine the wire
diameter if the stiffness of the spring is 10 N/mm and the diameter of the helix is 80 mm.
Calculate also the number of turns required in the spring. Neglect the correction due to the
spring index. Given G for steel= 81 kN/mm 2 •
Solution.
80
Mean coil radius, R = - = 40mm
2
Maximum shear stress, q= 200 N/mm2
Axial load, W= 800 N
Stiffness, k=IO N/mm
16WR 16X800X40
Now q= nd3 rcd3
200=12800X40
8
or d3= 814'87 mms
rcd
Wire diameter, d=9'34 mm
Gd'
Moreover stiffness, k 64 nR8
IO 80 X 1000 X 9'34'
So
64 nx4oa
Number of coils, n=l4'86
Exercise 14'2-l. A close coiled helical spring made of o·6 cm diameter steel wire
carries an axial load of 40 kg. Determine the maximum shear stress in the spring wire if the
mean coil radius is 3 cm and the number of turns are 8'5.
Given Gstee/=820 tonnes/cma
Calculate also the following :
(a) the maximum shear stress at the inner coil radius
(b) axial deflection. [Ans. 2835 kg/cm2 ; (a) 3245 kg/cm2 (b) 5'52 cm]
14'3. CL()SE C.ILED HELICAL SPRING SUBJECTED TO AXIAL MOMENT

Again consider that the spring is
subjected, to an axial moment M, then moment
in the plane of the coil or ab?u.t the axis of
the coil is M cos 01 and the tw1stmg moment
is M sin cx as shown in Fig. 14 ·s. But since
ex is small M cos a. :,:,,.Af and M sin a ~o.
Let us consider again that the wire is
acted upon everywhere, by a bending couple
which is approximately equal to M.
Say ¢ = the total angle through which
one end of the spring is turn- . Axis of coit
ed relative to the other end,
when the bending couple M
I Axis of sprin~
i~ applie9 Fi~.14·~
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Ml
Work: done but l=-
. EI
where E=modulus of elasticity of the material
/=moment of inertia of the section
Ml
'fo prove that ,p= EI . Let us con-
sider a bar of length I, initially straight, sub- C = Ce-n tre ot
jected to a bending moment M. After bend- curvature
ing the bar subtends an angle ef> at the centre
of 'curvature and say R is the radius of
curvature.
Taking ef, to be very small
Ref,=l or
I
rp=-
R
But from flexure formula
a)
curvature
M E I M
y = ] f ; and R= EI Fig. 14·6
... ,1._ Ml
.,,- EI
So the work done
or
t/,= Ml _ 21mRMx 64 _ 128nRM
EI - Exred' - Ed'
The maximum stress in the wire due to the axial couple is

f = Md_ 32 M
21 - rt:d8
Example 14"3-1. A close coiled helical spring made of round steer wire 5 mm dia-
meter, having 10 complete turns is sxbjected to an axial moment M. Determine the magnitude
of the axial couple M if the maximum bending stress in spring wire is not to exceed 2400 kg/
cm2. Calculate also the angle through which one end of the spring is turned relative to the
other end, if the mean coil radius is 3·5 cm. Estee/= 2000 tonnes/cm2
Solution.
Wire diameter, d=O'Scm
Number of turns, n=lO
Mean coil radius, PR= 3·5 cm
32M
f- -r,:d8 = 2400 kg/cm2
A~ial momeµt ·nnd3 =2400 X3~n X 0·5s =29°45 k9·Cm

M-f
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723
The angle through which one end of the spring is turned relative to the other end,
rf,- 128 nR•M _ 128 X 10 X 3'5 X 29'45
- Ed4 - 2000X 1000X(0'5)'
=1'056 radian=60'4°
.E xercise 14'3-2. A close coiled helical spring made of round steel wire, with mean
coil radius of 4 cm and number of turns equal to 10 is subjected to an unwinding axial couple
of 4 Nm. Determine,
(a) wire diameter if the maximum bending stress is not to exceed 240 N/mm'
(b) the angle through which one end of the spring is turned relative to the other end. .
Estee/= 208 kN/mm2 [Ans. 5·54 mm, 59'86°]
14'4, OPEN COILED HELICAL SPRINGS
In the case of open coiled helical springs, the effect of bending moment WR
sin r:,., when the spring of mean coil radius R is subjected to axial load W cannot be neglected.
Similarly when the spring is subjected to axial couple M, the effect of M sin ll cannot be
neglected. Let us first consider that the open coiled hc:lical spring is subjected to an axial load
W only and due to this there are WR cos a = twisting moment and WR sin ot=bending
moment acting on the spring wire .
. s oi A .
~ll' ·\ xrs of spring
c.0\{ y
w
WR
WR COSOCmT
b C
~~-- WRsinol•M'
t't A1t is ot
e ~ofsinot:
$;'cos " f
&e'cosoe
m
~ r ,
oG
n
·~- d'l..
M
t,.(
I
r'
.
.
T
8e~sin al.
Fig. 14·7 Fig. 14·8
Total moment about X-X axis (perpendicular to YY-axis of spring)= WR
Twisting moment about the centre of the section of the spring wire= T'= WR cos ot
Bending moment in the plane of the coil X' X' = M' = WR sin «
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's'rR'ENGTH OF MA'ilElU~\3s
.· .011 each element of the spring, the twisting and bending moments will act as ,shown in
the Fig. 14'8. ,
Due to the twisting moment, there will be angular twist about the axis of the helix
X'X' and due to the bending moment one end of the spring will rotate with respect to the other
end about the axis Y' Y'.
Considering a small element of the spring of length o/
Angular twist about axis X'X',
WR cos (1. ol
80 ,= T'ol
GJ GJ
,
! .. .. ( -
!.. • .... ~. • ,,
( shown by In in displacement diagram min)
Angular rotation about axis Y'Y'.
.1., _ Mo/ _ WR sin (1. 81
8'fl - El - El
(Shown by de in the·displacement,diagram dff/)
··. Taking the component~ of angular twist and angular rotatfon about XX and ·; yy axis.:
: .. -
--
·86,, angular twist about XX axis
lm+df=o6' cos (1.+04>' sin t1..
WR cos2 (1. ol WR sin2 a1 8/
= GJ +. El
8,f;, angular rotation about YY axis
-+ +-
=mn-fe=o8' sin O. - ocp' COS IX
WR sin a cos r1. ol WR sin r1. cos C1. SI
GJ EI
Total angular twist about X-X axis,
I
6= l 08 where/ is the length of the spring wire
0
I
6_ f( WR cos °' + 2
'WR sin ex
2
1I o/
-J GJ El
0
WR cos 2 c. WR .sin2 «)
0= ( GJ +I EI
/=length of the spring wire= 2rmR'
where R' = ..Ji_, radius of the coil in its plane

cos QI
So /=2rtnR sec C1.
A.ngular twist,
fWRcos 2 r1. + WR -sin2
0= \ GJ EI
r'/. ) x 2 .,, Rn sec °'
Axial deflection in the spring,

2
.q= R8= 2~nR3W sec r,. [ c_oGsJ~ + siEn/a(XJ·
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Total angular i:'otat'ion about YY axis,
I I
cp= J'Sef,=J( WR sin IX cos rJ. _ WR sin oc cos IX) di
. GJ EI
0 0
=WR sin 11. cos a [ G~ - ii J/.

wher.e l=211;n R sec a
So </,=WR sin ex. cos 11. • 211;nR sec IX [

1
01
-·lI J
=2rm WR 2 sin <1. [ -
1 1
- - EI
, GI J
The axial extension in the spring can also be obtained by using the principle of work
done
Say o=axial extension in spring under the axial load ,W ,
.p' =angular rotation of the spring about Y'Y' axis
6' =angular twist of the spring about X' X' axis
Work done=! T'6'+·!M'ef,'
}W8=!T'6'+1M't,6'
8-
- W
_1[ T' O'+M'.1.'
'I'
]=[ T'2GJ / + M'2EI / J-1-
. W
but T' = WR cos ~ and M' = WR sin ex.
1 [ W2R 2 cos2 Cl.
o=w GJ +
W2 R2 sin2
EI
Ill J
I
2 2
= W R 2l [ cos .i sin Ill 1
GJ + El J
but l = 2rmR sec oc
So axial deflection,
Example 14'4-l. An open coiled helical spring ma.de from wire qf 1pircul11,r.,cr,(l)~s
section is required to carry a load of 10 kg. The wire diameter is 8 mm and the mean coil
radius i.s 4 cm. Calculate (a) the axial deflection (b) angular rotation of free end with respect
to the fixed end of the spring if the helix angle of the spring is 30° and the number of turns
is 12. Gsteet= 800 tonnes/cm2 , Esteet=r:2000 tonnes/cmll
Solution.
Wire diameter, d= 0·8 cm
Mean coil radius, R=4 cm
Helix angle, «=30°, sin oc = O·S, cos a=0·866
Number of turns, n=12
Axial load, W=lO kg
Length of the spring wire = 2nn R sec ex.
211; X4X 12 = 348
0·866 cm
E=2 X 10 kg/cm , G=0'8 X 106 kg/cm2
6 2
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§tRBNGTH OF MATERIALS
Axial deflection, a= W R2J [ cosz«

GJ
+ sin2ot
EI
J
=10X42X348 [ 0"8662
4
GJ
+ o·s
EI
2
J
8
Now J=2I= ;~ = R~~- ' =0'040 cm'
I=O·o20 cm 4
0·75
S=l 6 XlOX 348 [ 0·8 x lOe x o·o4 + 2 X l0
0·25
6 X0"02
J= l "64Scm
Angular rotation, 4, =WR sin ot cos ot { G~ - E~I J

x
= 10 x 4 x o·866 x O'S x 348 [o·s x 10~ o·o4 - 2 x 10/x o·o2]
=O·OJ74 radian=2"14 degree.
Exercise 14 4-1. An open coiled helical spring made of l cm diameter steel rod,
4·5 cm mean coil radius and 20° angle of helix is subjected to an axial load W. Determine the
magnitude of W if the maximum shear stress in wire due to torque is limited to 1350 kg/cm2.
Calculate the number of turns in the spring if axial extension in the spring under the load is
4cm.
Gs,eel =800 tonoes/cm2 , Estee/ =2000 tonnes/cm2
[Ans. 62'7 kg, 8'3 turns]
14'5. OPEN COILED HELICAL SPRING SUBJECTED TO AXIAL MOMENT
Consider that on open coiled helical
spring of mean coil radius R, angle of helix «,
number of turns n is subjected to an axial "\ IV axis of spring
couple M. Figure 14·9 shows a winding
couple applied about the axis YY of the spring
which tries to wind up the spring or which
tends to increase the number of coils in the
spring. There are two components of M i.e.,
\~r-R
~ \ol'I"
.,.., ___
o\ , \\
M cos oi (in the plane of the coil acting as

bending moment) and M sin oc, as twisting
moment producing angular twist about the I
axis K'X'. Considering a small element of 'f,.
the spring of length 81 as shown.
Angular twist about the axis X'X', r'= M s in oe
t-O' = T'8/ = M sin o: 81 ~( =M COSc{
1 0
- l GJ GJ
(shown by In, in diagram lmn)
Angular rotation about the axis Y'Y',
8r/>'=M'81 = M cos ix di
EI EI
(shown by de in the diagram def)
Taking the components of the angular
twist and angular rotation about XX and YY
axis
88, angular twist about X-X axis Fig. 14·9
=df-mn
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11 ·1 ~ 1 1
SPRINGS 727
= '8</>' sin cx-'88' cos oc
M sin oc cos oc '8/ M sin " cos ex '81
El GJ
--
'84,, angular rotatian about YY axis,
=ef+lm = '8</,' cos «+'88' sin ex

M cos2 tJ '8/ M sin 2 ex '81
= EI + GJ
I
Total angular twist, 0= JM sin oc cos oc [ E~ - j1 ] '8/
0
= M sin ex cos a1 ( }I - jJ J/ where 1= 2.,,nR sec oc

= 21rnMR sin oc ( 1 1 - ~J)
I
. ,f, = J( Mcos
Total angular rotation, EI
2
rt sin2 0() di
+ MGJ
0
- ( M cos ex
2
+ M sin 2
oc ) 1
- EI GJ
cos 2 ex
= 2 nnR sec ex ... M [ ~
2
sin oc
+GJ J
Axial deflection, '8= R0=-2nnMRi sin a ( ~ I - G~ )
as we have taken winding couple
Example J4"5-1. An open coiled helical spring made of steel wire 6 mm diameter
and 3"6 cm mean coil radius with ~5° inclination _of the coils :,vith the spring axis is subjected
to an axial moment M. Determine the 1 magmtude of M 1f the number of turns in the spring
increase by 1/8. Calculate the change in the axial length of the spring, if the original number
of turns are 10. Gstee/= 84 kN/ mm 2 , Estee/= 210 kN/mm 2 •
Solution.
Axial moment, M=?
Wire diameter, d= 0·6 cm= 6 mm
J= ;~" = " ~r = 127"235 mm4
Moment of inertia, I = ; =63 "617 mm"
Angle of helix, a. = 90-65 = 25°

sin a. = 0"423 sin2 oc= O·I78
~o~ a.= 0·901 co~ 2 «= O·~zi
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STRENGTH OF MATERJM'.18,
Number of turns = 10
Mean coil radius, R = 36 mm
Length of the spring wire,
l= 21rnR sec e<=2,r X lO X 36 X .

9 7
1
=2493 ·9 mm
Angular rotation rf,=} turn= -~- x 360°=45°=0.7854 radian

2
= Ml[ cos e< + sin e<
EI GJ
2
J
.7 54 . [ 0·822
(
0·118
0 8 =M x 2493 9 210 x 1000 x 63.687+84 x 1000 x 121·215
J
'
= 1~0[0·1534+·0415 J
x · 7854 =4029·7 N
M = tooo·1949 =4·029 N
mm m
Change in axial length, 8=MRI sin r1. cos 0( ( G~ - E~ )
= 4029"7 X 36 X ·423 X ·907 ( 84 X JOO~ X .

127 235
-21o x 10o~ x 63·617) 1
. Change in axi~l length, 3= 4·0297 x 3·6 x ·423 x ·301( . x [ . x~ . ) /

8 4 27 35 21 3 617
= s- 56 ~;ot49 3'· 9 (0.9348-0·7538)=2·512 mm
E-xerci'se 14rs-l. An open coiled helical spring made of 5 mm diameter steel wit.e·
2·5 cm mean coil radius and 23° angle of helix is. subjected to an axial moment of O 2 kg~me1Jn/
Determine (a) the angular rotation of one end with respect to the other end (b) axial deflection
if number of coils in the spring is 15.
Estee/=2100 tonnes/cm2, Poisson's ratio for steel= 0·27
[Ans. (a) 47·4-0 (b)· o· Ii928 cm]
t4·6. STRESSES DEVELOPED IN SPRING WIRE OF CIRCULAR SECTION
Let us first consider an open coiled helical spring, of mean coil radius R, angle of
helix e& and wire diameter d, subjected to an axial load W.
On any section of the spring wire.
Twisting moment, T' = WR cos ct
1jendin~ moment~ M' = WR ~in r:
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SPRiNGS .
d =wire diameter
Fig. 14·10
Max. torsional shear stress on any section, , 16T' I6WR cos Ill
q = rcd3 = rcd3
" 4W
Direct shear stress due to axial load, q =-;;p
Max. shear stress at inner coil radius _1_6_i¥_R_co_s_cc +-4-
·W_
TCd3 TCd2
Minimum shear stress at outer coil radius , u 16WR cos « AW
= q -q ·= nds - -.n-d2-
Maximum stress due to bending, f= 32M' = 32 WR sin ex

-r;d3 · · · ·· reds · ·
Maximum pr.incipal stress occurs at the inner coil radius,
·Priqcjp~l stresses
. . , · L~t us fut!her· consider the stresses due to axial couple Mon any section of · rhe ··sprihg
wire; . a ' . . •~ • • .. • ~ •
Twisting moment, T'=M sin oc

Bendi~g ~oment, M'= M cos~
Maximum to1sional :shear1 stress due to twisting moment,
16T' 16M sin«
q=--;Js = rcd3 - ·
... . .
32M' 32M cos a
Maximum stress due to bending, f= -;as-= nds
·pifocipal stresses ·at the extreme radii (inner and outer coil radii)
_ 2I
pi, P2- ± J( T )a f +q2
Example 14'6-l. An open coiled helical spring of wire diameter 10 mm, mean coil
radius 70 mm, helix angle 20° carries a_n axial load ?f 400 N. Determine thy ~he~r stress an<;l
girect stres~ developed at ~~e inn~r radius of the co1!,
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730- ·. STRENGTH OF MATEltl!At'S
Solution. R=mean coil radius=70 mm

Wire diameter, d=lO mm
Axial load, W=400 N
Helix angle, G1=20°
'sin ot=0"342
cos ot=0"9397
Twisting moment, T'=WR cos()(

= 400X 70X 0"9397=26"31 X 103 N-mm
Bending moment, M'= WR sin (I.
= 400x70 x ·o·342=9"576x 103 Nmm.
Direct shear stress, '= 4W = 4 x 400 = 5.093 N/mm2

q 1td2 RX 10 2
,, 16T' _ 16 X26"31 X 103

'f-0rsional shear stress, q = Yd 3 - TC X 103
..:... 134·0 N/mm2

"Total -shear st:rnss .at the i,nner coil radius
= 134+5"093 = 139"093 N/mm2
Direct '$tres:; due to bending moment
= 32M' = 32 X 9_'576 X 103 = 97 ,54 iN/ .
,;dS TC X lt)'S . mm2.
Exercise 14"6-l. An open coilecl lhe1ical spring made of'steel iWit:e of 1.5 mm diameter
mean coil radius 9 cm with helix angle 30° is subjected to an axial moment of 40 Nm:
Determine the shear and direct stresses developed in the section of the wire of the s.p ring.
[Ans. 30"'1'8 N/mm'.2, 104·545 'N/mm2]
14·7, PLANE SPIRAL SPRING
The plane spiral spring consists of a uniform tb}n _strip \Vo11nd in the 'fbtnl of spirals
as shown in the Fig. 14"1 l (a). Q,n~ end of the stnp .1s connected to the winding.·spindle A
and the other end is hinged at the point B.
Say R=distance of the ·ceph'e ·of the -spindle from the outer end B.
The spring is wound by applying a winding couple M to the winding spindle A. The
reaction at the point B can .b e .te'so1ved into tw-0 components i.e.
Reaction, RH = along the line joining the point Band the centre of the spindle A
Reaction, Rv=perpendicular .to RH.
Consider a small elemenl PQ of len·g th 8s, whc::1se co-ordinates are x and y considering
the origin at the point B and the abscissae along the line BA and ordinate perpendicular
ro BA.
:Sa, !before ~he applicatioµ of the wiudin~ couple, :radt'l:l~ of cµrva~ur~ of e}e'µlent
P(J~ri,
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73'1
Angle between the tangents PP' and QQ'=t/,.
Now after applying the winding couple, radius of curvc!,tµre of the element=t2 ,
.. *
I
>
{a)
e A
(b)
Fig. 14·11
and the angle between the tangents at P and Q= t/> + 84>

The bending moment at the element, M ' =xRv-yRu
=ElXchange of curvature
where [ = moment of inertia of the strip
M' = El [ · 1- - -:-
r2
1
r1
J
=El -8</, Sl!lC~
8s
. 8,f,=8s-- -.8s.
r; r1
t,..l.= xRr-yRH 8
or a'I' El . s

f xRv fyAn
Jdcp = fEi- ds- j EI ds
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STRENGTH OF MAtEttiA:t~
Assuming that the centroid of the spring is at the centre of the winding spindle A, then
f yds=O
and if>- Rv
- EI Jx dJ -~ ~ X ZR
J!,[
where / is the length of the strip forming the spring.

But Rv . R=M, moment applied at the spindle
or ,J,=Ml
EI
1 M2/
Energy stored, U= y Mef, = 2EI
Now bending moment at any element, M' =xRv- yRH.

This will be maximum when y=O, showing that maximum bending stress in one spiral
occurs when the element lies along the line joining the outer point and the centre of the spindle.
Moreover the maximum value of xis 2R i.e., at the point C as shown in the Fig. 14·11.
Mmari=2R . Rv=2 M
Maximum bending stress, /maz=

2
f
where Z = section modulus of the strip section.
bt2 h b= breadth of the strip
Z = - were · .
6 ! = thickness of the strip
2 2
Energy stored, U= M 2J - ( /magJ.bt ) _J_
2El - 12 2El
=
/2ma• . f .
E X Volume o the stnp.
24
Ex.ample 14'7-1. A flat spiral spring is made of a strip 5 mm wide and 0·25 min
thick, 10 m long. The torque is applied at the winding spindle and 8 complete turns are
given. Calculate the torque, -the energy stored and the maximum stress developed at the point
of greatest bending moment. E = 210 kN/mm2 •
Solution.
Number of turns, n=S
Angle of rotation, if, = 21tn=2X i; X8= I6 1t radians
Ml
= EI where 1= 10000 mm
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E=210X 1000 N/mm2
bt 3 5(0'25)3 5
1=12= ~=768 mm'
5 16 ,; .
So, M=210 x 1000 x768 x 10000 =6 872 Nmm
_ 12M _ 12X6'872 _ .
Maximum stress, fma• - bt 2 -sx(o· 2s)2 -263 9 N/mm2
Work/Energy stored =! M</>=}X6'872X 16 ,;=172'7 Nmm.
Exercise 14'7-l. A plane spiral spring is made of 6 mm wide and 0·3 mm thick steel
strip. The torque applied at the winding spindle is 0·1 kg-cm. Determine (a) the number of
winding turos if the length of the strip is 250 cm. (b) the maximum stress developed at the
point of greatest bending moment. E=2' 1 X 106 kg/cm2.
[Ans. (a) 1·4 turns, (b) 1111·1 kg/cm2)
14'8. LEAF SPRINGS
These springs are commonly used in vehicles as cars, trucks, railway wagons etc. and
are termed as carriage springs also. There are two types of leaf springs (a) semi-elliptic and
(b) quarter elliptic. A number of fl.at rectangular leaves of the same thickness and width but
of different lengths are clamped together and loaded as simply supported beams nnd as canti-
levers respectively. To arrive at a simplified theory following assumptions are made.
(i) The centre line of all the plates tor leaves) are initially circular arcs of the same
radius R, so that the contact between the plates is only at the ends.
(ii) Each plate is ofuniform thickness and overlaps the plate below it by an amount
p= ~n, where I is the length of the longest leaf and n is the number of leaves.
(iii) The overlaps are tapered in width to the triangular shape as shown in Fig. 14' 12.
Since each plate is initially .o f the same curvature, each plate will touch the one above
it only at its ends, when unloaded. After applying the central load W, if the change in cur-
vature is uniform and is the same in all the plates, the contact will continue at the ends only.
Considering two plates only, the load at the two ends will be W/2 each as shown in
Fig. L4' l 3. The bending moment varies from A to C and from B to D, but it .is uniform and
equal to Wp/2 in the portion CD.
Similarly considering next two plates, bending moment varies linearly in portions CE
and DF while it is uniform in the portion EF and equal to Wp/2. This shows that each
triangular overhanging end is loaded as a cantilever while the portion of uniform width carry
uniform bending moment 'W_J- (as shown in Fig. 14'13). Over the tapered portion, M
the bending moment and /, the moment of inertia are varying linearly and proprortional to the
distance from the end, so M/1 remains constant, while over the central portion b9th M a~d
/ are constant and therefore M/I is constant throughout the length of the spring.
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stRBNGTl-1 OF MATER JALS
t t
'
Semi - elliptical spring
Fig. 14'12
)
8 .M.Oiogrom
. - · -·· ..,
• ·
Fig. 14'13
.. :
Moreover ~ = R~ - i ,showing that the ra dius of curvature R', m the strained
._state is also the same for each leaf and contact between the plates (leaves) continues to be at
•the ends only. .Since the friction between the plates is negligible and each plate is of the same
radius of curvature. they can be considered to be arranged side by side forming a beam ~f
same thjckness throughout but of variable width, which is maxjmum in the centre, equal to nb.
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-·-...-. ' "",
SPRiNGS ~3S
Maximum bending moment occurs at the centre of the spring,
WI
Mm a,=
4
Maximum width, B=nb
t8
Moment of inertia, l=(nb)u
Bending stress, f= WI X t/2 = 3Wl

4 I 2nbt 2
Initial central deflection,
Yo= ~~ (using the properties of a circle)
Final radius of curvature,

1 1 M l WIX 12
R' = R + EI = R - 4 Enbt 3 (curvature is reduced)
1 3W/
= R - Enbt~ , a constant
So R' is constant, showing that all the plates are bent into the circular arcs of radius R'
and contact continues at ends only.
Let us determine the load W0 which straightens all the plates i.e.
R'= oc (infinity)
1
or - =0
R'
_l_ _ 3 W 0 l =O 3
or W. - Enbt (Pr-oof load"
R Enbt 3 o- ~ '
Example 14'8-1. A carriage spring centrally loaded has 6 steel ,6 -mm thick and 6 cm
wide. If the largest plate is 96 cm long and the load required to straighten the spring is 3 kN.
Determine the following.
(a) initial radius ,of curvature
(b) initial central deflection provided
(c) ·the bending stress under under the proof load.
E=210 kN/mm2
Solution.
Number of plates, n=6
Thickness, t=0'6 cm = 6 mm
Wiidth, b=6 cm=60mm
Proof load, W0 =3000 N
Length 1=96 cm = 960 mm
(a) Radius of curvatue,
Enbt 3 210 X 1000 X 6 X 60 X 68
R = 3! W0 3X960X3000
= 1890 mm = l '89 m
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STRENG1H OF MA'.fERiALS
/2 960 X 960 = .
(b) Central deflection = SR = 8 X 1890 60 95 mm
(e) Bending stress, f ;!;! =~~!o:~::~~ =333 '33 N/mm

2
Exercise 14'8-l. A carriage spring centrally loaded has 8 steel plates 5 mm thick
and 5 cm wide. If the longest plate is 80 cm long, find the initial radius of curvature if the
maximum stress is 1·5 tonnes/cm2, when the plates become straight under the central load.
E=2' l X 106 kg/ems [Ans. 350 cm]
14'9. QUARTER ELLIPTIC SPRING (CANTILEVER LEAF SPRING)

Proceeding along the same steps as in
the case of semi-elliptic spring. w
Bending moment=-W/
. . nbt 3
M.. o~ent of_!nert}a.---:- 12
. f 6Wl
Bend mg stress, = -n b
L2
M 1 1
:i ~ ,:·,... . El= R' -: R ;
where R' =final radius of curvature
R=initial radius of curvature
of each leaf
WI I 1 2
- El = R ' - R = p:(Y-Yo)
nb
where y0 = initial deflection
y=final de:l;lectiQn under the
load W
J_
w12 6Wt 3
i) . _: ; '. Yo -=--Y,= 2 El = ~ b. sE .,
. , : .. ;--- ,. ~ : , n t ~u a rter ~ II iptic- spring
The load W0 required to straighten all
the plates can be found by putting Fig. 14·14
R' = oc (infinity)
EI Enbta
Wo= IR = 12 IR
The load required to straighten all the plates of the spring is called Proof load.
Example 14'9-1. A cantilever leaf spring of length 50 cm has 5 leaves of thickness

1 cm. If an end load of 200 kg produces a deflection of 3 cm, find the width of the leaves.
1 E= 2 X 106 kg/cm2
Solution.
Length of the spring, 1=50 cm
Number of leaves, n=c:=5 .
Thickness, t= l cm
l3readthf fl= ?
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SPRINGS 737
Deflection under the load,

~=3 cm= 6W/3
nbt 3E
Load, W=200 kg
r·. 6X200X503
3
= 5 X b X l3 X 2 X 10 6
Width of the leaves, b=5 cm
Exercise 14'9-l. A cantilever leaf spring of length 60 cm, has 6 leaves of thickness
8 mm. T}:ie width of each plate is 48 mm . If an end load of 1·5 kN is applied at its end
determine the following :
(i) end deflection under the load
(ii) initial radius of curvature if the initial deflection provided is 100 mm
(iii) bending stress developed under the load
Given, E=210,000 N/mm 2
[Ans. U) 62'78 mm, (ii) 1 '8 m (iii) 292'97 N/mm2 ]
Problem 14'1. Determine the stiffness of a close coiled helical spring consisting of
10 turns of 4 mm diameter steel wire coiled on a mandrel 6 cm in diameter.
Given : G for steel=840 tonnes/cm 2
Solution.
Number of turns, n = lO
Wire diameter, d=0'4 cm
Inner coil diameter =6cm
Outer coil diameter = 6+2xo·4=6'8 cm
Mean diameter =6'4 cm
Mean coil radius, R = 3'2 cm
W Gd4 840 X 1000 X 0·41
We know that
T = 64 nR3 = 64 X 10x3·2s
Stiffness of the spring, k= 1·025 kg/cm deflection.
Problem 14'2. Determine the length of 5 mm diameter wire necessary to form a

close coiled helical spring with a mean coil radius of 40 mm, whose stiffness under axial load
is to be 4 kg/cm. Given G for stee1= 820 tonnes/cm2
Solution.
w
Stiffness, k=T =4 kg/cm
Wire diameter, d=0'5 cm
Mean coil radius, R = 4 cm
32 WR GS
We know that nd 4 -= Rl
nd4 G I n X0 '54 x 820XlOOO
l=( -·~) 32 R 2 = 4 X 32 X 42
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118 STRENGTH OF MA.'J;BRiAf.S
Problem 14'3. A close coiled helical spring is made of a round' wire having n turns
and the mean coil radius R is 5 times the wire dia me.ter, show that the stiffness of such a spring
is ( ~ ) X constant.
Determine the constant when modulus,of rigidity, G of the spring wire is 82 X 1000
N/mm 2 •
Such a spring is required to support a load of 1 kN with 100 mm compression and the
maximum shear stress 245 N /mm2 • Calculate
(~) mean.eoil radius
(ii) number of turns
(iii) weight of the spring.
The material weighs 0'0078 kg/cm3
Solution.
Mean coil radius, R=5d
d=wire diameter, d= 0'2 R
Number of turns =n
W Gd4
Stiffness of the-spring, k = T = 64n R3
= 82 X 1(100 X ~<l:_2 R)4 = . R
64 n X R 3
2 05 x-
n
N/ mm
Constant = 2'05
W, Axial load on such a spring
= I kN = lOOO N
Axial compression, o=I OO mm
Stiffness, .!£.
0.
= 10 N / mm = 2·05 R
11
R 10
or
n = 2·05 ... ())
Moreover shear stress in wire,
16 WR = HilOO,x l6:X 5d
q= 1tds ' or 245 1tds
80 000
or d2 = • = 103'9376
1t X 245
Wire diameter, d= l0'2 mm
R = 5d= 51 mm
2·05R 2·05 x s1
Number of turns, n= - - - = 10'455
10 10
Volume of the wire = ~ d 2 X miR
4
=: (1'02)2 X21t X J0.'455 X 5"1 = 273'76 ems
. of the wire
Weight . = 77~·7~ XQ'007? = 2'I35 k 9
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Problem 14·4'. A close coiled helical spring is made ot a round .steel wire. It carries an ·
axial load of 150 N and is to just get over a rod of 36 mm. The deflection in the spring is
not to exceed 25 mm. The maximum allowable shearing stress developed in spring wire is
200 N/mm2 and G for steel =80000 N/mm2 • Find the mean coil diameter; wire diameter and
number of turns.
Solution. Say wire diameter = d
The spring is to just get over a rod of 36 mm i.e., inner d iameter of spring=36 mm
Therefore, mean coil diameter, D=36 + d mm
Axial load, W= l50 N
Axial deflection, 3= 25 mm
Shear modulus, C=80 x 103 N/mm 2
8WD 3n
Now
Gd4
= 8 X 150 X D 3 X n ... (1)
25 80X l0 3 Xd4
or D3n - 25 X 80 X 103 = 1666'6666 ... (1)

d4 - 8X 1'50
Shear stress developed in spring, q=

8
-:a~
(The effect of direct shear stress and spring index has been neglected)
= 8X 150 XD ... (2)
200
nd3
or D 200 X n: = 0'5236 ... (2)

d3 8 X 150
3
or ~9 = 0·1435 ... (2)
From equat1011s (I) and (2),
1666·6666 d' =0' 1435 d9

n
or nd5 = 11614·40 ... (3)
11614.40
or n= d5
Substituting this value of n in equation ( l)

DS 11614.40 1666.6666
d4 X as
Da 1666'6666
or d°= 11614'40 0·1435
or !l._
d3 -
-~0-:1435 = 0·525
or D= d 3 (0'525)
(36 +d) = O 525 d 3
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or 0·525 d3-d-36= 0 (4)

d=4"248 mm
D=ds xo·525 = 40·245
but D = d+36 = 40"248 (There is slight error in calculation of d)
n= 11614"4 11614"4 8 .396 turns
Moreover d5 = (4"248)5
Therefore, Wire diameter= 4·248 mm
Mean coil diameter = 40"248 mm
Number of turns =8·396.
Problem 14'5. A close coiled helical spr ings is to have a stiffness of 800 N/m in
compression with a maximum load of 40 N anda maximum shearing stress of 105 N/mm2 •
The solid length of the spring (i.e., coils touching) is 50 mm. Find the wire diameterJ mean
coil radius and number of coils. G= 40,000 N/ mm 2 •
800
Solution. Stiffness, k= N = 0·8 N/mm
m
Gd4 . _ ~o.oooxd4
64nRs ' or
0 8- 64 n R!!
but nd= 50 mm (solid length)
50
n=y
0·8 40000 X d 4 X d or 0"064 = ~ ... (1)

Therefore, 64Rs x 50 ' Rs
_ 16WR _ I6 X 40 XR = l05
Shear stress, q- reds - rcd3
_.B. 105 X n: = 0.5154

or as - 640
or :: = (0"5154)3 ... (2)
(0"064)(0"5154)3 = ~ 4
or d4= 114"126 mm4

Wire diameter, d= 3"268 mm
50 .
Number of coils, n= a = I5 3
Mean coil diameter D = 2d3 x o·5154 (froru equation (2))

= 35 '98 mm
Problem 14"6. A close coiled helical steel spring has 25 turns, the mean radius of the
coils is 6 cm while the dia meter of the wire is 12 mm. Find the work done in rotating one end
of the spring by 90° relative to the other end (fixed end), by a couple whose axis coincides with
the axis of the spring. E for steel= 210 x 103 N/mn12 •
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SPRINGS 741
Solution.
Mean coil radius, R =60 mm
Wire diameter, d=12 mm
Number of turns, n=25
rr:d4 rr: X 124 • 4
Moment of Inertia, 1= 64- = ~ =1017 88 mm
Length of the wire, 1=2rr:nR=2 x TC x 25 x 60 = 9424"8 mm
Angular rotation, cf,=90"= l radians
"' -- Ml
.,, EI
Elr/> 'It 210xl0 3 xl017·88

M =-/- =2 X 9424·8
=35"626x 103 Nmm=3S"626 Nm
Work done on the spring,
Problem 14'7. A weight of 250 N is dropped on to a close coiled helical spring

through a height of 800 mm which produces a maximum instantaneous stress of 200 N/mm2
in the spring. If the mean radius of the coil is 5 times the wire diameter determine (a) the
instantaneous compression in the spring, (b) number of coils in the spring. Given wire diameter
20 mm. G for stee1 = 84 x 1000 N/mm 2 •
Solution.
The falling weight W= 250 N
Heightj h=800 mm
Maxm. instantaneous stress, q = 200 N/mm2
Wire diameter, d = 20 mm
Mean coil radius, R=5X20=I00 mm.
Say w. = equivalent static load on the spring
TCd3q
W,XR= ~
or w _n:x2osx200 = 1000 TC N
,- 16X 100
Say the instantaneous compression in the spring= 8 mm.
Then potential energy lost by falling weight = Energy stored in the spring
W(h+il)= !We. a
250(800+1!)=} X I000v X 8
800+il = 2rc:il
Instantaneous compression in spring,
a= 151'4 mm
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142' STRENGTH OF MATBRIALS1,
~-- 64nWeR3
Moreover o-- Gd'
3
151·4_64 xnxlOOOr;Xl0@
4
where n= number of coils.
- 84000X20
=14·96 n
Number of coils, n = 10·12.

Problem 14'8. A close coiled cylindrical helical spring is of 80 mm mean coil
diameter. The spring extends by 40 mm when axially loaded by a weight of 530 N. And
when it is subjected to an axial couple, M = 2·so ·x 101 Nmm, there is an angular rotation of
60°. Determine the Poisson's ratio for the material of the spri~g.
Solution. Mean coil radius, R = 40 mm
Axial load, W=530 N
Axial deflection, 8=40 mm
Axial moment, M=2'8X 104 Nmm
Angular rotation, ,f>=60°= ~ radians.
32.-WR G3
Now ~=Ri
G= 32 W'.R2 1 = 32.x530 X402 X /
or 1rd4 a: 40 X TC d4
= 6·784 X 105 .X re~'
Ml red'
and E= Irf, .where I= 64
2·8x10• x /x64 0 3 = 17. 112 x lo5 x _l_

1ed4 X TC ~d4
So _§_ = l7'1l 2 = 2'5224 = 2(1 +

G 6·784 m
.!_)
1 ratio =0·2'612
or Poisson's
m'
Problem 14'9. Design a close helical spring to a have a mean coil diameter 120 mm
and an axial deflection of 150 mm under an axial l0ad of 4050 N, so that the maximum shear
stress developed in the spring is not to e'i(ceed 320 ·N/ mm 2 • Steel wires are available in tlie'
following diameters :
10, 12, 14, 16 mm
Determine the most suitable diameter of the wire a nd the number of coils required.
Calculate also the maximum shear stress developed in the spring.
G for steel = 84000 N/mm2
Solution. Axial load, W= 4050 N
Mean coil radius, R= 60 mm
q, max. allowable stress= 320 N/mma
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Sl!lllNG::;
Say wire diameters =d mm

d 3= 16 WR = 16 X4050_X60= 3867.456 mms
rcq 'RX 320
d=l5'7 mm say 16 mm
Axial deflection, 8=150 mm
GSd4 84000 X 150 X 164 = 14'? 5
Number of coils, n 64WR3 64 X 4050 X 603
Maximum shear stress de\•eloped,
16WR
q= r.d3
(neglecting the effect of spring index and direct hear)
16 4
i~~;
xr.
60
= 302'145 N/mm 2
Problem 14·10. In designing a valve spring it is estimated that the mass of the
valve is l kgm and it requires an acceleration of 150 m/sec2 when lifting through a height of
0·5 cm. The free length of the spring is 20 cm and the axial length of tht; l?Pring is 16 CD)
when the valve is shut. If the total va lve lift is 1 cm, determine the maximum force on,the
spring.
The diameter of the spring wire is 3 mm and the maximum shear stre,ss is not to
exceed 3 tonnes/cm 2, determine the mean coil diameter and the I).Umber of c:oils,
Given, G for steel =840 tonnes/cm2
Solution.
Mass of the valve, m= l kg
,Acceleration, a= 150 m/sec.2
Acceleration due to gravity,
g = 9'8 m/sec2
50
Force on the valve. = .!.{~ = 15'30 k~
Total valve lift = 1 cm

Valve lift during opening and closing the valve=:;0;5 cm
Free length of the spring= 20 cm
Axial length when valve is shlit = 16 cm
Initial compression in the length of the sprini=4 cm
Further compression when the valve is shut= Q·s cm
8, Total change in the Iength= 4'5 cm for a force of 15·3 kg
. F 15·3
Stiffness of the sprmg, k= T = 4T = 3·4 kg/cm
Maximum valve lift = 1 cm
Maximum change in the length of-the spring
= 4tl = 5 ym
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W ma•, Maximum force on the spring,

= ~; X5=17"0 kg
Wire diameter, d=3 mm=0'3 cm

q, Maximum shear stress=3T/cm2 =3000 kg/cm 2
' 16 Wmax,R
= ~ s-
3000 X 7t X ·3s
or R, mean coil radius x
16 17
= 0'935 cm
Mean coil diameter, D=2R = I '870_'c m

Gd4 8
Number of coils, n=64R3 XW
8'4 X 105 X (0'3)"' X 4'5
= 38'2
= 64 X (0'935) 3X 15'3
Problem 14'11, A close coiled helical spring of 17 mm mean coil diameter and IO
turns is arranged within and concentric with an outer spring. Tbe free length of the inner spring
is 5 mm more than that of the outer. The outer spring has 12 coils of mean diameter 25 mm
and wire diameter 3 mm. The spring load against which a value is opened is provided by
the inner spring. The initial compression in outer spring is 5 mm when the valve is closed.
Find the stiffness of the inner spring if the greatest force required to open the valve by 8 mm
is 130 N . F ind also the wire diam~ter of the inner spring. G=80,000 N/mm 2
Solution.
Initial compression in outer spring= 5 mm
Initial compression in inner spring = 5+5= IO mm
(Since the free length of the inner spring is 5 mm more than the free length of the outer
spring.)
Say k 1 = stiffness of inner spring in N/mm
k 2 =stiffness of outer spring in N/mm
F1 , Initial load on valve =;= 10k1 + 5k2 , ... ())
Stiffness of outer spring,
where
D 2 =25 mm, n2 = 12
80000X 34
k2 = 8 X 253X 12 4·32 N/mm
The valve is to be opened by 8 mm, additional force required to open the valve
F2 =8k~+8k2 ... (2)
Total load to lift the valve by 8 mm
F = F1+F2= l8 k1+13 k2=130 N ,.. q)
18 k;+l3 x 4'3~= 13Q
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SPRINGS 745
Stiffness of inner spring,
k 1 =130-13X4'32= 4 . 10 N/mm
18
Now Gd/• 80000 X d/
8D18 n1 = 8 x J73 X 10
or
Wire diameter of inner spring,

d1 =2·t t8 mm
Problem 14'12. In a compC'und helical spring, the inner spring is arranged within
and concentric with the outer one, but is 8 mm shorter in length. The outer spring has ten
coils of mean diameter 25 mm and the wire diameter 3 mm. Find the stiffness of the inner
spring if an axial load of 120 N causes the outer spring to compress by 18 mm.
If the radial clearance .between the springs is 1·5 mm, find the wire diameter of the
inner spring, if it has 9 coils. G=77x 10a N/mm2
Solution.
Outer spring D=25 mm, R = 12·5 mm
d=3 mm, n=IO
G= 77 X I 0 N/mm2
3
Compression, 8=18 mm
4
Load required, W = Gd 'S = 77 X 4
X 3 X 18
1Q3
64 nR 3 64 X 10 X 12· 5a 89'8 N
Inner spring
Load shared by the inner spring,
W' = l20 -89 '8, W'= 30·2 N
Compression, 'S=l8-8 = 10 mm
Number of coils =9
Say the wire diameter = dmm
Now mean coil radius of outer spring = 12'5 mm
Wire diameter = 3mm
Inner coil radius of outer spring = 9'5 mm
Radial clearance between the two springs = 1'5 mm
Therefore, outer radius of inner spring = 9'5-1'5 = 8 mm
Mean coil radius, R'= ( 8-i) mm

77x 103 xd4 X 10
r
W '- . 770000 d 4
-
64 x 9 x ( 8- ~ r or 30 2 = - - - - --
576 ( 8- :
( 8- ~ / =44'265 d 4
(16-d)3= 8 x 44'265 d 4 , or (16 - d) 3 = 354'12 t/1
(I= l '696 mm.
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STRENGTH OF MATERil.Ji.S
Probletn 14'13. A composite spring has two close coiled helical springs iti series.
The mean coil radius of each spring.is 10 cm. The wire diameter of one spring is 2'5 cm
and it has 20 coils, while the number of turns in the other spring is 15. Determine the wire
diameter of the other spring if the stiffness of the composite spring is 1·2 kg/cm.
Calculate the greatest axial laod which can be applied on the composite spring if the
2
maximum shearing stress is not to exceed 3 tonnes/cm2 . G=840 tonnes/cm
Solution. Stiffness of first spring,
4
ki = ~ = Grcd21
I:\ 32R /
840 X 1000 X 1t X 2'54
32xrn2 x211: x 2o x 10
=il5'635 kg/cm
Stiffness of -second sprirng,
W Gr;d24
k = ~ = 32 R212
2
_ 840 X l 000 X r;d/

- 32 X 102 X 2,; X 15 X 10
=0'875 d24
Since the springs are connected in
Fig. 14'15
series as shown in the Fig. 14' I 5.
Stiffness of the composite spring,
k =~~2 .. . 25'635 X '875 d\
k 1+ k2 or 1 2 = 25.-6 35+ 0'875 d24
or 1·2 x 25'635 + 1·2 x o·875 d} = 25'635 x o·875 d/
I '2 X 25'615= d2lll22 ·43- I '05)
Diameter of the spring wire,

d2 =1'095 cm
The shearing stress will be maximum in the spring of thin wire i.e., in the spring with
wire diameter l '095 cm. ·
,r
WR =
16 dz3 X q (neglecting the effect of spring index)
WX 10 = l1t X{l "095)3 X 3000

6
Axial load, W=77'34 kg
Probletn 14.'14, A rigid ~ar A!3 weighing 1~0 N and carry1ng a load W equal to
300 N rests on 3 sprmgs as _shown m Fig. 14'16 hav~ng the spring constants k 1 = 20 N/mm,
k 2 = 8 N/mm and _k3 =10 NJmm. If the unloaded. sprm~ were of the same length, detennine
n1.e Y!llue of the distance x such that the bar remains honzont~l, ·
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Solution. Since the bar is to remain
horizontal, there will be equal deflection W = 300 N
(compression) in each spring.
Say the deflection in each spring=o x-.j 1100 N .
Then reactions at the springs will be
k1 o, k 28 and kl, respectively.
Taking moments of the forces about
the point A
300(350-x)+ 100 X 350= k 2 8 X350+k3 8 X 700
or 3(350-x) + 350= 3"5 k2'8 + 7k3'8
Substituting the values of k2 and k 8
1050-3x+ 350 = 3"5 X 88+7 X 10. '8
1400-3x= 98 o ... (i) Fig. 14·16
Taking moments about B,
./ 300(350+x)+ 100 X 350=k1 oX 100+ k20 X 350
or 3(350+n) + 350=7k1 0+ 3: 5 k 2 o
I400+3x=7 x 20 o+3·5 x8 o=I68 a •• . (U)
Adding the equations (i) and (ii), give
266 0= 2800
o= 10"5263 mm
Substituting the value of o in equation (2)
3x= 168 X 10"5263-1400=368'42
x=122"80 mm
Problem 14"15. Two close coiled helical spriogs of equal axial lengths are assembled
qo-~a\l;y. Th.I} w.ii;e diameter of outer springs is l cm and the mean co.it radius is 4 cm,
while th~ wire diameter of the inner inner spring is 0:8 cm and the m.ean coit Iiadius i& 3 cm.
The assembly of tl\t:; springR is compressed by an axial thrust of 5.0. kg. Calc.u late tl;lt max,imtJ-m
shear stress induced in each spring if both the springs are made of steel anq the Ji!,Umber, of
coils in each spring is the same. ·· · · ·
Solution. The two S~l:ings. are assembled co-axially or in other. words they ave parallel
to each other and load will be shared by, them.
Total thrust, W=50 kg. ·
Outer Spring
Say the axial thrust shared by outer spring = W1
Mean coil radius-, R1 = 4 cm
Wire diameter, d1 = 1·o cm
Axial compression, =0 1 (say)
"'_ 64n1 W1 R 1 3
o1 - G-d14
where n1 = number of coils in the outer spring

Inner Spring
Similarly for the inner spring axial compression,
.., _ 64n 2W2R2•
o2 - Gda'
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STRENGTH OF MATEl.UA!LS
where l'i2 = number of coils in inner spring

W2 = load shared by inner spring
R 2 = 3 cm, mean coil radius
d2 = 0·8 cm, wire diameter.
B.-~t since the springs are in paralle1 o1 =o 2
64n1 W1 R 1 3 64n2 W2 R 23
Gd1 4 - Gd24 -
W1 Rl d1 4
or W2 = Ria x dl as n1 = n 2
3a 14 ·27
= 43 X 0 .8,i = ~ 4
= 1"03
W1 + W2 = 50 kg
1·03 W2 + W2= 50 kg
W2 = 24"63 kg
W1 = 50-24"63 = 25"37 kg
• i
Stresses in the springs (neglecting the effect of spring index)

J6W1R1 l6x2S"37x4
Outer spring, q1 = ---;d a = i. x I
1
Shear stress, q 1= 516"83 kg/cm 2
Inner Spring Shear stress,
l6W2R 2 16X24"63X3 = 734 .99 k / 2
q2= nd23 nxo·ss g cm .
· ProbleJn 14"16. The m ean coil diameter of an open coiled helical spring is D, the
wire diameter being d and the coils are inclined at an angle a. Calculate the percentage error
while determining the stiffness of the spring if the inclination of the coils is neglected. Given
. ot=20°, E = 2'5 G.
'.:, ,- , . . .Solution. Axial deflection of an open coiled helical spring,

cos 2o. sin2 cx
o= 2rcnRsw sec ot [ [GJ + ~
J
n:d4 1td4
1= 7;4, J = J2
or 0 = 64n W R~ec
d4
ot [ cos2cx + 2 sin2 ot
G E
J
where n= number of coils
R = mean coil radius = ~

d =wire diameter
ot= 20°, sin oc = 0"342, sin2 oc = 0"117
cos cx= o·94 cos2 ot= 0"883
But 2·5 G=E
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i
w =~
8D3n
X 0'94
1 [ 0'883
~+
2xo·111
2'5 G
J
8D3n
= Gd4 X 1'0389
4
W Gd 0'962 . .
or a= wan X -
1
- = k, stiffness of the sprmg
4
·
Stiffness . w h en c;,: 1.s neg lected , k' = snan
o f t h e spnng GD
Percentage error = k-k' 100 = 1- 0 962 X 100 =3'80/

k X l o·
Problem 14'17. An open coiled helical spring made of a round steel · bar 1 cm
diameter has 10 coils of 8 cm mean diameter and the pitch is 6 cm. If the axial moment is
40 x 10a Nmm, find the deflection and t he maximum bending and shear stresses developed.
E for steel = 210 x 1000 N/mm 2
1 .
Poisson's rate, - = 0 28.
m
Solution. p, Axial pitch ofhelix = 6 cm

Mean coil diameter, D =8 cm
Say ()(=helix angle
then tan CX = J; = ! = 0'75

or c;,::=36° 51'
sin c;,: = 0'6 sin2 a = 0'36
cos et. = 0'8 cos 2 c;,: = 0'64
Number of coils, n= 10
Mean coil radius, R = 4 cm = 40 mm
Axial moment, M = 40 X 103 Nmm
Wire diameter, d= IO mm
E= 210 X 103 N/mm2
E 210
G= 2 ( 1+ ~ ) = 2 x 1'28 x 1000
= 82'0 x 103 N/mm2
Deflection in the spring, 8= 2nnMR2 sin c;,: [ ~/ - ~J J

rcd4 nd"'
but 1=
64 , J=
32
64MR n [ 2
l3 = -- ~
2
1
E-G J.
sm oc
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"' - .
103 402
Substituling the values 8- 6-4:X 4oX 4X
(H)).,
X 10 [ 2
2'10,000
I.
82,000
J x 0'6
0'6 X64X40,3[ i. 1 l .
= 105 rr- 0'82 ..., = 6 56 mm.
Bending Mom,~nt, M'=M cos !X=40 X 0'8 x l(i)8=32x 103 Nmm
rcd3
= . ·3,2 xf
J, maximum stress due to bending

3'lM' 32 X 32 X !Q3
= -;;Ia= rcx 103 325'95 N/mm2
.'
·-.., :Tw.i~ting_moQ'leut, T'=M sin ~= 4Q x 0'6 x I,Q.3= 24x 10jl Nmm
!• • ._
..:. j .... nd3
. :. 1. =16 Xq.
. 16 X 24 X 103
Maximum shear stress, q= re x ~
1
= 122• 23 N/mm2.
Problem. 14'18. In an open coiled helical spring made of steel, the stresses due to
bending and twisting are 980 kg/cm2 and 1050 kg/cm 2 respectively when the spring carries an
axial load. There are 10 coils in the spring and the m~an coil r&dius i.; 5 ti~e&t)\e, diameter
of the wire. Determine the permissible axial load and the wire diameter if tlie extension in
the i,pring is 1'6 cm.
E for steel=2100 tqnnes/qm 2
G for steel=840 tonnes/cm 2
Solution.
Number of coils, n= IO
Mean coil radius, R= 5d where d = wire, diameter
Axial deflection, 8= 1'6cm
Say W= axial (oad
• _I '
Torque, T' = WR cos (1.
Bending moment, M '=WR sin ex.
rcd3
Now T' = WR. QOS ot = °TG X q where q= 1050 kg/ems
,z;dS •.
M' = WR sin ot = 3-Z Xf where /=980 kg/cm2
· L=tan «
2q ·. .
or tan cc = 2 ;~~so = ·0'462 Or «= 45°
and sin (1. = 0i423 sin2 ot=0' 178

co~ GC = 0(90J cos2 cx.=0'822
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S~RINGS tsl
Moreover,
~~
3
W 2 R 2 cos2~+ W2R2 sin2 a. = ( / (4q2+/2]
nd3 ---
or WR = - x ./ 4q2 + p
32 I
w X 5d= ~~ V 4 X 10502 +980 2

3
W= T:~ X 1000 ./ 4'41+'9604

2
= rcd X IO~~Ox 2' 3174 = 45 . 50 d 2
1l = WX2n X 10XR3[0'822
0'907
+ 0'178
Gnd4 X 32 Ex rcd 4 X
M·J
_ 20 'f'C W (5
- ·907 x a
)3(~)[
.,,d
0'822 0'356 ]
840 x 1000+21oo x 1000
4
_ 2500 X 32 X 45 · 5 d 2
- 0'907 d
[ 0'822
0'84 +
0'356 J '{)
2'1 · X 1.. •
6
=4'013 d [0'978+0·169] = 4'60 d= l'6 cm

l '6
Wire diameter, d=--=0'347 cm
4'6
Axial load, W=45'5 d 2 = 4S-5 X 0'3472= 5'48 .kg
Problem 14'19. An open coiled helical spring fits loosely on two shafts and its ends
are connected to the shafts which are prevented from any axial movement and are co-axial
with the spring. Show that if the coils of the spring ate inclined at 45° to the axis, the coup1e
per unit angle of twist is giveo by
d
4
641'2nD
[ E
y+G J
where d= wire diameter
n = number of coils
D = mean coil diameter
E= Modulus of elasticity
G= Modulus of rigidity
Solution. Helix angle «= 45°
sin a= cos and sin 2 a. = cos 2 «= _!_

2
Since the axial movement of the connecting shafts is prevented which means when an
axial c ouple acts on !he spring, its axial movement is prevehted i.e., its axial extension or con,.-
tractioh is zero i e. . an axial reaction ~cts on the spring to ma~e its deflection zero,
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Say the axial reaction =W

Axial couple applied =M
Angular rotation cf, 1 , due t o M
_ 32 M Dn sec
- d4
<X r 2 cos
L £
2
ex sin2 oc
+-G-
J
Angular rotation r/, 2 , due to W
= 16WnD 2 sin ex [-I_._ 2-J
d' G E
But cf, =<J>1+ </J2
Axial deflection 81, due to M
= 16 M D 2n sin ex
d4
1_1_ _
LG
2-.JE
Axial deflectio n· 82 , due to W
8 WD 3 n sec ex [ cos 2 a. 2 sin2 a. ]
d4 G + E
But ' 81 + 82 = 0 (as given in the problem)
So
Substituting the values of sin r1., cos ex etc.
2M (-1 _ _!:__) + wnv2 (-1 + -1)=o

v2 G E 2G E
M ( E-2G )+ WD ( E+ 2G
. GE 2GE
)=o
WD=- M (E - 2G) X 2
01'. . .
E+2G
= 2M L2G-E
2G+E
J
Now total angular rotation cf, is given by
,1. =
.,,
32 MDn-12
d4
L- ...!._ +J...
E 2G
J+ d4
2
16WnD _1 [ - 1 _ ~ ]
X y' 2 G E
Substituting the value of WD,

_ 32 MDnv2 [J_ _1 1 l6WnD2
4> - d4 E +za ., + v2d'
X 2M [;~~i][~ - i J
_ 16 M nDv2
- d4
[2-+_
E G
l +( J_G _ E2-)( l-~
2G+ E
)]
__ 16MnD v' 2[ _2
4
+ 1 + I _ _2 _, 1 _ _2 ) ( 2E )]
- (./ .- E G G $ , G E 2G-1i- £ ..
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SPRINGS .753
,I 1'
.. I
,1, '
, ,·r · r · ' ;,
M - , .
or T = couple per unit angle of twrst J .
d 4 (2G+E) d
4
( G+ f)
- 2 X 64 \/2Dn = 64f 2Dn--
Problem 14'20. Determine the length of the 's teel strip. 20 mm wide by o·s mm thick
of a flat spiral spring to store I 0,000 Nmm of energy for a maximum bending stress of 300
N/mms. Calculate also the torque required at the winding spindle and the number of turns to
to wind up the spring. E for steel= 2 10 GN/m 2•
Solution.
J,.a~= 300 N / mm = !!!;:x 2
. bt 2 2o x(0' 512 5
Z =scct1011 modulus =
6 ~
6
= 6 mm 3
5
Therefore Mmax = 300 X = 250 NmnJ
6
Twis~ing moment at the winding spindle,
M = ¥ma-!.= J25 Nmin
2
Angular rotation of strip= cp = 2,tn ,
where n =number of winding turns
Energy stored
10,000=f Mx2nn = nnM= i. X n X 125
. d 10000
Number o f wm ing turns, n = n x J25 =
25'46
rf,EI ·
Length of the strip, l = M' where ,f, = 2n:n
l = bt3 = ~ x·(J_ )·s= ~ mm'l

12 12 2 96
E = 210X 109 N/m2 = 210 x 103 N/mm2
... r· . .
2rc X 25"46 X21Qx IOOO X 20 .
So, I l 25 x 96 -
:.= ?5989 mµi =_SS-989 metre~. :

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.,...,.~.,-
Problem 14·21. A semi elliptical car.riage spring made of steel leaves, 100 cm long is
to support a central load of 800 kg with a maximum deflection of 6 cm and a maximum bend-
ing stress of 32QO kg/cm1 . , .. r
Calculate the thickness of the leaves and decide their number and breadth.
E=2000 tonnes/cm 2
Solution.
Length of the spring, / = 100 cm
Central load, W=800 kg
Central deflection, o= 6 cm
Maximum bending stress=3200 kg/cm2
'" 3W/3
Now o= 8Enbt3
b _3 WI~ _ 3 X 800 X Ioos r I ,•'
13
n -8Eo -s x 2ooox 1ooo x 6
;,
3W/
=25 0 and f= 2nbt 2
bt2 _ 3Wl 3X800 x 100 .
So n - -v- = 2x3200 37 5
Thickness of the leaves, t= - ~\:.... =0'666 cm

3
I 37.'5 ' 37•5
Moreover nb = ~ = (0 .666)2 =84·54
Say the number of leaves= 10
Breadth b=s·454 cm.
Problem 14·22. A semi elliptical laminated--steel ·st,rint,' Ien'gth 80 cm is•..tti · carry a
central load of 5000 N. Determine the number, breadth. and . thickness of the leaves, if the
central deflection is 60 mm. Assume that breadth is 10 times'"the thickness. The leaves are
available of breadths in multiples of 5 mm and thickness in multiples of mm. The maximum
bending stress is limited to 360 N/mm 2 • Esteel= 210 kN/mm 2 •
Solution. J" ·,. 'I
Central load, W = 5000 N

Length -/ = 800 mm
E = 210 x 1000 N/mm2
• l
3W/8
Central deflection, o= 60 m_m=8E11Pt3
3_ 3 X 5000 X SQQ:__ . ' 4
or nbt - 8 X 210 X 1000 X 60 - 7 619 X l O
' 3Wl
Bending stress, f -- 2nbt 2
360= 3 X sooo x2 800 or nbt2 = 16.666 X 103

2nbt
nbt 8 1; 169 X 104
!7qt2 = t = lf666 x 10s 4 ·30 mm
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SPi,NO~
....... .
,... -.;-. 155
Let the thickness, t=S mm
Breadth, b=lO t=50 mm
· LIJIJ,; \i
~ · ll666 X 103_ 1 .
Number of leaves, n 3 33
r) .--. ?oxs;a
Say number of leaves, n= 14 · ·
Problem. 14'23. A laminated carriage spring made of 12 steel plates is 1 m long. The
maximum central load is 6 kN. If the maximum allowable stress in steel is 200 MN/ms and
the maximum deflection is~O.. mm, dete.)lmine the thickness and width of the plates.
-. Est~r::... 200 GN/m2=200>< 1000-N/mni2: :: :·~ : ~-·: . i. -i
Solution.
Say, width of the plates=b
l'hfokness ·bf the plates =t
Number of plates, n= 12
Allowable stress, f =200 MN/m2=200 N/mm2
Length of the spring, ·,=·i ·ni-·1000 mm
• d . ,-i:M ninn1m' centta1 •1oad, ' ·, - ·'·
W0 =6 kN=6000 N
Mmaz=- ~I= 6ooo: .I 000 =l·sx 106 Nmm

2
M,,.a•-f xnbt
-6-
or 200 12
1·s x ~06 ; xbt2
or bt2=3150 ... (l)
Maximum central deflection,
3 Wo/3
8=40 mm= 8Enbts
=
3X6000X(1000)3
40
8·X 200-·X 1000 X 12 X btS
· 18'x 107
or , 4°= 192. bt3
7
or bt3= lS X l0 = 2·34l75 X 10' ... (2)
192x40 ._~ .
From _equations (1) and (2)
-.. ', . !: H.;';..x. 1· W !;, t; ._. I : • ; Lil l , ,, ,. 2·34375 X 104
t, thickness of the plates = = 6·25 mm
3750
3750
b, width of the plates = (6' 25)2 = 96 mm
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756
SUMMARY
1. For a close coiled helical spring, mean coil radius R wire diameter d subjected to
axial load W '
nd'- \/ 44k'-
Maximum shear stress, qma• = 16WR k'-
l 0'615)
+~
4
·, 2R . . .:1
where k = ~d- , spttng muex.
\ !.
. . ' ·' · 'W . Gd4 .. l

2. Stiffness of a close coiled
. , helical
, spring -- - =k=-:------
R
8 64n 3
where G= Modulus of rigidity, n = number of coils,
8= axial deflection along the load W.
3. For a close coiled helical spring subjected to axial couple M, · the angular rotation
of free end with respect to the fixed end
c/, = I2SnRM where £ = Modulus of elasticity. ·,·
Ed 4
4. For an open coiled helical spring, with helix angle ex, subjected to an axial 'load W,
Twisting moment= WR cos ot
Bending moment= WR sin ex
cos2 .x
Axial deflection, 8=2rmR3 W sec 0t [ --W- + ~
sin2 " ·
J
. . nd4
J=2/=Polar moment of mert1a=
32
Angular rotation, if,=2RnR2 W sin ct [ ~J - J1
]
5. For an open coiled helical spring, subjected to axial moment M

Twisting moment= M sin ot
Bending moment= M cos 0t
Angular rotation, </,=2rm R sec a. M [ ~
EI + sin
GJ
2
r1. J
Axial deflection, 8=2rw MR2 sin_0t [ ~
1 - ~J J
6. Stresses developed in an open coiled helical spring, subjected to axial load W
16WR cos ot
Maximum shear stress q= tid3 + 4W . . .
ndi" (neglecting effect of sprmg mdex)
·. ' 32 WR sin ex
Maximum bending stress f = rcd3
7. Stresses developed in an open coiled helical spring, subjected to axial moment M

16M.sin ot
Maximum shear stress = - -ti-d=-3 - -
32M cos 0t
Maximum bending stress= --.,.
- d3- -
· ·:
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8. A plane spiral spring made of a strip of breadth b and thicknes~ t, attd length /,
subjected to a winding couple M
12M
f•a•, maximum stress=bt2
M2/ J. 2 . .
Energy stored =
2
EI = 2
n;_i X Volume of the strip
Number of winding turns, n= i1e = 2

7:i 1
where
bt 3
/= -
12
9. Carriage spring of n leaves, breadth b, thickness t with the length of the longest
leaf equal to /, of semi-ellipt ic shape.
Initial central deflection, y 0 = ;~ , R = initial radius of curvature of ~ach leaf
W'. _ Enbt 8
Proof load, o- ~
3W/
Maximum stress, f,n"• = 2nbt 2
10. Cantilever leaf spring, with n leaves, breadth b, thickness t, with the length of the
longest leaf equal to /, of quarter elliptic shape.
··1dt1.
1mt1a e ect1on, y 0 = /2R where R = initial radius of curvature
2
Enbt 3
Proof load, Wo = 12/R
. f, 6W/
M axunum stress, ma~= nbt 2-
1. Stiffuess of a close coiled helical spring in terms of wire dia meter d, modulus of rigidity
G, num ber of turns n and mean coil ra dius R is given by
Gd' Gd'
(a) 16nR 3 (b) 32nR3
Gd' Gd'
(c) 64nR 3 (d)
128nR3
2. A close coiled helical spring absorbs 40 Nmm of energy while extending by 4 mm, the
stiffness of the spring is
(a) 10 N/mm (b) 8 N/ mm
(c) 6 N/mm (d) 5 N/mm
3. A close coiled helical spring of wire dia meter d, coil radius R and number of turns n is
subjected to an axial moment of 400 Nmm a nd its free end is r otated by .9 0° wi~h respect
to the fixed end. The energy absorbed by the spring is
(a) 100n Nmm (b) 2001t Nmm
(c) 300n Nmm (d) 400n Nmm
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STRENGTH OF MATERiAi.s
~· :
An . open coiled helical spring of wire diameter 8 mm, mean coil radius 40 mm, helix
ahgle'"'45°, -'tfumber of turns n, is subjected to an axial couple M. If the stress. due to
bending in wire seclion is 1200 kg/cm•, then shear stress developed in the section is · ~ ·
(a) 2400 kg/cm' (b) 1200 kg/cm2
(c) 600 kg/cm 3 (d) 300 kg/cm 2 •
5. A close coiled helical spring qf stiffness 30 N/mm is in series with another close coiled
helical spring of stiffness 60 N/inm, the stiffness of the composite spring is
(a) 90 N/mm (b) 45 N/mm
(c) 25 N/mm (d) 20 N/mm.
., ~. AJlat ~P~!al spri.ng is. made fr<?m a strip of 6 mm - width and 1 mm thickness, 2 metres
long. A winding couple M produces the maximum stress (?f 160 N/mm2 • The magnitude
of winding couple is ·
(a).,3~0_N_111.m (b) 160 Nmm
(c) 80 Nmm (d) 40 Nmm.
7. A fiat spiral spring is made of strip of width b, thickness t and length l. If the maximum
stress developed in strip is f. the energy stored in the spring is
/2E X lbt /2
(a)
24
(b)
12E X lbt
12E X lbt (d) 12

(c)
6 4 E X /bt
8. A carriage spring is made of 6 leaves, breadth 6 cm and thickness l cm. Each leaf is
initially bent to a radius of 2 m. If the length of the longest leaf is 80 cm, then initial
central deflection provided in the spring is
~8~ W6~
(c) 4 cm (d) 2·5 cm.
9. A load applied at the centre of a carriage spring to straighten all its leaves is termed as
(a) Safe load (b) Ultimate load
(c) Proof load (d) Yield load.
10, A . close coiled . helical spring is_made of wire of diameter d and length l. The mean coil
1-ti, ··diameter of the spring is D and· number of turns are n. The spring index is the 'ratio of
~~ w~ .
(c) D/d (d) d/D.
., -ANSWERS
...
1. (c) _2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d)
6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
.. EXERCISES
'· · 14;1. A length of 1·~ m of? mm ~iameter steel .wire is coiled to a mean coil diameter
of 90 mm to make a close coiled .~~}1cal _sp~mg. Determme the stiffness of the spring,. G for
steel = 820,00 N/mm 2 • [Ans. 4'29 N/mm]
\ .1 .. , , - ,· ,,. . .) ,
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I f {'-,· . ._
SPRINGS
14'2. Show that for a give·n r~silieace and the m~'x imum shea~ing stress, .the ra~io of
the weight of a close coiled helical spring made of tube to that one made of solid round wire
is
1 2
tA
, where 1' is the ratio of the outside diameter of the tube to the inside diameter.
14·3. A close coiled helical spring having n turns is made of round wire such that the
mea,nJdiameter of. the coils Dis ten times the wire diameter. This spring is required to support
a loaq of 800 N with an extension of 100 mm and a maximum shear stress of 300 N/mm1 •
C~lculate '(i) mean coil diameter (ii) number of coils (iii) weight of the spring,· if the material
weighs 7700 kg/ m3 •
1
G=80,000 N/ mm 2 [ Ans. (i) 82'4 mm (ii) 10·3 (iii) 1·09 kg]
14 4. A safety valve of 8 cm diameter is to bl9w off at a pressure of 12 kg/cm 2 by.
gauge. It is held in position by a close coiled helical spring of 15 cm mean coil diameter and:
3 cm initial compression. Determine the diameter of the steel wire and the number of coils
in the spring-if the maximum shear stress in the spring is not to exceed,1200 kg/cm2 •
G for stee1=840 tonnes/cm 2 . Ans. [2'68 cm, 23·9 turns]
. - :·•
14:s. A close coiled helical spring is to have a stiffne$S of 0'9 kg/cm in cqmpression
and-with a-maximum load of 4·5 kg and a maximum shearing stress of 1200 kg/cm3• The.
solid length of the spring (i.e. coils touching) is 4·5 cm. Find the wire diameter, mean coil
diameter and number of coils.
I
G=400 tonnes/cm2 .
.I' '
Ans. (3'22
"I.: • .-
3'°52 cm, 14 coils]. mm,

' '
:..1 • 14'6. A close coiled helical steel spring having 20 turns ts

subjected to a p.~ uple of
2 kg,imetre. The mean coil radius is 2·5 cm and the wire diameter is 0·8 cm. The axis of the
couple coincides with the axis of the spring. petermine. . .
(a) Augular rotation of free end with respect to the fixed end of the spring·.
(b) The maximum bending stress developed in spring wire.
(c) Work done on the spring .
£ = 2100 tonnes/cm2 [Ans. (a) 85° 18' (b) 3980 kg/cm2. (c) 1·49 kg-m]
I • - •
14 7. A weight of 20 kg is dropped onto a close coiled helical spring through a height
of 50 cm, which instantaneously compresses the spring by 10 cm. If the mean radius of the
coil is 10 cm and the diameter of the wire is 1·5 cm, determine the instantaneous stress Pro-
duced and the number of coils in the spring.
G for stee1= 840 tonnes/cm2. [~~. (a) 1810 kg1cm 2 (b) 22·1 furnsj
14·~,1 A close coiled cylindrical helical spring is .of 10 c~ mean coil di~riieier.. The
sp~ing extends·by 5 cm :when axially loaded by a weight of ·60 kg. , When it is subjected .to ,an
axial couple M= 6 kg-m, there is an angular rotation of 90°. Determine the Poislion?s rafio ,for
the material of the spring. Ans. [0'273]
14'9. Desi.g n a close coiled helical spring to have the following dimensions :
¥e~n.coil diameter = 10 cm
Number of coils = 20
, rr:
Stiffness of the spring ==:25 kg/cm
St~el wires are av~ilable of the following diameters :
12 mm, 14 mm, 16 mm, 18 mm
. b.etcrmine the most suitable · di11meter the wire
produced, iA the spring when axial deflection is 10 cm.
of and the maximum slie'a~ sti:'es~
Q for ~teel= 820 tonnes/cm2 • [A,~s. 1~ mmf 1550 ·k~i~~2)
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STRENGTH OP MATERIALS
14'10. While designing a valve spring, it is estimated that the valve weighing 15 N
requires an acceleration of 120 m/sec3 when lifting through a height of 10 mm. The free
length .o f the spring is 250 mm and·ax ial length is 200 mm when the valve is shut. Determine
the force on the spring.
Determine the mean coil diameter if it is 8 times the wire diameter if the maximum
shear stress is not to exceed 250 N/mm 2 • Calculate also the number of coils.
G= 800 kN/mm2 [Ans. 18'367 kg, 1·44 cm, 12·4 turns]
1
.. 14'.11. · A close .. coiJed helica.1 spring of 1·8 cm mean coil diameter and 12 · tu~n;.. is
arranged within and concentric ,vith an outer spring. The free length of the inner-spring is
6' ~m more than the free length of the outer spring. The outer spring has 14 coils of. mean
diameter 24 mm and wire diameter 3·2 mm. The spring load against which the valve is open-
ed i~ provided by the inner spring. · The initial compression in the outer spring is 6 mm, when
the valve is closed. Find the stiffness of the inner spring if the greatest force required to open
the valve by 10 mm is 15 kg. Find .also the wire diameter of the inner spr ing.
· G= 80,000 N/mm 2 . [Ans. 5'15 kg/ cm, .4·35 mm]
14'12. In a compound helical spring, the inner spring is arranged within and con-
centric with the outer one, but is 9 mm shorter than outer spring. The outer spring has 10 coils
of mean ,coil diameter 24 mm a nd wire diameter 3 mm. Determine the stiffness of the inner
spring ·if an axial load of 150 N causes the outer spri ng to compress by 18 mm.
If the radial clearance between the springs is 1·5 mm, find the wire diameter of the
inner spring if it has 8 coils. G= 77000 N/mm2 • [Ans. 5·33 N/mm, 2·06 mm]
· · 14'13. A composite spring has two close coiled helical springs in series. The mean
coil radius of each spring is 80 mm. fhe wire diameter of one spring is 2 cm and it has
16 coils, while the number of turns in the other spring is 12. Determine the wire diameter of
the other spring if the stiffness of the composite spring is 4'2 N/ mm.
Calculate the greatest axial load which can be a pplied on the composite spring if the
maximum shearing stress is not to exceed 320 N/mm 2 •
G=84 kN/ mm2
[Ans. 12'38 mm, 1490 N]
14"14. A rigid bar AB weighing
15 kg and carrying a load W equal to 40 kg
rests on 3 springs as shown in the figure 14"17
having spring constants k 1 = 20 kg/cm,
k2 = 10 kg/cm and k 3 = 12 kg/cm. If the un-
loaded springs ·were of the same length,
determine the distance x such that the bar AB
remains horizontal.
[Ans. 10·5 cm]
14'15. Two close coiled helical springs Fig 14.17
of equal axial length are assembled co-axially . ·
The wire diameter of the outer spring is 8 mm a nd the mean coil radius is 3'6 cm, while the
wire diameter of the inner spring is 6 mm and the mean coil radius is 2 ·5 cm. The assembly
of the springs is compressed by an axial thrust of 300 N . Calculate the maximum shear stress
induced in.each spring if both the springs are made of steel and the number of coils in each
spring is same. [Ans. 47'46 N/mm2, 65·60 N/mm2 ]
. . 14"16. The mean coil diameter ?f an open c.oiled J:ielical spring is D and the coils are
mclmed at an angle of helix Oli. The section of the w1te bemg a square of side a. Calculate
~he percentage error while determining the ,stiffness of the spring if the inclination of the coils
!S ne~lecte~. Q ivetl IX = 30°. £ = 2"50 G lAns. 8"7%)
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PRJNGS 761
14 ·11. An open coiled helical spring made of round steel bar 1'2 cm diameter has
15 coils of 10 cm mean coil diameter and the pitch is 6 cm. if the axial load is 70 kg, find the
axial deflection and the rotation of free end relative to the fixed end of the spring.
G for stee1=830 tonnes/cm 2
1/mfor steel=O 286 [Ans. 5'38 cm; 6°21']
14'18. In an open coiled helical spring made of steel, the stresses due to bending and
twisting are 50 N/mm2 and 60 N /mm 2 respectively, when the spring carries an axial load.
There are 8 coils in the spring and mean coil radius is 6 times the wire diameter. Determine
(1) angle of helix (2) permissible axial load (3) wire diameter, if the extension in the spring is
20mm.
E for s.tee1 = 210 kN/mm 2
G for stee1=84 kN/mm 2
[A~s. (I) 22°36', (2) 54'84N (3) 5'078mm]
14'19-. An open coiled helical spri_ng i_s su~jected to an axial load and an axial couple
simultaneously such that the angular rotat10n 1s completely prevented. Show that if the coils
of the spring are inclined at 45° to its axis, the stiffness of the spring is given by
' d' (.!L+a ) where d=wire diameter,
2 n=nurober of coils and
64v'2nD 8 D=mean coil diameter
14·20. A steel strip of length 15 metr,es, breadth 2'5. cm a,µd thii::kness O'O(? cm is u~ed
to make a flat spiral spring. Determin<; tJ1e IJ.lJJTlb~r of winding turns anq1the twistjng moment
at the spindle if the maximum bending str,ess is not to exceed 3020 kg/cm 2 • Also calculate the
amount of strain energy stored in the spring. E=:= 210!) tonnes/cm2 • •
[A:11s. 5'72 turns, 2'265 kg-cm ; 40·37 cm-kg]

14·21. A semi elliptic~l lamiµatecf.. stt:el: spr,ipg l,'2! m long is m~de qf IO leaves of
JOO mm breadth and 10 mm thickness. Whpt c;en.tral load would. produce a maximum stress
of 300 N/mm 2 and what will be the corresi;Q1ndini. ' c~nt,:aJ defle;;~~i,q n. · ' ·
2
E=210x 1.000 N/.mm , [Ai,s. 16.66 ~N, 51·4 mm]
14·22. A semi elliptical lam inat~d. sprin.g of steel, 160 cm long carries a central load
of 300 kg. The breadth ~f the leave·s i~ ·5 ~m .. ~ ~t.~rmi i:e, tp.~ tl-)ji::kn~ss in multiples °c;>f°'o·5 mrrt
and the number of leaves 1f the centr~l d~fl~chRn 1~ ~ cm anc).. the bending stress is 240b kg/cm2.
Esteel= 2100 t~n;ri.~s/<;ip 2 • [Ans. 9·5 mm, 7 leaves]
14:23. A laminated carriage spri ng made of IO steel plates is 1·2 m long. The maxi-
mum central load is 400 kg. If the maximum allowable stress in steel is 2400 kg/cm2 and the
maximum deflection is 5 cm, determine the thickness and width of .the plates.
£ = 2000 t onnes/cm 2 [Ans. 8·64 mm, 4·02 cm]
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15
Struts and Columns
A short column when subjected to an axial compressive force fails by crushing. But
when the same column becomes long, and an axial compressive force is npplied, it fails by
buckling before the limiting crushing stress is reached. This axial compressive force is called
the buckling load and depends upon the end conditions and the ratio between length and
lateral dimension. Buckling is · caused by the inherent eccentricity of loading under com-
pression and crookedness of the column. The bending moment produced due to these defects
and the axial load is overcome by the resisting moment offered by the elasticity of the material.
If the axial load is gradually increased, a stage comes when the bending moment due to the
defects and axial load overweighs the resisting moment offered by the column and the column
buckles all of a sudden. The axial load at this stage is called the Buckling load.
Any structural member in compression is called
strut and when the strut takes the vertical position it is called
a column or a stanchion. However the term strut i~enerally
used for-1ollg comp£ession members having large_values of
slenderness ratiu_(i.e. the ratio between the length of the
,.·-
(
column and the minimum radius of gyration of the

section). Fig. 15' 1 shows a strut of length 1, hinged at both
the ends, buckled under the axial compressive lead P.
Before the application of the load, the strut was straight
and as the load gradually increased, the strut buckled at I
C
the load P. The bending moment at any section at
a distance of x from the end A is - Py. This bending
moment is negative in the sense that when we see from the
side of the original centre line of strut, we :find strut is
bent showing convexity and as per the sign conventions
already adopted, this B.M. is a negative bending moment.
<
The maximum bending moment occurs at the
A p ,.
central section cc' of the strut and is equal to - Pe. The
maximum and minimum stress intensities can be given by
Fig, 15·1
P Pe
. /ma .. =!o+fb= A+·z (at the point C)
P Pe
/mcn=/o- /b= A - - -
2 (at the point C')
where Jo= direct stress due to axial load and /b is stress due to bending · e is the eccentricity of
the load, A is the area of cross section and Z is the section modulus. '
Failure of strut will occur either by fma11 reaching the ultimate crushing strength of the
tDaterial or by /mtn reaching the ultimate tensile strength of the material.
761,
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STRUTS AND COLUMNS
763
For very long columns, Euler has developed a theory for the determination of buckling
loads.
15'1, EULER'S THEORY FOR LONG COLUMNS
Following assumptions are taken while d0veloping theory for the buckling load of very
long columns-
1. The m.tterial of the column/strut is homogenous and isotropic.
2. The compressive load on the column/strut is fully axial.
3. The column/strut fails only by buckling.
4. The weight of the strut/column is neglected.
5. The column/strut is initially straight and buckles suddenly at a particular load.
6. Pin joints are frictionless and fixed ends are rigid.
Struts/columns with the following end conditions are considered.
(i) Pin joint or hinged end. The end is position fixed but direction free i.e. deflection
y=O.
(ii) Fixed end. The end is position fixed as well as direction fixed i.e. deflection,
y=O, slope ! =0 at the fixed end.
(iii) Free end. The end is free to take any deflection and any slope.
Euler's buckling load is determined for the four cases i.e. I. Both the ends are hinged
2. One end is fixed, other end is free, 3. Both the ends are fixed and 4. One end is fixed, other
end is hinged. Let us take the 1st case.
1. Both the ends are Hinged/Pin Jointed.

Fii. 15'2 shows a strut A.B of length /, pin jointed p
or hinged at both ends. At the load P, the £trut
0
has buckled. Say EI is the flexural rigidity of the
strut.
Considering a section at a distance of x
from the end .A., say the deflection is y.
B.M. at the seetion =- Py
2
or El d y2 = -Py
dx
3
or Eld y2 + Py= O ... (1)
dx
The solution of this differential equation is
y=.A. co:. k'x+B sin k'x ... (2)
Fig. 15·2
w):iere A and Bare constants and k'=Jii

[The validity of the solution can be verified by differentiating two times the
equation (2)]
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So dy =-Ak' sin k'x+ Bk' cos k'x
dx
:~=-Ak'2 cos k'x-Bk'2 sin k 'x=-k'a (A cos k 'x + B sin k ,.x )
=-k'2y= -_!_ y
EI
or EI Z +y=O. This shows that solution assumed is correct.
Let us determine the constants in the equat ion (2)

At x=O, at the end A ; y= O.
Therefore, O=A cos (k'x O) + Bsin(k'X O)
= A+O or A= O
Then y=B sin k'x ... (3)
At x = l, i.e. at end B, deflection y= O
Therefore, O=B sin k'l
B=/=O because if we take B also equal to zero, ·it wilnead to a
condition that strut has not buckled
So sink' /=O=sin (0, rt, 2rc, 31e ... rz,;)
The minimum significant value of angle is rt
So k'l= rt or k ' 2 / 2 = 1e2

p
-- /2= rt2
EI
rc 2EI
Euler's Buckling load, P= - -2 - ... (4)
1
2. Strut/colurnn with one end
fixed and other end free. Fig. 15·3 shows p
a strut AB of length /, fixed at end A and
free at the end B, buckled at the load P. Say
the deflection at the free end is a. At the
end A, there will be a reaction P and a fixing
couple MA. Consider a section at a distance
B.M. at the section=+P(a-y)
The bending moment is a positive

bending moment because if we see from the
initial centre line AB' of the strut, we observe MA: Fiit i'rig
concavity . c dvp le
Fig. 15·3
d2y
Therefore, EI - = P(a-y) ..:'(I )
dx 2
1
[Note that we could have taken bending moment at the section equ·a l ·to (_JMA + P, )
but in this case MA is unknown] ,
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stRtJts,AND cor.UMNs
The solution of the differential equation ( 1J is

y=A cos k'x+ B. sin k'x+a ... (2)
where A and B are constants and k' = Jf 1

At the fixed end X=O, y=O
O=A+a or A = -' a
So y=-a cos k'x+B sin k'x+a ... (2)
Differentiating the equation (2) we get
i~ =+ak sin k 'x+ Bk cos k'x

at x=O ; fixed end A ; slope, c~v = 0
dx
So O=Bk' cos (k' xO) = Bk'
or constant, B=O
and the equation of deflection becomes.
y=-a cos k'x+a ...(3')
Moreover at the end B, at x=l, y=a
a= -a cos lc'l+a
or a cos k' l= O
cos k'l =cos [ ; ,
5
2
ft ;n , ....... ( n;J_) re J
2
The minimum significant value of angle is rr./2

cos k' !=cos ; or k' I= ;
and k '2/2= ~ or p 12= n2

4 El ' 4
rt 2El
Euler' s Buckling load, P = 412 ... (4)
3. Strut/column wiih lioth the

ends fixed. Fig. 15· 4 shows a column/strut
AB of length 1, fixed at both the ends, buckled
under the axial load P. Since the ends arc
fixed, there will be fixing c ouples MA and Mn
at the ends A and B. Consid-:ring a section
at a distance of x from the end A.
B.M. at t he section=MA-P.y
2
or E I d y2 = MA -Py ... (I)
dx
The solution of this differential MA

equation is Fig. 15'4
y = pMA +A cos k'x+'B

. 's ih k'x . .. (2)
',
where A and B arc cohstarits and k' =J: 1
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STllENGTH OIi MATERIALS
Now at the end A, x=O, y = O
0= JA +.A cos!(1'' xo)+B sin Vt'XO)

er MA
A=-~
MA MA .
y=p- Pcosk'x+Bsmk'x ... (3)
Let us differentiate equation (3)

dy MAk' .
dx =+ - p- sm k'x+Bk' cos k'x
at x = O; fixed end ; ddy =0

x·
MAk'
0= - P- sin (k'XO)+Bk' cos(k'XO)
01' B=O
:Equation for deftection becomes
MA MA I
y = p - p coskx . .. (4)
Moreover at the fixed end B; y=O at x=l
M"" MA I
O=p -ycos k I or cos k'l=l
or cos k'/= cos (O, 2n, 4re .. . 2nR)
The minimum significant value of angle is 2re
cos k'/=cos 2re or k'/= 2,:
or
fallers' buckling load, ..•(5)
4. Strut/column with one end

fixed and other end hinged. Fig. 15'5 p
shows a strut/column AB of length /, fixed at
end A and hinged at end B, buckled under the
axial load P. There will be a fixing couple
MA at the end A. Since end B is position
fixed but direction free , it cannot retain its
position unless the hinge offers a horizontal
reaction say R. Consider a section at a dis-
tance of x from end A.
B.M. at the section is = -Py+R(l-x)

p
[Note that if we take the B.M. as
MA - Py we will end up with a solution for the Fig. 15'5
column with both the ends fixed)
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STRUTS AND COLUMNS 767
d2y
Therefore, EI - 2 =- Py+R(l-x) ... (I)
dx
R(l-x)
y=A cos lt'x+B sin k'x+ --'---"-
p ... (2)
where A and Bare constants and k'=J i

At the end A, x = O, y=O
O= A cos (k' X O)+B sin (k'X O)+ 1;:;

Rl
or A= p
y= _ _Bi. cos k 'x+ B sin k'x+ R(l-x) . .. (2)

p p
Differentiating the equation (2) we get
dy
dx =+ ~ . k' x +Bk' cos k' x--y
Rik' sm R ... (3)
At the end A !!J__ = 0 at x = O

' dx
Rik' . R
O=p sm (k'XO)+Bk' cos (k' X O)-p
or O=Bk' - ; or B= P~'
The equation for deflection becomes

RI
y = - p cos
k'
x
+ Pk'
R . k'x+ R(l- x)
sm p ... (4)
Now at the end B, y = O at x = l
0= - ; cos k'J+ -fk, · sin k'J+O
or tan k'I= RI X Pk' =k'l

p R .
or tan 0=8. This is possible, when 0::::4'5 radians.
Therefore, tan k'l=4'5 or k'll/ll =(4'5) .. ~2n2
p
EI. /2=2n2
. 2w 2 EI
Eulers' bucklmg load, P= -
1i -
In all the expressions for buckling load for cases 1 to 4, the moment of inertia is lmln
if there are l max and lmtn for certain sections such as rectangular section 1 T section,
J section,
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76& STRENGT,H, OF. 1MA1Jl.RIALS
Example 15'1-l. A 200 mm x 100 mm RSJ is used as a stanchion (strut), length

5 metres, with one end fixed other end free. Determine the Euler's buckling load. For the
section.
lxx= 1696'6 cm4 and Iv ,= 115'4 cm4
£=210 kN/mm 2
Solution.
End conditions are one end fixed other end free
Eulers buckling load,
Since
Therefore, buckling load= rr. :i~·,

2
Now, 1= 5 m
£ = 210 kN/ mm 2 = 210 X 1or. kN/m 2

TJ'Y= l I 5·4 X 10-s m4
P:c=rr. 2 X2 10 X 106 X 115'4 X 10-s _
4x5x5 -
Euler's buckling load =23'92 kN
Example 15'1-2. A mild steel tube 3 cm internal diameter and 4 cm external dia-
meter, length 3 metres, is used as a strut with one end fixed and the other end hinged. Calculate
the Eulers buckling load. £ = 2000 tonnes/cm 2 •
Solution.
End conditions : one end fixed, other end hinged
2rc,.2E/
Euler's buckling load = - -2 -
1
Length, /= 3 m = 300 cm
£ = 2000 tonnes/cm 2
The tube is hollow circular section, where
rt. rr.
[...,, = In =:, (44 -34) = 64 X (256-8 1)=8'59 cm4
64
2xrt 2 x2ooox8·59 .
Buckling load , P= 300 X 300 = 3 768 tonnes
Exercise 15'1-1. A rolled steel T section with flange IO X 2 cm and web 18 X 1 cm

is used as a strut with both the ends fixed. Determine the Euler's buckling load, -if
E=2000 tonnes/cm 2 • Length ofrthe strut is 5 metres. [Ans, 53'll,~ Tonnes]
Exercise 1s·1-2. A round steel bar of diameter 5 cm and, length 4 metres is used as
a strut with both the ends hinged. Determine the Euler's buckling load if £ = 210 kN/mm2 •
[Ans. 39·74 kN]
15'2. EQUIVALENT LENGTH

An equivalent length of a column or of a strut of a given length, given section and given
end conditions is defined as the length of a column or strut of the same material, same section
and havin~ the same bucklin 9 load but havin~ both of its ends hin~ed. Fi~. 15'6 shoY<.S aH
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StRUTS AND COLUMNS 769
the four cases discussed in article 15' 1. The equivalent length of any strut is obtained by
completing the bending curve of the column with different end conditions similar to the bend-
ing curve of a column with both the ends hinged as shown in the Fig. 15'6. I.e. , showing
equivalent length, le.
p p .
T~",•:' -T
I 1, = t I
-rHinged end
l, .1
~
;~-ri
L ,nged
~nd
'l filHld
end
fixed
end
fixed end
Fig . 15'6
For both the ends hinged, /,=/

Foi:, one end fixed, other end free, /, = 2/
I
F or both the ends fixed, le=
2
I
For one end fixed, other end hined, le= V
2
The fo1mulae for the Euler's buckling load can be modified as follows :
n2£/
P. =Euler's Buckling load = - -2 -
1•
where I is the minimum moment of inertia
and !.=equivalent length depending·upon the end conditions
Example is·2-t. An allowable axial load for a 3 m long pin ended column of a
certain elastic material is 30 kN. Three different columns made of the same material having
the same cross section and length have the following end conditions.
(i) one end is fixed, other end is free
(ii) both the ends are fixed
Ciii) one end is fixed but other end is hinged
What are the allowable loads for the three columns given above
Solution.
When the column has pin ends
Equivalent length le=/
Pe
Allowable load - ---- --=--=---
Factor of safety (FS)
, 2EI 112£/
= 102CfS) or / 2(FS) = 30 kN .. . ( l )
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(i) When one end fixed and other end is free, I.= 21
TC 2 EJ 30 .
Allowable load 412(FS) = 4 =7 5 kN
I
(ii) When both the ends are fixed, 1,=
2
4n 2EJ
Allowable load - /2(FS) =30X4=120 kN
(iii) When both one end is fixed, other end is hinged !. = v'I
2
2rr:.2£J
Allowable load = / 2 (FS)=30X2=60 kN
Exercise 15·2-1. An allowable axial load for a column of length/ with both the ends
fixed is 3 tonnes. Three different columns made of the same material, same length and same
section have the following end conditions.
(i) both the ends are hinged
(ii) one end is fixed and other end is free
(iii) one end is fixed and other end is hinged
What are the allowable loads for the three columns give above,
[Ans. 0·75 tonnes, 0'1875 tonnes, 1 '5 tonnes]
15·3, LIMITATIONS OF EULER THEORY OF BUCKLING
While deriving the expression of the buckling load for a strut or a column, we have
considered that (i) strut has already buckled under the load P and then P is determined (ii) the
strut is very long and the strut fails only by buckling. In other words, formula is not valid
for short or medium sized struts or columns.
We know that Eulers' buckling load,
n 2 e/
- - where ! = minimum moment of inertia
Pe=1.2
=Ak 2 , k being the minimum radius of
gyration
EAk 2
T 2 P, n2E
or Pe= 1.2 or A=(le/k)2
where ~ is called the slenderness ratio.
This shows that Eulers buckling load is inversely proportional to the square of slender-
ness ratio or in other words as _the ~ength of str~t decreases, buckling load goes on increasing.
But when the column is short 1t fails by cr~shmg. Therefore the Eulers' buckling theory is
valid for a column or a strut beyond a certam value of slen derness ratio. Say/. is the ultimate
compressive strength of the material of the strut/column.
~ • <f. (for the column to fail by buckling)
n:.2£ ( ,. )2 n:,2£
({,fk)2 </. or T > 1~
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StilUTS ANi> COLUMN!; 771
Slenderness ratio,
Say the strut is of mild steel with £ = 2100 tonneslcm 2

Ultimate strength in compression, /• = 3·3 tonnes/cm2
TI, J:>,; x J3'32100

or kle .
>19 25 or 80
This shows that for a mild steel strut, Eulers theory is applicable only when the slender-
ness ratio is greater than 80 i.e. when the ends of the strut are pin ended the slenderness ratio
should be more than 80 for the Euler's theory to be valid for the determination of buckling
load.
Example 15·3-l. For what length of a mild steel bar 5 cm diameter used as a strut
the Euler's theory is applicable if the ultimate compressive strength is 0'35 kN/mm2 and
E=210 kN/mm2 for mild steel.
(a) when both the ends are hinged
(b) when one end is hinged and the other end is fixed .
Solution. For the Euler's theory to be applicable
kz" /E
;>,; \} f• where E=210 kN/mm2
/c=0'35 kN/mm2
210
>TC X f > 76'95 say 77
\J ·35
Radius of gyration, k=
fT
\I -:x =vf 64
"d'
x TCd
4
2
5 .
= 4d =
4 = 125 cm
(a) When both the ends are hinged le= /

So I> 77 X l '25 where k = 1·2s cm
Length should be greater than 96'25 cm
(b) When one end is hinged and other end is fixed
Equivalent length, /e=y2 I
/>v2 X77X l "25> 136'1 cm
Length of the strut should be greater than 136' l cm
Exercise 15'3-1. For what length of a hollow steel bar 4 cm external diameter and
3 cm internal diameter used as a strut, the Eulers theory is applicable for buckling if
/.= 3·3 tonnes/cm2 and £ = 2100 tonnes/cmi
(a) when both the ends are fixed
(b) one end is fixed, other end is free. ..
[Ans. (a) Length greater than 200 cm (b) Length greater than 50 cm]
tS·4. RANKINE GORDON FORMULA
Very short columns when subjecte1 to axi~I compressive load fail by crushing and
crushing load is given by P. f • . A where f• 1s the ultimate compressive strength and A is the
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112 I. stRil~otH op ~ATER1A ts .,
area of cross section. Very long columns or struts fail by buckling and Euler gave the buckling
load, P6 as rt 2EI//e2 • But there are general purpose struts and columns which can neither
be classified as short nor very long struts. Such struts or columns fail by the combined effect
of direct stress due to the axial load and bending stress due to the bending moment caused due
to buckling. For such columns Rankine suggested an empirical relationship as follows :
1 1 1
PR =~+Pe ... (1)
where PR is the Rankine's buckling load
Curve produced by equation (l) is tangential to Po when 1/k r3:tio is very small and is
tangential to P, when 1/k ratio is very large. The Rankine's load takes into account the direct··
as well as the bending stresses.
From equation (1) Pc
1+ P,_
Pc
Substituting the values for P 0 and Pe
P R=
f, . A
/e2
l+Jo . AX rc 2El
where I = lmintmum=Ak2
where k is the minimum radius of gyration of the section of the column.
So PR= fo. A
1+-l!.__(.!!..
rr. 2E k
)2
/.
where rc 2E =a,
a constant depending upon the elastic constant E and compressive strength, Jc
where
Rankine's load, PR
l+a (
J. · A
~ r
le is the equivalent length of the strut or column.
In this formulae f• and a are called as Rankine's constants ~nd have beeE experi-
mentally determined for various common materials, as given in Table 15· 1.
TABLE tS·t
Material fo in N/mm 2 f, in kg/cm Constant .a ( for both

the ends hinged)
Cast Iron 550 5600 1/1{;00

Wrought Iron 250 2550 1/9000
Mild -Steel 320 3262 1/7500
Medium Carbon Steel 500 5097 1/5000
Timber 35 357 1/3000
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SiRtit.s AND COLUMNS 11a...
Exam.pie 15'4-1. A hollow cast iron column 200 mm outside diameteF and 150 mm
inside diameter, 8 metres long has both the ends fixed. It.is subjected to an axial c0mpressiv.e '.
load. Taking a factor of safety as 6, determine the safe Rankine's bu~kling load.
Given /.=550 N/mm2 •
.
· .
1
Constant, a= for~both the ends hinged.
1600
Solution.
Outside diameter, D= 200 mm ; Inside diameter, d= 150 mm
Area of cross section of the column
A=
... (2002 -1502)=1'374X IO' mm2.
4
Length of the column, /=8 m=8000 mm
End Conditions : Both the ends are fixed
l
Equivalent length, le= =4000 mm
2
Radius of gyration,
- 4 i52+"as -- 4 2002 + 1502
k-
4 4
_ 6'25 X 104
or k2- 4X4 mm
2
/es 1 4000x4000x4x4
a' k2 = 1600 X 6'25 X 104 = 2 '56
d f•. A 550X 1'374x 104
Rankine's buckling loa = /e2 = 3'56
1+ a ·Tz
= 212'28 x 104 N=2122'8 kN
Factor of safety =6
Safe Rankine's load = 212~· 28 = 353'8 kN.
Exercise 15'4-1. A cost iron column of hollow circular section, external diameter
25 cm and thickness of metal 3·5 cm has to transmit an axial compressive load P. The
column is 7 m long with both the ends hinged. Take factor of safety as 8. Determine the
value of P. Rankine's constants are /c=5·6 tonne/cm 2 •
I
a= 600 . [Ans. 26'85 Tonnes]
1
1s·s. SPACING OF BRACES FOR BUILT UP SECTIONS
The lattice bars used for bracing are generally 50 to 80 nim wide and 8 to 10 mm
thick. In order to decide about the spacing between the braces following procedure may
be adopted.
Figure 15·7 shows a built up section consisting for four equal angle sections, joined
by lattice bars. Say L is the length of the column of the built up s~ctio~ and / is the
spacing between the lattice bars or braces. If the section is prop~rly ._ brace_d} , tIJ.~
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ffi. StRENG'l"H OF MA1'EitiAL~
total load on the coiumn will be equatiy shared by each angle. Braces are generally
riveted to the I angle sections therefore the end condition for each · angle section between the .
braces, i.e., for length / can be taken as hinged. ·
The maximum unsupported length / of the angle section so that the angle section
does not buckle under the load is determined as follows
~---
/
/
/
Hin9cd
Fig. 15'7
. p . h'
P' = Load shared by each angle section= 10 t 1s case
4
p J,. A where k is the minimum radius of gyration
4= /2 of one angle section.
l +a . k' A=area of section of one angle
For the built ttp section
if the ends are considered hinged
or where k is the minimum radius of gyration

. .,
for built up section .
So /e . A f • . A.
/3
IJH' f,
I+a . 7£1 1+a .F
k
or or l = K.L
if ·the end conditions for a built up section are different then L can be replaced by
equivalent length·£,.
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S'fRUTS AND COLUMNS
k
i.e., - l=y. Le
where L
Le= when both the ends are fixed
2
Le=2L when one end is fixed and other Cree
L
Le= 4 when one end is fixed and other hinged.
2
Example 15'5-l. A braced jib of crane is built up of 4-80X 80 mm angles forming
a square of 40 cm overall. If the length of the jib is 12 metres and ends are fixed, calculate
the safe axial load. Take factor of safety as 4. For the angle section.
Area= 9'29 cm 2, lxx=ln=56 cm4, x=y=2'18 cm (distance of CG from the edge)
Rankine's constants, /0=3·3 tonnes/cm2, a= ~

75 0
Determine the minimum distance between the lattice bars.
Solution. Let us first calculate the moment of inertia of the built up section.
Fig. 1s·8 shows 4 angle sections 80 mm x 80 mm joined by lattice bars. The angles are
symmetrically placed so the centroid of the
section will be at G as shown.
Area of the section
=4XA=4X9'29
=37'16 cm2
F-~v___1Jl
lxx=I,,=4 X 56+4 X 9'29(20-x)2 \ I 20cm
2 1
=224+ 37'16(20-2· 18)
= 224+ 11800'25= 12024'25 C'ID4
I X-+ -+- -~X+
IG I
I
8T_~-x---~
Radius of gyration of built up sections,
1 I 20cm
K 2 - lxx _ 12024·25 = . 2 4
- 4A - 37·16 323 58 cm
I- · y !
=i-'-
fixed
End conditions : both the ends are
Rankine's buckling load,

i-~Ocm
8 -+jx
20cm:r
Fig. 15'8
_ f, .
x 4A
P R- L.2
I+a. -k.2
L 12
Equivalent leng!h Le= 2 = 2 - =6 m = 600 cm
Le2 1 600 X 600
a K2 = 7500X 323·58 = O·l 48
3 3 4 9 29
P R- · x x • 106"82 Tonnes
- I +0·148
Factor of safety =4
106·82
Safe axia~ lo~d = 26'70~ Tonnef!,
4
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STRF:N6TH OF MATERIJ\LS
Distance between lattices bars

+=I; when Le = equivalent length= 600 cm
/ = distance between lattice bars
k= min~n;i;um radi,us of gyratioa for one angle section
= f 56 2·455 cm
,·:·. *,/ 9·29
tP a~n:/i .' . (
K= minimum radius of gyration of built up sections
•;.,. :. !. .... ;/, I = 'V323'58 = 17'99 cm
·. k 2 455
f; ..) l= K. l,= 17 .99 x600 = 81"I8 cm.
Exercise 15'5-1. A braced, . g~rder is built up of 4- 100 X l 00 mm angle sections
forming a square of 45 cm overall. ' If the length of the girder is 16 metres and its one end is
fixed and other end free, calc-u\ate' t-h¢ safe axial lo~d. Take factor of safety as 5. For the
angle section
,1;,,;;-::,,,~ ~te.J.l.,'....'2'2·s!> ·cdi2 l ·~ i ~ 20·1·0 cm4 x=y=2"92 .
<; ',;c [, f ,· , ,, ' I ; '. ~ . XJi :· ',/ I . ' , >' .•
· (i.e . distance of CG from outer edges) and Ra:nk,ine's constan.t s· are
1
f .=320 N/mm 2 and a= .
7500
Determine also the minimum distance between the bracings.
[Ans. 129-'2 kN, 4'89 m]
1S"6. OTHER EMPIRICAL FORMULAE FQR STRUTS AND COLUMNS
We know that Rankine's buckling load is given

p - f ~. A
R- /e2
I+a. F
or •; •#
A =wor k'mg stress, f w=
PR f• le
2
I+a .1'2
or Jw<fe' (allowable stress)
where reduction factor is 1+ a . ~: ;, The wor·king stress is less than the ultimate compressive
strength/,, obtained for a short column with no buckling. The working stress is less than /.
due to the bucking effect in a column. or a sti:uct and the reduction factor is dependent on the
. le
slenderness ratio k ·
In other words fw -Jo'- ,j, ( t) a function of ~
J.,et ~stake ef, ( } )=b. t 2

2'
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r~=f.' [1--b ~: J
This is known as the Johnson's parabolic formula, because if fw is plotted against 1,/k, a
parabolic curve is obtained.
If the function ¢,( ; ) is taken as c ( t ),where c is a constant, then
J... , working stress-/.' [ 1-c ( t )J

a straight line relation. Now in the Johnson's parabolic formula, following values are
generally taken.
f.' = 110 N/mm 2 , allowable stress in compression for mild steel
constant b=0·00003 for pinned ends
=0'00002 for fixed ends
In the straight line formula
constant c= ~ for pinned ends for mild steel

2 0
= !
2 0
for :fixed for ends for mild steel
F0r structural steel, f•' = 140 N/mm 2 allowable stress in compression

c= 0·0054 for pinned ends and
= 0·0038 for riveted ends
The straight line formula is applicable for slenderness ratios greater than 90.
Gordon's formula for buckling load
_ Jr.A
PG - /2
1+a1·F
where b is the lesser dimension of the section of the strut or column and a1 is a constant. The
value of a1 depends upon the material and shape of the section.
Example 15'6-l. A stanchion is built up of 3-200x 100 mm RSJ as shown in the
Fig. 15"9. If the height of the stanchion is 6 metres, calculate the working load. The working
stress being given by
110 [ 1- 2 ~o( f )] N/mm2

Properties of one 200 x 100 mm, RSJ are
Area=2S-27 cm2, JIIJO:= 1696'6 cm4, In = 1J 5·4 cm4
Web thickness = 5·4 mm
What factor of safety is to be used with the Rankine formula to give the ~ame result
of buckling load ?
T&ke J. = 320 N/mm 2 ,
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778 STRl!NG!llH! OF M'ATERI~LS'
Solution. Fig. 15'9 shows the combi-

nation of 3 RS Joists of given dimensions.
The sections are symmetrically arranged
about G i. e. centroid of the whole section.
Moment of inertia,
l:r:x= 2 X 1696'6+ 115'4 cm 4
= 3508'6 cm4
In = 1696'6+2 X 115'4 100mm
+ 2 X 25'27(10'27) 2
= 1696'6+230"8 + 5330'6
=7258'0 cm 4
Now lxx<lyy
Arca of the section Fig. 15 ·9
= 3X25'27=7S'8l cm 2
Radius of gyration, k=\JJ 3508·6

S' I = 6'80 cm
7 8
Length of the column, L = 6 m=600 cm
600
.£.
k
=
6'8
=88'235
Working stress, J.. = 110-...!..!.2

200 k
( !::_)
= llo- 81 ·235 x l!O = 110 - 48'4 = 61 '6 N/mm 2
200
Working load, P... =JwX area = 61 '6 X 7S'8l X JOO
= 466989'6 N = 466'98 kN
Rankine's buckling load
l L2 l 600 x 600
a=1500 ' a k 2 =7500 X 6'8X6-:8- = l'OJ 8
Jc.A 320 X 75'81 X l00
P• = L2 - 1+1 ·098-
1+a k2
= 1190343 N = 1190·343 kN
_ Rankine' s load _ 1190·343 _ .
Factor of safety 2 55
- Working load - 466·98 -
Exercise JS·6-l. A strut is built up of two 100 X 45 mm channels placed back to back
at a distance of 100 mm apart and riveted to two flange plates each 200 mm x 10 mm symmetri-
cally. Properties of one 100 x 45 mm channel section are
Area•= T41 cm2, lxx= 123·8 cm4, 111,,= 14·9 cm4
x= 1·4 cm (distance of CG from outer edg~ of web)
If the effective length is 5 metres: calculate the working load for the strut using
Jolmson's parabolic formula.
/,u-fc' [ 1-b ( t rJ where b=0'00003 for pinned ends
a nd /.'=110 N/mm2
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719
What factor of safety is to be used with the Rankine's form ula to give the same result ?
Take Rankine' s constants as
J, = 3'3 tonnes/cm 2, a= ~
75 0
Hint, Convert Jr' into kg/cm2 • [/:u = 1490'93 cm4 < 1970'15 cm' = /1111]
(Ans. 43 '21 tonnes, 1'88]
15'7, ECCENTRIC LOADING OF LONG COLUMNS
In Chapter 9 we have studied the effect of the eccentr icity of the load on short col umns
without buckling, and we found that the stresses produced by the bending moment due to the
eccentricity of the load are added to the direct compressive stress and the working load for a
column is reduced.
Now we will study the effect of eccen-
tricity of the lead on the buckling effect of
long columns wh ich fail by the combined
effect of direct compressive stress and stress
introduced by the buckling or the bending of
the column. Let us consider a long column
AB, of length /, fixed at end A and free at the
end B. Lo:i.d is applied at an eccentricity e
from the axis of the column and the column
buckled at the load P as shown in the Eig.
1s· 10. Say the maximum deflection at the
free end B is a. Again consider a section of
the column at a distance of x from the fixed
end A and say the deflectioni in the column at
this section is y. Fig. 15· IO
Bending moment at the section

= P(a+e-y)
(when we see from the side of the original axis of the column we see concavity i.e. a positive
bending moment)
2
EI d y2 = P(a +e-y) ... ti)
dx
The solution o f the differential equation ( l ) is
y=A cos k'x+B sin k'x+(a+e) ... (2)
where A and B are constants and k'=J f 1

At the end A, x=O, y=o
O= A cos o + B sin O+(a+e)
m A= - ~+~
y=-(a+e) cos k 'x+ B sin k'x+(a+e) .. . (3)
Differentiating equation (3) we get
t =(a+e)k' sin k'x+Bk' cos k'x
at x=O ; fixed end, dy = 0

dx
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STRENGTH ·OF MAl'ERIALS
780
O= (a+ e) sin o+ Bk' cos O

k':f:-0 (because P will become zero)
Therefore, B=O
Initially the equation for deflection is
y= -(a+e) cos k'x+ (a+e) ... (4)
Now at the end B, free end, x=l, y=a

a=-(a+e) cos k'I+(a+e)
or e=(a+e) cos k'l
(a+e)=e sec k'l ... (5)
or
Maximum bending moment occurs at the fixed end,
Mma.,=P(a+e)
or Mma.,=Pe sec k'l=Pe sec. JJ 1

. I
Maximum stress at the fixed end
fmax=fo+fb =A+
p Pe sec I
Z
JJ 1 ... (6)
where A= area of cross section and Z=section modulus

If both the ends are hinged the formula (6) can be modified as
p
. Pe sec
zJT
2 EI
fm ax=fo+fb = 7+ z
because for a column with one end fixed and the other end free, equivaleut length lc=21
The formula in general for any end conditions can be written as
p Pe sec 2
z.Jp EI
f-max=-A + - - .- z
where le =equivalent length depending upon the end conditions.
Here we observe that in the case of short columns (with no buckling) maximum bending
1.
moment is Pe which is increased to Pe sec -2-
JP
El in the case of long columns
• ' I
Exam.pie 15'7-1. A stanch10n 6 m long, ends free is built up of two 40 X 10 cm
standard channels placed 15 cm back to ba?k ~ith one 35 cm x 1 cm plate riveted to each
flange. It carries a load of 1:50 tonnes, which 1s off the axis YY in the vertical plane through
the axis XX. Calculate the permissible eccentricity if the maximum permissible compressive
stress is 1·2 tonnes/cm2 • For each channel, area of the I section= 63'04 cm2 , distance of CG
from the base=2'43 cm, lxK= 15I23'4 cm4, lr11= 506'3 cm4• E = 2080 tonnes/cmz.
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Solution. Fig. 15'11 shows this built

up section with two channels and two plates.
The over all dimensions are 35 cm and 42 cm.
Since the section is symmetric and about the
centroid G, we can easily determine lyv for
the section.
JY>.=2 X 506 '3+2x 63'04(7'5+2'43) 2
2X 1 X 353
+ 12
= 1012·6+ 12432' 10+7145'83
=20590'53 cm 4•
There is no necessity of calculating
l xx because eccentricity is to be determined
along XX axis and YY becomes the plane of
bending. Fig. 15·11
End conditions : Both the ends are free, when both the ends are free and column
buckles the equivalent length !.=! because the column takes the same shape and curvature
as when the ends are pinned or hinged.
Length, 1=600 cm, P = 150 tonnes
E=2080 tonnes/cm2
So P P 150
EI = 20sox20590·53 = 2osox2os90·53
= -
3·5024
- -0 -
10
and
JT EI = I ·871 X 10-a;cm
sec 2
I JP =
EI sec.
600
T
1·871
X 1000
= sec ('5613 radian) = sec 32°10'= 1'181

Area of the section, A= 2 x 63'04+2x 35 x 1=196'08 cm2
Direct stress, f 0 -_ .f__~

A -
- .
196.08 - 0 765 tonnes/cm
2
Maximum permissible stress,

Jma.,= 1·2 tonnes/cm 2
Therefore, permissible stress in bending,
Jo= l '2-0'765 = 0'435 ,TJcm2.
Say the eccentricity =e cm
Section modulus, Z = !yy = 20590'53_= 1176 .
17·5 17·5 6 cm3
From the secant formula
Pe sec
IJY
2 EI 150xexl'l81
lb = Z - 1176'6
0'435=l 50 xex t·~ or e=2·9 cm
1176'6 '
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STRENGtH OF MATERJA:tS
Exercise 15·7-1. A cast iron column of hollow circular section 200 mm external
diameter and 160 mm internal diameter, length 7 metres has to take a load of 200 kN at an
eccentricity of 30 mm from the geometrical axis. If the ends are fixed, calculate the ma~i-
mum and minimum stress intensi1ies induced in the section, taking E=210 kN/mm2 • More-
over calculate the maximum permissible eccentricity so that no tension is induced an¥wher.e
in the section.
[Note that for finding out maximum permissible eccentricity takefo - /o=O]
[Ans. 31 "03 N/mm 2 (compressive) 4·33 N/mm2 (compressive)
3·97 (maximum eccentricity)]
15'8. PROF. PERRY'S FORMULA
In the last article we have learnt that/,,,a.,, the maximum stress developed in a long
column with hinged ends is
p P c sec l
2
J p
El
/ ....ax = /o+/o= A + --z:=--..:..__- ... (1)
Eulers formula for bucking load,

n:2EJ EI= Pe 12
p.=-- or
/2 n;2
So the term
1 ~ IP sec _!_ X !__
2
P.e sec 2 'I El = Pe 2 \J
{
Pc
X n:
12
= Pe sec - 1 Xn:-
2 I ·
JP - = Pe sec -'It
Pe 2 ·.
J -p
P,
Prof. Perry fouij.d that the expression
1'2 P.
Pe- P
If we take stress /e = P,;_ and Jo= ~ then
sec
n:
2
J P _
Pe
1·21.
f• - fo . .. (2)
fma.,= -x +z
P Pe
. f 1"2/.
•-lo
Moreover
Z = _!_ where y.=distance from the neutral axis of the
y. extreme layer in compression.
Ak2
= - - where k = minimum radius of gyration.
Y•
Pe xy . -1'2/e
fma,, = -P + --
2
A
-- =-
Ak
-2 X1'2/e
P [ l +ey -- -
f •-fo A k
0
f• - f o
J
I
_ , [ I+
JO
eyo X 1"2/e
k2 f c-fo .
J
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STRUTS AND COLUMNS
Say f .,,,.,z= f, allowable stress then
! =•
JO
[ I+-eyc
k2 X
1'2/e
f •- fo
J
or _i_ _ I = 1·2 eye X ( f• )
fo k2 f •-fo
or ( _L_
fo
- t) ( 1_ [f r )= 1'2key.
0
2 ...(3)
This is professor Perry's approximate formula . One can work out / 0 , if f (allowable
stress) and e (eccentricity) are given.
Example 15'8-l. A stanchion is built up of an 25 cm X 12'5 cm RSJ section with a
15 cm x 1·2 cm plate riveted to each flange. Estimate the safe load for this stanchion, length
5 metre, ends hinged, from the Perry' formula, if the maximum compressive stress is limited to
800 kg/cm2.
For the joist area of cross section=35'53 cm2,
l xx= 3717'8 cm4 ; /11w = 193'4 cm4, and E = 2 X l0 6 kg/cm 2,
The eccentricity from the axis yy is 3 cm.
Solution. The Fig. 15'12 shows
the built up section with an / section 25 X 12·5 y
cm and two plates on the flanges, each of the
size 15 X 1·2 cm.
Moment of Inertia,
15 3
I11,= 193'4+2 x 1·2 x
12
= 193'4+675 '0
=868'4 cm4 •
There is no necessity of calculating
the moment of inertia lxx because eccentri-
city is given along X-X axis as shown. The
centroid of the section is at G but load is
applied at a point P at a distance of 3 cm
from the YY axis along the X-X axis.
Fig. 15·12
Euler's buckling load,
rr,1£/
P, = --2- (as the ends are hinged)
1
1= 5 metres=500 cm
r. 2X2X 106 X868'4 '
So , P, = 500 X 500 =68566'435 kj!.
Arca of cross section of the built up section
A=35'53+2 x 1·2 x 15 = 71 '53 cm2.
68566'435
Stress, Jc= .
71 53
= 958 '57 kg/cm2
Permissible compressive stress, f = 800 ki /cm 2
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Now k2--lvu
-- - 868"4
- - -- 12'14 cm 2
A 71'53
y .=1·5 cm (distance of extreme layer m compression from
neutral axis YY)
We know that
_1__ )( l - /o
( lo 1
)= 1·2 eye where /=permissible stress=800 kg/cm 2
f, k2
(
8')0
/ 0
-i)( 1_ _/0
958'57
)=1·212·x 314x 7·5
(800-/0 )(958'57 - .fo) = 958'57 / 0 X 2"224
IJ 800X 958"57- 800 / 0 -958"57 / 0 + / 02= 958'57 X 2'224 / 0
/a2-3890"43 /0+766856= 0
3890'93- 4 (3890"93) 2-4 X 766856
fo 2
=208"75 kg/cm2
Therefore, safe load on column
=/0 X A=208"75 x ?J ·53
= 1493 J ·8 kg = 14·93 Tonnes
Exercise 15'8-l. A 40 cm X 14 cm RSJ is used as strut with hinged ends, having
6 mc~es length. Using the Perry's formula, determine the safe load if
(a) eccentricity along X-X axis is 2·4 cm.
(b) maximum allowable compressive stress= 75 N/mm 2 •
(c) For the joist, area of cross section = 78'46 cm2 •
J.._.=20458"4 cm4, 1~~= 622·1 cm4 •
(d) E = 210 kN/mm 2 • [Ans. 121 ·5 kN]
15"9. LONG COLUMNS WITH INITIAL CURVATURE

A column AB of length / with both the ends hinged has the initial curvature such
that the deflection at the centre of the column is e', as shown in the Fig. I S-13. When this
column is subjected to a gradually increasing
axial load, it buckles at the load P as shown
in the figure. Column with ir.iitial curvature is
AC'B and the column in the buckled state is
ACqB. Consider a section of the column at a
distance of x from the end A.
Initial deflection at the section
=y ' =e ' sm
• -'7TX
- ... ( l )
1
A I I
where e' = maximum initial central deflec- p CC :
,
e
,
tion. ,c X: y
Final deflection ot the section=y )( x': y
Change in deflection at the section Fi(!, l5· JJ
=r-r'
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riglffiUis"A~b1coLu'MNs
785
B.M. at the section =- Py
d2
So EI dx2 (y - y') =- Py
d2y d2y'
EI dx2 -El dx2 =-Py ... (2)
From equation (I),
dy' , ,, · ,x d2y' , T2 • nx
dx =e T cos -1- and dx2 =-e sm - -
. . 1,
12 1
)1Su6stituting in equation (2)
d2y ' -n;2 • 71X
,1 El dx 2 +EI e . sm - - =-Py
12 1
or
d2y p ' 7t2 . 'ltX
dx2 + EI . y =-e 12 sm T ... (3)
Let us say that the solution of this differential equation is
, . nx
y= A e Sill - - ... (4)
1
where A is a constant.
Differentiating equation (4) two times, we get
d2y '1?2 ' • 'ltX
dx2 =-A 12 e sm - -
1
Substituting this value in equation (3), ·
.A n 2 , • nx + P
I.·
di, • .
I \. ) -~
- /2 e m
:
·-r
•
, n 2 • nx
°EI y =-e 12. sm -,-
f
"
"rc 2 i.x P . , ·- rcx , rc 2 ;/. ' nx ~ I. • I ~ '•
- A - e ' m- + -xAe sm - = ·- e - · · sin -
/2 l EI l ta · I
or Ae' ( J ~:') =
1- -e' ;: I' :. ,· 'f[.}i> ,:
A ( -;;- - ·:1 )=;2

Dividing throughout b~ n 2 // 2 , we get
J;
1-~ )=I
• • I '
A (
'"2EI
A ( 1- :c )=1 "rr.2E/
where P, = -12-
... ,! /.
or A= ~
P,-P
The equation of the curve for the ·deflection y will be p, . . ,
Pe , . 'TCX
y= P,-P e sm - 1- ... (5)
J
Maximum deflection occurs at the centre i.e., at x = -
~
P.
)'max= P c- f . e'
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.786 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Maximum bending moment at the centre

P. Pe 1
Mmu = P. y ...a.. = Pe-P . e
The maximum compressive stress at the central section of the column

Mnaax P + P, P, , Ye
f .. a.=J,+ ~ = A (Pe-P) ' e A.k2
where k=minimum radius of gyration
A=area of cross section of the column
y, = distance of the extreme layer in compression from the neutral
axis.
or /mo., = ~ [ l+Pe1:.:_P x e' ~;]=!o[ l + J .J_:_fo X e~;·J ... (6)
r_ Pe p
where J•- A and Jo= A
Equation (6) can be simplified as
f •-fo ) - e'yo
(Jmax-fo) ( fcfo , - -V • I •
J;0 (fmaz - I ' ( f e-/o

fo I f •fo
)=· 2k 2
(
/m az - l )( l - /o '} _ e'y, ... (7)
fo f• k2
Example 15'9-l. A hollow circular steel stiut 4 m long, outside diameter 12 cm and
inside diameter 8 cm, with both the ends hinged is initially bent. Assuming the centre line
of strut as sinusoi_d al with maximum deviation of 6 mm, determine the maximum stress
developed due to an axial load of IO tonnes. £ = 2080 tonnes/cm2.
Solutio,n. Length of the strut= 4m = 400 cm
' Maximum deviation at the centre = e' = 0'6 cm
n:
Area of cross section, A= -;r 2 2
(12 - 8 )=62'832 cm 2
Moment of inertia, I= ~ (124 - 84) = 816'816 cm4
Radius of gyration, k2 = !_ = 816'816 = 13 2

A 62'832 cm
n: 2 EI n:2 E Ak2
Euler's load. Pe= -12- /2
r - _Pe = n2 Ek2 = n: 2 X2080 Xl 3
Stress 1•- A /2 400 X 400
= 1'668 tonnes/cm2
Axial load, P = H> tonnes
/o=·(jl·~n = 0'159 tonne/cm 2
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STRtJts AND CbLUMNS 787
Distance of the extreme layer in cotnpression from the neuti:al axis,
· 12 ·
• ye= =6 cm.
L
2
We know that
( fmox
Jo
-1 )( 1-/o
fe
)=~~
k .
·· (··/ma" )( 0'159) _ 0'6 X6
.... ·. 0'1$9-_1 l - 1'668 - 13
:-jmaz ·-1 = 0'306 .

0·159 · .
/ma11=1 '306x_o· 159=0·207 tonne/cm 2 •
Exercise 15·9-l. A 150 mm X 80 mm RS joist is used as a strut with both the ends
hinged. The length of the stnit is 6 metres. The· strut is initially with its centre line rilaldng a
sinusoidal curve with maximum deviation of 20 mm. Determine the maximum stress developed
due to an axial load of 10 kN. E .208 X 103 N/mm 2 • For the joist, area of the sectjon l9'00
cm2, lxx=726'4 cm4, I,,=52'6 cm'. [Ans. 27'64 N/mm~]
15'10, PERRY-ROBERTSON FORMULA
For a long column with initial curvature, the relationship between /ma~, / 0 and fa has.
been worked out as
{ fh• 11
-1 )( 1-_ J. )=e[z• ... (I)
where e' is the maximum deviation.
Then Prof. Perry gave the relationship between/e,/0 andf,11uz for a long column with
eccentric loading as follows :
(
fm•• - l )( 1_/o
fo f•
)= 1'2eye
ki .. . (2)
Both the formulae given by equations (1) and (2) are alike and if we take
e1 = 1'2e+ e'
where e = eccentricity of loading
e' = maximum deviation for a column with initial curvature
We can write down a relationship for a column initially bent and eccentrically loaded
as follows :
(
f max - l ) ( l - fo )= e1;• ••. (3)
fo ._ f• k
Let us say / = allowable stress =/ma,.
and
(£ - 1)( 1- } )=x
or fa2 - fo[f+J.( l + A)] + /. f e= O
. "(_4)
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STRENGTH OF , MATBibAts ..
The solution of this· quadratic equat ion .(4) gives

lo - f + f• ~1 +A) -J-=--{1-=-+:-:[:-,-.~-:--1+--=-AL r -Jo f , •. . (5)
2
where •A= k2
eiYr ,· r. E ) for b oth t h e en ds h.mged
J• -- (/2/k 2
In Rankine's and other empirical for mulae, the column is assumed to be perfectly
straight and the loads to be truly axial but in actual practice neither of these conditions is
satisfied. The formula for / 0 given by eql\ation (5) is Prof Perry's fonpu\~ for the permissible
load per unit area allowing fo r defects such as initial crookedness of die column and initial
eccentricity of loadi ng. In the ab ove fo rmula" or e1 is a~!;u~known fa~tpr.
Prof. Andrew Robertson after investigating the experimental 'observations came to the
conclusion that )...=0'003 ( ~ ) is valid for large number of experimental observations. But he
' , 2£
.wable ~~ss,.in tons/in2 and
h~_s !als:.~p.,j ; the. all@ f •= uik)2 in tons/in2 •
. ' '
Allowable stre~s, , f 18 tons/in2 for steel columns
"' ,. -... . r'
= 2835 kg/cm 2 =277'9 N/mm 2 •
E:x:~mple 15' 10-1. Two 200 mm X 70 mm mild steel channels are welded together,, at,,
their toes to form a box section 200 mm X 140 mm X 6 metres long. The box sect ion is used as a.
strut wjt~ ? oth,the eqds _hin~~.~ -, Estimate _the safe load for this strut fr om the Perry-R.opertson
formul a usmg allowable stress=250 N/mm2 and .\ = 0·003 (lfk) for each channel sect10n, area
of section = I7·77 cm2, l xx= 11 6 1'9 cm4,Jyv = 84·2 cm4, x= 1·97 ' ·'· · ·, " .....··
E=2 10X 103 N/mrn~.
Solution. F ig. 15' 14 shows the box section 200 mm' x 140 mm made from two
channels. ,. '
'Area of the section y
A=2X 17·77 =35' 54 cm 2
shown
CG of the section will be at G as I 200mm
Moment of inert ia X -- ~ -G X-
lxx = 2X 116L·9 = 2323·8 cm4
. / y= 2 X84'2+2X 17'77(7 - 1'97)
1
= 168·4+899 ·2
2
I
= 1067'6 cm4
So I1Y<l xx ~mm
70
k' - In _ 1067 '6 = 30 .04 cm 2
-35·54 - 35'54 Fig. 15· !4
k = 5'48 cm
Length of the strut = 6 metres = 600 cm
~
l•,I
.\ = 0·003 ( ) for both the ends hinged

600
\ = 0.003 X . =0' 328
5 48
\
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\
\
l
•,
STRUTS AND COLUMNS
/,-
Allowable stress, /=250 N/mm2
Stress due to Euler's load,
2
1t2£k ( 5'48) 2
f c= - -2 -=rc2 X 210x lOOOX - = 172'89 N/mm3
1 600
J c(l +,-)= 172.89(1 + o·328)=229'6 N/mm2
J + (e(I +,\) 250+ 229'6 =239'8 N;mm2
2 2
Stress. r _ f +f,( 1+A)

Jo - .!
_
\
Jll fff.(l+A)
2
} -f 2
· J•
r
=239'8-./ (239'8)2 -250 X l72'89= 239'8 - l 19 '5

2
/ 0 = 120'3 N/mm
Safe load =2X 17'77X lOOX 120'3 N

=427'546 kN.
Exercise 15'10-1. A stanchion is built up of an 500 mm X 180 mm RS section with

200 mm-20 mm plate riveted to each flange. Estimate the safe load for this stanchion,
length 5 metres, ends hinged from Perry Robertson formula taking allowable stress / = 2800
kg/cm 2, .\=0'003 (l/k). For the joist area of cross section=95'50 cm2, lxx=38519 cm',
Jyy=l 063'9 cm4, E=2X 10 6 kg/cm 2 • [Ans. 218 Tonnes]
15·11. LATERAL LOADING ON STRUTS
If a strut or a long column carries lateral loading, perpendicular to its axis in addition
to the axial thrust, the section of the strut will have to resist the effect of axial thrust and
bending moment due to lateral loading. Lateral loading produces deflection in the strut and
axial thrust produces additional bending moment due to the deflection. The bendin~ stress at
any section will be the algebraic sum of the stress produced by the lateral loads and the stress
produced by the eccentricity (due to the deflection) of the longitudinal strut.
Consider a column AB of length /, with
hinged ends A, B carrying a transverse load, W w
at its centre and a longitudinal thrust P. The T
-f
8
reactions due to Wat C, at the ends A and B
are f each. Taking a section X-X at a
I
~ lw
distance of x from the end A . B M. at the
section is
C "' I --,.--
w 1 x- y r-rx i
M = -Py -
2 "I::
_L I x
2
.Jn, .
d 2y W • ,. ., • t
or El dx2= - Py - 2 x A
p ' ,f•
d 2y W
or E.~ dx2f Py=- 2 x ... (I) I
Fig. 15 15
y.= A .cos k'x+B . sin k'x- ~; ... (2)

. · I,
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190 S'tRENGTH OP MAtERIALS
where k'= J :1· .

.
...... l • •
.. .......... ... ..
At the t?nd :· :A ; y=O ; x=O
Putting tlie vaiues in equation (2),
O=A+B x 0-0 or A=O
Therefore, . k ' X -Wx
y= B Sill -- ... (3)
2P
Differentiatio·o, equation (3) ·.
dy . w
dx = Bk' cos k'x - 2P
dy I
Now at the centre C; dx = 0, x= 2 because the strut is symmetrically loaded about
its centre C.
So 0 = Bk , cos k' I
2 -·W
fp
or B=
2~, sec k' }
Equation of the deflection becomes
W k'l
y = 2Pk' x sec T . s_.m k' x- fWxp
Deflection is maximum at the centre ;.e. at x=l/2, we get
w k'I . k'l- WI
y ....,x = -2Pk' sec 2- SIil -2- - 4P
w -k'I - WI
-
:~ -2Pk' ~an 2 4P
Maximum bending moment occurs at the centre

W I
Mmaoo = Pymuz+ 2 X 2
W k'I WI WI W k'.I
= 2k' tan 2 - 4+4 = 2k' tan T
Mma• = ~ Jf, tan ~'/ ., ,
Ak11
Section modulus, Z= - -
Ye
where A=area of cross section of the section
k= minimum radius of gyration
y 0 =distance of the extreme layer in layer in compression from the
neutral axis.
Stress due to bending, Jo =

·MmafJ -
r::z- -
Wye El
2Ak2 ~ p tan
I rp
V El · T
I
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p
Direct stress, Jo=-
A
Maximum stress, __
fmax-fo+fo- A
-~+ 2Ak2
Wyo {Jfj'
\I p tan
JPEl · 2
J
E:s:a1nple 15'11-1. A circu:lar steel strut of 25 mm diameter 1 metre long is subjected

to an axial thrust of 12 kN. In addition, a lateral load W acts at the centre of the strut. If
the strut is to fail at/.,ax = 320 N/mm 2, determine the magnitude of W. Given,
E=210 kN/mm2.
Solution. Diameter, d=25 cm
Area of cross section, A-==~ x d 2
4
= '.:... x 25 2 = 490'875 mm2

4
Moment of Inertia, I = ~! 4
= 19'175x 10s mm 4 •
Length, l= 1000 mm
Axial load, P= 12 kN
. _ .!_ = 12 X 1000 _ . ·
Direct stress, /o - A 490 .875 - 24 45 N/mm
2
f.na~=320 N/mm 2
!~=320- 24'45=295'55 N/mm 2
_!__ = - 12000 -- . -6
Now El 2 10 X lOOOx 19'175 x 103 - 2 9sx 10
J P = t·726x 10-a
EI
J1J; = 0'579 x 10s
Moreover J-;I x 2l = 1·726 x l0- 3

x 500= 0'8 63 radian
= 49'45°
tan J;; . ~ = 1'17
.
Radius of gyration, k2 = d2 = -252- = 39'06 mm~ 0
16 16
and y 0 = 12'5 mm.
Substituting the values in the expression for/,,
Wyo f EI { P I
fo = 2Ak 2 \IP tan \J El 2
295 ·55 =
wx 12·5xo·579 x lOJ x 1·11
2X490'875x39'06 Xl'l?
= 0'22 W
OT W= l~43·4 N = 1'34~ kN,
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S'tRENdtH 'OF 1M"ATEfttALS
E:xercise 1s·1t-l. A horizontal pin ended strut 4 m long is formed from a standard
T section 15 cm X 10 cm X 1·25 cm. The axial compressive load is 6 tonnes. A lateral concen-
trated loa d of 0"6 tonne acts at the ,ct;ntre of the strut. Find the maximum stress if the
X-X axis is horizontal ,and the table of the Tee forms the compressive face. The centroid is
2·4 cm below the top. fu=250 cm4, A= 31 cm2, £ = 2000 tonnes/cm2.
. ,,i: , : •. ,. [Ans. 0·8835 tonnes/cm 2 ]
.. , / ,...)
15·12. STRUT1'1WITffl lONIFORMI:.Y DISTRIBUTED LAT-BRAL 'LOAD
Fig. 15' 16 shows a strut AB of length

/ subjected to longitudinal thrust P a nd carry-
ing a uniformly distributed load w per unit
length throughout its length. Its ends A and
B are hinged. Consider a section at a dis-
tance of x from the end A . :u, \ , ·{•
•
.!
2
B.M. at the section
=-Py- !-i'/11,Q+ w~z-
i
2 2 2
EI d2y =-Py- wx (l-x)
dx2 2
d2y p wx . :11
or dx2 + Ely= .!...J '2EI (l-x) 7,, ,, •.. (I) 1
'' Fig . 15'16
The solution of the differential eqtiation is

'
y=Complementary function+ Particular integral
Co'n:ip1em'e hfary fu11ction =:= A cos k'x+B sin k'x -t·
' 1-
\.\ h ere Aan
d are constants an d
/I
,, = \j,P
EI
_ wx 2 wlx i,pEJ
Particular integral - + 2P -- 2P-P2
So wEJ
~ ... (2)
At x = O, y = O at end A. Therefore,
O= A cos 0°+B sin 0°- ;1;1 . or, A = wE/

pz
So
I .•
Differentiating ... (3)
But
at th!! ce1~tre of the strut because strut is symmetrically

loaded about its centre C
S
t. o at x= T/ , dy
(I;,:; =
O
,
b . . . ·
su st1tut1 n~ Ill equation (3)
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STRUTS AND COLUMNS 79.3
O- - wEI k' . k'

- p~ . st n TI +Bk'
cos
k' .!_+ wl _ wl
2 2P 2P
B
=~
wEI
tan
k' I
y = ~ t an
wEl
\J{ PEI · 2I
The equation for deflection will now· be
wEI , wEI I
y=l'2. cos k x+ - pa - tan. k'
2 X sin k'x
wx~ wlx wEI

+ 2P - 2P - fn
'Maximum deflection occurs at the centre i e. at x = //2
k'
wEI
Ym .. ,= -pT cos 2I + wEI
p2 tan
k ' I . k' I
-2 Stn T
w/2 w/2 wE!

+ 8P- - 4P - pz
2
= wEI [cos k' _}_ +tan k' _!_ X sin k' _!_ ] - w/ - wEI
P2 2 2 2 8P p2
2
wET k' _!_ _ w/ wEI
= p2 sec 2 8p - p2
=p
wEI
2 - sec \i
f·ET·
P- I w/2
2 ·- 8P --y;-
wE!
Maximum bending moment occurs at the centre i.e. at x=//2

wl I 11·/!
M,.. .=- P,ym ..- ·:r . T + 8
= _ wEI sec
P
J.~ El · 2
_!_ + w/
8
1
+ wE! _
P
wl~ t- I:!_! ~
4 8
= - wPEI[ sec JP x 2-El

I 1] · .·
Now maximum stress,[max=fo+fo
[max=
P
y+-y- X Ak 2
wE! y, [
sec \J{P
El X 2
I
- I
--+--
P
- A
wEy. [
P sec JP - I
Elx -
2 -1
J since/-Ak
-
2
E11:ample 15'12-1. A rod of rectangular section 80 mm x 40 mm is supported hori-

zontally through pin joints at its ends and carries a vertical load of 3300 N/m length and an
axial thrust of 100 kN. If its length is 2·0 m, estimate the maximum stress indm,ed,
E=208 X 1000 N/ m111 2
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' 794 S'PRENG.TFl 'OlUdAJilERl&LS
Solution.
Axial thrust, P = lOO kN = IOO x 10 3 N
Lateral, load, w= 3000 N/ m =3 N/mm
E=208 X 1000 N/mm 2
J= 80 x 4o = 42'66 x 10' mm 4
3
J.
Minimum
12
Area A= 80 X40 = 3200 mm 2
, /p=J
EI
lOO XlQS - - _0.106 10-2
208Xl0 3 X42'66Xl0' - x
Length, /= 2·0 m = 2000 mm
. ·. 1 ··' ·
' ~ .:[ X ~ = 0'106 X 10- 2 X JOOO = 1·06 radian = 60·1°
sec 60'7°= 2'043 y. = 20 mm

= 100,000 +3X208XI000X20(2 .043 _ 1 )
f,max 3200 100,000 '
= 3 I '25+ 130' 16 = 161 '41 N/mm2
Exercise 15'12-1. A circular rod of diameter 50 mm is supported horizontally

through pin joints at its ends and carries a uniformly distributed lateral load of 200 kg/m run
throughout its length and an axial thrust of 5 tonnes. 1f its length is 2·4 m, estimate the
maximum stress induced. E = 2 X 10 6 kg/cm 2. [Ans. 2521'65 kg/cmz]
Problem 15'1. A str~ight bar of steel 2'4 m long, of rectangular section 3 cm x 1'6 cm
is used as a strut with both the ends hinged. Assuming that-the:Euler's cifor-mula•-- is applicable
and the material attains its yield strength at the time of buckling, determine the central
deflection. E= 2IO kNtmm2, yield strength=l90 N/mm 2
, Solution.
Length of strut, /=2'4 m r" 2'4 X 10s mm
Breadth of the section, b=3 cm=30 mm
Thickness of the. section, t = 1'6 cm= 16 cm
Arca of cross section = 30 x l 6=480 mm2
Minimum moment of inertia,,
163
Imm = ~· ]2 =· 30 x12 = 10240 mn14
£ =2 10 x 10s N/mm2
., End conditions : both the ends hinged
n 2EJ n 2X 210 X 10s x 10240
f., Eulers, buckling
.
load = 12- = x
2400 240 0
- - - = 3684'67 N
Maximum stress developed=290 N/mm2

'j
2 3 162 I' .·. ,•
·. ·
Section modulus, Z= b~ = 0 ; : :.: 12·8.0 mm~·
~ay the central deflection=e

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(Refer to article .15·1 )
P, Pe . e
f,max:-c-7 + - Z- -
=
3684·67 3684·67 x e
290 480 + 1280
290-7"676= 2·878 e
.- __Centr8:3- deflection, e=98.09 mm = 9'809 cm
'. , i •, Pri>blem·,15·2:·· A 2·5_m length of tube has a crip pling load of 110 k~ when used _ as ~ ,
strlft1with .p inljoihted' ends:, Calculate the crippling load for a 3 m length 6f the same -tube wh~n . ·
used as a strut if
(i) both the ends are fixed
(ii) one end is fixed and the other end is hinged .
Solution.
Length 6f the strut, /= 2'5 m = 250 cm
Crippling load, P= 110 kg
End conditions· : pin jointed ends
Eulers' Buckling load,
_ n 2 X El
P
·- /2
t. 2 X EI
l lO 250 X 250
El = 110 x 250 x 250 ~ 6875 x 103 kg cm 2.
or ,i2 - TC2 .
. (i) a 3 ro length of the same tube is used as a strut with both ends fixed, i.e~ El remains
the same.
4t. 2 X 6875 X 103
. l d p '
Eulers buckl ing oa , • =
4n2E J
300 300
x-
n2 X'300 X 300 = 3os- 5s kg.
. ,: (ii) a 3 m length of the s_a me tube is used a s a strut with one end fixed and other end
hinged. ·
2n2 XET 2n2 X 6875 X I0 3
Eulers' buckling load , Pe"= x
300 300
= n 2 X 300 X 300 ,= 152'77 kg.
Problem. 15'3. A round vertical bar is cla mped at the lo wer end and is free at the
other. The effective length is 2 metres. If a horizontal force of 40 kg at the ·top ·produces a
horizontal deflection of 1·5 cm, what is the ' buckling load for the bar under the given
conditions ?
Solution.
Horizontal force, W= 40kg
Length / = 2 m = 200 cm
Horizontal deflectio n, 18= 1' 5 cm
For a cantilever loaded\at the free end
W/3
Deflection, 1> = 3 £ /
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/
·19.6 StRENGtH OF MATEltlA~~
El= WJS = 40 x 200S = 71'11 10s k 2

or 38 3 x 1·5 x g cm
End conditions for buckling : one end fixed, other end free
Tt 2EJ • 2 X71'11Xl06
Buckling load, p•= V = 4 x 200 x 200
= 4'38 x 103 kg = 4'38 Tonnes
Problem 15'4. A thin vertical strut of uniform sl!ction and length/ is rigidly fixed at
its bottom end and its top end is free. At the top there is a horizontal force H and a vertical
load p acting through the centroid of the section. Prove that the horizontal deflection at the
top is
p
-H ( tan µI - 1 ) wereh µi = -
p µ EJ
Solution. Fig. Is· 17 shows a vertical
strut AB, of length /, fixed at A and free at. B,
carrying a horizontal force H at B and vertical
load P at B. Assuming deflection at B to
be a.
Let us consider a section at a distance
Bending moment at section
= P(a-y)-HU-x
Fig. 1S·17
d2y
or El ·· - = P(a-y)-H(l-x)
dx2
d2y
El dx2 +P. y = P. a-H(l-x) ,.. (1)
T he solution of the differential equation (I) is

H(l-x)
y = A cos µx+ B sin µx + a - - v - ... (2)
where
at the fixed end x = O, y = O

HI
So O= A+O+a--p-
or A= ( ~
1
-a)
Differentiating the equation (2)
dy H ·
dx = -A µ sin f'X+Bµ cos µx+p
Again at x = O, fixed end, :fx = 0

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StRUtS AND COLUMN'S
Therefore 0=-Aµ sin O+Bµ cos o+:

H
or B =- p.P
Equation for deflection becomes
Y =( HIp - a ) cos p.x-_!!.._

µP
sin ,,.x+ a
r -
H(l-x)
p
But deflection at the end B, y=a
a=( ~I - a ) cos p./- P.~ sin p.l+a-0
or HI · ) cos µ/=
( 7-a :!i, sin µ/
( HI-a)
p
= H tan µI
p.P
or a= ~ - :!i, tan µI= ~ ( 1- ta: p.l )

Deflection at top, a= - ~ ( ta:µ/ J)
Problem 15'5. A strut of length / is fixed at its lower end, its upper end is elastically
supported against a lateral deflection so that the resisting force is k times the end deflection.
Show that the crippling load P is given b y
1- L = t anµ/
kl µl
where µ=J Epl
Solution. Fig. 15' 18 shows a strut p

AB of length /, fixed at end A and free at end
B. At the end B there is a crippling load P ko:H
and a horizontal reaction . H. Say the
deflection at the free end is a, then horizontal
reaction H=ka, as given in the problem.
Consider a section X-X at a distance of x
fr-om t1le end .A.
B.M. at the section
= P(a-y)- ka(l-x) ..,.,. ....
A
where y=deflection at the section
Fig. 1s·1s
d2y
or El dx2 = P(a-y)-ka (1- x) •..'(1)
The solution of tke differential equation ( l) is
. ka(l- x)
y = A cos p.x+ B sm µx+a-, p . .. (2)
where
µ= J %1
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798~\ STRENG'tii ' OF M'ATERIA.i!S 1 ,,
At the fixed end y = O, x = O:

. kal
So O=A cos O+B sm O+a-""p
or
1
A= "; -a= a ( ~ - 1)
Differenti~ting _e quation (2)
dy . ka
d.~ =- Al' sm µ.x + B µ. cos µ.x+ y
at the fixed end A, 1x = 0 at x = O.
So 0=-Aµ sin O+Bµ cos o+ ";

or B= - ka
µ.P
The equation for the deflection becomes
kl .
y = a· (-y - 1) cos µ.x -
ka .
µ.P sm µ.x+ a-
ka (I- x)
p
But at the end B, y = a, x = l
i ' t,,,i So a=a ( ~- 1 ) cos 1"/- : ; sin t,4/+a-O
' 0 /1.,ii::.L:I.,), ~~ Sin µ./= Q ( ~ -1 ) COS t,4/
_.!5_ tan 1pl = ( .!£!. - 1 )

µ.P p
k p - p
or µ.P X kl tanµ/ = 1- k i
tan µl = 1_ .!:
µ.l kl
Problem 15'6. A 325 X 165 mm RS Joist is used as a strut, 6 m long, one end ,fixed ..~
· and other hinged. Calculate the crippling load by Rankine's formula. Compare this' w'iih '
the load obtained by Euler's formula. For what length of this strut will the two formulae
give t:h.e same crippling load -?
I
For the joist area of the section, A = 54'90 cm 2 . '

· •. · fxx=9874·6 cm'
,{!]I .. .
I,,= 510'8 cm4
For the steel £ = 2100 tonnes/cm2
/ .= 3·3 tonnes/cmz
- 1.
«·'...J.a-(for both the ends hinged) = .·
7500
Solution. End conditions : one end fixed, other hinged
Length of the strut, l= 6m = 600 cm
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· STRUTS AND COLUMNS
I 600
Equivalent length, I.= ..; 2 = ..; 2 cm
l m,it= l ,.,. =510"8 cm 4 :: .. :
Area of cross section, A=54'90 cm2
Radius of gyration, k2 -
__ I,A,,, -_ 510'80
.
= .
9 3 cm 2
54 9
1,2 I l i 600
a· 1c2 = 75oox 9·30\v2
)2 -- 2· 580
3·3 X 54'90
Rankine's load, PR = f•. A 1.2 = + . = 50 .60 Tonnes .
1 2 58
I + a. f<Z
Euler's buckling load , Pe= 21t212E l lf or t he g_1ven

. en d cond'1t10ns
. )
2 X 1t2 X 2100 X 510'8

x 58'8 tonnes
600 600
Say length is I for which Rankine's and Euler's buckling load are the same.
f• . A - 21t2Ef s·nce / - /
/2 I e- ..j2
I +a. 2k2
or
as l = Ak2
2
.. or / 2 [f• . A - a1t 2EA]= ?.n El where l = I,,,.= lmi n . i 1
,· i} . , ~I_,;. !
Substituting the values \ I ,'._' I IJ'f).(.
; :, , ·.,,. ,-rr.Ji
/2[ 3'3 X54'9- J
7 0
1t2X 2100 X 54'9 ] = 21t 2X2100 X 510'8 i1 , ~ .d,
/2[181'170-151·716 ,21 ·39x 104

2117 q ! ~ . . ~.
12 4
= 29'454 X I0
/ = 847 cm.
!-.
Problem t5·7. A hollow cast iron column of external diameter 200 mm, length 4 m
with both the ends fixed, supports an axial load 800 kN. Find the thickness ofth~ metal required.
Use Rankine's constants, a= ~ and a working stress= 80 N/ mm2.
64 0
Solution.
. . r,.,
Working stress, fw = 80x 106 N/m 2 "
f.
External diameter = 0'2m ·:.-.··· r

Say internal diameter = d metre
1t
Area of cross section, A= (0·22 - d 2) = 0'7854 (0'04 - d2) m2
4
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.800 STRENGTH OF MATERILAS
k2 0·04+a2
Radius of gration, 16
Length =4m
Axial load =0·8 x 106 N
P R=
J~. A
Rankine's load /2
l+a. k 2
0'8 X I 06- 80 X 106 X 0·7854(0·04 -d2)

1 4X4X1_6_ _
1+ 6400 x (0·04 + a 2)
0 032
o·8+ (o·o·4 +dz) = 2·51328 - 62· 832 •
0·032+0·8a2+0·032=0· 1-2·51328d2+ 2· 5 t 328d2-62'832d'
62·832d'+0'8d1 - o·o36=0
2
-0·8+ ./o·64+4x 0·036 x 62·s32
2 x 62'832
= -o·s+3·112 =0·0184
2X62·832
d=0'1356 m=I3·56 cm=l3S-6 mm
. 200-135·6 .
Thickness of the metal = 2
=32 2 mm.
Proble:m 1s·s. A short length of tube 3 cm internal and 4 cm external diameter

failed under a compressive load of 18 tonnes. When a 2 m length of the same tube is tested as a
strut with both the ends hinged, the buckling load was 4·os tonnes. Assuming that /. for the
Rankine's formula is given by first test, determine the constant take a for the Rankine's
formula.
Estimate the crippling load for a piece of the tube 3 m long when used as a strut with
fixed ends.
Solution. Inner dia = 3 cm
Outer dia = 4 cm
.... '• . .
A, Area of cross-section =: (42- 32)=5·50 cm2
4 2 +3 2 25
Radius of gyration, k 2 = - 16
- = - 16- cm2
Ultimate compressive load = 18 tonnes= / • . A

End conditions : both the ends hinged.
Length of the strut = 2 m = 200 cm
Rankine's buckling load = 4'08 tonnes = -=--f._c-·1-A--2 -)

1
1+ a, F
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STRUTS AND COLUMNS 80.I
• f ••
or 1+a /2 ) 18
·( k2 = 4·08
a(
12
k2
·) =3·411 or a
•
(~Qx 225oo~ 6 )=3·411
3'41] X 25 l
a =1 6x2oox200 = 7505 ·
Crippling load for another strut
Length = 3 m = 300 cm
') -
·2-~)
,-16
/,
End conditions = Both the ends nre fixed

Equivalent length =·L=l50 crn
2
Rankines' cripplin g load _ J.. . A _ _ _-c---_1_8~ -

, / 150 2 · - l JSOX 150x 16
; +a·\ F) · 1+ 7505 x 25 ---
18 6" '67 Tonnes.

= 1+1•91g7 = I
Problem 15·9. A strut is built up of the T-scctions 8 cm X 16 cm X I c m ri veted

back to back so as to form :t scctio;1 of a cross. Using Gordon's formula, determine the safe
load fr,r the strut, length 4 metres with h 0th the ends fixed. Co11sta111s in the Gordnn's for mula
may he taken ~s ·
f. = J·2 to11 nes /cm 2
1
a 1= . U sc a factor of safety of 4
250
Solution,
Gordon's buckling l0ad, PG= f ,_A /•
I + a1. b2
where bis the lesser over all di mension.
Fig. 15'i9 shows the built up sectio n with ovcrn ll dimensions 16 cmx 16 cm.
Sob= l 6cm.
Area of cross section, A
= 2 x l6 x 1+2 x 7 x i
= 32+ 14 = 46 cm2
1
Constant, a1 =
250
Length of the column = 4 m
End conditions : Both the e,1ds fixc .l
Equiv alent length.
l.=2 m =200 cm
Gordon's buckling load,
Pa - _ _ ___3_·2 X 16 _ _
- I ( 200 ,2
I +2~0 l(j- .i
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3·2 x 46 .
= 1+0 .625 = 90 58 Tonnes
Factor of safety =4
90·58 .
Safe load = - - = 22 645 Tonnes.
4
Problem 1s·10. A hollow circular steel pipe 6 cm outside diameter, 5 cm inside

diameter, 120 cm long is fixed at both the, ends, so as to prevent any expansion in its length.
The pi pe is unstressed at the normal temperature. Calcu late the temperature stress in the pipe
if its temperature rises by 40°C and the factor of safety against fa ilure as a strut. Use Rankine's
formula for buckling.
f, = 3· 3 tonnes/cm 2, a= 75~0 (for both the ends hinged)
E = 2.080 tonnes/cm2 , O'. = 11 · 1 x 10- 6/°C.
Solution. Outside diameter= 6 cm
Inside diameter = 5 cm
Area of cross section, A = ~ (36-- 25)-8'639 cm 2
Radius of gyration, k2 = ,!
62 52
3·s1 cm 2
Coefficient of thermal expansion, 11 = 11 · 1 X 10- 0/°C
Temperature rise, T = 40°C
E = 2080 tonnes/cm 2
Expansion in the pipe is prevented by the fixed ends
f, Temperature stress in pipe = cxTE
= 11 · J X 10-o X 40 X 2080
= 0'9235 tonne/cm 2 (a compressive stress)
Compressive Axial load, P= fx A=0'9235 x 8"639 = 7·978 tonnes.
End conditions : Both the ends are fixed
Length of the pipe as strut = 120 cm
Equivalent length, /. = 60 cm
Rankine's buckling load PR - I•. A 3'3 X S-639

1. 2 l 60 x 60
l+a7c2 l + 7500 X 3"81
3'3 X8'639
1+o· 126 25· 32 Tonnes.
_ 25'32 _ ~-
Factor of safety as a strut - 7'978 - . 17 ·
Problem 15'11. A long strut AB of length L is of uniform section throughout. A
thrust P is applied at the ends eccentrically on the same side of the centre line, with eccentricity
at the end B twice that at the end A. Show that the maximum bending moment occurs at a
~listance x from the end A, where
J.LkL ) and k = ~ __
tan k x = ( 2- . cos p-
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sm ~ El
stRuts AND coi..UMNS 803
,
Solution. Fig. J5·20 shows a strut
of length /, having eccentricity iu loading e at p
F-i"ri-
end A an<l 2e at end B The strut is buckled B
under the thrust P. Since the eccentricities
at the two ends are different there will be
equal and opposite lateral reaction at the
ends, say the reaction is Fas shown.
of F.
Let us first calculate the magnitude
Taking moments about the point A

2Pe-Pe-Fl= 0
l1
x ~- - . y ~ X
_f.._ --.' p -F
t
F= Pe ... (i)
I
Now consider a section X-X at a dis-
tance of x from the end A. Fig. 15·2J
B.M. at the section= - P(2e+y) + FU-x)
d 2y Pe
or EI dx2 =-2Pe-Py+ T (l- x) ... (i)
d2y P 2Pe Pe
or dx 2 +Ely= ··- EI + !El (1-x) ... (ii)
_ _ 2Pe _Pex + Pe __ Pe _ Pex

... (i)
EI IE/ El El IE!
The solution of the differential equation (I) is
ex
y = A cos kx+B sin kx-e- - - ... (2)
1
where A and Bare constants of integration.
Ip
k = ~ EI
At the end A, x = O, y = O
So . O= A cos o+B sin 0-- e-O
or A= e
At the eod B, x = l, y= O.
So O= A cos kl+B sin kl - 2e
= e cos kl+ Bsin kl-2e
B= 2e-e cos kl
or
sin k l
2e-e cos kl ) . k ex
So y = e cos kx+ ( . ,,, 1
sm . sm x - e- - -
1
B.M. at the section.
1 2e-e cos kl ·) . k + P + Pex + Pel Pex
Mx =- 2Pe- Pe cos kx- P\ sin kl Sill x e - 1- - - - - -
I 1 1
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S,.f RENGTII OF MAlERIALS
(2 - cos kl)
M = -Pe cos kx- Pe - . sin k x
" Sill k/
For the bending moment to be maximum kt us put

dM. . (2-cos kl)
- - · = O=+ Pe k sm k x - Pck - -.- - cos kx
dx sin kl
or . k - ( 2- cos-'5..!._) ,. ,. 1. .,
sm x - sin kl c ·• ''·'
2 - cos kl
or tan kx= sin kl where k= Y·P
El
Problem 1s·12. A steel tube 80 mm outer dia meter and 60 mm inner diameter, 2·8 m
long is us•; d as a. strut with both the ends hinged. The load is parallel to the axis of the
strut but is eccentric. Find the maximum value of the eccentricity so that crippling load on
strut is equal to 60% of the Euler's crippling load. Given yield strength= 320 N/mm 2 •
£ = 210 kN/mm 2 •
S0Iui fo1~ .
Length, /= 2"8 m=2 800 mm
Outside diameter, D = 80 mm
Inside di ameter, d= 60 mm
.,,
Ar ea of cn,ss section A- - (802 - 60 2 ) = 21·99Xl 0 2 mm~
4
fC
Moment of Inertia, /= (804 - 60·1)= l 37'445 X
0 1Q4 rnm4
64
2_ ( =l37"44S x 104 _ • .,
Radius of gyration, k- A 21·99xio2 -- 625x!O2 mm-
End conditions : Both ends hinged
rc2£/
Euler's buckling load, P,= -p:--
n2 X 2 IO x I0 3 X J37.445x J04
= - -2 800 ><2800__ ___ = 363'35x J03 N
Stress due to Euler 's crippling load,

363"35X 103
J. = 21 ·99 x 102= 165"23 N/mm2
Crippling load, P=-0'6 P.= 0·6 x 363'35 X 10 3 N = 218 '01 X 103 N
P 218 "0 1 X 103
Stress, lo = A = 2F9"f x 102 =99 "14 N/mm2
Stress, f,n , s= f o+fb = 320
/b = '.120 -99·14= 220·86 N/mm2
I
-I \
, ·-·w- n:
\!
r -p- n: --
sec -£1 = sec 2 p-;:- =sec
2 ,/o·6
sec (l "216 radian) = sec (69"7°)=·2'883
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Stll'uts AND COLUMNS
. P ey, I fP
Stress due to bend mg fb = A- k2 sec
2 ·'I EY
290'86= / 0 • e 'Ye X 2'883
625
f0 =99' l4 N/mm 2 Yr= 40 mm
220'86 X 625
e= 99· C,f x 40 x 2'883
Maximum eccentricity, e= 12·073 mm.
Pimhlem 15'13. A double angle strut is made up of two 100 mm X 65 mm X 6 mm

angles riveted together alor,g the longer legs with a 1·5 cm scp:irator in between. Calculate the
1080- j5 ( { r
safe axial load for the strut, 3 metres long, ends fixed. The safe load in kg/cm 2 being
for fixed ends.
4
Ji = 3' l9 cm, lx" =-= 96'7 cm In=32'4 cm
For each angle, area of section=9'55 cm2,
4
.
x= 1·47 cm,
Solution. Fig. 15'2 l shows the built

up section used for the strut. y Separa(or
Area of cross section 1-c 0
= 2X9'55+10X 1' 5
=34'1 cm2 •
Length of the strut, I= 300 cm
The section is svmmetrical about

YY-axis. Let us determine the p osition of
the X-X axis . Choose the lower edge AB as
the reference line Fig. 15·21
= 2x9·55x3·1 9+1·sx 10x5 = .

3 986
' ~l ~
103
12 + 15(5-3'986)2
Mo ment of inertia, f:,..,=2 X 96·7 + 2 X 9'55(3 '986-3' 19) 2 + l '5 X
= 193'4+ 12· 10+ 125+ 15'423 = 345'923 cm4

fy v= l0~/ 53
+2x32·4+2X9'55(0'75 + 1'47) 2
= 2'8125+64'8+94' !324= 161'75 cm 4

So
Minimum radius of gyration, k

2-_ fyy
A
= 1614.'75 4·743 cm2
3 1
Safe stress = l080- 4~ ( ~ r

End conditions. Both the ends are fixed and above formula is given for these end
conditions.
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SM STRENGtH OF MATERIALS
t 300x 300
Safe stress = 1080- x . 1080-42L"67
45 4 743
= 658"33 kg/cm2
Safe load = 658"33x34"1 kg= 22449 kg
=22"449 tonnes.
Problem 15 14. A strut has initial curvature in the form of a parabolic arc and is
hinged at both the ends. Show that the maximum compressive stress produced by a load P is
~[ l+ei· · ~~(sec; V};-1 )J

where A= cross sectional area
e' = initial central deflection
P .=Eulerian buckling load
k=least radius of gyration
y. =distance of the extreme fibre in compression from the neutral axis .
Solution. Fig. 15"22 shows a strut

ACB with initial curvature which is parabolic
subjected to thrust P.
S , 4e' x(l-x) ...())
ay Y = 12

of x from the end A .
B.M. at the section= -Py
A
Change in deflection (as shown)
=y-y' p
Fig. 15·22
d2
So EI - 2 (y-y') =-Py ... ( 2)
dx
dy' 4e'
From equation (1) dx = 12 (l-2x)
d2y' = - ~
dxi 12
d2y +El Se' = - PJ1 (putting values in equation (2)J

EI dxi
So 12
d 2 y +P = - 8e'EI
or EI dxi y 12 .• • ( 3 )
The 'Solution of the differential equation (3) is
Y =A cos k'x+B sin k 'x- ~e'EI

p/2 where k' = /T
IE
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at x = O, y = O at end A
. O 8e' EI
0 = A cos O+ B sin -~
8e'E!
or A= -pp:- = K (a constant,
y = K cos k' x+B sin k'x- K ... (4)
At the centre of the strut, ddy = slope=O because the strut carries the load symmctri-
x
cally about its centre
Fro m equation (4)
d .
fx = - Kk' sin k'x + Bk' cos k'x
=0 at x=l/2
k 'l k '/
or - Kk' sin + Bk' cos =0
2 2
k 'l
B=K tan - ---
2
k'l
y= K cos k 'x + K tan sin k'x-K
2
Maximum deflection takes place at the centre i.e. at x = 1/2
Jlm >x=K COS -k2'l +K k 'l . k 'I

tan - - sm - -K
2 2
"
Ir . 2
k'I]
=K I k'l sin -2-
cos 2 + -- k'[
cos
2
-K
- ~k'l
y.,.z= K sec ~ - K
2
Now
I P
= '\J4 X 1t2£/Xn2= 2
1
2
7t JY Pe
n
y.,,x=K sec 2
r Pep -K
\J
p
Direct stress, fo= -A
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808
/b, . d b d•
maximum stress ue to en mg= Ak 2
M ma.r
xy.
- Py oK [ sec
- Ak2 '
..!!.....J
2
p
P,
- 1 J
M aximum compressive stress=/o + / b
P Pye 8e'EI
- 1-
= A+-Ak2 x - p/2 L 2
n;
sec - J - P - 1 J.
Pr
__!_ L
r 1+ e'yc x -8-~{2 ( sec _!C_,J~P - 1 )~
.,l
- A k2 Pf 2 \i Pe
,i2£J
but Pe=
12 ~Euler ' s load
TEI Pe b . . b
= ~ su st1tutmg a ove
M aximum compressive stress
_!_[ l +
- A
e'yc
k2 . nP
SP. ':.... ( sec
SUMMARY
l. Max imum strer.s developed in the sect ion of a long column or strut
P Pe
fma.. = - - - wh ere ? = Buckling load,
A Z
e = maxi mum deflect ion in column,
Z = section m odu lus
A= area of cross section
2. Euler s Buckling load
1r.2EI
Pe= - ~2 - where £ = Young's modulus
1
l = minimum moment of iner tia of the
section
/, = equivalent length
le= ! (for b oth the ends hin ged or both the ends free)
= 21 (for one end fixed, other end free )
= l (for both~the ends fixed)

2
= J 2
(fo r one end flxed and other end hinged)
3. E uler 's buckling load is applicabl e for long columns or st ruts
if !:._ ; 80 (for mild steel struts) where k = m in imurn r ad ius of ~yr ati0n
k.
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STRUTS AND COLUMNS
809
4. Rankine's buckling/crippling load,

PR=--f• . A _
/e2
1+ a. - k2
where /.=Rankine's constant for ultimate compressive strength

a=Rankine's co nstant (connecting/. and£)
/e=equivalent length (as explained above)
k=m inimum radius of gyration of the section
5. For braced girders, minimum distance between the lattice bars,
k
!= Le. K.--
where Le=equival ent length of column or strut
k=minimum radius of gyration of a member (a girder) used
for built up section
K = minimum radius of gyrati on of the built up section of the
column/stanchion
6. Straight line formula for working stress,
/10 =/c' [ 1-c ~- ]

// = allowable stress in compressio n,
= 110 N/ mm 2 (for mild steel)
c= ~ for pinned ends (mil? steel)
2 0
= 2 ~0 for fixed ends (mild steel)

7. Johnson's parnbolic formula
Working stress, fw = J,' [1-b ( )2] ~e
where b= 3 x 10- 5 for pin ned ends , mild steel strut

= 2 x !0-5 for fixed ends, mild steel strut
8. Gordon's formula for buckling load

where a 1 = constant,
PG = _ _,f.:.._,_._A_/2
b = lesser overall dimension of
l + a1 . b 2
the section
!= length of the column
9. If the axial thrust Pon a long column acts with an eccentricity e, maximum stress
developed is
_ p Pe sec 2le JP
El
fin a~- - + Z
4
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where /e=equivalent length of the column

Z=sectiC'n modulus
A = area of cross section
10. Prof. Perry's formula for long columns with eccentric load P
f
\ lo
L-1 )( 1-k.)=~Yc
/~ k~
where fe = Eulers' load per unit area
e= eccentricity
Yc=distance of extreme layer in compression from the neutral
axis
k = minimum radius of gyration
f 0= ~ = Axial thrust per unit area
/ = allowable stress in compression
11. For long columns having initial curvature (of sinusoidal shape)
(
fmnrr. -- l ~( l - lo ) = e'ye
fo f• k2
/,nox= maximum allowable stress
e' = initial central deflecti on in strut/column
12. Perry-Robertson formula taking into account the inherrent crookedness of the
column and eccentricity in loading
~ ~lo = J+f.~I +,_) - J{-f+f ii + Al r -f .f•
where / = al lowable stress in co mpression

f e= Eulers' buckling load per unit area
).~ e,/:-- =0·003 ( ~ )
v,tlid for large number of experimental observations

/ = 2835 kg/cm 2 , 278 N/ mm 2 for steel columns
e1 = 1'2 e+e'
= 1·2 x eccentricity in loading +central deflection due to initial
crookedness in the column
13. For a Jong column/strut carrying axial thrust P and a central lateral load w,
P Wye
fma .= 11 + 2Ak2
{"E(
'1 p tan \
f El
P . ·/
2
-
where /= length of the strut

A = area of cross section
k = minimum radius of gyration
Yr= distance of the extreme layer in compression from the
p.cutral axi~
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STR.UfS ANOjCOLUMNS 811
14. For a long strut/column carrying axial thrust P a nd a lateral uniformly distributed
load w per unit length
I. A column of length 240 cm, area of cross section 20 cm2, moment of inertia lxx = 120 cm'
and I,,=80 cm' is subjected to a buckling load. The slenderness ratio of the column is
(a) 40 (b) 80
(c) 120 (c) 160.
2. A strut of length / is fixed at one end and free at the other end. The Euler's buckling load
for this struc is 10 kN. If both the ends of the strut are now fixed, its Euler's buckling
loud will be
(a) 160 kN (b) 120 kN
(c) 80 kN (d) 40 kN.
3. A long column of length / is fixed at one end and hinged at the other end. If El is the
flexural rigidity of the column then Euler's buckling load for the column is
(a) 1;2EI/l2 (b) .,,2£1/412
(c) 2n2E///2 (d) 4n2El//2.
4. Rankine's constant for the compressive strength of a cast iron column is generally
taken as
(a) 200 N/mm2 (b) 250 N/mm2
(c) 320 N/mm 2 (d) 550 N/mm2.
5. A braced girder 4 m long b oth ends hinged is made up of 4 angle sections braced by
lattice. The minimum radius of gyration of the built up section is 17·5 cm while the
minimum radius of gyration of one angle sccti.)n is 3·5 cm. The minimum distance
between the bracings is
(a) 1·6 m (b) 1 m
(c) 0 '8 m (d) 0·4 m.
6. Euler's buckling load formula is applicable for

(a) Short columns (b) Columns of medium length
(c) Long columns (d) None of the above.
7. The ratio of equivalent length of a column with both its ends fixed to its own length is
(a) 2·0 (b) 1'414
(c) 1·00 (d) o·5o.
8. A hollow circular section with outer diameter 8 cm and inner diameter 6 cm is subjected
to buckling. The radius of gyration of the section is
(a) 2·5 cm (b) 2'0 cm
(c) 1·s cm (d) 1·00 cm
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812 STRENGl"H OP MAT£RIALS
9. A long column_ of length 1 is subjected to a buckling lorrd Pat an eccentr icity e. One end
of the column 1s fixed and other end is free. The flexural rigidity of the column is El and
its area of cross section is A and Z is the section m od ulus. The maximum stress
developed in column section due t o bending is
(a)
Pe
Z. I./ P
sec -· 2 V EI (b) z.
Pe
sec I
JPEI
(c) _P_e_ sec
Z
..!_
4
J p
EI
(d) Pe
Z
sec 2/ J-~.
El
IO The cross section of a strut is r ectangular with drcadth 6 cm and thickness 1 cm. If the
length or the column is 1 metre with both the ends fixed, and E=lOOO tonnes/cm 2, the
Euler's buckling load for the strut is
(a) 0·25 n 2 Tonnes (b) 0·20 rc 2 Tonnes
(c) o· 10 n Tonnes
2 (d) 0·05 n2 T onnes.
ANSWERS
I. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (c)
6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (b)
EXERCISES
15·1. A straight bar o f an aluminium a lloy l m long of circular section, d i,a meter
1 cm is used as a strut with both the ends hinged. Assuming the E uler's form ula ·to apply and
that t he materi al attains its yields strer1gth at the time of buckling, estimate the central deflec-
tion. £=0"75 x 106 kg/cm 2 , yield strength =3090 kg/cm 2 [Ans : 12"J459 cm]
1s·2. A tube 1·8 m long has a crippling load of 8 kN when u sed as a strut with fixed
ends. Calculate the crippling load for a 3 m length of the same tu be when used·as a str ut if
(a) Both the ends are pin jo inted.
(b) O ne end is fixed and the other end is free. [Ans. (i) 0·72 kN (ii) 0"18 kN]
t5·3. An a lloy tube 5 m long extends by 3 mm under a tensile load o-f 60 kN.
Calculate the buckli·ng load for the tube when used as a str ut with p in jointed ends. Th~ t1:1be
diameters ,are 40 mm and 3 , mm. [Ans. 6"3 11 kN]
15"4. A ·thin vert ical strut of circular section 6 cm diameter and length 2 m is rig id ly
fixed at the botto m and its t o p end is free. At t he top there is a horizontal load 200 kg and a
vertical load 1000 kg acting throu gh the · centroid of the section. Determine the maximum
stress developed in the section of the strut. £ = 2080 tonnes/cm 2 • [Ans. l "706 tonnes/cm2 ]
ts·s. A 200 x I 00 mm Ro lled steel jo ist is used as a strut, 5 metres long, both the
ends fixed. Calculate the buckling load by Rankine's forrriula. Compare this with the load
obtained by E uler's formula. F or what length of the strut will the two formulae give the same
buckling load? F or the joist area of the section = 25 27 cm 2, I u = 1696"6 cm' I n= 115"4 cm4 •
£=210 kN/mm 2
Rankine' s constants are/•= no N /mm2 ,
a= ~ (if both the ends ar e hinged)
75 0
rAns, 286"04 kN, 382"69 kN, 9'3 1 m]
15"6. A h ollow cast iron column with hinged ends supports a n axial load of 100 tonnes.
If the column is 6 m lo ng and has an external diameter of 30 cm, find the thickness of the
metal required.
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STRUTS AND COLUMNS 81~
Use the Rankine's formula, taking constant
a= 16~0 (for both the ends hinged) and a working stress of

800 kg/cm 2 [Ans. 23'05 mm]
15'7. A short length of tube 36 mm outside diameter and 24 mm inside diameter is
tested under compression. It failed at a load of 181 kN. When a 2·5 m length of the same
tube is tested as a strut with fixed ends, the failing load is 65' 11 kN. Determine Rankine's
constants.
Estimate the crippling load for a piece of tube 2 m long, when used as a strut with one
end fixed and the other end hinged. [ Ans. 320 N/mm2 • ~ , 56'07 kN
75 3
J
15'8. A double a ngle strut is made up of two 90 mm X 60 mm X 8 mm angles riveted
back to back along the longer side. Using Gordon's formula, determine the safe h)ad for the
strut, 5 metres long with both the ends hinged. Constants in Gordon's formula may be taken as
1
/ c= 320 N/mm2, a 1 =
250
Use factor of safety as 3. For an angle, area of the section = 11 ·37 cm2 .
[Ans. 18 '18 kN]
15'9. A hollow circular steel p ipe 45 mm inside diameter and 60 mm outside diameter,
2 metres long is fixed at both the ends so as to prevent any expansion in its length. The pipe
is unstresed at the normal temperature conditions. Calculate the thermal stress in the pipe if
its temperature rises by 60-C, and the factor of safety against failure as a strut. Use Rankine'·s
formula
£=210 kN/mm2, a=] J · J X 10-sj°C
J.=320 N/mm 2 , a= ; (for both the ends hinged)

1 00
[Ans . 139'86 N/min:i, 1·66]
15 10. A long strut, initially straight, 1 metre long and 30 mm · diameter is subjected
to a thrust P = 40 kN . L0ad P is applied eccentrically with an ·eccentr icity e at o;;c end and 2e
at the other end . Calculate the eccentricity e, if the maximum stress developed in the strut is
250 N /rnm 2 • (Refer to Problem I 5' 11) E = 210x 103 N/mm 2 . [Ans. e= 3'9 mm]
15· 11 . A steel tube 66 111 m outer diameter and 50 mm inner di_ameter, 4 m long is
used as a strut with both the ends fixed. The load is parallel to · the. axis of the strut but is
eccentric. Find the maximum value of eccentricity so thM the -cri pplin g 'load on the strut is
equal to 70 °/ of the Euler's crippling load. Given yield sfrength=320 N/mm2
0
£ = 208000 N/mm 2. [Ans. e=3'55 mm]

15'12. A strut is having a built up sect ion made by riveting a 150 mm x 80 mm RSJ to
a 100 X 45 mm channel section so as t o make a T-shape. Calculate the safe axial load for the
strut, 2 metres long both the ends hinged. The safe load, in N/mm 2 is l 10-(//k)2/l lO for
both the ends hinged. For each RSJ, area of the section = 18'08 cm 2, l.u=688'2 cm4, In= 55"2
cro4. For the channel section. Area = T41 cm 2, lxx= l23'8 cm4, ly 1 =14'9 cm4, x= 1'4 cm,
web thickness = 3'0 mm. [Ans. 148'4 kN]
15'13. A circular strut 1·2 m long, diameter 3'6 cm has initial curvature a nd its centre
line forms a parabolic curve with a central deflection of 5 mm. The strut is hinged at both the
ends. It is subjected t o a thrust of 2 tonnes . Determine tlle maximum conipressi11,1e str~is
produced in the section. £ = 2100 tonnes/cm 2. . [An~: 0'41S tonne/cmll]
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• • >
'"
16
Strain Energy Methods
In various chapters we have studied about the strain energy stored in a body or a
structure subjected to external forces and couples . Then in chapter 11, we have studied about
the deflection of beams and cantilevers subjected to various types of transverse loads. In this
chapter we will study ab'.)ut the use of strain energy for the determination of displacement or
deflection at a particular point, and in a particular direction. The entire body or the structure
and the forces acting on it are considered. There are displacements due to externally applied
forces and the work done by these forces is stored as strain energy in the members. It is
assumed that external forces are gradually applied. The strain energy stored in a body is
utilised to determine the displacement along a certain applied force or to determine the angular
rotation due to a certain applied bending moment or to determine the angular twist due to a
certain applied torque.
1,·1. CASTIGLIANO'S FIRST THEOREM
If a body is acted upon by forces Fi, F2 , F3 ••• Fn and U is the strain energy stored in
the body, then partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to a force Ft gives
the displacement of the body in the direction of Ft, or the displacement 81 = ;~ . This theorem
is extremely useful in determining the displacements of complicated structures. To prove this
w, w2 W3 wn
b B
A b;- C
t," c<-
( e)
Fii . 16'1
Theorem, let us consider a beam AB of length/, simply supported at the ends and this beam
. is initially straight. Say a number of transverse loads W1, W 2 , W 3 ... n are gradually applied
814
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STRAIN ENERGY METHODS 815
on the beam and under these loads say the deflections are y 11 y 2 , y 3 ••• yn respectively. Then
strain energy stored in the beam is
1
U= [W1Y1+W2Y11+W3y3 ... JVnyn] ... (I)
2
i.e. area covered under triangles shown in the figure 16' 1 (b).
Let us say that load W1 is increased by oW1 and due to this additional load SW1, the
deflections increase i.e. y 1 increases to )' 1 +Sy. ; Y2 increases to y 2 + 8yi; y 1 increases to J13-l-Sy 8
and so on, Yn increases to )'n +Syn .
Additional energy,
SU=t8W1SJ1i + W1SY1+ W2llY2-l- W 3 8y 3 ••. ••. Wn8yn ... (2)
(i.e., shaded areas shown in the figure)
Differenti ating partially the equation (U with respect to load W 1
2V
2 0W oYi 0W2 OY2
1 = Ji + Wi 0W1 +y oW1
2 +W 2 i3W
1
a~ ~ a~ a~
-I-Ya oW~+ Wa 0W1 ...... yn oW
1
+ Wn 0W1
but loads W 1 , W 2 , W3 •••••• Wn are constants
So W _ + oYi oy2 oy 8 oy..

2 0W1 -y, Wi 0W
1
+ W 2 0W1 + Wa 0W 1 ...... Wn 8W
1
. . . (3)
From equation (2) neglecting product of small quantities

SU= W 1SY1 + W 2 Sy2+ W/>y 3 ... ... WnSy,,
Dividing thrcughout by SW1 we get
oU -w1 OY!_ + w ~ -l-- W Sy~ w Sy..
2 3
0W1 - llW1 SW 1 Sw1 ·"··· n SW1
or in the limit~
;i =1
Wi c~i + W2 :;
1
+ Wa ii~ . . . -1;~
Wn .. . (4)
Substracting cquati0n (4) from equation (3) we get

au
i:i·w1 = .vi
Similarly it can be proved that
au 2u au
aw; = y 2 , oW = ya ... .. oWn =yn.
3
If a system of forces Fi, F 2 ••• Fn, bending moments M1 , M2 , M 8 ... Mn and twisting
moments T 1 T, T 3 ••• Tn are simultaneously acting on a body, then Castigliano's theorem can
be extended to find angular rotation due to bending moments and angular twist due to twisting
moments also.
i.e., }t 1
=<Ji, angular rotation
oU- =
- 0t,, angu Iar t wist.
.
oTt
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16.2. ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO AXIAL FORCE

Consider a bar of length /, cross
sectional area A and young's modulus £, sub- A :are a 01 _
c rosc:
jected to an axial tensile force P as shown in
the figure 16 ·2.
Stress ·in the bar, /= ~
-_ ____
~)--- F==c&-~
1----· e- --1
s e ct I or
Strain energy per unit volume, u= {i; Fig. 16·2
f2 f2 p2 p21
Total strain energy, U= -2 E XVolume = ZE XA l= ZA 2E X AI= ZAE
Displacement along the force P= !~ = ~~ = axial extension.

Example 16·2- l. A structure is shown
in Fig. 16·3 (a). The area of cross section of
each member is A and Young's modulus of
elasticity is E. Load P is applied at the joint
G
C of the structure. Determine the deflection
under the load P.
Solution. Let us first determine the
forces in each member so that strain energy (a )
can be calculated . Give Bow's notations t o
spaces in and around the structure say E, F,
G, H, 1, as shown. Draw a line ef parallel to p
force P (represented by Bow's notations EF)
and to some suitable scale. From e, draw a
p
line ei parallel to EI and a line / i parallel to Ji ( b)
Fl. Similarly consider the forces at the joint
Force diagram
B and complete the force diagram for the
structure as shown by Fig. 16"3 (b). Fig. 16 3
Members Bow' s rotations Force, F L ength I, F2l

---
+ ~~ -a
2
2P a
AB EH (tensile) - 3-
2
BC EI + 2P a
4P 2a
.../3 3
p P 2a
CD Fl a
-./3 3
2P 4P2a
DB HI - v3 (compressive) a
3
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"i,p2f= IIra
Strain energy, U = 11 P2a = I I P 2a
2X3AE 6AE
_ oU _ _llPa
Deflection under the load, 0P - oP - 6AE ·
( b)
Exercise 16'2-l. A structure is sh0 wn
in the Fig. 16'4 . The cross section of the
members AB, BC and CA is each 5 cm 2 •
Determine the deflection under the load P if
P= 5 tonnes
E = 2000 tonnes/cm2 •
[Ans. 1'91 mm] Fig. 16'4
t6·3. ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO SHEAR STRESS

Consider a r-:ctangular block of dimensions Jxb xh as shown in the Fig. 16·5, fixed at
lower end subjected to a tangential force Q at the top face. The block is distorted under
this shear force. Say the displacement of the top face along the direction of Q is os.
Work done on the block
= i Q . ds
= Energy stored
Energy stored,
= i Q. os
1 Q
=z /bh X os /bh
= ~ ( ~ ) X ( ~~f ) /biz
Fig. 16·5
where ~ = q, shear stress
!s = rf,, shear strain as the angle is very small , tan cf, -= c/>
Therefore,
where shear strain, rf, = i, G= shear modulus

I q2
V= y G X /bh
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STRENGTH O:P MATE&IALS
= i~ X (Volume of the body)

q2
Shear strain energy per unit volume, u, = ZG
We have seen in chapter on distribution of shear stresses in beams, that the distribution
of shear stress across a section is complicated, therefore shear strain energy must be integrated
over the whole section of a body and may not be taken as a constant. The shear strain energy
due to shear deformation is very small and many a times ignored. Therefore the error caused
by assuming uniform distribution of the shear force across the section will be very small.
Example t6·3-1. A beam of rectangular cross sl:!ction breadth b, depth d and o ·
length l is simply supported at its ends. It carries a concentrated load W at its centre.
Determine the shear strain energy in the beam and find the deflection due to shear.
G=Modulus of rigidity for the beam.
Solution. Fig. 16'6 (a) shows a beam AB of Jeµgth /, simply s~ported at the ends;
and carrying a concentrated load Wat its centre C. Shear force betweea .A to C is + W/2'
and between C to B, shear force is - W/2.
dx w
A 1-x X ~ B
N A d
2
~---__j_
(a)
L-b -1
( b)
Sh ea r f o rc e diagram
Fig. 16·6
Consider a section X-X at a 'distance of x from the end A.
w
Shear force F,,= +2
Now consider a small len~th dx. Let us determine shear strain energy for the portio
A~. Fig. 16'6 (b) shows the sect~on of the beam. Consider a layer of thickness dy at :
distance of y from the neutral axis.
Shear stress q at the layer = n
FaJ
where F=shear force at the section = W /2

aJ = first moment of the area above the layer about neutral
axis
/ = moment o f mertia=
. . bd3
12
b= breadth
W 12
~pear stres~. q= T X bd3 X Tb ( id - y
)(
. Y+
d'/2 - )
f y
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,r
STRAIN ENERGY MF.THODS 8'i9
2
_ 3W ( d -y2)
- bd 3 4
9w2 ( d 4 d2y2 )
qZ = b 2d 8 16-+y4--2-
Volume of the layer = b.dx dy

Shear strain energy in the layer
q2
= 20 b.dx.dy
4
l 9W2 d d 2y 2 )
= 2G bx b2d6 ~ 16 +y4 - -2- dy.dx
Total shear strain energy for the portion AC

//2 +d/2
U,' = ;G r J{~i ( f; + y4 - di2 ) dy dx
0 -d/2
l
= 2G
{fl
r9 W
J bd 6
2
[ d 4y
1.6 + 5
y
5
-6 -
J d 2y3
d/2
dx
0 -d/2
// 2
J9 W
I
= 2G bd 6
2
[( d
32
5
+32 +
d
5
) ( ds
160
ds )
+ 160
0
d5 d5 )]
- ( 48+ 48 dx
//2
l r 9 W2 ( J5 + d 5 JS )
= 2G J bd 6 \ I6 80 - 24 dx
0
//2 //2
=
1
2G
J( 9bdw2 X 30
d
6
5
) 1
dx=2G
J303 bd w2
dx
0 0
I 9W2 l 2W 2l
= 2G X 30bd X 2 = 40Gbd
Since the beam is symmetrically loaded, shear force in the portion CB is the same i.e.
- W/2. Shear strain energy for the bea m
I 3W2l
U,= 2U• = 20Gbd
Deflection at the centre due to shear
au. 3Wt
= aw = 10Gbd
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. ,.. "\
820
Exer~ise 16'3-l. A beam 8 metres long carries loads of 40 kN each at a distance of

2 metres and 6 metres from one end. The beam is simply supported at the ends. The beam
is of rectangular section with breadth b and depth d. If d= 2b, and the shear stress is .ncifto
exceed 75 N/mm2 • Determine (i) size of the beam, (ii) shear strain energy in the ·bea!in,
(iii) deflection due to shear under the load of 40 kN.
Given, G=80,000 N/mm 2 •
[Ans. (i) 20 mm, 40 mm, (ii) 30 Nm, (iiO

I.
0·75 mm]
16'4. STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING

Consider a bar of length /, initially
straight subjected to a gradually increasing
bending moment. As the bending moment
increases, curvature in the bar increases or the
angular rotation cp goes on increasing. Say
at a particular instant.
Bending moment = M
Angular. rotation = cp
Radius of curvature=R
Work done on the bar =!Mcp
But </,=//R since cp is very small and
the stress in bar remains within the elastic
limit.
Work done=Energy stored in the bar, · Fig, 16·7
Ml
U= iMcp= -
2R
But from the flexure formula,

M E 1 M
7 = R' or R =ET
Therefore, strain energy,
M 21
U= 2EI
If we consider a beam subjected to transverse loads Wi, W2, •• • , w etc. where the radius
of curvature goes on changing from one section to the othet. '
Strain energy due to bending,

U= f Mx 2
dx ... (1)
J 2EI
Where M x is the bending moment at a ny section X-X and dx is the small length along the
axis of the beam.
Say 81 is the deflection u nder the load W1 • Then
au f Mx aMx d
... (ii)
81 = awl = J EI . dW1- X X
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STRAIN ENERdY METHOD!:;
Example t6·4-J. A circular cantilever of length/, free at one, fixed at the other end,
'with diameter d for half of its length and diameter 2d for the rest of its lengt4 carries a con-
centrated load W at the free end. If Eis the Young' s modulus of the material determine the
deflection and slope at the free end.
Solution Fig. 16·8 shows a canti-
lever ABC, fixed at end C and free at end A w
with diameter d for half of its length AB and /
~
'
(
diameter 2d for next half of its length BC. Since
we have to find out the slope at free end A,
let us apply a fictitious moment M =O at the
free end.
Portion AB M :Fictitious couple
Fig. 16·8
I
M ,.= M + Wx where x = O to taking origin at A .
.:
Portion BC
M ..-= M + W ( x+ f ). where x = O to , origin at B

2
l/2 //2
Strain energy, U= r(M+ Wx)2 dx+
J 2E/1
f [M+ ii;2+!/2)]2 dx
0 0
4
rt(2d ) rtd 4
where 12= 64 = -4-
1/2 l/2
Deflection at A , S= oU = f (M + Wx)(x) r ( M + W(x+l/2) .) ( . ·· ·· ·1)
oW J dx+ J EI X x+ dx
0
E/1
0
2 2
_
EI1
I i
•
Mx
2
2
+~/+
3
1/2
. . E/2
l l 2
2
Mx + M ix
2
+ Wlx
2
2
+ wxa + W/2xl
3 .. · 4
//2
0 0
But M = O.
"= _I_ X W/s + - 1-( Wis+ W/3 + W/3)

ci E/1 24 EI2 8 24 8 . ..· .
= -1-X W/3 + _l_ x 7 W/a

E/1 24 E /2 24
Substituting the values of / 1 and / 2 ,
a- W/3 [ 64 -+ 7 x 4
24E rr:d 4 rr:d 4 _
l- W/3 X 92
24E rr:d4
23WI3
= --
6Err:d4
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8!2 STRENGTH OF MATERIAL$'
l/2 l/2 .
Slope at end A, ,p= ;~ = Mt ~x
1
J J
x (l)ux+ (M+ W(xiJ,:;z)(l)dx
0 0
l/2 l/2
1
</> = E/1
I Mx + -2-1
wx2 1+ E/2
1 / Wx
Mx + -2- +
2
2WI
.x I
0 0
But M = O
Substituting the values of / 1 and / 2 •

<p = wti[~ + 3x44 ]=w1 2
x 16
8£ 1;d4 1td 8E1;d4
I9Wl2
= 21tEd4
Example t6·4-2. A circular ring of

mean radius R and second moment of area
of its cross section I, with a slit at one
section is shown in Fig. 16.9. Points A and
Bare subjected to forces P as shown.
Determine the relative displacemets
between the points A and B. Only the
strain energy due to bending is to be taken
into account .
Solution.
Fig. 16·9
Consider an element of length dS = R d8 at an angle 0 from the vertical axis.
Bending moment of the force P on the element,
M x= P(R- R cos 0) = PR(l -cos 8)
ff
Strah1 energy, U=2J [PR(l;;/os 8))2. R de

0
ff
= P3Rs
~
J(1 +cos 0+2 cos 0) d8
2
Jd0
ff
- p2Rs
- EI
r[ 1+ (
j
1+ cos 20 ) - 2 cos 0
2
0
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~T!lAIN ENEROY METHODS 823
It
= p2Ra I l_ e+ sin 20 -2 sin 0 j

EI 2 4
0
Relative displacement between the points A and B
o= oU = l!!._ X 3
2PR = 3 rc PR}'._
oP 2 EI EI
Example 16·4-3. A beam ABC of length /, hinged at both the ends A and C is sub•
jected to a couple M applied at B, at a distance of //3 from one end. If EI is the flexural
rigidity of the beam, determine the rotation of the point C.
Solution. Fig. 16' 10 shows the beam
of length I subjected to couple M as given in M
the problem.
Reactions at A and C= ± f
Strain energy due to bending
Portion AB. origin at A Fig. 16·10
M
M1: = - -[- X
//3 //3
u.=Jf( -M2x2 I3x

3
Strain energy, ·12 )
dx M2 I
2EI = 2EI / 2
0 0
Af2 /3 _ M2/a Af2/

= 2El /2 Xgf 162 El 12 = 162 El
Portion CB, origin at C

Mx
Mz = + ---( -
2~3 2ij3
Afix2 M2 I x3 \
~train energy,
o
I
U2 = -,-2- X
dx
2EI = -2EI / 2 1-3-
0
M2 g/s 8M2/s 8 M2/
= 2El / 2 X 81 = 162 EI 12 = 162 -~
Total strain energy of the beam,

9
U=U1 +U2= 162
Rotation at the point C,

au 2M1 Ml
o# =if, = l8Ef = 9£/
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824 ST/lENGTH OF MATERIALS
Exercise 16'4-l. A circular beam of

nength l simply supported at its ends carries
a concentrated load at its centre. The dia-
imeter of the beam is 2d for half of its length
.and d for another half. If E is the young's
;modulus of elasticity of the beam, determine
, deflection at the centre.
[ Ans.
17 W/
3
24 Ert d4
J Fig 16·11
Exercise 16'4-2, A steel ring 2 cm diameter is bent into a quadrant of 1·5 m radius.
One end is rigidly fixed in the ground and at the other end a vertical load P is applied.
Determim; the Vqlue of P so that the vertical deflection at the point of loading is 1·6 cm.
E=208000 N/mm 2 [Ans. 9'86 kg]
J4xa,mple 16'4-3. A beam of length/, hinged at both the ends is subjected to a couple
Jvf applied in a vertical plane at its centre. If El is the flexural rigidity of the beam, determine
the} angular rotati9:q of the ce:qtre of the beam due to M.
[ Ans. 1fi1j
t6·5. STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO TWISTING MOMENT
Fig. 16'12 shows a shaft of diameter d and length I subjected to a gradually increasing
twisting moment. As the twisting moment increases gradually, the angular twist also increasef
gradually.
u
£_ _
,. - e
Angular twist
Fig. J6 · J2
At a particular stage say, the torque applied is T and angular twist in the shaft is r
Work done on the shaft= ! T 0
= U, strain energy stored in the shaft
From tension formula,
,T =-rGO or 0= GJ
Tl
Strain ener~y due to twisting moment,

2
l T l
U=-
. i x(j/-
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s:I'RAIN ENERGY METH.ODS
where J = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft

rrd·1
= 32 (for a sdid slu,ft)
r21
U= -- --
2GJ
If the torque varies or the section varies along the length the sl)aft
l
U = -1_ f T2d/
2G j J
0
Angular twist due to the twisting moment,

au
O= aT.
Example 16'5-l. A circular bar of diameter dis bent at right angle. It- is fixed at
one end and a load Wis applied at the other end as shown in the Fig. 16' ! 3. Determine the
deflection under the load W if E= Young's modulus and G= Shear modulus of the material.
Solution. Let us calculate the strain
energy.
Portion BC
. -I2El
U1 -
b
(Wx)2 -
dx- 6E!
w2bs
" 0
Portion AB ... ·.
,·
u
2·""'Strai.n energy due to bending ig. }.6·l3 .
a
(Wx) 2 _ W 2 :i
J0
= -2El dx- 6El -
Straight portion AB is also subjected to a twisting moment T = Wb

U3 ==·S train energy due to twisti.ng m omen t
(Wb) 2 a W 2a!J 2
= 2GJ- = 2GJ
1td4 1td'
where l=- and J= -- - -
61. 32
Total s.train energy
Deflection under the load,

8
au Wb 3 . Wa 3 Wab 2
= aw = 3EI + 3Ef +cJT
= WX 64 (a3 +b3)+ _wx 31 (ab2)
3£ X 'f(d4 · G-X rcd 4
_ 32 W [ 2(c,3+ b3) .!!._'?:__ j-,
- -:.d4 I•
3E
••
+ G •
· ' .,.
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826 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS'
Exercise 16 5-1. A circular bar 2 cm diameter, 20 cm long is bent at right angle at

the centre. It is fixed at one end and at the other end a load 200 N is applied. If ,Vt'
~
E=2,08,000 N/mm2 and G= 82,000 N/mm 2 •
Determine the deflection under the load. [Ans. 6"845 mm]
Problem 16"1. A structure of horizontal length 2a and vertical height a carries a
load P "at its end as shown in the Fig. 16'14. The area of cross section of each member is A,
and Eis the Young's modulus. Determine the deflection of the structure at the point I.
0 p f p d,c
a p
C
Fore£
2 b p e diogrom
Fig. 16·14
Solution. Let us give Bow's notations to the spaces in and around the structure as
shown. Taking ab=P, the vertical load, and then drawing li nes af parallel to member AF and
fb parallel to member FB. Force in member AF is P (tensile) and in FB it is p (com- v2
pressive) since the angle Lafb=-15°.
Similarly the complete force diagram for the structure is drawn. Following table gives
the forces in members :
Members Length Force, F F21
AD a +2P 4P2a
AF a +P P 2a
FB \ 1 2a -y2P 2P2 x '12a
EF a +P P 2a
BE a - P P2a
DE v2a ·- v2P 2'12P2 a
"I:.F21= 7P~a+4-v'2P 2 a
}:.F2/ 7P 2a+4 ./2P2a

Strain energy, U= - -
2AE 2AE
when: area of HO~~ seetioµ of efi~h m~mber is t4e samtt
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~ 1
' ..
s'rtfAIN .ENE8'.GY . MF.'l'HODS s27
Deflection at the point i,
au =a= 2P·a (?+ 4 v' 2)

oP 2AE
Pa
= AE (7 +4\12).
Problem 16'2. For a centilever made of steel, length /, breadth band depth d, show
that it y1> and y, a·re the deflections due to bending and shear at the free end due to the con-
centrated load load W at the free end
;b = K . ( f r where K is a constant.
Determine the value of K for steel and the least value of ~ if the deflection due to
shear is not to exceed 1·5~ of the total deflection.
E
-=26
.
Take
G
Solution. Length of the cantilever=/
Section is b X d
Moment of inertia about neutral axis
bd 3
f:-z=l2
Say the concentrated load at the free

end=W
Deflection due to bending,
Wl3
ye= 3EI
W/8 4Wl 3
- 3Exbd3 x 12 = Ebds ... (I) Fig. 16· 15
Deflection due to shear. Shear stress in any layer at a distance y from neutral axis,
Fa.Y
q=Ib
In this case, Shear Force is constant throughout the length of the cantilever F= W
a.Y = b( ~ --y )( Y+ d/ 22- y ) (See Fig. 16'15)
b ( d2 '
= 2 4 - Y2 )
_ Wb
q-bx2
(.!!!_-
4 Y
)x ..!2_
2
bda
= 6W ( d!
bda 4-Y
2 )
~--36 w2 (!!:!.._ - a2y2 4 )

q - bid6 16 2 +y
Shear strain energy per unit volume = }~-
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Shear strain energy for the cantilever
d/2
·-,st
I 16
d_4_ y - d2y3
6
+ y ff I
5 ·
0
5 5 5
36 W 2 l [ d d d ]
= Gbd6 • Ii - 48 + I 60
36 w2 1 d5 6 w21
U.= Gbdn X '60 = lO Gbd ... (1): ·.
Deflection due t~1 shear at the free end
y , _ 12 X W l X Ebd 3 _ 12 X d 2 X E
N ow y~ 90 Gbd W/3 IO /2 G
= 2'6 X 1'2X ( di )2
So constant K= 2'6X 1·2= 3'12.
2
- · ~ = 3' 12 ( .!{__)
Yb . I
. J n this case, y, is negligible, therefore, Ys+yb e yb

'i.;;:xr 1',. ··' :_; : '; . . ·1 1
• •• • • r, • •
y, = y0 X 3'12 ( -f )2
·y, = 1'5% Yb = 0'015
So . 'Dl5= 3'12X ( ~:)
J2 3· ]2 I
or d2 = 0 01 5=' 208
-~ = 14'42.
Problern 16·3. A simpl); supported beam of / section is loaded as shown in the figure
16'16. Determine the shear strain energy in the beam ., Given G= 80,000 .N/mms. Find the
deflection due to shear under one load. - ·
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StltAlN ENE.RGY METH01:>~
Solution. Fig. 16'!6 shows a beam

ABCD, 10 metres long carrying 12 kN at C
and D, 2 meters from each end.
A C D B
The shear force diagram is shown
below. Reactions RA=Rs=12 kN. SF is
constant in p ortions AC and DB and equal to
,----+------~---i
4mt~m R9:12kN
± 12 kN. The beam is of I section.
15 cm X 20 cm with flanges l cm thick and
web I cm thick.
+12£[.J
Moment of inertia,
I = _15 X 203
xx 12
= 3196 cm4
14x 183
12
Say shear force is Fin portion AC

A C
b±·
S F. Diagram
, Shear stress in flange,
Fx15(10-y) ( y+
10
;-Y)
qi= Ix 15 ·-- -
F
=: X (100-y2 )
21
p2 1cm
q1
2
= 4//10,000-200 y2+y4) Sect ion
Shear strain energy in portion AC Fig. 16·16
300 10
" . . .., ... "'
/
(a) Shear energy mifanges = 2 j j -~~ XB dy dx

0 9
300 IO
- { 1~; J [ 10000 y- 20 3
~Y + ~
5
Jdx
0 9
. .... '· -,t'
B= l5cm
J5 x p2
= 212 G
. 300
J [ 10000(10-9) - 200
3 (1000-729)+ I (100000 ·-:--5~?4;) ~ dx
5
l
0 ' . . .. . .. 1, . ; _ : ! . f; lt, ; ;..t(...-
= ;;;~ x{ 10000- 2~0 X271+

40 5
; ! } X300
= 15X300F~ X .
123 54
277965 F 2 2'78 X JOS F2
=- --:-:::- -
-2 12 G / 20 120
... (1)
Shear stress in the web,

9 .., ..;, ... ·.. .l . ,.
q2 = -~- [15x9'5 + I(9-y) (. y+ 1Y )] . . .... ,, ,.,. ;•
where b= l cm
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830. STRENGn-1 OF.MATERIALS"
2
q2 = .!.._
/
x[ 15Xl9+8 1-y ] = £ [366 _y 2 ]
2 2/
F2
q,}= 4lz X [ 133596- 732 y2+y']
Shear strain energy in the web

300 9
q2 2
= 2J
0 0
f 20
- x b dy dx
300
= 4~~ j [133596- 732 y 2 +y4] dy dx
0
_ F2 [ 732 y 3 y 5 1
- X 300 133596 y- - - + · j
4120 3 5
= 75 F2 [133596X9- 732_X9s + ~ ]
PG 3 5
7 2
=- ~2~ [ 1205604-177876+ 11809'8]
75 X 1039537'8 F2 779'65 X 105 F 2

120 120
Total shear strain energy in portion AC

= (2'78+779'65) X 105 F2 (782'43) X 105 F2
/ SG /'/.G
Total shear strain energy of the beam (as the beam is symmetrically loaded)
2 X 782'43 X 105 X F 2
U= /'/.G
Deilection under the load F,

au 4 x·782'43 x 10° F
oF = PG. x (as F= 12 kN)
S-1:1llstituting the values F= 12000 N

G=80,000 N/mm~= 8 x 106 N/cm2
/ = 3196 cm«
U- 2 x782'43 x l05 x l2000x12000 Nern
- 3I96 X3l96 X8X l08
= 275"76 N cm= 2'75 N m
. au 4 x 182·43 x 12000
Deflection due to shear ~= aF = 3196 x 3196 x 8 x 10a
= 0'046 cm= 0'46 mm.
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Problem 16·4. A 24 cm x 16 cm, I section beam with web l cm thick and flanges
2 cm thick is simply supported over a span of 5 metres. A concentrated load of 2 tonnes acts
at a distance of 2 metres from one end of the beam. Assuming that the shearing force is
carried by the web only and the shearing stress is uniformly distributed over the web, determi nc
1he total deflection produced under the concentrated load , ·
Given E=2080 tonnes/cm 2
G=800 tonnes/cm2.
Solution . I x. of the section
16 X 243 15 X 203
12 - - I2-
=32x24X24-25x400=8432 cm4
2 Tonnes
-
·-
- - - - . _j_
2cm
A ..-----1.._C_ _ _ _ B
1cm T
20cm
2---,---3 metres 0
X
xl
. - - - - '-----. 2 Cm
~i6crn4T
S.F Diagram
Fig. 16·17
Deflection due to bending at the point of load,

wa2b2
n= 3£11
where W = 2000 kg, a=200 cm
b=300 cm, E= 2080x 1000 kg/cm2
1= 500 cm, / = 8432 cm 4
2000 X (200) 2 X (300) 2
Therefore, Yb = 3 x 2080 x 1000 x 8432 x 500 °·2735 cm·
Deflection due to shear
Area of cross section of the web = 20 cm2
Shear force in the portion AC, F1 = + 1200 kg
. the port10n
Shear stress in . A C , q1 = 1200
-20 = 60 kg/cm 2
Shear force in the portion CB, F2=800 kg
800
~hefl! stress in the portion CB, q2= 7.0 = 40 kg/cm2
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Shear straiu energy in the portion AC,

200 + 10
-f
-
200 +10
rl 2G . b dy dx, =
ql 2 . J J~3600 X l dy. I
(1.X:
0 -1 0 0 -10
200 + 10
r 1 1soo
=J I -a. y J
dx
0 -10
1800
=~ x2ox200 cm kg
5
72x 10 k
- G cm- g
Shear strain ener gy in the p ortion CB,

300 + 10 300
=J J -
2
a
q.2
bay ax, = J( ;~ x 20 )
1 0
dx
0 -10 0
- SOO X20X 300 48 X105

- G G cm-kg

_ (72+48)X 10 5 _ 120 XJ05 =l 5 -k
U•- G - 800 X 1000 cm g.
If y, is the deflection due to shear, then
l 15 X 2 .
Wy. = 15, ory, = 00 15 cm .
2 2000
Total deflection under the concentrated load, y
= O 2735+ 0'015 = 0'2885 cm.
Problem 16'5. A bar ABCD of rectangular section hav ing uniform width b throughout
but thickness varying as 3t for 3a length, 2t for length 2a and t for the length a is of the shape
shown in the Fig. 16'18. A load Wis applied at the end D. Determine the deflection under
the load. Given E= Young'·s· modulus of the material. ( Consider only the strain ener gy due
to bending).
Solution. Let us determine the strain
energy due t o bending •· · B f,--- a --1>-M---- 2a
~ ~ A
Portion AB s'.
T
11 t
3t
2a a
f (Wx) 2 r (Wx1 2
U1 = J 2EI1 dx + J 2EI1 . dx
0 0 w
Taking the origin for x at B' as shown
8W 2a3 W 2a 3
Ui = . 6Efi + 6£/1
9 W a _ 3 W 2 a3
2 3
= 6 El i --1 E T1 •
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-· '
Pertioa :BC
Bending moment is constant Wa
Us-
-J_(
2a
w2a2) dx -
'1.E.lz -
w2as
Elz ·
•
Portioa CD
Bending moment = Wx (taking origin for x at D)

a
W 2 x 2 dx
Ua= J
0
2EI
I
Total strain energy, U=U1+U2+Ua=---r

w2aa [ 3
211
+
I l
1; + 01;
J
au
aw . . 2Wa3[
= vertical deflect10n at D= E
3
211
+ 7;I + 613
1 J
Whel·e I 1 = }!_ (3 )3= 27 b a. I.-..!!_ (2 · a- . 8_ b a./ - bta
12 t 12 t ' 2 - 12 t) - 12 I ' s- 12
~
00
2Wa 3 L- 3
=E- T
12 12
x27b1 3 +8bt 3 +
12
6bt 3
J •'
''
· 24Wa 3 [ 3 I I l 24Wa3 25
- Ebt 3 54 + 8 + -6 J- Ebt 3 X 72
25Wa 3
= 3Ebt 3 •
Problem 16"6. A cantilever of length /, fixed at one end and propped -'~t ·fhe other
end carries a concentrated load W at its centre and a uniformly_ distributed l<;>ad , ".:.·:,p er unit
lenjth from the centre upto the fixed end. If EI is the flexural rigidity of the qmtii~\'er 9~ter-
Miftt the reaction at the prop. ·· · · · ·
' .
Solution. Fig. 16' l 9 shows a canti-
lever ABC of length /, fixed at end C and
propped at end A, carrying loads as given in
:. the problem. Let us first determine the strain
energy due to bending. Say the reaction at
the prop= R .
Portion AB. (Origin at A)
Fig. 16·19
Ui -
-J//2
(Rx) dx _ I R x
2
2E/ -i 6EJ -
2
//2
3
j- R
.
2 3
48E/ ·
/
0 0
fc;,rtion BC. (Takin~ origin at Q)
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834 STRENGTH OF MATEIUALS
M,,, bending moment =R ( x+ J )- Wx- w;=

U -J
s-
//2
2
(M,. ) dx
2El
0
T@tal strain euergy =U1 +U!
off
oR = 0 at the propped end
//2
So au
oR =
2R/ 3
48EJ +
J( M,, dMx )
.EI . dR · dx
0
l/2
=~i1+J[R ( x+ f )- wx-w;2j( x+f )dx

0
1/2
1
= ;::;1 + 7 J[ R ( x2+
1
; + Ix )- w( x2+ ~l )- w;2 ( x+ ; )Jdx
0
1/2
R/ 3 1 rR x 3 R/ 2 Rlx 2 Wx3 Wx 2 / wx4 wxsf J.
O - 2',Ef + El . ·3 + 4 x+ 2 - 3 - 4 - 8 - 12
0
R/3 R /3 R/3 R /3 w1s W/3 w/4 w/4
or 24 + 24 + 8 + 8 - 24 - 16 - I28 - 24 - O
R/3 R/3 5 W/3 l 9w/ 4
,2-+ 4 - 4 8 - 334= 0
R SW _ _l9wl = O
3 - 48 384
5W 19wl
Reaction at the prop, R =
16 + 128 ·
Proble:ap t6·7. A bar is bent in the shape sh own in Fig. 16·20 with radius of the bend
R and length of the straight p or t ion /. Determine the hori zontal deflection due to the force'
P applied at the end A, if El is the flexural ri gid ity of the bar. Consider only the strain energy
due to bend_ing.
Solution.
Portion AC C p ; .1
Consider an element of length -r- A .,
Rd0=ds
~
The bending moment on ds
B
=fft ~in Q
Fi~. !ViO
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StRAtN ENERGY METHODS
83S
Strain energy,
J( 1-cos2 28) dO= P2El2R3 I~-

n ff
_ __!2Rs sin 28 j
- 2El 2 4
0 0
P 2 R3 n 1eP~R3
= 2El X 2= 4£/ ... (I)
Portion CB. ( origin at C)
Mx, bending moment = Px
l
U2 , strain energy =J
0
~;;2 dx = - - 6£/
p21s
Total strain energy,
Horizontal deflection at A,
SA - 'iJP -
au ,,. P Ra
2£1 +
P 1a
3£1 -
P , - 7t Ra
El L 2 +3
1s J
Problem 16'8. Fig. 16'21 shows a steel rod bent into the form of three quarters of a
circle of radius r. End A is fixed while end B of the rod is constrained to move vertically. If
a load Wis applied at the end B, determine the vertical deflection at the end B. Given El is
the flexural rigidity of the rod.
Solution. Fig. 16'2 l shows a rod
bent into the form of three quarters of a circle.
Since the end B is constrained to move only
vertically, a horizontal reaction R will be
offered by the constraint.
Consider an element of length A
ds=rd6
at an angle 8 to the vertical
Bending moment,
w
M,= Wxr sin 8- Rx (r - r cos 8)
Fig. 16·21
3n/2 3rt/2
Strain energy, U= J2El
Ma
2
·
rdO= r [Wr sin 8-Rr(I
j 2£/
- cos 8))2
- . rd0
0 0
Since there is no horizontal deflection, !~ =0
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STRENGTH OF MAh1t1AtS
3rr/2
O= - ~
2 1
j 2[(Wr sin 8-Rr(l-cos 8)1(1-cos 8) ,2. d8
0
3n:/2
= - ;~ f [W sin 0-R +R cos 0)(1-cos 9) d8
0
3rr/2
=- ;/ f [W sin 0-W sin 8 cos 0-R+R cos 0
+ R cos 8-R cos28] d6
0
31t/2
---~J
- EI
[wsin 0- Wsin 211 -R+2Rcos 8-R(l+cos 28>ldo
2 2 J
0
3rr/2 Jrr/l
= -_!!_
El j
f [ W sin 6 _ Wsin 20 _ 3R + ZR cos 0 _R cos
2 2 !
21]
0 0
3rr/2
or O= [-w cos e+ W cos

4
28 _ 3R o+zR sin 9 R sin 20]
2 4
0
or
3,;
-W (\ cos - - -cos O
o) + W (cos 3n-cos O )-
3R
x 3R
2 4 2 2
+2R( sin
3
; -sin 0° )- f (sin 3n-sin 0)=0
W+ : (-2)- '!" +2R (-1)=0
~
2
-
9
4
" R-lJt-i
9
W= n R+4R
2
•..
'1-•.
w . .. (1)
' .''./
-,.·-
aw -J
3rr/2
_ oU [Wr sin 9-Rr(l-cos 8)] r sin 0 . r d8
Vertical deflection, 8n- - EI .
0
3rr/2
I.·
= -,;1 f [W sin 8-R sin 8+R sin
3
B cos S] d8
0
3rr/2
j [ ~ (1-eos 20)-R sin 0+ R sf 29] d8
- ;
1
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0
STRAiN ENERGY MEtHobs
3rr/2
,.s IW
=- - 0- W sin 20+R
- cos I - R cos 20 I
El 2 4 4
0
,a [ -W x3rc
-- -EI - - -W ·
(sin 3,r-sin 0)
2 2 4
+R ( cos ~Tt - cos O) - : (cos 3n- eos 0) J

_ ~~ [ 3~W _ R + ~ ] - ;/ l 3~W __ ~ J
r 3 r 3,rW
= EI W J
I_ - - - it + S putting the value of reaction, R
4 9
Wr 3
=~L4-9n:+8
r 3n: I J
ProbleJn 16·9. A circular bar of diameter dis bent in the shape of U of radius R and
straight portion of length 1 as shown in the Fig. 16"22.. Equal loads ·Pare applied at the ends
A and E. Determine the relative shift between the pomts A and E.
E=Young's modulus of the matertial

strain energy due to bending. p
B
Portion AB
A
Bending moment Mx=Px X
Strain energy,
ff i
I
I
= M,,2dx _
2Et -1
I
r P x dx
2 2
2EI
0 0
.
w11Gr1 I = ,/d'
'8 (moment of mertia
. . ) D E
4
p2/1
"""6EI
J--e-
Pertiea BC. Taking oriiin at B,
x=R sin O where 9 varies from O-to'·,f f/2
Length of the element considered, ds=Rd0
Bendin& moment, Mx = P(l+R sin 8)
rr/2
Strain energy, U2=J [~(l+R sin 8) ]J RdO
2EI
0
n/2
p2
= 2EI J(/ R+ R
2 3
sin2 D+21R2 sin 8) d8
0
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. 'l8 STRENGTH OF MATBRI.At s
p2 [ RS
- 2 EI 12R + 2
J
rr/2
- 4EI I 2
rr/2
pzRs, sin 20 f p2/R2 / 2
+ 2£/ - cos e
rr/2
I
0 0 0
- pa _::_(12R+ Rs ' -0 +2p 2JR2

- 2El X 2 · 2 / 2£/
Total strain energy, U= 2V1+2V2

p2/S p 2n; ( RS ) 2P2/R2
= 3El + 2EI taR+ y +-gr-
4P213+6P2rr:l2R+3P2rr:R3+ 24 P 2/R2
12 El
j'··
Relative shift between the points A and E
o= au - 8Pl 3 + 12Prr;/2R+6Pn:R3+48 PlR2
oP - I2EI
2P/3+3Prr:/ 2P + l'5 P1tR3 + 12 PIR 2
3 El
rr;d4
But !=64
So
o= 64 (2P/ +3Pn;/ R +
3 2
1·5 Pn;Rs+ 12PIR2)
3 E rtd4
=// :; 4 (4JS+6rr: / 2R+3rr:R3 +24 /R2)
SUMMARY
1. If U i~; the strain energy in a system due to the applied forces, couples and twisting
DUUllelltS~· then
JWCL = '01, dispiacement along a particular load W,

0 '
oMU = ip,, angular rotation at a point where a particular couple M, is
0 ' applied
-Tau = e,, angu_1ar · at a ·pomt
twist • where a part1cu
· 1ar tw1·stmg
· m?ment r ·1s
1
o' applied
2. Strain energy due to direct force P on a bar of length /, area of cross section A,
and Young's modulus E
. P 2l 12
U= AE , u= E (strain energy per unit volu me)
2 2
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3. Strain energy per unit volume due to shear stress, q

1
U= X q2 where G= shear modulus
20
I
4. . energy due to bend'mg, U =

Stram J (Mx)2dx
2
E/
0
where l=length of the beam or cantilever
Mx= bending moment at a~y section
E/=Flexural rigidity of the beam or the cantilever
5. Strain energy due to twisting moment on a shaft
U= _r21
GJ
where T = twisting moment
/=length of the shaft
G=shear modulus
J = Polar moment of inertia of shaft section
MULTIPLE CHOICE Q.UESTIONS
I. A beam of length/, si mply supported at the ends carries a concentrated load W at its
centre. If EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam, strain energy due to bending is
W2/S W2/3
(a) 96EI (b) 48EI
w21s w212
(c)
24E/
(d)
12E/
2. A shaft of length /, p olar moment of inertia J is subjected to a twisting moment T. If
G is the shear modulus, the strain energy stored in the shaft is
TP T~
(a) 2Gf (b) 2GJ
TJ2
(c) (d)
GJ
3. A body is subjected to a direct force F, a twisting moment T and a bending moment M.
The energy stored in the body is 11. Displacement in the direction of Fis given by
(a) au + au + au <b) ~+ au
oM oT aF oM oF
(c) _o!!.._+ au (d) au
BT BF ~
4. A shaft of diameter 20 mm is subjected to a torque of 10 k Nm. The length of the $haf.t

is 1000 mm and angular twist produced by the torque is 1/100 radian. The strain energy
stored in the shaft is
(a) 200 Nm (b) 100 Nm
(c) 50 Nm (d) None of the above.
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5. A cantilever of length / is fixed at one end and at the other end a couple M is applied so
as to bend the cantilever. If El is the flexural rigidity of the cantilever, then slope at tl.le
free end of the cantilever is
Ml Ml
'!El (b)
(a) EI
2Ml 4Ml
(c)
El
(d) El
ANSWERS
I. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b)
EXERCISES
16"1. A structure ABCDE shown in
the Fig. 16"23 carries a concentrated load
W at C. The area of cross section of
each member is A and the modulus of elasti-
city is /!. Determine deflection under the w
load.
43 Wa
6 AE
J
Fiit. 16·23
1,·2. An aluminium strip loaded as cantilever 30 cm long cross section 2 cm x 5 cm
c!eep carries a concentrated load at the free end. Show that the deflection wiil be under esti-
mated by 0·3g7 per cent if the deflection due to shear is neglected .
Hi"3. A beam of length 2 metres is

of I section shown in the Fig. I 6"24. It is
supported at both the ends . The beam
carries a concentrated load of I tonne at the
micl span. Determine the central deflection
_d ue. to she;tr and bending.
G=840 tonnes/cm 2
£=2100 tonnes/cm2 ·
[Ans. 0·012 cm (due to shear)
0·019 cm (due to bending)] Fig. 16·24
16"4. Fig. 16"25 shows a frame. At
the ends · A and B, two equal and opposite
forces P are applied. Considering only the
the strain energy due to bending, determine
the relative displacement between the points p
A and B. El is the flexural rigidity of the
,frame.
' __ ,: ' ,JO.
~ - --b-- -...
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STRAIN ENERGY Ml:THODS 84 1
t6·s. A cantilever of length /, fixed at one end and propped at the other end
carries a concentrated load Wat a distance of -f from the propped end. If EI is the flexural
rigidity of the cantilever, determine the reaction at the prop. [ Ans. _!j
1..7
,v J
t6·6. A bar is bent in the shape
shown in the figure 16·26. With radius of
the bend R and length of the straight portion
/. Determine the vertical deflection due to
the load W at the end A, if EI is the flexural
rigidity of the bar. Consider only the strain t
energy due t o bending.
[ Ans. ~:
2
( +
nR+ 4l ) J .T
Fig. 16·26
16'7. Fig. J6·27 shows a steel rod of

diameter 20 mm bent into the form of three
quarters of a circle of radius 200 mm. End
A is fixed while end B of the rod is constrained
to move vertically only. If a load 50 N is
appliedfat the end B, determine (I) reaction
offered by the constra int (2) vertical deflec-
tion at the end B. Cons trai nt
E= 208,oqo N/mm2
[Ans. 2·156 N, 0·57 mm] Fig. 16·27
t6·8. A circular bar of diameter 2 cm is bent in the shape of U with radius of the
curved part equal to 3 cm and lengt.h of the straight part equal to l O cm. How much load can
be safely applied at the ends so that the relative shift between the ends is not to exceed I cm.
E= 2 X 106 kg/cm 2, [Ans. 240kg]
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17
Theories of Failure
We have learnt about principal stresses in Chapter 3 and have observed that there
always exists a set of 3 principal stresses at a point. Out of these 3 principal strei;ses acting
on principal planes, one is the maximum stress, other is the minimum stress and third one is
of some intermediate value. If we know the magnitude and direction of applied forces on a
body, we can find out the stresses / 1 , / 2 and q acting on the body and from this stress system,
principal stresses can be determined using the formulae derived in chapter 3, [as shown in
Fig. 17'1 (a) and (b)].
~ i:i,
q
t,
q
'2
1 t2
q
f1
) tress sys tun ot o po ir, t Equivalent syst e m with principal
.vi t h the known forc e s. stressts p and p .
1 2
{ a) ( b)
Fig. 17'1
Various theories of failure bai.ed on the physical behav iour of the materials have been
developed. In each theory a relationship is developed between principal stresses and the failure
stress (or the yield point stress) in a simple tensile test on a specimen of the material.
When a tensile test is performed on a standard specimen of a material and a graph is
plotted between tensile load and extension, a yield point is observed on the graph. At the
yield point, there is considerable extension, Hooke's law is not obeyed and the stress no longer
remains proportional to the strain after the yield point. Fig. 11·2 (a) show a tensile test
specimen and 17'2 (b) shows the load-extension graph of a most common structural material
i.e., mild steel. Jf the test piece is unloaded after the stage of yield point, there remains
permanent deformation in the material, rendering the material useless for further application,
~42
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f HEORIES OF FAILUilB 843
-i~f ! G-a=uge_--......;,..,.
le ngth
(a)
Exte nsion
{ b)
Fig. 17·2
Jn a simple tensile test we can easily determine the stress at which yielding ha!S occured
in a material but in the case of machine members subjected to various combinations of loads,
practically it is impossible to know where and at what stage yielding has started, rendering
the material useless, but certainly the principal stresses at a critical point can be known. In
various theories of failure, the principal stresses have been expressed in terms of the yield
stress in the simple tension or compression test and assuming that the stresses developed in the
material arc prop(,rtional to the applied loads, a limit is worked out such that if this limit, is
exceeded, yielding is assumed to begin in the material.
The materials generally fail by fracture or by excessi, e deformation at yielding. In
ductile materials. failure by yielding is the usual basis while in brittle materials like cast irun,
concrete etc. fa ilure by fracture or by ultimate stress is the criteria because yield point does
not exist for a brittle materials.
17'1. THE MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS THEORYi (Rankine's TJieory) .

This theory is based on the assumption that failure of the material' -or the yielding of
the material is governed by the maximum principal stress and is not influenced by other
stresses present at right angles. According to this theory, yielding in -the material occurs when
the applied loads are such that the maximum principal stress reaches the value of fu , i.e., yield
point stress in simple tensile test.
Say p 1 > P2> p 3 are the principal stresses
then P1<.±J11,,.
Consider the case or'a thin cylindri_cal shell subjected to an internal pressure p. The
principal stresses at any point are (see chapter 5) Pi , ~~ and - p where Dis the internal
diameter of the cylinder and t is the radial wall thickness.
pD
Principal stress, Pi= 2t .
According t o the maximum principal stress theory P.f: should be less than /wP or at
the most it can be equal to J.,,, so that failure of the material can be avoided.
P1<[111>
pD ~f, or p~ 2J." . t
2t""' .,, ~ ~
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&44 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
In a two dimensional case when p 3 = 0 this theory can be explained graphically as shown
in Fig. 17'3.
Taking x=-f..!..
Jll'P
and y= :z
Jl/ fJ
and plot-
+y
Y=-t-
yp
P2
ting the graph. Boundary of the figure ABCD B +1·0 A
defines the beginning of yielding. Experimental

results show that this theory is acceptabl~ ~"
when the principal stresses are of the same -X
sign. It is unsafe to design a machine member •. , 0

HO
on the basis of this theory if the principal
stresses p 1 and p 2 are of the opposite sign.
The theory is commonly used for brittle C
l --
-,,,1
-lO D
materials.
Fig. 17·3
. Example 17'1-l. A: solid circular shaft of diameter dis subjected to a pure torque
of 20 Nm. Determme the diameter of the shaft according to the maximum principal stress
theory, taking the factor of safety as 2; if the yield strength of the material is 310 N/mm2.
Solution. iup, yield strength of material = 3 l0 N/mm2
Factor of safety =2
Allowable maximum principal stress
J;v
= = 3~O = 155 N/mm2
Torque on the shaft = 20 Nm=20 x 108 N mm
Say the diameter of the shaft = d mm
16T
Max,imum shear ·stress developed iri shaft, q= . ~da .
T :: Torqu ~
·T d
i
T : Torq ue '-/2
,":...---./
J[Jt
/
Fig. 17·4
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THEORIES OP FAILtJR!J
The state of stress in a shaft subjected to pure torsion is shown in the Fig. 17'4. If q
is the maximum shear stress on the surface of the shaft, then principal stresses at a point on
the surface are Pi, P2 and Pa where Pi= +q, P2=-q P3=0.
So the maximum principal stress or the maximum shear stress in the shaft is not to
exceed 155 N/mm 2
_1 6T. ~155
nd 3
or as> 16 X 20 X 103
TeX 155
Shaft diameter, d>,8'7 mm.
Exercise 17'1-l. A thin cylindrical shell of diameter 0·5 m and thickness t is

subjected to an internal pressure of 2 N/mm 2 • Determine the thickness of the cylinder
according to the maximum principal stress theory taking the factor of safety as 3, if the yield
· strength of the material is 285 N/mm2 • (Ans. 5'26 mm]
17'2. MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS THEORY (Coulomb's theory)

This theory assumes that the yielding ; .
of the material subjected to combined stresses
is governed by the maximum she·ar stress
developed in the material and in order to
avoid yielding the maximum shear stress
developed should not exceed the maximum
shear stress at yield point in a simple tensile
or compression test on the material. Fig.
17·5 shows three dimensional Mohr's stress A
circle at a point having principal stresses Pi,
P2,Pa·
OA = p
Say Pi>P2>Ps 1
In the figure , OB =P
2
OA = Pi ; OB= p2; OC=p3 OC =p ·.
3
Maximum &hear stress, Three dimensional Mohr~
_ Pt-Ps s tre s s circ l e ·.
qmog;---
2
(represented by DE in the figure) Fig. 17·5 - • • f
Maximum shear stress in a simple tension case

at stress fvv is J;p (as the principal stresses are fup, 0, 0)
As per this theory Pi - Ps ~ fvp

2 2
(p1- p3) ~ f P•
Considering the example of thin cylindrical shell subjected to internal fluid pressure,
21 , · 4t,
-pD
having principal stresses pD . theory I (' -pD + p ) <,f,p
-p. As per this : j I•: ~,,
2 21
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STRENGtH OF MATERfALS
-Intetmal fluid pressure, p ~f~P. D!21

where D=diameter of thin cylindrical shell
t=wall thickness of shell
2t
i.e., if the internal pressure in the cylinder exceeds .the value of fl/p . D+ t , yielding
2
will take plat:e in the material.
In a two dimensional case where p 3 = 0 and Pi>Pz then as per the maximum shear
stress theory
Pi~P"<.f~ if p 1 and p 2 are of opposite sign
·and . h. ~ f"v if p 1 and p 2 are of the same sign

2 2
or p 1 ~ f~v is the governing equation to dete rmine the onset of
yielding. Under these conditions
The maximum shear stress theory coincides with the maximum principal stress theory.
Graphically this theory can be illus-
trated by Fig. I 7·6. P2
Y=-
1yp
In the quadrants I and III, when P1 +t-0 B
and p 2 are of the same sign, the maximum
shear stress theory coincides with the maxi-
mum principal $tress theory, i.e., lines AB,
BC ; DE and EF. In the quadrants I[ and IV
when the principal stresses are of the opposite
sign ·
Line CD shows
E -1-0 F
P1'-P2=-J11v
Line AF shows -Y .
Pi~P2-:-+f11p • F ig. 17·6
The designers very _often use this theory to design the machine components made of
ductile materials such as mild steel.
........
Example 17'2-l. A thick cylinder of internal diameter 10 cm is subjected to an
inter_nal pressure of 500 kgfcm 2 • petermine the thickness. of the cylinder according to the
ma~1mum shear stress theory 1f the yield strength of the maten al of the cylinder is 2800 kg/cm 2,
takmg a factor of safety of 2.
Solution. In the case of thick cylinders -subjected to internal pressure, max,j.mum
radial and circumferential stresses occur at the inner radius and axial stress is uniform.
Inner radius of the cylinder, R 1 = 5 -cm
Say outer radius of the cylinder = R2
At Inner Radius. Circumferential stress,
r•,· ._. ,. - R22+R12 . .
fc-P. R 22 _Ri2 tensile
where p·= radial pressure
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THEORIES OF FAILURE 8:417
Axial stress,
Principal stresses are / 0 , f a, -p.

2 2
Maximum shear stress = f•+P = p_ R 222 +R12 + !!_ = J!_ 2R2
2 2 · R 2 -R1 2 2 · R2 2 -R12
or p 2Rl /11p
2- X R 2 2 - .R/'' 2 X FS
Factor of safety, FS= 2
500 2R22 2800
or
2 X R 22 -R1 2 ~2 X 2
RJ o
or - t·4, or R 2 2 = 1'4 R 2 2 -1·4 R 1 "
R22 -R/
R 2 2 = 3'5 R 12 = 3'5 X 52
R 2 = 9·354 cm
Thickness of the cylinder = 9"354-5=4'354 cm.
Exercise 11·2-1. A thick steel cylinder of internal radius 40 mm and external radius
60 mm is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of intensity p. Determine the limiting value
of p according to the following theories
(i) Maximum principal stress theory.
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory.
Given yield stress of steel= 280 N/mm2 • [Ans. (i) 107·7 N/mm2 (ii) 77·77 N/mms]
17•3. MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRAIN THEORY (St. Venant's Theory)
In this theory, it is assumed that failure by yielding takes place in a material, when the
maximum principal strain in the material subjected to combined stresses is equal to the strain
at the yield point in a simple tensile or compression test on the material.
If Pi > p 2 >p 3 are the principal stresses, the maximum principal strain is
"1= _l_(P1-
E
P.3..... _ Ps)
m m
Strain at the yield point in a simple tensile or compression test is / p/E, then as per
this theory
or J_ ( _ P2+Pa )~ /11p
E Pi m '°"" E
or
Considering the case of thin cylinder subjected to internal pressure p again, where the
Principal stresses arc pl!_
2t
, pD_ , - p at the inner radius of the cylinder, we can write that
4t
pD _ pD +_E_
( 'l,t 4trn m
)~f~t>
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848 - STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
4tm
or P ~f,
~ vp · 2Dm - D+4t to avoid yielding in cylinder
Now in a biaxial stress system, where p 3 = 0
Principle strains, E1 = Pi
- P2
- -·
E mE
P2 P1
E2= y - mE
Strain at the yield point in a simple tensile or compression test ,
ft;p
Ewp=y
So
( P1 - pm )I <;;Jvp
2
Pi - -1!:L <;; I
fvp mf~p
or x-L ~I if J!1- = x and l!:L =y

m fup ' fw p
Similarly
or
X
or y- -- <;;I
m
The above relationships between pi, P2 andfvp can be shown through a graph as ·in
Fig. 17'7.
. P1
X : -·-
fyp
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THEORIES OF FAILURE 849
To plot a graph showing the relationship between Pi and p 2 and f,p so that yielding just
begins, the equation will be
X
x=t+L
m
and y= l+-
m
where 1/m is the Poisson's ratio. This theory assumes that the material obeys Hook's law.
Experimental results have shown that this theory is not q1,1ite acceptable.
Taking the case of biaxial tension i.e. Pi and P2 both are positive, then as per this
theory,
showing thereby that principal stress Pi can be greater than /vp, which is not acceptable to
designers.
Example 17'3-l. A certain type of steel has yield strength of 270 N/mm2, At a
point in the strained region the principal stresses are + 120 N/mm 2 , +80 N/mm2 and -30
N/mm2 • Determine the factor of safety according to the maximum principal strain theory,
Given : 1/m for steel=0'285.
Solution.
Principal stresses are p 1 = + 120 N/mm 2 ,
P2=80 N/mm2 and p 3 = - 30 N/mm 2
Maximum principal strain,
E - b_ h 12__
1- E -mE- mE
1
=-
E .
c1;0-0·2s5 x so + o·2s5x30J =!05E·~5
According to the maximum principal strain theory
/ /vp
E]~EXF.S
105·75 ~ 270 1
- E- """'EX (Factor of safety)
270
or Factor of sa1ety,
C F,'S = • 2'55
105 75
Example 17'3·2, A shaft is simultaneously subjected to a bending moment of 20 kg-
metre and a twisting moment of 15 kg-metre. Design the diameter of the shaft according to
the maximum principal strain theory .
Given yield strength of the material = 2100 kg/cm 2
1/m, Poisson's ratio = 0'3
Factor of safety =2
Solution.
Bending moment, M = 20 kg-metre= 2000 kg-cm
Twisting moment, T = 15 kg-metre= 1500 kg-cm
Sa!' diameter of the shaft =d .
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STRENGllH ,OB MAil'ER:l~<Ul
Stress due to bending, f = E_M·

nd3
16 T
Shear stress due to twisting, q= r;d3
Principal stresses
P1= { +J( { y+q2

_ 16 M { ( 16 M_ ·)2 (- ~ )z
- r;d3 + \J nd8 +\ icd3
=~[
""nd3 M+VM +T
2 2
] '
p2= { -J(-{- r +q 2
=~[ M-yM2+r2 J
r;d3
Substituting the values of Mand T we get,

16X4500 16X 500
rcdS P2=-
Now according to the maximum prin,ci_pal sJ,Jiain tµ.,eory

P1 P2 ~ fop
E- mE E x factqi; of Safet.1.
1 or n!s (72000+0·3 X 8000) ~ ! 1

~~
74400- ?.!OO X nd3

- 2
d3 = 22'554476
Shaft diameter d = 2'825 cm
Exercise t 7·3-1. Determine the thickness of a. \\);in steel cylin~e1 Qf diameter 600 mm
subjected to an internal pressure of 3 N/mm2 according to
~a) -m~im.um sheat ~tress ~heqFy
(bJ maximum principal stt'ess theory
(c) maximum principal strain theory
Take factor of safety of 2. Yield strength of steel=280 Nfmma, 1·/m fur steel=0'28
[Ans. (a) 6'56 !1111\, (b.}. 6:~~ p:iµi, (c) 5'56 mm]
Exercise 17'3-2. A hollow circular shaft of internal diameter 3 cm and external
diameter 5 cm is subjected to a torque of 12000 kg-cm. Determine the factor Af· taj't~ accord-
ing to the maximum princ.lP.<\1 ~tr;:.in theory. ·
2
Given, yield stre~s, Qf steel = 2700 f<g/cm
1/m for stee1 = 0'29 [AJJs, 3'72]
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. ,17: 4. ,s!fR.-\IN 1ENER&Y -THEORY (Beltrami, ·Haigh)
This theory is based ·on the•assumption ·th-at failure or -yielding of the 1,l(ateF.i~l :~urs
when the strain energy stored in a unit volume due to the principal stresses developed in the
machine compo,_-i:ent is~equal to the strain enengy ·st0_red in a unit voluP.J-e at the.yield point stress
in a simpfo fensHer,tesq,erforined on· a specimen df the same material. The :·13rincipal stresses
at a point in a ~trained· machine member are pi, P2 and p 3 as shown in the Fig. 17'8. The
principal strain_s will be
'2
Fig. 17'8
e _ .J!i __. Pi+ Pa

i- E mE
Pi P1+Pa
e2 =E - mE
Pa P1+P2
ea= -E mE
strain energy per!unit volume,

· 1 1 l
u= zPi E1+ I P2 E~+ 2 Ps E3
= '2~ [ Pi(Pi- P2!Pa )+P2(P2 _ _p::s )+p (p A;!;f

3 3-
2
)]
= 2~ [ ( Pl + p}+ p/ ) - ~( P1P2+P2Ps+PaPi )]
:.Strain .energy at yield point in a simple tensile test

u' = fyp2
2E
According to this theory u<;.u'
[(P1 2+ p} + p/) - ! (P1P2+P2Pa+Papi) J <:.f1v 2
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852 STRENGTH OF ~1ATERIALS
Again taking the example of' a thin cylindrical shell subjected to internal pressure p;
. . pD pD .
where thepr10c1pal stresses are 2t, 4t' -p, we can wnte that
pD
( 2t
)2 + (pD
4t
)2 +(-p)2_.l_m [pD
2t
X pD _
4t
pD Xp- pD X p
4t 2t
J~J,p2
P
2
[ ~
2
( I~ - ~m)+l+ ;t~ l ~/,p2
~ /,p
p Jt2n2 ( 16-
, 1 ) 3D
4m +l+ 2tm
Showing that yielding in the cylinder will begin if the magnitude of internal fluid
pressure exceeds the value given by the expression above.
In a two dimensional case, when p 3 = 0 , according to this theory
( P1 2 +P22 - ; P1P2 )~hP 2
or _!!L + P22 _ 1_ P1Pi ~ l

f, p2 f, p2 m f,p2
2
or x2+ y2- - xy= 1
m
where x= Y.i... and y = l!:L.

f,v ' f,P
Let us take _!_ = 0"25
m
The above equation will be +1

x2+y2-0"5xy= \
which is shown in the Fig. ! 7·9, plotted o n

the rectangular co-ordinate system as an +1
ellipse. I
I
Experimental evidence available so ---=:.;,,.,.... - - ~
-1
far does not permit the use of this theory for
design purposes. Fig. 17·9
Example 17'4-l . A thick cylinder of internal diameters 200 mm and external diameter
300 mm is subjected to an internal pressur e p. Determine the maximum value of p according
to the strain energy th_eory if the yield point' stress of the material is 180 N/mm2, taking a
factor of safety of 2. Given l/m = 0"32.
Solution. Inner radi us, R1 = 100 mm
Outer radius R 2 = 150 mm
Internal pressure = p in N/mm 2 •
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Maximum circumferential stress,
R22 - Ri2 1503 + 100 2
f.=p. R,?-R/:=pX 150 2 -100 2 =26 P
Axial stress,
R 2 1002
f a=p. R22~R12 =pX 1502=1002 =0·8p
The principal stresses at the inner radius- are
' 2·6 p, o·8 p, - p N/mm 2
Yield point stress =180 N/mm 2
Factor of safety =2
180
Allowable stress, fyv'= =90 N/mm 2
2
Applying the strain energy theory
')
(2 6 p) 2-t-(0"8 p) 2 +(-p) 2- -m- (2·6 xo·s p 2-2·6 p 2 -0·8 p2)~902
,
p 2[6.76+0"64 + 1- 2 X 0"32 (2"08- 2·6-0.8)]~902
- - p 2[8 ·4+0·8448]~90 2
Internal pressure, p-
-
J _JHOO _ _ .
9"2448 --29 6 ~/mm2
Exercise 17·4-l. A pipe 15 cm in diameter is subjected to a pressure of 50 kg/cma

and an axial compressive force of 800 kg. Determine the wall thickness using the strain energy
theory. The design stress is 1200 kg/cmt and the pipe is to be considered closed at the ends.
[Ans. 3'1 mm]
t7·S. SHEAR STRAIN ENERGY (DISTORTION ENERGY) THEORY (Von Mises)
In this theory, it is assumed that failure by yielding occurs when the energy which is
used in changing the shape of a unit volume of a component is equal to the distortion energy
(or the shear strain energy) per unit volume at the yield stress of a specimen subjected to a
simple tensile or compression test. Total strain energy at a point consists of two components
i.e.,
(i) Volumetric strain energy causing the change in volume.
(ii) Shear strain energy causing the change in shape of the body.
In the previous article we have determined the total strain energy
U=
2~ [ P1 +P2 +Pa
2 2 2
- ; (PiP2+P2P3+PsP1) J
=u,+u,
= Volumetric strain energy+shear strain energy
Volumetric strain energy can be determined by the volumetric
Stress component pm Pi +p;+Pa which is equal in all the directions. Principal

stresses (not accompanied by any shear stress) can be represented by a tensor as follows
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-c
'!'8~4
Pi 0 0 I Pm 0 0 0 ·O
0 P2 0 =Io Pm 0 + 0 0
I
0 Pa 0 0 lo 0 Pm
(p;,:_Jp;;j"
Strain energy det;rmined by 3 principal stresses at a point, i.e. Pm, Pm, Pmgives the
volumetric strain energ'y, where Pm is the mean sttess.
Volumetric strain energy, Em
u.,= 3 x t ·p,;,
where strain, Em= PE - P'"mifm-= PE ( 1- ~ )
Uv=l_
2
Pm X Pm(
E
1- 2-)= 3Pm
m 2E
2
( 1:__ -1_)
m
= 21 ( Pi+f2+Ps )\ 1- ~)
=-6~( 1- ~) (p1 2+pl+Ps +2P1P2+2P2Pa+2PaP1)2
Strain ene.rgy g~yen QY (pi-Pm), (p2-Pm) and (p 3 -Pm) is the shear strain energy required
for changing the ~hape of a unit volume of a member
u,=U-Uv
= J [
ZE Pi + P22+Pa2-
2
, 2; (P1P2+P2Pa+PaP1) J
=·"
-
6
1( 1- ~ ) (P1 1 + P22 +Ps2+ 2P1P2+2P2Pa+2PaPi)
r,,,, , 2 2
= Pi +~i + Ps ( 1+ ~) P1P2 + ~2%:a+ PaP1 ( 1+ ~.)
.'
where E = Modulus of eia·sticity

0
G= 'Modulus of rigidity
or ( 1+,,~ -)=.fa
. 1
u, = 12G [(p1 - P2)2 + (p2- Pa)2+ (Ps - Pi)2]
In a ' ~rople ·,tensile 'test, at the yield ·point of the material, the principal stresses are
fyp, o. 0
I • 1 (f 2+1 2)- fyp2
u, = 12G YP yp - 6G
According to this theory failure by yielding occurs if
.l~~G · (p~ ~ p;)2+(p2-p~)2+lPa-P1)2]~ 1t
or · 'C<p1~ P2)~+tp:i_:'Ji;)i+<Ps-Pi)'i <.21;v2
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Let us again consider the example of a thin cylindrical sh~H s_u pj~pt~ct to. internal
pressure p, where the principal stresses are 1;_~. P:: and - p, and apply this t.heory, we can
write
( pt - ~~ Y+C Pj/ +py+(-p- -f: /=21yp2
2 D2 D2 D Da DJ
P [ 16t2 + 16t 2 + 21+ 1+ 1+ 4t 2 +t <. 2Jyp2
p2 [ 2+ !~ + 3:;
2
]~2/yi
~
p""' J +16 ,2+4 t
1
fyp
3 D2 3 D
i.e. , yielding in the cylinder begins if the internal pressure is of the value given above
In a two dimensional stress system when p 3 =0, according to this theory
'
[P12 +P22-2PiP2+P22+P1 2]= 2/,v2
Pi2+ P2 2 - PiP2= f, v2
fP1 2+ _P.i _ P1P2 =l
fy p2 fyp2 f,p2
P2
Y=-
fy p
where x = h.... and y= P2

hp ' f,p
This is the equation of ellipse, shown
plotted in Fig. 11· 10. In this theory, it is
assumed that the material obeys Hooke's law.
For ductile materials, this theory is in good
agreement with experimental results and is
~eing used for design purposes.
Fig. 17· JO
Example 11·s.1. A th in spherical shell h,as a diameter of 400 mm and a thickness

of t mm. It is subjected
2
to an in ~emal fluid pressure of 5 1'Y~n;i.~. T~e .01~tei:~~l has a yield
strength of 265 N/mm • Determme the thickness of the shell accordnig to the distortion
energy theory, taking a factor of safely o f 3.
Solution. Circumferential stress,

- pD _ 5X400
f.e- 500 N / mm2
4t - 4 X t t
Principal stresses a t the inner radius of thin spherical shell are
5 0 5
/,, f" - p or ~. , oo , -. 5 N /m m 2 in this ca~~.
t
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Applying the distortion energy theory
[( 5~0 _ 5~0 )2+( 5~0 + 5 f+(-5- 5~0 rJ = 2/yp'
where fyp' = f,v = 265 =88'33 N/mm 2

factor of safety 3
or 2 ( 25~~00 +25+ 50~0 )=2(/yp')2
250000 + 2s+ sooo =(88'33)2=7802·8

t2 t
2soooo +2s1 2 +50001 =7802·81 2
7777'8t 2 - SOOOt -250000 =0
t 2 -0'6428t-32' 143 =0
t= 0'6428+40·~132 +123·572 - 0'6428111'3572
Thickness, t=6 mm.

Exercise 17-5-1. A thick cylindrical shell 15 cm internal radius and 20 cm external
radius is subjected to an internal pressure of 300 kg/cm2 • Determine the factor of safety
according to the distortion energy theory of fatlure if the yield stress of the material is 2800
kg/cm3 • Consider also the influence of axial stress. [Ans. 2'38]
Problem 171. What combination of principal stresses will give the same factor of
safety for failure by yielding according to the maximum shear stress theory and the distortion
energy theory ? Consider only a two dimensional stress system.
Solution. Say Pi and p 2 are the principal stresses at a point.
(a) when p1 and p 2 are of the same sign and
P1>P2 and p 3 = 0
Then according to maximum shear stress theory
Pi _ hv
2-2.F.S
Factor of safety, FS = fvp ... (I)

Pi
According to the distortion energy theory
~ )• t
I ,· . ,
~• ~ I
{(p1·-~2)2+p/+p~2}=2 ( 1~ r
Factor of safety, .. . (2)
As per the condition given

fup - f11p_
Pt - ,.fP12+ P22-P1P2
or Pi2+p?- P1P2= Pi2 or p/p2- p1) = 0
or p1=,p2 Since p~::f=O
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(b) whenp1 andp 2 are of opposite sign and P1>P~

According to maximum shear stress theory
Pi+P, - fvp '
- 2- - 2(FS)
_ f.1P ..•(3)
Factor 0f safety
- P1 + P2
According to the distortion energy theory
{(Pi+P2) 2 + p i2+P22 }=2 ( 1s r

or Factor of safety
As per the condition given

fyp fyp
P1 + P2 = 'V P1 2 +P22 +P1P2
....._,, ..
6r (Pi +p2)2=Pi2 +P2 2 +P1P2
or P1P2= 0
i.e., either p 1 = 0 or p 2 =0.
Problem 17'2. A shaft is subjected to a bending moment and a twisting moment
simultaneously and at a particular section the b:mding mo ment is Mand twisting moment is
T . Show that the strain energy per unit volume is
u= 2~ { p+2q2( ~n: I )}
where/is the maximum bending stress and q is the ma'<imum shear stress and 1/m is the
Poisson's ratio.
Solution.
Bending moment =M
Twisting moment =T
Maxm . bending stress, f = 32 Iv!_
rtd3
. 16 T
M axm. sh eanng stress, q= nds 't t . ·~ \
Principal stresses on the surface of the shaft
Strain energy per unit volume
u= ik { 2
P i2+P2 - ,~ P1P2}
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1
_I { /2+2q2( I +- )}
= 2E m
Problem 17·3. The internal pressure in a steel drum is 10 N/mm 2 • The maximum
circumferential stress is 85 N/mm 3 and longitudinal stress is 22 N / mm 2 • Find the equivalellt
te1tsile streas in a simple tensile test according to each of the theories. Take Poisson's ratio
= 0"3.
Solution. The principal stresses at the critical point are
+85, +22, -10 N/ mm 2
Say the equivalent tensile stress in a simple tensile test is f
(a) Maximum principal stress theory / = p 1 = 85 N/mm 2
(b) Maximum shear stress theory
f Pi - Pa 85+10
2- = 2 = 2
/ = 95 N /mm 2
(c) Maximum principal strain theory
I _= .l (
E E
85- 22
m
+~
m
)
/ = 85 - 0'3 x 22 + 0·3 x 10=81 '4 N/mm 2
(d) Strain energy theory
2
/
2E -- 2E
-- J_ { 852+222 +(-10) 2 -1-
m
{85x.22 - n x 10 - aoxg5)}
/2= {7225+484+ 100- 0·6(1870-220- 850)}
=(7225+584- 480) = 7329
/=85'6 N / mm 2
(e) Distortion energy theory
2/'=(85-22) 2 +(22+ !0) 2 +(- !0-85)Z
= 3969 + 1024 + 9025
/ = 83"72 N/ mm 2 •
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Problem 17·4. The load on a bolt consists of an axial thrust of 800,kg together with
a transverse shear force of 400 kg. Calculate the diameter of the,bolt according to
(a) maximum principal stress theory
(b) maximum shear stress theory
(c) strain energy theory. Take 3 as factor of safety.
Yield strength of the material of the bolt=2850 kg/cm 2
Poisson's ratio=o·3
Solution.
Say the diameter of the bolt =d
Area of cross section, A=_!:_ di
4
Axial compressive stress on bolt, f = S~O

400
Shear stress on bolt, q= -
A
Maximum principal stress
P1=-f +J (-{: r+q 2
= 4Jo +J( 420 Y+( 4~~ t

965 ·6
_ A kg/cm2
Minimum principal stress
p 2 = 4~0 -J( 4~0- / +( ~~.9__:_ l

165·6
= - ~ kg/cm 2
Yield strength =2850 k:g/em2

Factor of safety =3
28-50
Allowable fyp'= - -. - = 950 kg/cm2
3
(a) Maximum principal stress theory
965°6 ~950
A
it
A=l "Ol642=- dZ
4
d = 1·137 cm
,e1 - P2 ~ fyv'
2 2
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860 'shilNG'rA: oti MATBkIAL~
.....' 965 '6 165· 6 =950

' A + A
A= 1131 ·2 =1·190 cm 2 = :!..d2

950 4
d=t·23 cm
(c) Strain tnergy theory
965·6)2 (-1 65'6)' 2 _l_ ( 965'6 165'6) = , 2
( A + A +m A X A fyp
932383.36+27423.36 + 95942.016 =/ 2/p X A2
Putti ng the value of/' YP
A2= 1·0331 + o·J304 + 0· t063 = 1 · 1698 .;
A= 1"08 1573= ..::__ xd2

4
d=l"l73 cm.
Problem 17·5, A thin al uminium alloy tube has a mean dia meter of 20 cm and wall
thickness 2 mm . The tube is subjected to an internal pressure of 20 kg/cm 2 and a tor(iue of
12000 cm-kg. If the yield strength of the material is 2400 kg/c m2 and Poisson's ratio is 0·33,
determine factor of safety according to
(a) Maximum shear stress theory
(b) Maximum principal strain theory
(c) Strain energy theory.
Solution. ..
f /
External diameter of t he tube, D=20'2 cm

Internal diameter of the tube, d = 19·8 cm'
Polar moment of inertia.
re:
J =3f (20·2' - 19·8'~ ·
=n n:
(~6~4~6'64- 1536_95·36! = 1256'76 cm'
., .
Maximum stresses occur at the inner radius of the tube.
So, shear stress due to twisting moment, at the· inner radius::· ... . i • • ;·, •. I • r. )
12000 19'8
q= 1256·76 x -2- =94·53 kg/cm2
Axial stress due to internal pressure

pD' w h ere D' =mean ct·tameter
ra= 4t
1
20X20
= 4 x o·2 =500 kg/cm~:
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Circumferential stress due to internal pressure
pD' 20 X20
J .=~ = 2 x 0 .2 = lOOOkg/cm 2
The stresses at a point (at the inner radius) are f , , fa, q and - p (radial stress)
Let us first determine the principal stresses, because f 0 and Ju are no longer principal
stresses since they are accompanied by shear stress q in this case. The stress system is shown
in Fig. 17'1 I.
Maximum principal stress
Pi= 1000+500 +~ (1000 -;500)2_ )+(94. 53) 2

fa =500 kg/cm2
= 750 + 100,V6'25 + 0'8936 r-t---.
= 750 +267'27 /.,/,..,,
=1017'27 kg/cm 2
L---,-----...J q =94·5~ kg/cm2
Other principal stress --+---q
pz= 1000;-500 -...J(woo;-sooy+ (94 .53) 2

tc = JOOO kg/cm2
Fig. 17'11
= 750- 267'27
= 482'73 kg/cm 2
Now the principal stresses at the inner radius of the tube are
+ 1017'27 kg/cm2 + 482'73 kg/cm 2 and - 20 kg/cm2.
(a) M a xirnum shear stres s theory
1011·21+ 20 2400
- - 2- -
2 X F.S.
or Factor of 11afety 2400 . ,. .

= 1037'27 = 2 31-'
(b) Maximum principa l strain theor y
Pi P~ Pa fyp
7 - mE- mE = E x FS
!017'27-0'33 x 482'73+ 0'33 x 20= 24..QO_ or lOJ.7 '27 - ;52·10 = 2400 ·. · ., . ·

FS F$
2400
F4ctor of safety = .
864 57
= 2'776.
( c) Strain energy theory
(1017'27)2+ (482' 73)i+ ( - 20) 2 -2 X 0'33( 1017'27 X 482 ·73

3
- 482'73 X 20- 10 l 7'27 X 20) = ( 2iQQ )
F.S
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STRENGTH OF MA TBR:tALS
1034838·2+233028'25 + 400 - 0'66(49 l 066'74-96546-203454)
- 2400·x 2400
(F.S) 2
or 1268266.4-0'66(191066'74) = 2400 X 2400

(FS) 2
1268266'4-126104'04= 24 00 X 24 00
2 (FS)
1142162 .4 = 2400 X 2400

(FS)2
Fl\ctQr of safety = ""5'043 = 2·246~-
Problem 11·16. A hollow shaft 30 mm internal diameter and 50 mm external diameter

i, subjected to a twisting moment of .800 Nm and an axial compressive force of 40 JcN.
Determiq~ th~ factor of safety according to each of 5 theories of failure if the tensile and
compressive yield strength of the material is 280 N/ mm2 and Poisson's ratio, IYm=0·3.
Solution.
Internal diameter of shaft = 30 mm
External diameter of shaft= 50 mm
Area of cross section, A=ff(50 2 -302 )/4 = 12'5664 x 104 mm 2

J= n (504-304 )/32 = 53'40x 104 mm•
Maximum shear stress at the outer surface of the shaft
T D
q= 7 X where T=800 x 103 N mm
2
800 X }03 .
= 53 .40 x 104 x25=37 45 N/mm 2
Axial compressive stress,/= ~ where P=40 kN
40x 1000
= 12·5664 x 102 31 .830 N/mm1.
O• the oater s,qJ;f,ace of the shaft

- -- s,- Cl;
The stresses on any element are shown
in Fig. 11·12. f f
+ ·-Shaft
ax is
Principal stresses at the point are
Pi= f + J(f) +q2 q----f =31 ·S3 N/rn m 2

= 3~'83+J ( 3\83 r +(37~
q = 37-45 N/rnm2
Fig. 11·12
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THEORIES OF FAILURE
= 15"915 + -1253'287 + 1402'50

=1 5"915 + 40"691 (compressive)
=56"606 N/mm2 (compressive)
P2= -{ -J({)+q~-
= 15"915-40'691
= -24"776 N/mm 2 (tensile)
fy 9 =280 N/ mm2
Poisson's ratio =l/m=0'3.
(a) Maximum. principal stress theory
280
Factor of safety, FS=/Y__P = 4"9464.
Pi 56"606
Pi and p 2 are of opposite sign. Therefore
Pi-P 2 fyp
-2-=2xFS
, 280 280
15 = 56'606+24·776 = s 1·382
Factor of safety =3'44

(c) Maximdm principal s train theory
Pi P2 f)P
E mE= E(FS)
280
56"606+ 0·3 x 24'776 =
F.S.
Factor of safety,

2
(56'606) 2 +( - 24"776) 2 + _l (56'606 X 24'776)=( fyp )
m FS
2
3204"24+613·85+841'48 = ~~~ since ~ =0·3
Factor of safety, FS = JZSO x 2

4659'57
so yt6·8255 =1' 10.
(e) Shear strain energy theory
(56"606+24' 776) 2 +( -24·776)2 +(- 56"606) 2 = ·2x { 2;J )2

2 280
6623.03 + 613'8 5+3204"24= X X~
. (FS) 2
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&64 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
(FS)2= 2X280x280 =15"017546

10441 ']2
Factor of safety = 3'875.
Problem 17·7. A 50 mm diameter mild steel shaft when subjected to pure torsion
ceases to be elastic when the torque reaches 4 kNm. A similar shaft is subjected to a torque
2·4 kNm and a bending moment M kNm. lf maximum strain energy is the criterion for elastic
failure, find the value of M. Poisson's ratio = 0'28.
Solution.
Torque T' = 4 kNm = 4 x 106 Nmm
Shaft diameter = 50 mm
Maximum shear stress,
'= 16 T' _ _!~X _4XlQ_s _ =162'97 N/ 2
q n;ds - ,;(50)S mm
Principal stresses on the surface of the shaft 162'97, -162'97, O N/mm2
Strain energy per unit volume at which the shaft ceases to be elastic
u' = ~ [ (162'97) 2 +(- 162'97) 2 - ; (162'97)(- 162'97)]

2
X (162'97)2[ 2+ ~ J
= -2~ (162'97) 2(2'56) ... (I)
Shaft subjected to M and T

Maximum shear stress due to T,
I6 T
q= r;d3 where T = 2 '4 kNm= 2'4 x 106 Nmm
Maximum bending stress due to M,

f = 32 M
n;d3
Principal stresses are Pi = { + J({ / + q2
= 16 M
3
nd
+ J ( 16 M
\J nd3
)2 + ( 16ndsT )z
= ~:s [ M + ~M2+r2 J
" ~ 2 ={ - J({ y
1
+q2
·= __!_§_
Tid.3
[M - V
.
M2 +T2],
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Strain energy per unit volume
1 r 2 2
u= 2 E !_ P1 + P2 2 - m(P1P2)
J
= 2~ [M +M +r2+2 MV M +rz+M +M +r2
2 2 1 2 2
But as per the strain energy theory u' = u
( ~~3 )2[4M 2 +(2"56) T2]=(162"97) 2 (2"56) as

I
- = 0 "28
m
4M2-f-2'56 T 2 =(162'97) 2 (2'56) { -

•.,,.aa )2
, 16
= 162'97 X 162'97 X 2 56 X 2
2
~t
6
= 2. 66 X 104 X 1t 2 X 15625 X 104

~=4l'020 X !C12
4M 2 =41 '020 X 10 12 -2'56 X (2"4 X !06 )2
= 41 '0/0X J012 -!4'7456X l0 12 =26'2744X 1012
M = 6'5686x 1012
2
M = 2'563x 10 6 Nmm = 2·563 kNm.
Problem 17'8. A hollow circular ste~l shaft is subjected to a twist ing moment of 80
kg-metre and a bending moment of 120 kg-metre. The internal diameter of the shaft is 60% of
the external diameter. Determine the external d iameter of the shaft according to (a) Maxi-
mum principa l stress theor y (b) Maximum shear stress theory (c) Shear strain energy theor y.
Take
Factor of safety =2
Yield strength of steel = 2700 kg/cm2
Solution.
Say external diameter =D
Then, internal di ameter = 0-6 D= d
l't 2 2
Area of cross section, A=
4 (D -0·36 D )
'tT 'tT
J= (D 4 - d 4 ) = (D 4 - 0'6 4 x D4)
32 32
4
= ;~ (0'8704) = 0'08545 X D4
Moment of inertia, I= ~ = 0'042725 1)'1
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STRENGTH OF MATERIAI.S
Maximum stresses will be developed on the outer surface of the shaft.

M= 120 kg-m, T=80 kg-m
Maximum d irect stress d ue to bending moment
M D I20x 102 D
!=-x-
i 2 o·042725 D 4 X 2
14'04 X 104
kg/cm 2
Da
Maximum shearing stress due to twisting moment

T D
q=TXT
80 X 10 2 D 4 ·68X 104 2
= 0·08 545 D4 x T = - D-a - kg/cm
Principal stresses
P1=2+ ·; (
f ,---2
f)
- +q2
4 42 4 )2
= t7'02X l0
____D_a_ + \j'(702xl
na 0 ) + (4"68x
Da
10
- 1·0 2 X Q'l - 104 ,./ 49'28 + 21 '90

- Da I- na
7·02 X 104 8'43 7 X 10 4 15·457
"" na + na- ·- - na . X 104
p 2= { -J ({ r +q
2
7·02 X I 0 4 8"437 X I0 4 l '4I7 x 104

DS na Da
' (a) Maximum Principal Stress Theory
Yield point stress, f >v= 2700 kg/cm 2
Factor of safety = 2
2700
Allowable f yv' = - - = 1350 kg/cm 2
2
P1 = f yp'
J5'457 x l04 = 1350
na
Da = l54570 = 114'496
1350
Shaft diapteter = 4"855 cm
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THEORIES' OF FAlLURE

Since p 1 and p 2 are of opposite sign
P1-P2 fyv'
- 2 =2
4
15 ·457 +1'417x 10 = 1~50
or D3 X 104 D3 •
16 8 104
D3 = · ;: ~ = 124·9925
5
Shaft diameter, D=5 cm
(c) Shear strain energy theory
( Pi - P 2)2+A 2 +p?=2 fyv.12
(16·874 X 10 4) 2+(15·457 X 104 ) 2 +(1 '4 l 7 X 104 ) 2 = (1350)2X 2 X D6
ios [(16·874) 2+(15'457)2 + (1 .417)2]=D 6
1350 X2700 '
D =21·43 [284.73 + 238·92 + 2·00)...:....14418.5
6
D3= 120·077
Shaft diameter, D=4·934 cm
SUMMARY
If at a p oint in a strained body p 1 , p 2 and p 3 are princ ipal stresses .mch that p 1 >Pt>P.
and/1 is the yield point stress of the m aterial when tested in simple tension or compression
1)
test.
(a) Maximum principal stress theory p 1 ~In
(b) Maximum shear stress theor y
(i) Pt - p3 <, f,v
2 2
(ii) If p 3 is equal to zero and Pi and p 2 are of opposite sign. Then
Pi-Pt ~f>..!?
2 2
Cc) Maximum principal strain theory
£1 [ P2 + Ps
pi - -m- J. ,.-
-,,,
f,v
E
where .!._=Poisson's ratio, E= Young's modulus
m
iE [ Pt2 +Pl+Ps3 - 1~ (P1P2+P2Pa+PaP1) J~ 1;2

(e) Shear strain energy theor y
+
[(p1 - P2)2 +(p2 - Ps) 2 (pa- 2
JJ1) ] ~2/,i}
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STRENGTH OF MATERIAI.S

1. The elastic limit stress for a material is 270 N/mm2 • A machine member of circular
section subjected to a uniaxial stress is to be designed. If the diameter obta ined by
using the maximum principal stress theory is 40 mm, then by using the maximum shear
stress theory, the diameter of the machine member will be
(a) 40\1'2 mm (b) 40 mm
(c) 40/ v2 mm (d) None of the above
2. The principal stresses at a point are 70 N/mm 2 , 60 N/mm 2 and -18 N/mm 2 • Say /,P is
the stress at the yield point of the material. Using the maximum principal stress theory
we get factor of safety of 4. What is the factor of safety if maximum principal strain
theory is used. Poisson's ratio for the: material is 1/3
(a) 4 (b) 4·5
(c) 5'0 (d) 5·5
3. A thin cylindrical shell with D/t ratio equal to 40 is subjected to internal fluid pressure of
2 N/mm2 • The yield point stress of the material is 210 N/mm2 • Using the maximum
shear stress theory for ~esigning the thin shell, the factor of safety is
(a) 5·75 (b) 5'50
(c) 5'25 (d) 5·00
4. The principal stresses developed at a point are +60 N/mm 2 , -60 N/mm2 a nd o·o N/mm 2 •
Usi ng the shear strain energy theory, the factor of safety obtained is '13. The yield
point stress of the material is
(a) 60\!6 N/mrn 2 (b) 60 X y'3 N/mm 3
-.(c) · 60 N/mm2 ld) None of the above.
. 5. A shaft subjected to pure torsion is to be designed. The yield point stress of the material
is 280 N/mm 2 and Poisson's ratio =-=0·3. Which of the following theories gives the largest
diameter of the shaft
(a) Maximum principal stress theory (b) Maximum shear stress theory
(c) Maximum principal strain theory (d) Shear strain energy theor y.
6. A shai subjected to pure torsion is to be designed. The yield point stress of the
material is 2700 kg/cm2 and Poisson's ratio is 0·3. Whlch of the following theories of
failure gives the smallest d iameter of the shaft
(a) Maximum principal stress theory (b) Maximum principal strain theor y
(c) Strain energy theory (d) Shear strain energy theory.
7. A thick cylind'er of internal diameter 10 cm and external diameter 20 cm is subjected to
internal fluid pressure p. The yield strength of the material is 240 N/mm2 • Taking a
factor of safety of 2 and using the maximum principal stress theory of failure, the
maximum value o~ internal pressure p is
. (a) 120 N/mro2 · (b) 90 N/mm2
(c) 72 N/mm 2 (d) N/mm2
8. A thick cylinder of internal diameter 20 cm and external diameter 30 cm is subjected to

internal fluid pressure p. The yield strength of the material is 270 N /mm2 • Taking a
factor of safety of 3 and using the maxir6.um shear stress theory, the maximum allowable
value of internal pressure p is
(a) 50 N/mm2 (b) 32·5 N/mm2
(c) 25 N /mm2 (d) N/mm2
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THEORIE~ OF FAILURE
9. At a p1int in a strained m:iterial the principal stresses are p 1 , p 2 and zero. What combi-
nation of principal stresses will give the same factor of safoty by yielding according to the
maximum shear stress theory and the distortion energy theory of failure ?
(a) Pi=-pz (b) P1=i P2
(c) Pi=P2 (d) Pi=-2pz
10. A shaft is subjected to bending moment M and a tw;sting moment T simultaneously (at a
particular section). The maximum shear stress due to T is 30 N/mm 2 and m aximum
bending stress due to M is 80 N/mm 2 • The yie ld po int stress of the material is
280 N/mm 2 • The maximum shear stress theory is used to design the shaft, the factor of
safety obtained is
(a) 3·5 (b) 3·0
(c) 2·8 (d) 2·5
ANSWERS
I. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b)
6 (a) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
EXERCISES
11· 1. A shaft is subjected to a bending moment M and a twisting moment T. The
ratio of M/T = 0'5. Show that strain energy per unit volume is
512M 2 ( 1 )
U= Eit2d6, 2+m
where dis the diameter of the shaft and 1/m is the Poisson's rotio of the nnterial and E 1s the
Young's modulus of the material.
17·2. Considering the principal stresses in a steam boiler asp, 0·5 p, 0. Poisson's ratio,
I/m=0·2s, and the equivalent stress in a simple tensile test asf, find pin terms of each of the
theories. [Ans. f, f, 1· 162 f, 1·o 16 f, I · 154 f]
17'3. The load on a bolt consists of an axial pull of IO kN together with a transverse
shear force of 6 kN. Calculate the diameter of the bolt according to
(a) Maximum principal strain theory
(b) Shear strain energy theory.
Take factor of safety as 2.
Given yield strength of the material=310 N/mm 2 [Ans. 10·53 mm, 10'9 mm]
Poisson's rat io = 0'27
17· 4. A thin copper alloy tube has a mean diameter of 200 mm and a wall thickness
of 3 mm The tube is subjected to an internal pressure of 2N/mm 2 and a bending moment
of2X 106 N mm. Ifthe yieid str ength of the material is 180 N/mm2 and Poisson's ratio is
0'35, determine the factor of safety according to (a) maximum principal stress the ory (b) shear
strain energy theory. [Ans. (a) 2·10 (b) 2'92]
17-S. A hollow circular steel shaft is subjected to a twisting moment of 60 kg-metre
and a bending moment of 50 kg-metre. The internal diameter of the shaft is half the external
diameter. Determine the external diameter of the -shaft according to
(a) Maximum principal strain theory.
{b) Shear strain energy theory.
Take factor of safety of 2.
Yield strength of steel =2700 kg/cm 2
Poisson's ratio = 0'3 . [Ans. (a) 3'8 cm (b) 3'872 cm]
17'6. A 5 cm diameter mild steel shaft when subj0ctcd to pure torsion ceases to be
elastic when the t orque reaches 42000 kg-cm. A similar shaft is subjected to a torque 2800@
kg-cm and a bending moment M kg-cm. If the maximum stra in energy is the criterion for
elastic failure, find the value of M. Poisson's ratio=0'3. [Ans. 24940 kg-cm]
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18
Rotating Discs and Cylinders
The problem of determining the stresses developed in bodies like shafts and discs rotating
at high speeds is of considerable interest. Due to their high speeds of rotation, steam turbine
shafts and discs experience large magnitudes of centrifugal forces . The stresses -:a used by these
centrifugal forces are distributed ~ymmetrically about their axis of rotation.
18'1. ROTATING RINGS

Let us consider a thin ring of mean
radius R, rotating about its axis at angular
speed w radians/second. Say t is the radial
thickness and b is the axial width of the ring.
The axial width, b and radial thickness t both
are small and it is assumed that there is no
variation of stress along the thickness b or t.
It is further assumed that there is no stress
in the axic1l direction since thickness b is very
small.
P= weight density 0f the material.
Now consider a small element abed
subtending an angle 30 at the centre, at an angle
tl from the horizontal axis X-X.
Volume of the small element = R30 . b . t

Weight of the small element =pR30 . b . t
<!F, centrifugal force acting on the small element
=( pR;t M)c,, R 2
where g = acceleration due to gravity

w 2 pR2bt ,
Vertical component of 3F= ( ' 3(1 . sin 0
g I
2 2
Horizontal component of 3F= ( ~"' ; bt ) 30 cos 8.
The horizontal component of 3F will be cancelled when we consider another small

element a'b' c' d' in 2nd quadrant at an angle 0, but the vertical component of 3F will be added.
870
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ROTATING DISCS AND CYLINDERS 871
Total vertical component or the bursting force across the horizontal diameter X-X
f(
7t 7t
= pw:R2bt ) sin 6 dB = pw2:2bt /-cos 0 I

0 0
2pw 2 R 2bt
g
Say /c is the hoop stress developed along the horizonal section.
Area of cross section = 2 x h X t (as shown by <>/ and gh)
Resisting force = Jc X 2 X b X t
F or equ1·1·b .
1 num, 2'f, . bf= ·2p w3gR2bt
pw2R2
Circumferential stress, /c= - g-
pV2
-g- where V= linear velocity of the ring= wR.
Example 18"1-l. Find the safe number of revolutions per minute for a thin ring 2
metres in diameter if the stress is not to exceed 150 N/mm 2 •
Given, weight density = 7·8 cm3 (gram force/cm 3)
Solution. Weight density,
p=0·0078 kg/cm 3
= 0·0078 x 9'8 N/cm3 = 0'07644 N/cms
=76'44x 10a N/ms
Allowabl e stress, Jc= 150 N/mm 2 = 150 X I0 6 N/m 2
Now f,• =pV2
- an d g = 9"8 m/ sec2
g
= J_50 x l0r. x 9 ·8 = 1"923 104
V 2 __ f• .g
- p 76"44 X 103 X
V= 138.675 metres/sec
But R = I metre
Angular velocity, w= ~ =
138
·ts = 138"675 radian/second
138"675X60 . .
R.P.M. =
2
~ -- = 1324"246 resolut10ns per mmute.
Exercise tS·t-1. Calculate the stress in the rim of a pulley when linear velocity of
the rim is 80 metres/second. What will be the stress if the speed is increased by 20 °Jo ?
Specific weight = 0·0078 kg/cm3
Acceleration due to gravity,
g=981 cm/sec2 • [Ans. 508"87 kg/em 2, 732·77 kg/cm2]
18"2. ROTATING THIN DISC
Let us consider a thin disc of inner radius R1 and outer radius R2 rotating at angular
speed w about its axis 0. The thickness t of the disc is small and it is assumed that stresses
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Fig. 18·2
do not vary across the thickness and there is no axial stress in the disc. Consider a small
element abed at radius r from the axis and subtending an angle 80 at the centre. Say the radial
thickness of the small elemens is or as shown in the Fig. 18 ·2.
When the disc is rotating at high speed, let us say that radius r changes to r+u and
radius r+or changes to r+or+u+ou
In other words change in radius r=u
Change in radial thickness or=ou
Moreover say the circumferential stress developed ~-=Js
(This stress varies with the radius)
Radial stress at radius r is p ,
(This stress also varies with the radius)
and Radial stress at radius r+or is p,+op,
Weight of the small element
Considered =(roo)(or )(t)1P
where p=weight density of the material.
Centrifugal force on the small element
along the radial direction eo
( p ,., 01' o(j ) 2
= \ g w r
pw2r 2toro0
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ROTATING DISCS AND CYLINDERS 87 3
Circumferential force on faces ad and be=Jo.Sr.I

Radial force on face ab = ( p, .r~Ot)
Radial force on face cd=(pr -l-8pr)(r+ Sr ) 8Bt
Res ) lving the forces in the radi al d irecti o n eo as shown in the figure a nd considering
the equilibrium of the forces.
p,.r.SB.t+-2/; . si n ~O . 8r.t
2
= ( p,+Sp, )(r+Sr) 88 1+ -P'" ( :_ t Sr SJ__
2
. ,10 fi(J
Since 80 is very small, sm - - ""'
2 2
N ow t.S8 is commpn on b 0th t he sides, the above expression ca n b ~ simplified as
pw 2r 2 Sr
p,.r+Jo Sr .:::..p ,.r-1- r Sp, -j-p, Sr+ Spr Sr I------
g
N eglecting the term Sp , Sr, the expressio n can be furth er s implified as
P"' 2r 2Sr
fo.or = r 8p ,+ pr Br+ -=----
g
Dividing throughout or we get
Sp , pw2r2
Ji() = r -Sr- +pr+ - g
Sp, 2 2
fo - p ,=r -+ 'owgr ··
Sr ... (I)
N o w consider the circumferential and radial strains

. " . .
C 1rcum1erent1a 1 str a in, e c=
r +u-r Jg - -E
= -E p,
r m •
u I [
r = - E- Je - -m
p,] .. . (2)
Su
Radi al strain,
Sr
pr Jo
= E-mE
or ~
or
= -1 [
E
p, -Jo
m
J ... (3)
or In the limits !!!!_=_I[ p,-_f~

dr E · m _.
! ... (3)
Now differentiating the equati on (2) with respect to r

du _ _l ( Ji_ Pr
dr - E 9 m
)+ Er \/ dJodr _ I
m
dpr )
dr
... (4)
Equating equations (3) and (4)
_!_ ( p, -
E ,
Jg_
m
)=J~ ( Jo - ~)+ .,. ( ~_fo __ _!_ f P.:...)
m E dr m dr
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( p,-f9)=r ( - d fa l dp, )
- -- - ... (5)
dr m dr
d fa
(fa-p,)=r. ( -1 -dpr. - - -)
or m dr dr
Substituting the value of ( / 9- p,) from equation(!), we get
(
l+-1 )l
m \.
r dp,
dr +
pw2r2
g
)=-'- jpr _
m dr
r dfs
dr
dpr pw1r 2 pw 1r 2 dJo
or r dr + - g - + --;;g= -rri,-
or r ( dp,
\ dr +
df9
dr
)=-( I+-m'- ) pw2,2
g
.!!._ ( p, +fo ) =-( m+ I)

2
or pw r ... (6)
dr m g
p,+Jo= -( m+
m
1) pw r
2g
2 2
+A
where A is the constant of integration
But from equation (I)

dpr pw r 2 2
fo - pr= r -
dr+ -g
- .. (1)
l!'iubstracting equation (I) from eq uation (7)

2p, = A -( m+I) pw~,2 _ pw2r2 - r d~
m 2g g dr
2pr+ r dp, = A _ 3m + I . pw2r_:

... (8)
dr 2m g
Multiplying equation (8) throughout by r

3m + I
... (9)
2m g
Ar 2
- _3m+ I pw2r4
r p,= 2
2
8_m_ .--+B
g
where Bis another constant of integration
,= ~+.!!._- 3m+ I pw2,2
or p 2 r2 8m · -g- ... (lo:
Now substituting the value of p, in equation (I)
fo=A - (m+ l ) p~2~ - ~ - ~ + 3m+l pwt{2
m 2g 2 r2 8m g
A B m+3 pw2,. 2
---- - - -- x --
- i r2 8m 8
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ltOTATl<NG DISCS AND CYLiNDERS 875
Let us put 8m = k i , a constant for t h e . material

3m+I .
and ~! 3
=k2 , another constant for the material
The expressions for radial and circumferential stresses can be written as

A B pw2r 2
p,=
2 + ~-ki-g-
A B pw 2r2
/9= 2-,r-k2 -g--
The constants A and B can be evaluated by using the boundary conditiom.
Solid Disc
The inner radius R 1 =0, say outer radius = R
At the centre r=O and stresses cannot be infinite at the centre of the disc, therefore the
constant B=.O. E:itpre11si0ns for stresses will now be
A pw2 r 2
p,= - ki -g-
2
A pw 2r 2
Jg= y-k2-g-
Now at the outer radius, r=R, radial stress pr=O

A pw 2 R 2
0=2--k1-g-
A pw2 R 2
or y = k1g-
Radial stress at any radius r
pwZ
.v,=k1 --
g (R2 - r 2 ) where
Circuroferential stress at any radius r

pw2
jg= (k1R2 -k2 r 2) where k 2 =m+ 3
g 8m
Hollow Disc
Boundary conditions are thal radial stress pr is zero at the inner radius R 1 and at the
outer radius R 2 •
Therefore
or
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876 STRENGTH OF MATERI A LS
Then · A2 --~
- R12
+'''1 pw2R12
g
2
= k 1 pw (R1 2 + R22 )
g
Radial Stress
F or the maximum value

dp ~pw2R 2R 2 pw2,.
-d,' =O=O+k12. . gr3i 2 -2k1-g-
or r 4 = R1 2 R2 2
r= V R 1 R 2
pw2 ) pw2 R1 2R22 pw2
pr mox= k1-- (R1 2 +R22 - k i -- X k1--R1R2
g g R 1 R2 g
pw2 pw2
= ki- - [R12+ R22 - R1R2- R 1R21 = k1 - (R 2 -R1 ) 2
g g
Circumferential stress __
/io =k1 pw2 (R 2+R 2)+k

g 1 2 1
Obviously maximum value of /e occurs where r is minimum i.e. at r= R 1

pw2 pw2R22 pw2R1 2
Jo mox= k 1 g (R 1 2+R?)+k1 g k3 g
2
= pw
g [k
. 1
(2R 22+R 1 2)-k2 R12]
Example 1s·2-1. A thin uniform steel disc of diameter 40 cm is rotating about !ts
axis at 1800 r .p.m. Calculate the maxim u m principal stress and maximum shearing stress in
the disc.
Draw the circumferential and radial stress distributio n alo ng the radius of the disc.
Density = 7700 kg/ms
1
Poisson's r atio, - - = O' 3
m
Solution. R = 20 cm = 200 mm
Density = 7700X9'8 0 10-0 N/mm3= 7'456 x 10- 5 N/mms
Constant, k1 =( ~m_±!__)=
8m
_!_ ( 3+ _l )= 3·3
8 8 m
k2 = m +~ = _8I
8m
( 1+ l_ ) = -1..:2_
m 8
Radial stress,
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ROTA"fiNG DISCS AND CYLINDERS 871
where g=981 x 10 mm/scc 2 =9·81 x 103 mm/secz
w:...:angular velocity
= 2 X 11 ~ lSOO = 188"496 rad/sec

6
2 5
Now pw k_3·3 x7'456x10- x(l88'496) 2 =0'll - 3 N/ 4
g 1- 8 9"81XJ03 X 10 mm
Radial stress
pr=0· 11 x 10-s (2002 - r 2 )=4"4 N/mm 2 at r=O, i.e. at the centre
=0"11 X 10-a (200 2 -50 2 ) = 4' 125 N/mm2 at r=50 mm
=0 ' 11 x 10- 3 (200 2 -1002 ) = 3·30 N/mm2 at r= 100 mn1
= 0" 11 x 10- 3 (200 2 -150 2) = 1·925 N/mm 2 at r= 150 mm
=0· 11 X 10- 3 (200 2 -200 2) = 0 at r= 200 mm
Hoop stress
pw2 pw2
fo=--
g
k 1 R.2 - -g- Xk 2r 2
pw 2k 2
=4·4- - - X r2
g
Now pw2k2 =_t9 X 7"456XI0- 5 x(I88' 496) 2 =- 0·o _ .

g 8 <./ 8 l XI oa 64 x 10 3 Ntrnm 4
f9 =4'4-0'064x 10-a r 2 = 4·4 N/mm 2 at r= O i. e. at the centre

=4'4 - 0"064X 10-sx 50 2 = 4'24 N/mm2 at r=50 mm
= 4'4- 0'064 X 10-ax 100 2 =3'76 N/mm2 at r= lO'J mm
= 4'4-0'064x 10-3 x l:i02 = 2'96 N/mm 2 at r=I50 mm
=4'4-0'064x 10-3 x2002 = l '84 N/mm2 at r = 200 mm
Fig. 18'4 shows the distribution of I ·' • • ·- ·
·-1
circumferential and radial stresses a long the !: d ~:~ . !, (: '. ·
radius of the disc. At the centre of the disc, I
there are maximum stresses 4·4 N/mm2, .i J· C
4·4 N/mm 2 as Jo and p,. So the principal ··I
stresses at the centre of the disc are 4'4 Nfmm r / 2·0
N/mm 2 , 4·4 N/mm 2 and o·o N/mm 2 • Since
the principal stress p 1 and p 2 are of the same 1·0
sign. centre
Maximum shear stress 0 50 100 150 200 mm
4'4 Radius
= - = 2'2 N/mm 2
2 Fig. 18·4
E,rn.mpJe 18'2-2 A thin uniform d isc of inner radius S cm and outer radius 20 cm
is rotating at 6000 revolutions p~r minute a~out its axis . Draw the circumferential and radial
stress distribution along the radius of the disc.
Calculate the maximum principal stress and maximum shear stress in the disc.
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878 STRENGTH OF ~TERIALS
Given weight density = 7800 kg/ma and Poisson's ratio = 0·28

g=981 cm/sec2
Solution. Inner radius R 1= 5 cm
Outer radius R 2 =20 cm
3m+l 3+ 0·28
Constants 0·41
8m 8
k2= m+3 = 1"84 =0"23

8m 8
Density, p=7800 kg/m3= 0·oo78 kg/cm3
2X itX6000 . .
Angular velocity, w= = 628 32 radians/sec.
60
k1pw2 0"41 X 0'0078 X (628"32) 2 = 1.287 k / 4
g 981 --r- g cm
k 2 Pw 2 = 0·23 X 0·0078 X (628"32)2 = . 722 kg/cm 4

0
g 981
Moreover let us calculate
2
k 1 pw (Rl2 + Rz2)=1 "287(52+202 ) =546"97 kg/cm 2
g
2
k 1 ~ x R1 2R 22= 1"287x5 2 x202=1·287x 104 kg.
g
Radial stress, Pr
,= k . ~ (R 2+ R 2)-k pw2 R12R22 -k pw2,2
p 1 g 1 2 1 g ,.2 1 g
87 4
,.2
= 546"97 - ~~ X l0 - l "287 X r 2
1 287 104
= 546"97- · x - 1' 287x 52
52
= 546'97 - 5J4·S0-32'17= 0 at r= 5 cm
4
= 546'97 - l "287 X2 I0 l "287 X 102
10
= 546'97-128"7= 289"57 kg/cm2 at r=IO cm
28
= 546 .97- l " ~ : IO" - l "287 X 152
5
= 546'97- 57·2- 289·575 = 200"195 kg/.cm 2 at r'= l5 cm
- 46'97- 1·287 X 1Q4 l "287 X 20i = 546'97 - 32.l 7-5I4·80=0
- 5 202
at r=20 cm
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ROTATING DISCS AND CYLINDERS
87
Circumferential stress, Jg
104
= 546.97 + 1·28 ~: -0·122 x 5~ = 546·97 + 5l4"80-18·05
= 1043 "72 kg/cm2 at r = 5 cm
= 546· 97 + 1·28 i; 104

- 0·122x 102 = 546·91 + 128·1- 12·2
= 603"47 kg/cm2 at r= 10 cm
s~;
= 546"97 + 1· 2
104
. -0·122 x 15 2 = 546"97+51·2- 162"45
= 441"72 kg/cm2 at r = 15 cm
10
- 546'97 + 1·287 x2 ' - 0·122 x202 = 546"97 + 32·11-2ss·s
- 20
= 290"34 kg/cm2 at r=20 cm
Figure 18 ·5 shows the radial and 2
circumferential stress distribution along the lOOO C1043·72 kg/cm )
radius of the disc
800
Maximum stresses occur at the inner
radius, where circumferential stress Jg is 600
maximum. stress
t 400
Therefore maximum principal stress kg/cm?. Pr
= 1043'72 kg/cm 2 J 200
Again at the inner radius the principal
stresses are 0
(centre) - - Radius
__...,.
104.i'72 kg/cm2, 0, 0
Fig. 18·5
So the maximum shear stress
= I043 ·72 = 521 '86 kg/cm 2
2
Exercise 18'2-l. A thin uniform steel disc of radius 30 cm is rotating about its axis at
3000 r.p.m. Draw the radial and circumferential stress distribution diagram along the radius of
the disc.
What are the maximum and minimum values of circumferential and radial stresses.
p= 0·0078 kg /ems
Poisson's ratio= 0'3
acceleration due to gravity= 98 l cm/sec 2 •
[Ans. 291 ·336 kg/cm3 and 123'598 kg/cm 2 , 291 "336 kg/cm 2 and o·o kg/cm•]
Exercise 1s·2-2. A thin uniform disc of inner diameter 5 cm and outer diameter
25 cm is rotating at 10,000 R.P.M. Calculate the maximum and minimum values of circum-
ferential and radial stresses.
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Draw the radial and circumferential stress distribution diagrams along the radius of
the disc.
Given dcnsity =8830 kg/m 3 a nd Poisson 's ratio=0·33
Acceleration due to gravity, g=9"81 m/sec2 •
[Ans . 1291 "8 kg/cm 2, 309.06 kg/cm 2 ; 910 kg/cm2 a nd 0·01
18'3. DISC OF UNIFORM STRENGTH

In the last article we have observed
that radial and circumferential stresses in a
rotating disc of uniform thickness vary along
the radius of the disc and the circumferential
stress is maximum at the inner radius of the
rotating disc. There are many components in
industry such as the rot0r c f a steam turbine
which rotate at very high speeds and conse-
quently high stresses arc developed. For such
applications, rotors having constant strength
throughout the radius have been designed by
varying their thickness.
Consider a disc of radius R, of vari-
able thickness, rotating at an angular speed w
radians/second about its axis 0 . Sa) the thick-
ness at the centre = t0 • Take a small element
abed of radial thickness or, at a radius ,. sub-
Fig. 18· 6
tending an angle 06 at the centre. The disc
considered is of uniform strength i. e., radial stress on faces ab anded is f, and circumferential
stress on faces be and da is also f. The thickness at the radius r is t and say the thickness at
the radius r +or is t+ot .
Volume of the element = (roB. t. or )
Say weight density =p
p(rt o0 . or)
Mass of the element = ------
"
0
Centrifugal force on the element,

CF= p(rt o0 or) w2r
g
_ _pw 2 r 2_ o~r....!_
g
Radial force on face ab = ro8 . t .f
Radi al force on face cd=(r+or)(t+ot)f . o0
Circumferential force on faces be and da
=f. t. o,.
(Inclined at an angle o6/ 2 to the radial direction eo).
Resolving all the forces a long the radial direction eo and considering equilibrium,
we get
pw2r2
- - (tRrSll) + f(r + or)(t + ot)SO = Ji' to0
g
+2 . /. t . or sm -2
. 1i(}
' .. ( I)
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ROTATING DISCS AND CYLINDER~ 881
bllt o0 is very small, so sin i = ;

0
The above equation (1) can be simplified as follows (taking 06 on both the sides)
pw2r2
- - tor+Jrt +Jdrt + fr. ot+f orot
g
=frt+f. t 'or
Neglecting the product of small quantities
pw 2r 2t
- - or+frot=O
g
2
or f ~=- pw ~ Sr
t g
~ =- · pw2r or
or t Jg
pw2,.2
- - + In A
In t = - where In A is a constant
2fg
t pw 2r 2
In-- = - - - -
A 2/g
pw2r2
2/g
or "X =e
at r=O Thickness, t = t0
t0= A
pw2r2
2/g .
So thickness at any radius, t= t 0 e
Example 18'3-l. A steel disc of a turbine is to be designed so that the radial and
circumferential stresses are to be the same and constant throughout and equal to 80 N/mm2,
when running at 3500 1 pm. If the axial thickness at the centre is 1· 5 cm what is the thickness
at a radius of 50 cm
p for steel = 0'0078 kg/cm 3 , g=981 cm/sec2
p= 0'0078 X 9"8 X 10- 3 N/mm 3 = 0'07644 X 10-a Njmma
Solution. Radius r= 500 mm

Thickness t 0 = 15 mm
2 X TCX 3500
Angular velocity w= = 366"52 rad/sec
60
Constant strength, / = 80 N/mm2
pw 2r2= 0'07644 X 1o-sX (366. 52) 2X (500)2 = .
So 1 635562
2/g 2 X 80 X 9810
e- 1'6355 =0' 195
t= t9 e 1.6355 = 15 X0"195 = 2'925 m~.

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.. ,
882 STRENGTH OF MATERIA<LS
Exercise 18'3-l. A steel rotor of a steams turbine is rotating at 10,000 r.p.m. At

the blade ri ng its diameter is 60 cm and its axial thickness is 9 cm. at the centre. Calculate
the thickness of the rotor at the blade ring, if it has uniform distribution of stress equal to
1600 kg/cm 2 • p= O 0078 kg/cm 3
g=acceleration due to gravity = 9'81 m/sec2 • [Ans. 7'76 mm]
18'4. ROTATING LONG CYLINDERS
The analysis is similar to that of a thin disc. The only difference is that the length of
the cylind(:r a long the axis is large as compared to the radius and axial stress is considered
along the length of the cylinder i.e., at any radius the stresses are /e (circumferential stress), p,
(radial stress) and /u (axial stress). Following assumptions are made while developing theory
for long cylinders
(I) Transverse sections of the cylinder remain plane at high speeds of rotation. This
is true only for sections away from the ends.
(2) At the central cross section of the cylinder, shear Hress is zero due to symmetry
and there are only 3 principal stresses i.e.,/9, pr, and/a.
If E is the Young's modulus

Je pr fa
Hoop strain, 1ae= - - - - -
E mE mE
Radial strain, pr
tar=-- -Jo - -
E
/ a= -I
mE mE E
[ p , -1- (Je+Ja)
m
J
Axial strain, "•=
fu
E -
p,
mE - mE=
Jo I f
El 1
fa - --;; (p, +-Jo)
J
Refer to the article I s·2, considering a small element of rotating cylinder subtending
an angle UJ at the centre. The element is at a distance rand of radial thickness Sr. The
equation of equilibrium obtained is
Sp, pw2r 2
/9-p,=r -+ - g -
dr
... (1)
Again we have considered
Circumferential strain = .E..-

r
Su
and radi al strain - Sr
So ~r =-EI
I - /9- - l (pr+/«)
L m
J ... (2)
and Su = 1- [
--
Sr E
p, - - I (fe+J,,)
m
J ... (3)
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to r

_d!:!_ = J.. rJo-_!_ (p, +J.,)J+ _!_[,. dfo _ !_ ( dp, +dfa)J... (4)
fir EL rn $ dr m dr dr
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~OTATING DISCS AND CYLINDERS 883
Equating equations (3) and (4)

,- 1 fi- f a = fi8- pr _f: +!4fL- rdp, _ }'lifn
P m 9 m m m dr mdr mdr
p,(1 +_!_)-1911+..!.)-r dfo+,.!!.P.!_+,.if~=O ... (5)

m \ m dr mdr mdr
Now as per the first assumptions that the transverse sections remain plane even after
the long cylinder rotates at high speed, it is implied that axial strain is constant i.e.
Ea= i[ fa- ~ (fo+ pr)]=constant
or fa- ..!..
m
(/o + p ,)=constant, since Eis constant
J)ifferentiating this expression with respect to r we get

dfa _ _!__ !}h__ J__ dpr =O
dr m dr m dr
or r dfa = __:_ { !!lo dpr )

dr m \ dr + dr
Substituting the value of r gf.l'.~ in equation (5),

(d'
l )
l+- -Jg ( l+-
I \ d•o r dp
- r -~- + -
r dfo +
__!.. + ,n2 1 r d_p, - O
Pr ( m m I dr m dr dr m2 dr
or -(fio-pr)( 1+..!.
m
)-r( 1-J..
m
)dh+.!__(
dr m
1+ -m1
2 )q_P..!..=o
dr
or l'.g-pr+r ( 1-_!_ ) dfo _..!:.. dpr = 0 ... (6)

JI m dr m dr
. r dpr pw 2r 2
From equat10n (l)/9- p,=-a;:-+ - g-
Substituting in equation (6),

r dp,
dr + g
2 2
pw r + r (
1__m1_)dfgdr _ Lm
2
( 1__m1_ )(d/9+dp,
dr
'+
dr J
pw
g
r =O
'!.fj dp, = _ (
dr + dr
_]?!_)
m-1
pw2r
g
... (7),

m ) pw2,2 ... (8)
!o+p,= - ( m- 1 ~ + A
where A is the constant of integration.
Subtracting equation (1) from equation (8),
2p,-A
_ _f m_)
\ m-1
pw2r
2g
2
-r dp, _
dr
2 2
pw r
g
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884 STRENGtlt 01' MATl!R.IAJ.S'
2p ,+r dp , = A _ pw2r 2 ( ~n +2 )
dr 2g m- 1
22
= A- pw r ( 3m -2 )
2g m-1
dpr pw ra ( 3m - 2 '
2
or 2pr,r+ r2 -dr = A - -2g- m - 1 1l

A r 2 pw~r 4 ( 3m - 2 )
pr.r2=T - ~ m- 1 + B
r = ~ !}_ - p,.,2,.2 ( 3m- 2 ) ... (9)
er Radial stress P 2 + ,. 2 8g \·m - 1
But from equation (8)
Hoop stress,
e= _
/,
_i _ _!!__
,.2 + pw8gr
2 2
(
m -1 m-1
2
3m - 2 )- ___.!!!_ ( pw r2
2g
)+A
2
2 2
= ~ - .!!_ pw r ( 3m-2-4m)
2 r2 + 8g m- 1
2 2
= i_- ~ - pw r (' m + 2) · ... (10)
2 r2 8g m-1
Solid Cylinders
The stresses can n ot be infinite at. the centre, therefore constant B=O. The expressions
for stresses will now be
2 2
- ~ pw r ( 3m-2 )
p,- 2 - 8g m- 1
2 2
. r =~ - pw r ( m + 2)
JB 2 8g m-J
Say the radius of the solid cylinder is R

Radial stress pr = O at r=R
2 2
pw R ( 3m - 2)
So O= 2A _ _,___
8g- m- 1
_.i = pw2R2 ( 3m - 2 )
or 2 8g m- 1
p = pw2 ( 3m - 2) (R2- rZ)
' 8g m- 1
Radial stress is maximum at r= O
2 2
_ pw R ( 3m-2 )
pr »>ax - Sg m- l
2 2 2
9_ pw2R ( 3m- 2)- pw r ( m+ 2)
Hoop stress, f, 8g m -::- 1 8g m- 1
=~ [ R2 ( 3m - 2 ) - , 2 ( m+ 2 )]
8g m- 1 m- 1
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R01'ATING oiscs AND CYLINDERS
If we put
pw2
Then pr= - - k 8 (R 2 - r 2 )
g
pw2
f,= - g [kaR2-k, r2]
Again the hoop stress is also maximum at the centre i.e., at r= O
So
Hollow Cylinder
A B pw 2 r 2
Stresses are pr = 2 +,2 -k3 -g-
A B pw2r2
/9 =2- -,2
- -k 4 -g-
Radial stress is zero at inner and outer radii of the cylinder

Say R1 = Inner radius
R2 = 0uter radius
0= ~ !!_ - k pw2R12
2 + Ri2 3
g
0 = .4._ + _!!_ - -k pw2R22

2 Rl 3
g
From these boundary conditions
1 1 2
B ( -- - - - )-k8 pw (R 1 2 - R 22 )=0
R12 R22 g
B (R22-R12) = -k R 2-R 2)
pw2
Ri2R 22 s g l 2 1
pw2
B =-k3 - g x R 1 2 R2
2
Again ~ = - !!_+k p(l)!R1Z

2 R12 a g
pw2
=+k S - g X R 22 +k3
2
= ks ~ (R12+R2a)
g
The expressions for stresses will now be
2 2 ,2]
Radial stress, p,=k 8 F"'t [ (R 2+R2i)- R1 R2
g r2 1
To obtain maximum value of p,
dp, = O= + 2R1 2 R2 2 _
2,
dr r3
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oi8,86 STllENGTH OP MATERIALS
or r'= R 1 2R 22
r= ,.f R1R2
Maximum radial stress occurs at the radius of 4 R1R2
_ -k 3 Pw
pr ma:11- g
-
2
[<R z+R
1 2
2 22
R lRR 2
2) _ R1
= kaP w2 [R12+ R 22-2R1R2]

g
= ksPw2 (R2- R1)2

g
The expression for the circumferential or hoop stress will be
fa = ka
i,,w2
g (Ri 2 + R2 2 )+ ks gpw 2 R12R22
-,.- -k4g
2-
pw2
r2
Obviously this will be maximum when r is minimum i.e., at inner radius, R1

pw 2 pw 2 Pw 2
fa ma.,=k 3 - - (R1 2 + Rz2) + k4 - - R22 -k4 - XR1 2
g g g
2
= pw [k3 (2Rz2+R12 ) - k 4Ri2] .
g
Example .18'4-1. A l.ong cylii:ider of di ameter 6~ .cm is ro~ating at. 3000 r.p.m.
Calculate the maximum stress m the cylmder . Draw the vanat10n of radial and Clfcumferential
stresses along the radius.
Weight density = 0'0078 kg/ems
g = 980 cm/sec2, Poisson's ratio = 0'3
Solution. R =30 cm
2 xn x 3000 .
Angular speed, w= = 314 16 rad/sec.
60
3m-2 3-0'6
ka= 8(m- l) = 8(1-0'3) =0·4286
0'2857
8(1 - 0'3)
Maximum radial and circumferential stresses occur at the centre
pw2
pr ma., __;/9 ma:11= k 8 -- X R2
. g
_ o· 4286 X 0'0078
- 980
X (314' 16) 2
_3 . k /
x 302 - 03 0 g cmz
Radial stress
pw2
pr= k 8 - - [Ra- ,2]
g
0'4286 X 0·0078 X (314'16)2
- 980
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ROTATING DISCS AND CY LINDERS
= 0'3367 (900-r 2) = 303'0 kg/cm2 at r=O

= 0'3367 (900 - 62) = 290'90 kg/cm 2 at r= 6 cm
= 0' 3367 (900 -1 22) = 254'54 kg/cm 2 at r = l2 cm
= 0 3367 (900 - 182 ) = 193' 94 kg/cm 2 at r = l8 cm
= 0' 3367 (900- 242 ) = 109'09 kg/cm 2 at r= 24 cm
= 0'3367 (900 - 900) =0 at r= 30 cm
Hoop stress
Pw 2 pw2 pw2
r 2=
/io=k 3 R 2 - k 4 -g g-- fk 3 R - k 4r ]
-
2
g-
2
= 0'007 8 ; ~l 4 ' l 6) (0'4286 X 900-0'2857 X r 2 ]
8
= O 785 (38 5'74-0'2857 r 2)=303'0 at r= O
= 0'785(38S'74 - 0'2857X6 2) = 294'73 kg/cm 2 at r= 6 cm
=--= 0·785(38S'74-0'2857 x 122 )= 270'5 1 kg/cm 2 n.t r = I2 cm
= 0'785 (385'74- 0'2857 x 18 2) = 230' 14 kg/cm 2 at r"=18 cm
= 0 '78 5 (385·74- 0'2857 x242) = 173'62 kg/cm 2 at r= 24 cm
= 0 '785 (385·74- 0'2857 x 30 2 )= 100'96 kg/cm 2 at r=30 cm
Fig. 18·7 shows the distribution of 300
h oop and radial stresses along the radius of
the tong cylinder.
200
Example 18'4-2. Calculate the maxi- kg/cm 2
mum stress in a long cylinder 5 cm inside 100
diameter and 25 cm outside diameter rotating
at 5000 r.p.m.
Given:
st ress t
0 6 12 18 24 30 cm
Poisson' s ratio = 0'3 Ra d i us -
Weight density = 0'07644 N/cms Fig. 18'7
g = 980 cm/sec2
Solution. Inner Radius, R 1 = 2·5 cm, Outer radius= 12 ·5 cm
Maximum stress occurs at the inner radius of the cylinder
pc,, 2
Jo max = --
g
[k3 (2R22 +R18)- k4 R1 2 ]
3m-2 3- 0'6
ka= 8(m- l ) 8(1-0'3) = 0'4286
m+ 2 1+ 0·6 .
k4 = 8(m-l) 8(1 - 0 '3) = 0 2857
2,; X 5000 .
w= =523'6 radians /sec
60
pw2 _ 0'07644 X (523·6) 2 -= . N
g - 980 - 21 384 /cm4
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/9 maa= 2 l '384 [0'4286 (2 X !2'5 2+ 2'5 2)- 0'285'7 X 2'52]

= 2 l '34 [0"4286 (318'75)--0'2857 X 6'25]
~ 21 ·34 [136'616-1 '785]=2877'3 N/cm2=28'77 N/mm2
Radial stress
P,
=k
3
pw2
g
[<R l 2+R 2 2)- R12Rl
,z -r2 .]
= 0'4286xo·o7466x(523'6) 9 [ 02 .52 + 2· 5)2 _ 12·52 x2·52 , 2 ]
980 ,2
=8'952 [ 162'5 -
97 6
~/ - r2 J
976 56
= 8'952 [ 162'5- . -2· 52 ] = o at r=2·5 cm
2'52
= 8"952 [ 162'5- -976'56 J

- - -52 =881'2 N/cm 2 at r=5 cm
511
9 6
= 8'952 [ 162'5 - ;~~; -1· 52 ]=795'73 N/cm2 at r=7·5 cm
= 8'952 [ 162'5-
9
~t; 6
- 102 ]=472'08 N/cm2 at r= 10 cm
= 8'952 [ 162'5- 976"56

.
12 52
- 12'52 l=0 at r=l2'5 cm
prmax occurs at r 2 = R 2 R 2 = 2'5X 12'5= 31'25
pr,,,ax =8'952 [162'5 - Jt}56- 31'25 ] = 895'2

9
N/cm2 at r = 5"59 err
Hoop Stress
2
pw2 [ ) R 1 Rl -k
Jo= ·g ks(R12 +R22 + ks · ,2 1 · r
2]
2 52
= 0·01466x <523 ·6 ) [0·42~ 6(12 ·52 + 2· s 2) + 0·4286 x 12 . x2 2·
980 r
52
- 0·2857 x , 2 J
=20'88 [ 69'6475+
418 5
;; - 0'2857 r 2 J
=20'88 [ 69'6475+ 418'55
.
2 52
0'2857X 2'5 2 J
= 2877'3 N/cm2 atr = 2'5 cm
r
= 20'88 69'6475+
L
418 55
52
. 0·2857 x5 2 ] = 20'88[69'6475+16'742-7'142]
= 1654'69 N/cm2 at r= 5 cm
5
= 20'88 [ 69'6475+ ~L-~? - 0'2857 x 52 J
= 20'88[69'6475 + 7·44- 16'07]= 1274'05 N/cm2 at r = 7'5 ~m.
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ROTA.TING DISCS AND CYLINDERS 889
-- 20"88 [ 69 6475+
418 55
10'2 - 0'2857 X 10
2
J
= 945·09 N/cm2 at r= 10 cm
= 20'88 [ 69'6475+
418 55
. - 0'2857 X 12'52
12'52
J
=20"88[69 '6475 +2'6787- 44'640]= 578"0 N/cm2 at r=l2'5 cm
Fig. 18'8 shows the distribution of 3000 ( 2 87 7·3 )

circumferential stress fa and radial stress p,
along the radius of the Jong cylinder.
Exercise t8·4-1. A long cylinder of 2000

steel of diameter 40 cm is rotating about its
axis at an angular speed of 300 radians/sec.
N/ cm2 t
Draw the radial stress and circumferential 1000
stress distribution along its radius. Determine s tress
the maximum and minimum values of radial
and circumferential stresses.
0 2·5 5 7.5 10 12·5
Given p= 0'07644 N/cms centre
Ra dius -
l/m = 0 '3. Fig . 18·8

[Ans. 12·035 N/ mm 0 ; 12'035 N/mm2 , 4'012 N/ mm2]
2,
Exercise 18'4-2. A long cylinder of steel of outer diameter 75 cm a nd inner diameter

25 cm is rotating about its axis at 4000 r p.m . Draw the radial stress and circumferentia
stress distribution along the radius. Determine the maximum and minimum values of circum-1
ferential stress.
What is the max imum radial stress and where is occurs.
p= 0·078 kg/cm 3 , l/m= 0"3, g = 980 cm/sec2
[Ans. 1715'2 kg/cm~and 467"84 kg/cm 2 ; 374'1 3 kg/cm 2 at r'= 21'65 cml
18'5. TEMPERATURE STRESSES IN THIN DISCS
Consider a thin disc rotating at a high speed and subjected to temperature variation at
the same time. Say the stresses developed in the disc are fa, circumferential stress and pr, radial
stress, <1. is the coefficient of linear expansion of the disc and Ti s the temperature change. At
angular speed w , there is change in the radius of the disc. Refer to Fig. 18'2 and 18'3, con-
sidering an element abed at radius r, of radial thickness 8r' and subtending an angle 88 at the
centre. At high speed w say
t changes to r+ u
dr changes to dr+ du
Circumferential strain, E8= E

fa pr
- mE+aT= ru ... (1)
pr Jo du
Radial strain, Er= -E- - mE +e&T= dr ... (2)
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Equatio n of equilibrium
dp, pa.2r 2
fo-pr=r - dr +--
g
- ••. (3)
From equation (I)
du =( .frJ... _ p_,._+r,.T
dr E mE
)+~E ( d/9dr _ mdr
dp, +Eix dT)
dr
Equating this with equation (2),
I (
-pr·- -/o +BxT = - 1 ( fo--+EaT
Pr r (-
) +- dfo- -+E"'-
dp, dT )
E m J E m E dr mdr dr
pr ( 1+-1
;'-fs( 1+ J_ )= I' dfo _..!_
m m dr m
(/9-pr)( 1+ _!_
m
)=-r dfodr +_cm
From equation (3) substituting the value of /o- p,
( I+_!_),. +( l+-1 ) pw2r2 = -r d!o+ .!..... dp,

dpr E dT
m dr m g dr m dr -r ,rt. -;t;:"
2
,. dp, +r d..&, = - ( I + I_ ) p,v r2 -rEr:t. dT
~ ~ \ m g ~
2
or dr (Jo+p,) = -( 1 + _l ) pw r
m I g
- -Eo. dT
dr ... \4)
d
Integrating equation (I),
!1J+p,=-( 1 + _!_ ) Pw2,-2 -Er:t.T+A

m 2g ... (5)
where A is the constant of integration.
Substracting equation (I) from equation (5),
1 ) Pw2r 2 pw 2r2 dp2
2p, = - ( l+ ;n z;g- --g- - r --a,:--EaT+A.
dp ( I ) pw2r2 pw2,.2
2p,+r dr' = - I + -m ., -2g- - -g - - E ex T+A
Multiplying throughout by r
2
2rp dp,
..i..,. 2 - - = - (-
3m+
--l ) pw ra
- - --E(I. Tr+Ar
.
' ' dr 2m g . .. (6)
,.2p,= - (
3m+ l
g;;,- ) pw 2 r
-g--Ea Trdr+
4
f Ar2
+B
2
where Bis the constant of integration
A B ( 3m + 1 ) pw 2r2
p, = y+ -,2 - , Sm -g--r2
Eu. f Trdr ... (7)
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ROTATING DISCS AND CYLINDERS 89i
From equation (5)
/e=-( 1+ - l ) pw2,.2 -E (/. T+A -~-...!!_
m 2g 2 2 r
+( 3m+l ) ~
8m g + Ea
r
J Trdr
2
m + 3 pw r E(/, J 2 2
=2A- -rB--
2
-
8m
- . - g - -EaT+-
,2 Trdr ". (8)
Constants A and B can be determined by using the boundary conditions for radial
stress.
Fot a solid disc, B=O because stresses cannot be infinite at the centre.
Example 18'5-l. A thin uniform steel disc of diameter 50 cm is roti,t ing about its
axis at 5000 r.p.m. Determine the stresses developed at the centre of the disc and at its
periphery if the disc has a linear variation of temperature of 50"C between the centre and its
outer edge.
Given: ex= 11 x 10- 6/°C, p= O·oo78 kg/ cm3, g = 910 cm/sec2
E=2 · t x 10 6 kg/cm2, l/m=0'3
Solution. For a solid disc
2
p,= -~ _ 3m+ 1 . Pw 2 r _ E(/, [ Tr dr
2 8111 g r2 J
The variation of the temperature with radius can be written as
50 r oc h ..
T= ~ , w ere r 1s m cm
=0 at r= O
= 50°C at r = 25 cm
or T=2r °C
,.2 J2r2dr
A 3m+l • pw2,2 - Ea
pr = - - g
2 8m
2 X r. X5000
Angular speed, w= =523'6 rad/sec
60
'
pr=O at r=25 cm, outer radius
O=-~ - ( 3m+ l Pw 2 X25 2 _ 2'1 X lO~X 11 X 10-o f , 2 dr
2 8m ) g 252 J2
25
= ~ - ( 3m+l )625 Pw2 -0·03696 / 2r31
2 \ 8m g 3
0
A I 3 + 0· 3 ) ow 2 253
= - - 625 \
2 , 8
· --o-o3696 x 2 x -
g • 3
~ - 625X3' 3 X0'0078 X (523'6)2 + 385'0

2 - 8 980
= 562'56+385'0= 947.56 kg/cm2
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892 '!rrREN'GTH OP MATBR.TAI.:S
/ ' .
Maximum radial stress occurs at the centre of the disc
A .
pr ma:11= -0- 0=947 56 kg/cm 2
2
Hoop stress
+-E,2 - JTr dr
2 2
A
J,= --- m+3 · -
--'-'-- pw r
- -E (I. T oi
2 8m g
where T = 2r
-- -A_ ( m+3 ) pw 2r 2 _ E(I.- J2r 2 dr
2 \ 8m g 2 Ear+ - ,2
At the centre of the disc
(Jo) = 2A = 947'56 kg/cm2
fo at the periphery i.e. at r=25 cm
Jo'= 1-( n~! 3 ) pgw

2
x 25 2 - 2 x 2·Jx l06 X llxJ0-0 x2s
2s
+ E (I. f 2 ,.2 dr
25 2 J
0
2
= 947'56 - 1.9 x o·oo78 x <523 · 6) x 625 -1155
8 980
25
2' l X 1Q+6 X 11 X 10- 6 12r I 3
+ 625 3
0
= 947'56 - 545'56 - 1155 + 2 'l X l l X ~ ;< 253

625 3
= -753 + 385 ==- 365 kg/cm2
Example tS·S-2. A thin di.sc of outc.r radius ~O ~m and inner radius IO cm is rotating
about its axis at 3500 r.p.m. The disc has a linear vanat10n of temperature of 60°C between
the inner·and outer (hotter edge). Calculate the maximum stress.
E= 208 x 103 N/mm2 p=0'07644 N/cm•
1
-=0·3, g = 980 cm/sec2, cx=ll X 10-0 per °C
m
Solution, £ = 208 x 106 N/cm 2
2r. X 3500 . .
Angular speed, w= =366 52 radians/second
60
Radial stress at any radius
\ A .. B
pr = - + -,.2 -
2
3m+I pw2r2
8m
Eoc
-g - - - - ,2
f Trdr
Temperature variati on can be written as
T = 3 (r - 10) · i.e. at r= IO cm, T=O; at t=30 cm, T=60°
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llOTATING DISCS AND CYLiNDERS
Moreover p, = 0 at r = R 1 = 10 cm and also at t = R 2 = 30 cm

A B 3m + 1 pw2 10 2
O= y+lOO Sm X g
208 x 10~; 11 X 10-

0
6
f 3(,2_ 10 ,) dr
A B 3m + I pw2 X900
0 = 2 + 900- Sm X g
30
- 208 x l 05 ;O~I x l 0~ (3,2- 30 r) dr f
10
~ _l!_ _ .2l_ 0'07644 X (366'52) 100 -0= 432 .22 2

or 2 + 100 - 8 X 980
A B 3·3 0'07644x(366'52)2 X900
2 + 900 = -8- x 980
900
6
+ 208 X I 0 X I l X I0- 6 [ !~ _ 15 , 2
3
J
30
JO
= 3889'8 + 0·254 (13500+500)=7448'9
..!!_ - ~ = 7448'9-432'22= 7016'68

900 100
B= - 7016'688~;x~ = -78'93x 10'
: = 432·22- l~0 = 432·22+7893 = 8325·22
Maximum stress occurs at the inner radius, r= 10 cm

I". _ ~ J}__ m+3 pw2X 100
JS m a .. - 2 - ,oo 8m . g
-£ .x T + ~O~ ~ (3r2 -30 r) dr
A B 1·9 0'07644 X(366·52)2x 100

=2 - 100- 8 X 980
= 8325'22+ 7893-256'86= 15961 '36 N/cm2
= 159'6 N/mm 2•
Exercise 18'5-l_. A thin u~iform steel ~isc of ~iameter 49 cm is r.ot~ting at 2500 r.p.m
about its axis. Determine the maximum stress if theJd1sc has a hnear vanatlon of temperature
of 40°C between the centre and the outer edge.
Given: 0t=11 x 10-s per °C, p= 0·0078 kg/cm 8 , g=980 cm/ sec2
E= 2'1 x 106 kg/cm 2 , l/m = 0'3
Determine the hoop stress at the centre and at the periphery of the disc.
[Ans. 398'0 kg/cm 2, -269'82 kg/ cma]
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I
894 STRENGTH OF MATERIA'.is
Exercise 18'5-2. A thin disc of outer radrns 35 cm and inner radius 15 cm is rotating
about its axis at 4000 r.p.m. The disc has a linear variation of temperature of 40°C between
the inner and outer (hotter) edges. Calculate the maximum stress in the disc.
£=208 x 103 N/mm 2, g=980 cm/sec2
p =0·07644 N/cm3 IX= 11 X 10- 0/°C
l/m=o·3 [An s . 99·6 N/mm 2 ]
P roblem 1s·1 . A composite ring is made by fitting a steel ring over a copper ring.
The diameter of the ring at the common surface is 1'60 metres. The radial thickness of both
the rings is 20 mm and their axial width is 30 mm. Determine the stresses set up in the steel
and copper rings if the composite ring is rotating at 2000 r.p.m.
For steel £=210 X 103 N/mm2, p, =0'0078 kg/cm3
For copper E= 105 X 10 3 N/mm 2 pe = 0'0090 kg/cm3
g = 9'81 m/sec2
Solut ion. Fig. 18'9 shows the compo-
site ring made of steel and copper rings. Sttt l ring
R adius at the common surfac.

=80 cm =800 mm
Mean radius of steel ring
R.=800+ 10=810 mm
Mean radius of copper ring
R. =800- 10=790 mm
Density of steel = o·oo78 x9·8 N/cm2
=76'44 x 10-0 N/mms
-l30 ~
Density of copper= 0 '009 x 9' 8 N/cma mm
=88'2 X 10-s N/mms F ig. 1s·9
211 N 2 X it X 2000
Angular speed=w=
60 - 60
=209·44 rad/sec
Stresses due to rotation
Hoop stress in steel, /s = pw 2 R.2 = 76'44 X 10-s X (209.44)2 X (810)2

g 9·81 X 1000
= 224' 25 N/mm2 (tensile)
Hoop stress in copper /, = fc02 R.z = 88·2 X 10-s X (209'44) 2x (790) 2
' • g 9·81 X 1000
=246·13 N/mm 2 (tensile)
":,-s l e>/,, showing therebr tb~t centrifuga~ force developed in copper ring is more than
the centn fu ¥al force on ~be steel rmg ,.e. , copper rmg exerts radial pressure on the steel ring.
Say the radial pressure 1s p N/mm 2 •
Stres ses due to radial pressure
Due to the radial pressure p at the common surface there will be compressive hoop
. s~r~~s in copper ring and tensile hoop stress in steel ring.
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ROTATI NG DISCS AND CYLINDERS 895
Tensile hoop stress in steel ring,

f.'= pD. _ pR, _ pX 810
• 2t - t - t
Compressive hoop stress in copper ring,
Jc'= p X 790
t
Resultant hoop stress in steel ring,
810
== 224·25+ P = 224'25 + 40'5 p since t = 20 mm
t
Resultant hoop stress ir. copper ring,
790
= 246'13- p = 246' ]3-39'5p
t
Strain compatibility
Since both the rings are rotating together, circumferential strain in steel nng will be
the same as the circumferentiaJ strain in copper ring.
So i,, (224'25+40'5 p)= i_ (246'13-39'5 p )
but E,= 2 Ee
So 224·5+40·5 p=2X246'I3-79 p
119'5 p=268'0l
p = 2'24 N/ mm2
So,
Resultant hoop stress in steel ring = 224'25 + 40'5 Xp
= 314'97 N/mm 3
Resultant hoop stress in copper ring = 246'13-39'5 Xp
= 157'65 N/mm2
Problem 18'2. A circular saw 3 mm thick X 60 cm diameter is secured upon a shaft
of 8 cm diameter . The material of the saw has a density of o·0078 kg/cm 3 and P0isson's
rat io= 0·3 . Determ.ne the permissible speed if the allowable hoop stress i, _2400 kg/cm 2 and
find the maximum rad ial stress. Acceleration due to gravity=98 l cm/sec2 •
Solution. Density, p= 0·0078 kg/cm3
Inner radius R 1 = 4 cm
Constants k
1
= 3m+ I _ 3"] k 2 = m+3 = ~:2.
8m - 8 ' 8m 8
Say the permissible speed = w radian/sec
Maxi mum allowable hoop stress
= 2400 kg/cm2
Maximum stress occurs at the inner radius
- k 19w2 (R 2+ R 2)+ki pwl R12R22 - k R
Jiemax - g 1 2 - g- R/• 2 . gpw2 X 1
2
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=gpw2 [2k Rl-k R 1 2

2
1 ]
2400= o·oo;:t·"2[ 2x \
3
x 900-
1
: xI6 J-
2
2400 X 981 _ . 4
w = 0·0078 X738·7 - 40 86 X IO
w=6"39 X 10 2 = 639 rad/sec
N=
639 X 60
217
= 6102 revo Iution
. .
per mmute.
Maximum radial stress

Occurs at r=v' R1 R2= V4X30=10"954 cm
- k1Pw2 (R z+ R 2)- k1pw2 R12R22 -k pw2 X 120
prm•x- g 1 2 g X 120 1 g
= ki;w 2
[ 16+900-
16
~ ~OO 120] = kiP;
2
(676)
=\3 x o·g~[8 X40"86X IO'x676 = 905"93 kg/cm 2
Maximum radial stress = 905"93 kg/cm 2 at the radius of 10·954 cm.

Problem 18"3. Determine the stresses due to the centrifugal force in a rotor with an
outer radius 50 cm and radius of the hole 10 cm. The outer portion of the rotor is cut by
slots 20 cm deep for windings, (as shown in the Fig. I?: I0) . The rotor is of steel and rotates
at 3000 r.p.m. The weight of the windings in the slots is the same as that 0f the material
removed.
p for steel = 0"076 N/cma
Poisson's ratio = 0·3 and g = 9"81 m/sec 2
50cm
Fig. 18·10
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/
· ROTATING DISCS AND CYLINDERS 89.7
Solution. Because the slots are cut in the outer portion of the rotor, the part of the
rotor between the radii 30 to 50 cm can support no teusile hoop stress. The centrifugal force
due to this rotating ring of 30 to 50 cm radius produces a tensile radial stress across the surface
of the disc of 30 cm radius.
Say the radial stress at radius 30 cm=Po
Say thickness of the rotor = t cm.
Consider a small element abed subtending an angle 86 at the centre, at a radius r with
radial thickness ~r~
Centrifugal force on the small clement
2
= pw r (rdO . t dr)
g
Area of the section at radius 30 CID
=(30d6x t)
so so
Stress
_ r pc.h d0 . t a, _ Jpw
2 2 2
, d,
Po- j g 30 d0 . t - 30 g
30 30
so
r 3 J pw 2
pw 2 r 98. X J03
Po= 30g 3 = 90g X
30
2000 .
w=2 X 1r =209 44 rad/sec
X
60
So,
0 016
Po= · !~:~~r
44 2
) X98 X l0 3 =372l'8 N/cm 2 •
Now on a disc of outer radius 30 cm and inner radius 10 cm, a radial pressure p
tensile is acting. Due to this Po, the hoop stress (or the circumferential stress) developed at
radius 30 cm is
2X 302 1800
fo=Po X 302 _ 102 = 3721 '8 X =8374'08 N/cm2
800
(Refer to the formula on thick cylinden;)
Consid"eTfog, whole of the rotor as a hollow disc, let us find the circumferential stress
at the radius 30 cm,
R 1 = 10 cm r= 30 cm
where
/oat r=30 CID

3
= 3/ x 3'418(502 + 1_02 ) + / X 3'418 X 50 J0x 2I0 - 1·9 x3'4l8X30 2
2 2
8
= 3665'80 + 391 '6458-730' 5975
= 3326'85
•
N/cm
. ·1 •
2
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Total maximum circumferential stress at the inner edge of the slot

=8374"08 +3326.85
= 11700"93 N/cm2 = t 11·0 N/mm2 •
Problem 18"4. A thin circular disc of external radius R 2 is forced on to a rigid shaft
of radius R 1 . Prove that when the angular speed is w, the pressure between the disc and the
shaft will be reduced by ·
pw2 x lRl- R 1 2) {(3m+ l)R 22 +(m- l)R1:}
g 4{ 1 m+lJR2 2 + (m-l)R1 2}
Solution. The thin circular disc is forced onto the solid shaft, say the initial pressure
between the shaft and the disc at the common surface is p.
Due to .the radial pressure p, there will be initial hoop stress in the disc and at the
inner radius, R1
Hoop stress, h'=p ( R: -R:

R2+R2)
2 2 . .. refer to the chapter on thick cylinders
Circumferential strain in the disc at the inner radius
€9
1
= J~ + m1;; Since p is compressive and Jo' is tensile.
...(1)
When the disc and the shaft are rotating at ~ radians/sec, say the radial pressure
between the disc and shaft is p'.
At the inner radius of the disc
Circumferential stress due to p',
12
Rl+ R )
Jio"= p ' ( R22-R12 tensile
Circumferential stress due to rotation

2 2
Jio"' = k 1 owg (R12 +R2 )+k1 ..£::!:_Rl-
2 k2 pw R, 2 ,
g g . ".
'.'m+I m+ 3
where k1 = ~ and k2= 8m- .
,,,_ Pw2
Jio - g
[(~m+l)(R
8m
z+ R 2)+ ~m+l
2
8m 1
R22 _ m+3+R
8m 1
2]
= pw2 [ (3m+ 1)<2R 22+R 12)- m+3. R 1 2]
g , 8m 8m
Resultant hoop stress, /o= Jo'' +Jo"'

2
, _(Ri+R1 ) + pw [(3m+l) ( 2 R 22 +R1 2) - m+3
2
=
P R 22 - R1 2 g 8m .· 8m
Jo p'
Jfoop strain, €
o-- -E + -mE- since .fo is tensile and p'. js compressive
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pw2 [(3nz+ 1 ' (2R 2+R 2)-

+ gE 8m ; 2 i
m+3 R 2
8m . i
J
p'
+ mE ... ( 2)
Equating the srains E 6, = E6 we get
E R?-R1 + m
]= J!...{
_p_ [R2 2+R1 22 _..!_ R +Ri2
E Rl + R + m + gE
2
2
. !__ } Pw [(3m + 1)( 2R + R
8m 1
2
m+3 R "]
8m
2
2
2
1
2) -
1
or ( - ') [Rl+ R12 _!_ ]= 3m+ 1 ) (R 2+ R 2) + 3m+·I . R22_ 1!!._8+m3 R12 J

pw2 (
p p R R +
2
2 - 1
2 m g 8m 8m 2 1
or (p-p') c- (mRl+mR )+(Rl-R

L m(Rl-R.,_2)
J 1
2 2
1 '
_ Pw 2 L- (3m -t- l)R 22 + (3m+ l)R1 2 +(3m+l)R2 2 -(m+3)R1 2

- g 8m
2 2 2 2 2
(p -p')[~(R2 +R1 )+(R2 -R1 ) l=P'" [(6m+2)R ?.+(2m-2)R 2)
<R22-R12) J 8g 2 i
(p-p'{(m+ l);:::t 2
-l) R
12
]=~~ 2
[(3m+ l)R2 2 -t-(m- l)Ri2]
_ ')- pw2 [(3m+l)R22+(m- l)Ri2](R 22 -R1 2)

or (
p p - 4g X (m-t-l )Rl+(m-l)R/
or Reduction in radial pressure
, pw 2 2
. (p-p )= 4g (Rz -Ri)
2
2 [ (3m+I)R 2 +(m-l)R1
(m + l)R22 + (m- l)R 2
2
_1
...,
1
Problem 18·5. If a disc of inside and outside radii R 1 and R 2 is made up in two parts
which are shrunk together, the common radius being R 3 , show that the hoop stresses at R 1 and
R 2 will be equal to a rotational speed given by
z_ 4pgRaz
w - p(l + v)(Rs2-R 1 2)(R/-Rg2) .
.Solution. A disc made up in two
parts inner disc (with radii R 1 and R 3 ) a nd
outer disc (with radii R 3 and R 2) is shown in
the figure 18'11, p is the junction pressure .
Due to the junction pressure, there will be
compressive hoop stress developed in inner
disc and tensile hoop stress developed in the
outer disc.
Stresses due to junction pressure Fig. 18'11
compressive
R2
__011ter disc at radius R 2 , fe" = +2p . 3
tensile
R22-Rs2
(Refo~· to the ch~pter on thick cylinders)
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Stresses due to rotation
The expression for the hoop stress ·is
pw2 pw2
/e=k1 - - (R12+R 22)+k1
g g
k=3m+l . k= m+3
wnere l 8m ' 2
am
and
k +k
1 2
= 4m+4 _ m+ 1
8m - 2m
At the inner radius R 1
'"e1 = k1 Pw2 (R12+R22)+k1 Pw2 XR 2-k pw2 R 2
JI g g 2 2 g 1
At the outer radius R2
Resultant stresses
At the inner radius, /1=/e 1 +/,'
k1 Pw2 (R12+R22)+k1 Pw2 R22-k2 Pw2R12 -2p Rs2
g g g Rs2-J?.i3
At the outer radius R2,/2 =/e 2 +/s"
= k1Pw2 (R12+ Rz2) + k1 Pw2 R 2-k Pw2 R22 2pR12
g g l
2
g +R2 Rl
2-
But as per the conr.l)tion given

/1=/2
!_ctPw2 (Ri2+R22) :+k Pw2R22 - k Pw2R12 -2p Rs2
or g i g 2 g 'Ra2-R12
= k1Pw2(R12 + R22) +k1 pw2R12 -k2Pw2R22+2p
g g
2p R3 2 '2,p Ra2
or g R 22 - Ra2 +Ra2- Rl
Problem t8·6. A thin hollow disc of outer radius R2 is shrunk over another solid disc
of the same thickness ·but radius R1, such that the junction pressure between the two is p.
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R:OtA'tlNG ·otscs AND CYLINDERS
Show that in order that the outer disc may not be loosened over the inner disc at the angular
velocity w, the minimum value of p should be
3+v
8g. Pw~ (R 22 - R 1 2) where v=Poisson's ratio
and P=Weight density
Solution. When the outer disc is loosened over the in·ner disc, the ·r-adlal 'pressure
between the two becomes zero.
Initial hoop strain at R 1
Due to junction pressure p,
Hoop stress in outer disc= p x R22 +R 12 tensile

R22-R12
Hoop strain in outer disc=; x~:::;::+:E tensile
Hoop stress in the inner disc=-p compressive
Hoop strain in inner disc= - f +::E compressive
Total hoop strain _ P R22 +R1 2 p p p

e:s -E x R2 2 - R12 +mE +-E- mE
=; (R}~ 2
;
1
2 ) ... (1)
Hoop strain due to rotation at R 1

Hoop stress in inner disc at R1
Js = Pw2 [ 3~+1 XR
g Sm 1
2 - m+3 Ri
Sm 1
J
2 2
= Pw R1 [3m + l - m-3]= Pw2 R1 2 ( m-l )
g Sm g 4m
Hoop stress in outer disc at R 1
Js' = Pw2 [3m+ l (R/+ R22)+ 3m+ 1 X R22 - m+3 X R

g Sm Sm 8m 1
z]
= ~
12
[
3
; : l (2R22 + R 1 i) - ~! 3
R1Z J
Net hoop strain 1--1,
E
( 3m + l - m-
8m
3-2m+:2_)J
. · ·
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StRENGTH OF MATERIALS·
=~{(
gE
3m+l
4m
) R 2z+R1 2(0) }
_ Pw2 3m+l R 2 ... (1)

~ gE X 4m ' t
. r-.:
From equations (1) and (2) for the outer disc to loosen over the inner disc
1,. .
p 2R22 pu,2 m+3 2
Ex R22-R12= gE x ~ R 2
Pw2 ( 3m+ I ) (R22-R12)
p =g X 8m
where -=v Poisson's ratio

m '
So,
Proble1n 1s·7. A thin steel disc of 80 cm radius is shrunk over a steel shaft of 1$ cm
2
diameter, such that the shrinkage pressure at the common surface is 150 N/mm .
At what speed will the disc be loosened on the shaft ? Neglect the change in the
dimensions of the shaft. '
Solution.
p, density of steel =0·07644 N/cms
E = 2X 107 N/cm 2 ;
g = 980 cm/sec2
Junction pressure, p=I50 N/mm2 = 15000 N/cm2

For the disc,
inner radius R 1 =1·5 cm
outer radius R2= 40 cm
Hoop stress due to shrinkage at the common surface in the disc
R22+R12 402+ 7·52
= p X Rl-Ri2 = 15000 X 402_7·52
- 1656'25 - . 2
-15000 X . - 16093 12 N/cm
1543 75
16093'1 2 15000
Shrinkage strain = E -me (neglecting strain in shaft)
15643'12 1
since - - = 0·3 ... (1)
E m
When the assembly in -rotating say at w radians/second, the disc is loosened and the
radial stress between the two becomes zero.
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Hoop stress in the disc at inner radius

j, = pw2
g
[].l._8
(; 12+R 22)+ 3·3
8
R 2
2
- ~
8
XR
l
2]
as 3m+l _ 3} and 1+3,~ _ ~
8m -- 8 8m - 8
= ~w
2
[ \
3 3
(1 600+56"25) + ~- x J600 - ~-
9
x 56"25 J
2 1329"84
= Pw [1343.20-13"36] XPw2
g g
f, 1329·84+Pw2
Hoop strain =E= - gE ... (2)
Due to rotation, when the disc is loosened on the shaft, the shrinkage hoop strain
becomes zero, therefore
1329"84 p;2 = 1561: · 12
w2 = 156.43"12 Xg l5643" 12 X980
or
1329'84 X fl = 1329'84 X 0'07644
Angular speed, w=388'84 radian/sec
= 3708 revolutions per minute
Problem 18 8. A steel ring is shrunk on a cast iron hollow disc. Find the change
in the shrink fit pressure produced by the inertia forces at 3000 r.p.m. If R 1 = 4 cm, R:= IO
cm and R 3 = 20 cm
Given ' Esteet= 2100 tonnes/cm 2
Ee.,.= 1100 tonnes/cm 2
1/m per steel and C.I. =0'3
flsteet = 0'0079 kg/cm 8
Pc.,. = 0'0072 kg/ems ... i
g=980 cm/sec2.
If the initial junction pre-ssure is 100 kg/cm2, calculate the speed at which the outer ring
of steel will start slipping over the cast iron disc .
Solution. Say the initial shrink fit pressure==p kg/cm 2
Steel ring, Inner radius, R2= IO cm
Hoop stress at R2 in steel ring
Rs2 + R 22 202 + I 0 2 .
= p · R 2 _ Rl' = p X 202_ 102 =-+- l '66 p (tensile)
8
Cast iron disc, loner rad ius, R 1 =4 cm
Outer radius, R2 = JO cm
Hoop stress at R2 in cast iron disc
R22 +R12 100+ 16
=-p . R22 -R12 = -px
100- 16
=- l '38 p (compressive)
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904 STRENGTH OF MA"fEIHAlS
To obtain the hoop stresses, we can refer to the chapter on thick cylinders. Moreover
when the disc is stationery, i.e. , w= O, the equation for p, and/swill be
A B
p, = 2 + ,-2
A B
/9 = 2 - -;:;:
These equations arc the same Lame's equat ions derived in the chapter 6 on thick
cylinders.
1 66
Hoop strain in steel ring at R. -
.-
" P
Es
+ _P_
rnEs
1·66 p 0·3 p 0·933 10- G
E
8
s= 2. I X I06 + 2"!x I =QG X · p
Hoop strain in cast iron disc at R 2
_- 1"38p + 0"3p = - 1"08p_
- Eo E, I· 1 x 106
E
llo
= - 0°98 X 10-o p
E= i"913 X J0- 6 p ... ( I )

When the assembly is rotating at 3000 r.p.m., say the junctio n pressure is p'.
Hoop stresses due to junction pressure p'

At R 2 in steel ring = p' x t ·66 (tensile)
At R2 in cast iron disc = - p ' x 1·38 (compress ive)
Hoop stresses due to rotation at R 2
w-
_ 2 x n x 3000 -_- 314 .! 6 rad/sec.
60
Pw2 Pw2 R 2 Pw2
In steel ring, / 91 = k1 - (R? + Rs2) + k 1 - X .:__!_ - k 2 - X R..2
g g g •
k1 -
_ 3m+1_3·3 ·k _ rn + 3_ 1·9
where 8m ·- 8 ' 2 8m - 8
= Pw
&
2
[il
8
(102+202) + 3· 3
8
X 20£- t· 9 X Jos]
8
2
= Pwi, [206"25+ 165- 23"75]= Pw X 347·5
g . g
_ o·0079 x (314"16) 2 X 34T5 = : k / ,
- ' 980 276 48 g cm
Tot~l hoop strc_t,s iR steel ring

= (276"48 + J '66p')
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ROTATL'IG DISCS AND CYLINDERS 905
. . . ( 276"48+ 1·66 p' ) p'

Hoop stram m steel rmg= - -- - - --- + -
Es mE,
276'48 + l '96 p '
e9,' = e--:-- .
In cast iron disc
2 0'0072 X (314" 16) 2 30"7

=Pw [54"45-23'75] 980 x-
g
=22'26 kp/cm2
Total hoop stress=(22'26- l '38 p')
Hoop strain in cast iron disc
- ( 22"26- l._1_8 p' ) p'
- Ee + mEc
22·26-1"08 p '
Eec = Ee
e'=Total hoop strain
I 276"48+1 "96p' 22"26-1"08 p'
= eo,-ee.= E, - - E . -- ... (2)
Now equating the hoop strains e= e'

• -6 ,_276"48 +1"96p' 22'26- 1"08p'
1 913 X 10 P - 2 . l X loo l"1 X l QG
=131 "657 X 10- s+o·933p' X 10- 6 --20"23 X 10- 6 + 0'98 X p' X 10- r.
or 1 "913 X 10- 6(p-p')=(l l l °427) X lQ-O
Reduction in shrink fit pressure
' 111·427 = 58 ·25 k g/ cm·
or P- p -- -1'913
-- 9
Now the initial junction pressure = p = 100 kg/cm2.

If the outer steel ring starts slipping over the cast iron disc, the junction pressure will
become zero i.e., p' =O at speed w' (say)
Hoop stress due to rotation in steel ring at radius 10 cm
I' '=!:_o'_2 ( 347 . 5)= 0·0079 X347"5 Xw' 2
Je • g 980
= o·oo79 x 3·H· 5 w ' = 0"0133 x 10- 7 ' 2

2
Hoop strain = lo,'
E, 980 x2·1 x 106 w
Hoop stress due to rotalion in cast iron d isc at radius 10 cm
/i80 '= p~ ( 30. 7)= (0"0072 X w' 2 X30"7
• g 980
Hoop strain
= Jo e' = 0 ·0072 X w' X 30"7 = 0"0020 10 _7 , 2
2
E~ 980 X J·l X 106 X w
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STRENGTH OF° MA TERI ALS..
906
Total hoop strain =(0'0133-0'0020) X 10-7

= 0'011 3X 10- 7 w' 2 ... (3)
From equations { 1) and (3)
1'913X 10-6 xp=0'0113X 10-7 w 2
,z_ 1'913 X I 0- s X 1..2.2._= 169'29 X 1000
or w - 0·0113x l0 7
w' =411 '45 radians/sec
= 3929 revolutions per minute.
Problem 18'9. A thin steel disc 80 cm d ia meter is shrunk on a steel shaft of 20 cm
diameter, the shrinkage allowance is 1/1 800 of the radius at the common surface.
(i) At what speed the disc will be loosened on the shaft
(ii) What are the maximum stresses in the shaft and the disc when stationery
(iii) What will be the maximum stress in the disc at half the rotational speed calculated
in part (1). 1
Given Pstee/=0'0078 kg/cm 3
1/m=0'3
Acceleration due to gravity = 980 cm/sec2
E= 2X 107 N/cm2.
Solution.
Common radius, R1 = 10 cm
Radius, R 2 =40 cm
1
Shrinkage allowance =,soo xR1
I R1 1
Shrinkage strain = 1800 X R1 = 1800
Say the shrinkage pressure at the common radius = p.
Then at R1 , hoop stress in d isc
R 2 2 +R1 2 1600+ 100 17
= p. Rl- R12= P X 1600-100 p X 15 (tensile)
at R1 , hoop stress in shaft =-p (compressivei
Hoop stra in in disc = :; ~ fE=o· 8} P (Taking 1/m = 0"3)
Strain in shaft =- L +Y- = _ ~7_p_

E wE E
0'833 p 0·1 p 1·533 p 1
Total hoop strain - E + E --- - E - - 1800
2 X 107
P = i800 X 1·53 3= 7243 N/cmz.
(ii) Maximum stress in disc
17
= 7248 X TI = 8214'4 N/mm 2 = 82'144 N/mm2
Maximum stress in shaft = - p = -7248 N /cm 2
(when stationery) = - 72"48 N/mm2,
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Say at speed w radians, the disc will be loosened on the shaft. i.e., at this speed total
hoop strain of disc and shaft at the common radius will be equal to the shrinkage strain
provided. As a result the radial stress between shaft and disc will become zero.
Rotational stresses at R 1
In the disc,
where
, 1337'5pw 2
Strain €
o
= gE
where p= 0'0078 x 9'8 N/cm3
In the shaft, Jo = p; rl_ k1R12- k2Rl J=

2
p
;
2
L-s-
3·3
,..
'x 100- 81 9- X 100 J
[ 7·5 p<,, 2
-
g
17'5 pw 2
Strain €
gE
0
1337'5 pu, 2 - 17'5 pu,~ IJ20 pw2

Net hoop strain gE gE
But the strain provided by shrinkage = fg~ 0-

1320 pw 2 l
Therefore gE = 1800
2
gE 980x2x 107
w = !800 x 1320xp- l800x 1320xo·o7644
w= 328 ·5 radians/sec
=3 137 Revolutions per minute.
(iii) w' = iw, the rotational speed is reduced to half Jo IX w2, so the hoqp stress in tµe
disc due to rotation will be t X maximum hoop stress at w
J, ,= pw 2 X J}~7·5 = 0'07644 X (328. 5)2 X I 337' 5
e g 4 980x4
= 2814'4 N/mm2.
l I
Secondly the shrinkage allowance will be reduced only by th o f . Remaining ·
4 1800
. 3 1
shrinkage a 11 owance 1s 4 x .
1800
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908
Therefore junction pressure p' =3/4 Xp=7248 X 3/4

(where disc is rotating at half the speed of w) =5436 N/cm2
Hoop stress in the disc at R~ due top' =5436X 17/15=6160'8 N/cm2
Total hoop stress in the disc =2814'4+6160'8
= 8975'2 N/cm 2 =89'75 N/mm2 •
Probletn 18.10. A steel disc of a turbine is to be designed so that the radial and
circumferential stresses are constant throughout and each equal to 120 N/mm3, between the
radius of 300 mm and 500 mm, when running at 5000 r.p.m. If the axial thickness at the
outer radius of this zone is 20 mm, what should be the thickness at the inner radius.
p for steel=0'0079 kg/cm 8
g, acceleration due to gravity=980 cm1sec2
Solution. Density, p=0'0079 x 9'8 N/cm3 = 0'077 42 N/cms
Uniform stress f= 120 N/mm2 = 120,00 N/cm 2
g=980 cm/sec 2
2XTCX5000
Angular velocity, w= 523'6 rad/sec.
60
Thickness at radius 500 mm or 50 cm, t=2 cm
pw 2r2 _ 0'07742 X (523'6) 2 X 502
2'256
2fg - 2Xl20,00X980
- pw2r2
2/g -2·266 1
e =e = 9·541 =0'1084
t=to e-2·256
Thickness at centre, to= o·:048= 0';048=19'084 cm.
Thickness at the radius of 300 mm or 30 cm

pw 2r ' 2 = 0'007742X(523'6) 2 X30 2 =0.
812
2/g 2 X 12000 X 980
t'=to [ 0 ' 812 =to, x o·444
= 19'084 X '444= 8'473 cm
Thickness at the inner radius=8'473 cm.
Problem 18'11. A rotor disc of a steam turbine has inside diameter 15 cm and out-
side diameter 75 cm and axial width of 4 cm on its periphery blades are fixed at an angular
pitch of 3°. The weight of each blade is 0·32 kg with effective radius of 40 cm. Determine
the maximum rotational speed as per the maximum principal stress theory of failure.
Yield strength=280 MPa.
p=0'07644 N/cms
g = 980 cm/sec2
_!__ = 0'3,
m
Solution. Angular pitch of blades= ?'
360
Number of blades = 3 = 120
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~09
Weight of each blade = 0"32 kg
Total weight = 0"32X 120
Effective radius = 40 cm
Say the rotational speed=w radians/second
Centrifugal force on the periphery due to blades
(120 X 0"32) 2
= --- w X 40 = l "567 w 2 kg
980
= 1"567X9"8 w 2 =15"36 w2 N
Resisting area = 7t X 75 X 4=942"48 cm2
Radial stress at the periphery of the disc
]5"36Xw 2 . _2
2
942 .48 =N=l 63x 10 w N/cm2
Radial stress at the inner radius, 7'5 cm = O
_ A + B 3m+ l X pw2r2
Now radial stress p, -
2 -,. 2 8
m
g
Using the boundary conditions
O=~ + - !!___
3·3 X 0"07644 w2X7J':_
2 8 7·5 2 980
2
1·63 10-2 2= A + ~2 _ 3·3 X O 07644 w X 37·52
X w 2 37"5 8 980
A B
or 2 + 56"25 0·[8lxI0- 2w2
A B
T+ 1406"25 4'525X 10- 2 w2 + 1"63x 10-2 w 2 = 6"!55x 10-2 w2
From these' equations

B B
. = 5·974 x 10- 2x w2
1406"25 56 25
B= - 5"974X 10- 2 w 2 X 1406"25 X 56"25
1350
=- 3"5 w 2
A_ = 0"18 l X 10-2 w2 -
.. B
2 56"25
= 0"1 8 1 X 10- 2 w 2= 6"22X 10 2 w2 =6"40! X 10-2 w2
Maximum stress occurs at the inner r adius, r = 7· 5 cm

.
J~ max= 6 401 X JO
-2 u,
2
= · B.52 - ~
m+3 pw 2 x7·52
7 9
= 6'401 X I0-2 w2+6"22XI0-2 w 2 - ~ X 0"0?644 X w2 X7'S2
8 980
= 12"621 X 10- 2 w2 -0"1 X 10-2 w 2 = 12"52[ X 10- 2 wl
= 280 MPa (as per the maximum principal stress theory)
= 280 X 10 6 X 1 N/m2
= 280,00 N/cm2
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.~IO StRENGTH OF MATERIALS
So 12'521 X L0· 2 w 2 = 280,00
w2 = ~ - X 104 = 22'362 X [04

12'521
w= 472'89 radians/second or N =4515 rpm.
Problem 18'12. A steel d isc of uniform thickness t having a central hole of

radius R 1 8.110 outer radius R 2 is shrunk on a shaft prod ucing a r adial pressure p at
the common surface, whe n the . assembly
is stationery. Now the assembly is rotated at
an angular speed w radians/second. The
coefficient of frict io n between the shaft and
the disc is µ.. Show that maximum power is
tr ansmitted when w = ;;. where w 0 is the
angular velocity at which the rad ial pressur~
at the common surface becomes zero and disc
show that maximum po wer transmitted is
2·4) 84 µ.pw 0 R i2t Watt.
Solution. Fig. 18 ' 12 shows a disc of shof t
outer radius R~ fitted over a shaft of radius
R1 . When the shaft and the disc are statio- , F ig. 1s · 12
nery, the radial pressure at the common sur-
face is p . ,
Hoop strain at the common surface when assembly is s tationery
Hoop stress in disc at
Hoop strain in disc at
Hoop strain in shaft at R1 = - L+ _P__ (compressive)

E mE
(because the hoop stress in shaft is also p compressive)
Refer to the formulae of thick cylinders.
e
11
, total hoop strain -· p
22
R +R12 + P + P - P
E Rl-R1 2 mE E mE
= }!_ [
E
R22+ R12+
R22 _
R22-R12
R12
]= 2p R 22 _
R23
R12
.. . (1)
Hoop strain at tJte common surface w hen a s se:anbly is rotating

Say ang-qlar speed = w
Junctio n pressure = p'
Due to p', hoop stress in disc at R 1 = p' ~::~ ;:: (tensile)
hoop stress in shaft at R1 = - p' (compressive)
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ROT ATING DISCS AND CYLINnERS
Due to w, hoop stress in disc at R 1

2
3m + l . Pw2 (R 2 + R 2 )+ 3m + I. Pw xR 2
1 2 2
- 8nr- g 8n1 g
- m +3 X pw2_ X R 2
1
8m g
=~ 3m+ I Pw
.
g
2
[ 2R.•2 + R I 2 _m+3 .R 2
3m + } I
J
Tota l hoop stress in disc :it R 1
3111+ I
Hoop strain in disc at R 1

3m+ I
= "snt -
Due to o,, hoop stress in shaft at R1

3m + l Pw2 R 2_ m+3 pw2 R 2
8m g i 8m . g . i
=
3~+ I
~ ·
pw
g
2
[R 1
2_ m+3
3m+l
Total hoop stress in shaft at R 1
3m + l . p,,,g 2 [ R 2- m+3 R 2 1 ,
- 8m 1
3m + I • 1 J- P
Hoop strain in shaft at R 1
=~
3m+ I • Pw [
gE
2
R
1
2_ m+3 R 2
3m+I 1
J - -y+mE
p' p'
Since p' is compressive

Tota l hoop strain at R 1
€o'=3m+l . Pw2 . 2R 2+R 2_ m+3
8m gE 1. 2
I 3m+l
p' R22 + R12 p'
+-y . R 22 - R12 + mE
[R
_ 3m+I pw2
8m gE 1
z_ ~
3m + I •
R
1
2
J+-~-L E mE
= 3m+ I_ . _!::o_:_ [ 2R22 + R12 _ m+} R 1 z- R 12+ 3m+I
m+3
8m gE 3m + I .
p' 2R22
+ -E X R-2-R
2 1
z
3m +l . Pw2 X2R 2 +L ... (2)

-= ~ gE 2 E
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912 STRENGTH OF MA TFRIALS
Equating eo=Eo' we get

p 2R 22 p' 2R2 2 3m + l Pw2
EX (R2 3 -R 1 2 ) =E X (Rl-R/) + Sm . gE x2Ri2
2
(p -p') __ 3m+
Sm l Pw
g
(R ~ 2 -R12)
Now when p' = O, speed is w0

3m+l
So p=
Sm
3m+l
'= - - - . _P (R 2.-R 2)(w 2_ w2)=K (co 2-w2)
or P Sm g 2 1 o o
Coefficient of friction between the shaft and disc=µ

Power transmitted per revolution
=(µp' X 2n:R1 X 1) R 1 X w=µ X 2rt R 1 2 t)(wp')
P=(µ X 2n: X R1 2t)(K)(co02 w-w 3 }
For maximum power
·dP
-= 0=(2nµR 1 2 t)(K)(w 02 ·- 3w 2)
dw .
or
w= ; ; for maximum power transmission
K( • wo wo )
Pmax = 2f,I. R 12 .it! \w 0·x y' 3 - 3.,f 3
Sm
But Wo= -- ·
3m+ l
4
=:3J 3 X µnR?tpw0
= 2·4t84 µ R1 2 t p w 0 Nm if Pis in N/m3
= 2·4184 J,£.R?.t p w 0 Watt
SUMMARY
1. For a thin ring rotating at angular speed w , mean radius R.,

py2 Pw2R2
Circumferential i;tress,f.=-g- = --g -
p= wei¥ht density, V= linear velocity = w~
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ROTATJNG J)JSCS AND CYLINDERS 913
2. For a hollow thin disc rotating at angular speed w, the radial and circumferential
stre sses are
A B 3m+ I
pr= 2 + -;:a - 8m g
! 8 = ~_.!!__ m+3 pw2r2 1 = p 01sson
. , .
where - s rat10
2 r2 Sm g m
If R1 =inner radius and R2 =outer radius ·

Pr=O at r=R1 and R2 , constants A and B are determined
A 3m+ 1 . Pw2 (R z+R 2) B=- 3m+I
2 8m g i z 8m
r,
1•
maa-- Pw
2
g [3m+ 1 m+3
Sm (2R2 +R1 ) - ~ . R1 2
2 2 Jatinnerradius
Pw 2 3m+I
pr ma!'=g Sm (R2-R1 ) 2 at r=.f R 1 R2
For a solid disc, R1 =0, R 2 =R expressions will be

A 3m+I Pw 2r 2
p,= -: r - - ~ . -g-
A m+3 Pw2 r 2
Je-T-~- . £ --
pr=O at r=R
A 3m+ I 8w2R2
2= 8m g
3m+I
f, '"a,, = pr max= Sm 1 the centre
3. Disc of unifor~ strength

Pw 2r 2
Thickness at any radius, t = t0 e - 2/g
where t 0 = thickness at the centre
f = constant strength throughout the disc
4. For rotating long hollow cylinders, radial and hoop stresses arc
p,-- -A2 +-r
B
2
- -3m-2
--- ·
8(m- l) · g
Pw2r 2
--
r = ~-_!!_ _ (m+2J Pw2r2
JB 2 ,.~ 8(m-}) g
p ,=0 at r= R 1 and R2 and constants A and Bare determined.
· 3m - 2 2
p, max= S(m-1) gPw •
(R2-R 1 ) 2 at r= v R 1R 2
1 -
3m- 2 Pw 2 m+ 2 Pw 2 R
f, mn,, = S(m-- J) ---;;-- 12R/ + R 12 )
. ,.,
-
8(m- l) f?
1
2
at R 1
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5. Temperature stresses in thin discs

Radial stress,
P
,= ~ .!!_ - 3m + 1
2 + r2 Sm
. Pw r
g
2 2
- Erx Tr dr
,.z J
where T=temperature
E= Young's modulus of elasticity
(!.=coefficient of linear expansion
. .
Circumferential stress, Je = -
A
2
B
- 2 - - -
r
m+ 3
8m
Pw 2r ~
· -
g
- -E <1. T + -Eoc
r 2
f
Tr dr

I. A thin rim is r otating about its axis. The linear velocity at the periphery is JO m /sec. If
the density of the material is 0'098 N/cm 2, the maximum stress developed in the rim
(a) o· 1 N/mm2 (b) 0·2 .N/mm 2
(c) 0'5 N/mm 2 (d) I N/mm2
2. A thin hollow disc of inner radius 2 cm and outer radius 8 cm is rotating at a high speed,
w radians/second . The maximum radial stress occurs at the radius
w2~ W4~
W6~ ~s~
3. A thin solid disc of diameter 40 cm is rotating at N r.p.m. If the maximum radial stress
developed is 200 N/mm 2, then the m aximum hoop developed will be
(a) 200 N/mm 2 (b) 250 N/mm2
(c) 300 N/mm 2 (d) 5-QO N/mm2
4. A long cylinder of inner radius R1 and outer radius R 2 is rotating at angular speed w
radians/second. If pis the weight density, g = acceleration due to gravity, 1/m = Poisson's
ratio, then expression for the maximum radial stress is
( a) 3m-2
2
pw2 .
1
(R 2_ R z) (b) 3m-2 pw2 (R - R )2
2 1
8(m-l) g 8(m-l) g
3 2 2
(c) m- pw (R / + R1 2) (d"1 None of the a bove
8(m-J) g ·
5. A solid thin disc is rotating a bout its axis at angular speed w radians/second. If the
expression pw 2/g = 0'8 kg/cm4, and radi us of the disc is 50 cm, the radial stress at o uter
periphery is
(a) 2000 kg/cm2 (b) 1000 kg/cm2
(c) 500 kg/cm2 (d) No ne of the above
6. A thin disc of inner radius 5 cm and outer radius 25 cm is shrunk on a solid shaft of
diameter 5 cm . If the juncti on pressure between the disc and the shaft is 50 N/ mm2
then hoop stress developed in the shaft at r adius 5 cm. '
(a) 100 N /m m 2 (b) 75 N/mm 2
(c) 50 N/mm 2 (d) 25 N/mm2
7. A thin disc of inner radius 5 cm and outer radius 25 cm is shrunk on a solid shaft of
diameter 5 cm. If the junction pressure between the disc and shaft is 60 N/ mm2, then
hoop stress developed at the periphery of the disc
(a) 5 N/mm2 (b) 6 N/mm2
\C) 7·5 N/mm 2
(d) 10 N/ mm2,
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ROTATING Discs AND CYLiNDERS 915
. 8. A thin disc of inner radius R 1 and outer radius R2 is rotating at 1000 r.p.m. The maxi-
mum stress developed is 70 N/mm 2 • If the yield strength of the material is 280 N/mm2 •
The speed at which the disc will fail according to the maximum principal stress theory of
failure is
(a) 1000 rpm (b) 2000 rpm
(c) 3000 rpm : (d) 4000 rpm
ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b)
S. (d) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (b)
EXERCISES
18·1. A composite ring is made of steel and brass rings. The diameter of the ring at
the common surface is 120 cm. The radial thickness of both the riogs is IO mm, and axial
width is 20 mm each. Determine the stresses set up in steel and brass rings if composite ring
is rotating at 2500 r.p.m.
E,tee1=2080 tonnes/cm2 Ebra•, = 1040 tonnes/cm2
p,tte1=0'0078 kg/cm 3 P&ra,,= 0'00883 kg/ems
g=9'8 m/sec2
[Ans. 2797'5 kg/cm 2 (in steel ring), 1393·75 kg/cm2 (in brass)]
18'2. A circular saw 2 mm thick x 36 cm diameter is secured upon a 4 cm diameter
shaft. The material of the saw has density 0'0077 kg/cm3, and Poisson's ratio=0'285.
Determine the permissible speed if the allowable hoop stress is 200 N/mm2 and find the maxi-
mum ·value of the radial stress. g=981 cm/sec 2 •
[Ans. 9425 RPM ; 78'8 N/mm2]
18'3. Determine the stresses due to the centrifugal force in a rotor with an outer
radius 65 cm and radius of the hole 10 cm. The outer portion of the rotor is cut by slots
25 cm deep for windings. The rotor is of steel and ~otates at 1800 r .p.m . The weight of the
windings in the slots is the same as that of the matenal removed.
Given : p=0'0078 kg/cm 3 , g=981 cm/sec2
1/m= 0·3 [Ans. 1485·3 kg/cm2]
18 4. A thin circular disc of external radius 300 mm is forced on to a rigid shaft of
radius 100 mm such that the radial pressure at the junction of the two is SO N/mm2. The
assembly rotates at 300 radians/second. What is the final junction pressure between the two.
[Ans. 15'62 N/mms]
18'5. A disc of inside and outside dia~eters 20 c~ and 50 cm, is made up in two
parts, which are shrunk together. the common diameter bemg 35 cm. The junction pressure
at the common surface is 40 N/mm2. A what speed, the hoop stress at the inner and outer
radii of the disc will be equal ?
g=981 cm/sec2 , p=O·Oo78 kg/ems
Poisson's ratio=0·29 [Ans. 8223 RPM]
18·6. A thin hollow steel disc of outer radius 50 cm is shrunk over another solid
disc of same thickness and radius 10 cm, such that the shrinkage pressure at the common
surface is 100 N/mm 2 • At what speed will the disc be loosened on the shaft ? Neglect the
strain in the shaft.
p=0'07644 N/cms E=2X 107, N/cm2
g=980 cm/sec 2 l/m =o·3 [Ans. 2018 RPMJ
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916 STRENGTH OF MATEtUALS
18 7. A thin holiow steei disc of outer radius 50 cm ·is ·s hrunk on another solid disc of
the same thickness but radius 10 cm, such that the junction pressure between the two is p.
What should be the minimum value of junction pressure p so that outer disc may not be
loosened over the inner disc at an angular speed of 2500 r.p.m.
p= 0'0078 kg/cm3 , l/m = 0·3, g = 980 cm/sec1
[Ans. 540"06 kg/cml)
18"8. A steel ring is shrunk on a cast iron hollow disc. Find the change in shrink fit
pressure produced by the inertia forces at 2500 r.p.m. If R 1 =5 cm, R 2 =15 cm and R 8 =25 cm
E,1ee1=2IO kN/mm2 ECI= IIO kN/mm 2
p,1 .. 1= 0·0019 kg/cm8 pc1= 0·0012 kg/cm3
1/m for steel and C.I. = 0·3 [Ans. 5'42 N/mmz
18'9. A thin steel disc 50 cm diameter is shrunk over a solid shaft of diameter 10 cm.
The shrinkage allowance is 1/ 1000.
(a) What are the maximum stresses in the disc and the shaft when stationery ?
(b) At what speed the disc will be loosened on the shaft ?
(c) What will be maximum stress in the disc at half the rotational speed calculated
in part (b) ?
[Ans. (a) 104 N/ mm2, - 96 N/mm 2 ; 7013 RPM; 128'43 N/mm1 ]
18"10. A steel disc of a turbine is to be designed so that the radial and circumferential
stresses are to be constant and each equal to 800 kg/cm2, between the radii of 36 cm and 20 cm
when running at 3500 r.p.m. If the axial thickness at the outer radius of this zone is 15 mm,
what should be the thickness at the inner radius ?
p=0'0079 kg/cma g = 980 cm/sec 2 [Ans. 27·5 mip.]
18"11. A steel rotor disc of a steam turbine has a uniform thickness of 5 cm. The
outer-diameter of the disc is 60 cm and inner diameter 10 cm. There are 100 blades each of
weight 0·3 kg fixed evenly around the periphery of the disc at an effective radius of 3j cm.
Yield strength of the material = 300 MPa
p= 0"0078 kg/cm 3• Determine the maximum rotational speed as per the maximum
shear stress theory of failure. [Ans. 5835 RPM]
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19
Bending of Curved Bars
In chapter 8 on Theory of simple bending we assumed the beam to be initially straight

before the application of a bending moment and derived the relationship M/ I= E/R= f/y, and
studied about the stresses developed and deflections in beams . But in this chapter we will
study the effect of bending moment on bars of large initial curvature .
19·1. STRESSES IN A CURVED BAR

Fig. 19·1 shows a portion of a curved bar of initial radius of curvature R , subtending
an angle Oat the centre of curvature 0. This curved bar is subjected to a bending moment M
Fig.19·1
tending to increase the curvature of the bar. To find out the stresses developed in the bar, let
us derive a relationship between bending moment M, ra dius of curvature R and dimensions pf
the section of the bar, for which foll owing assumptions are taken
1. The transverse sections of the bti.r which are plane before the application of a
bending moment remain plane after bending.
2. The material obeys Hooke's law and stress is dire~tly proportiona l to strain.
Consider a small portion IJHG of the curved bar in its initial unstrained position,
where AB is a layer at a radial distance of y from the centroidal layer CD i.e., a layer passing
917
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~ 18 STRENGTH OF MA TERJALS
through the centroidal axis of the sections. At layer AB, stresses due to the bending moment
Mare to be determined.
· After the application of the bending moment, say l'J'H' G' is the final shape of the bar.
The centroidal layer is now C'D' and the layer AB takes the new position A'B'. Say the final
centre of curvature is 0 1 and final radius of curvature is R1 and 81 is the angle subtended by
the length C'D' at the centre.
Say /is the stress in the strained layer A'B' under the bending moment M tending to
increase the curvature (or tending to reduce the radius of curvature), and e is the strain in the
same layer.
A'B'-AB (R1+ y 1 )61-(R+y)0

Strain e=- AB - (R+y)O
where y 1 =distance between centroidal layer C' D' an<l layer A' B', m
the final p ,)sition
or ~ - 1
0
Moreover, ,
0
= strain the centroidal layer i.e., when y =0
= R1 -'!J_ 1
R 0
or l +~ = R1+Yi i1 ... (1)

. R+y 8
and ... (2)
Dividing equation (I) by equation (2)
or
or
Now y 1 ""y - considering that change in thickness is negligible.
' ' EoL + L +eo- L+eoL-eo_y_

R1 R1 R R R
• , , ! ' • , ..
So : strain·,
i+ L
R
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OENDING OF CURVED BARS 919
( Here, we have added and substracted the term "i 1

)
or ... (3)
The stress in the layer AB (which is tensile as is obvious from the diagram, i.e., layers
below the centroidal layer are in tension and layers above the centroidal layer are in compres-
sion for the bending moment shown.
r ( 1+" ~ Y]
l
0 )( ~ _ )
Stress, f = EE=E "o+-----=-~~---
1
. 1+.L.
R
where E= Young's modulus of the material
Total force on the section, F= ff. dA
Considering a small strip of elementary area dA, at a distance of y from the centroidal
layer CD.
or
... (4)
where A is the area of cross section of the bar.

Now the total resisting moment will be given by
M = JJ.y. dA
=Ef E0 .ydA+E
J
(I + Eo) (
1+-- ·
*-! )
; .y2dA
= EE0 XO + E (l+e0 ) (
1
Jf; - R1 )I y2
l+y/R dA
Because f ydA = O, i.e., first moment of any area about its centroidal layer is zero.
So
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920 STRENGTH OF MATERIA,..S
y2
Let us assume T:+y/ R dA= Ah2, a quantity which depends upon the disposition of
J
section and the radius of curvature.
Therefore .. . (5)
From equation (4)
F= EE0 A+ Ell + e:0) ( )

1
- ~-)J l +~/R · dA
= 0, because the bar is in equilibrium and the net force on

the section is zero.
Now
Considering the equation (4) again

1 2
E e:0 A=E (l + e:o) ( -- - J.. ) X Ah (since F = O)
R1 R R
or t0
h2
R = (I +€ )
o
(-1
R1
__Rl ) ... (6)
Substituting this value of (1 +e:0 ) ( ~ - ~ ) in equation (5)

1
M= E ( £// )Ah =R e: 2
0 EA
M
or e:o= EAR ... (7)
Substituting the value of e:0 in the equation for stress
f -E _j!__+E ~ x _Y_
- . EAR . h2 l +y/R
M y R
f = AR +Ex I+y/R X rz Xe:o
Putting the value of fo again

M y R M
f = AR +Ex I+y/R X fi2X EAR
M M Ry 1
=AR+ AR X I+y/ R Xh2
M [ 1+°"7i2
= AR R2 x y
R+y J . ... (tensile) . .. (8)
On the other side of the centroidal layer y will be ne~ative as for the layer Ef shown
in the Fi~ .
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BENDING OF CURVED BARS 921
/'=stress "'hen y is negative

M [ -y- x -R2
= -AR R-y h 2
-1 J compressive .. . (9)
The expression given in equations (8) and (9) are for the stresses due to the bending
moment which tends to increase the curvature. If the bending moment tends to straighten
the bar or tends to decrease the curvatue, then 81 < 8 and R1 > R and the stresses will be
reversed
Bending moment tending to decrease the curvature
For y to be positive
M [
f= AR R2 y
l+ Fx R+y
J compressive
. ... (10)
On the other side of the centroidal layer, where y is negative
f
, M [
= AR y
R-y X
R2
v -1 J (tensile) .. . ( I l)
19·2. Ah2 FOR RECTANGULAR SECTION
Fig. 19·2 shows the rectangular cross

section of breadth B and depth D of a
T
curved bar with radius of curvature R, i.e.
the radius from the centre of curvature C to B
j_
/'I'~--- R- --rC I
the centroid G of the section. Consider a IL.Alt'.~~
strip of thickness dy at a distance y from

the centroidal layer. Area of the strip, dA ~%.....\-¥ ~~-R2-R_1==~:•1
= Edy
Fig. 19 2
D/2
f RBy2
dA = J R+y dy
-D/2
+D/2 +D/2 +D/2
=
- D/2
I ByRdy- J BR2dy+ 1-1:y
- D/2 -D/2
3
dy
2
Ah2 = 0-R 2BD-tBR 3 In R+D/
R-D/2
where A = BD
BD BR3 2 R+D
h2 =-Rzx BD + BD In 2 R-D
h2 R l 2 R+D - l
R2 =75 n 2 R-D
p zn .B!__
- R R\ 1 1=J!B.A In R2 - 1= -R [ B In 2
R1 A R1
R]-l
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922 STRl!NGTI-I OF MATERIAts
where R= Radius upto the centroidal layer

R1 =Radius upto the inner surface of the curved bar
R~=Radius upto the outer surface of the curved bar.
Example 19·2-1. A circular ring of rectangular section, with a slit is loaded as
shown in the Fig. 19·3. Determine the magnitude of the force P if the maximum resultant
stress along the section a-b is not to exceed I 50 N/mm 2 • Draw the stress distribution
along ab.
Solution. Mean radius of curvature,
R=ll cm
Radius of curvature of inner surface,
R 1 = 8 cm
Radius of curvature of outer surface,
R2= 14 cm
Breadth B=4cm
Depth D= 6 cm
p
Fig. 19·3 .
= D Zn ..&._1
h2 R
R2 R1
11
=6 ln _!i
8
- 1= ll X0'5596 - l = 0·02593
6
2
or R ~ 38.56
h2
Maximum resultant stress will occur at the inner radius i.e. , at the point b.
Bending moment, M = PXR = II P N-cm
p p
Direct stress, jd = 4x6 = N/cm2 (compressive)
24
Resultant stress at the point
2
b= - M ( -R 2 x - Y2- -1 ) -P
AR h R - .v2 + ,4
;v~= 3 ~m.
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B8ND1l'tG OF ClJRVSD BARS
923
2
So PR ( R Y2 ) P P
Jmaz=AR h2 XR-y
2
-7+7
150X 100= ~ ( :: X R~; )= ~ (

2
38.56X ll~
3
)
P= 24 X l 5000X 8 24896·26 N= 24·9 kN

3 X 38.56
Stress Distribution (along Gb)
p R2 y .
f= A · h2 x R-y ... ... y vanes from Oto 3
=0 at y = O cm
= 1:
2
x~8 -56 x
11
~
1
= 4·o kN/cm 2 at y = l cm
24 9 2
= " 38""6 - -
24 X ., X 11 _ 2 -
8·89 kN/cm 2 at y= 2 cm
24'9 3
= ~X38"56X ll-; = 15"00 kN/cm 2 at y = 3 Clli
Along Ga y varies from O to 3
2
Resultant stress, M ( R y ) P
f= AR I+ h2 X R+y - 7. Since the direct stress is
compressive
p R2 y
= 7X7ia X R+y
=0 at y = O cm
2
= ~: X38"56x 11 ~ 1 =3'333 kN/cm 2 at y = l cm
2 2
= ~: x38"56 x
11 ~ 2 = 6'154 kN/cm at y = 2cm
= 1:
2
x 38'56 x 11 ~ = 8·571 kN/cm 2 at y = 3 cm
3
8·571 kN/c m2
b
a
Resu l tant st ress
dis tribution along
ob
Fig . 19'4
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9i4 s'rRENGTH 011 MATERiAd
Fig. 19'4 shows the stress distribution along the radial thickness ab of the section ab
which has maximum bending moment PR. In this case the resultant stress at centroid G
is zero.
Exercise 19'2-l. A curved bar of rectangular cross section 4 cm x 6 cm is subjected
to a bending moment of 2 kNm, its centre line is curved to a radius of 20 cm Determine
the maxi mum tensile and compressive stress in beam, if the bending moment tends to increase
the curvature. What is the stress at the CG of the section.
Plot the stress distribution diagram to a suitable scale along any section.
[Ans. +113 N/mm\ - 143 N/ mma, +4·t6 N/ mm2 tat C.G.)]
19'3, VALUE OF h2 FOR SECTIONS MADE UP OF RECTANGULAR STRIPS

Sections such as T , I, channel section and bar section are made of rectangular strips.
The va lue of h2 for each section can be determined by consider ing each strip separately. In the
case of single rectangular strip section
_!i:__.B._r BJ,, ~ l_ I
R2 - AL R1 j
where B is the breadth, R2 is the radius of outer fibres and R1 is the radius of the inner fibres
of the section. U sing this expression, let us determine h2 / R2 for various sections .
(i) T-section. F ig. 19"5 shows a
T section with following dimension,
Breadth of the flange=B
-~::~~-R-3 -----:1
-R2----- --
Breadth of the web =b _...,....._..,....t---~

R= Radius of curvature upto centroid
G of the section --·IC
R1 = Radius upto extreme edge of web i
R 2 = Radius upto inner edge of flange flange
R 3 = R adius upto outer edge of flange Fig. 19·5
A= Area of cross section of T section

= B (R 8 - R2)+b (R2- R1)
~ =!i.[
R2 A
B In ..&..+b In
R2
..&.J-1
R1
(ii) I-section. Fig. 19'6 shows an I section with flange and web of breadths B and b
respectively.
R= Radius of curvature upto centroid G of the section
R1 = Radius upto outer edge of inner flange
R2 =Radius upto inner edge of inner flange
R 3 = Radius upto inner edge of outer flange
R 4 =Radius upto outer edge of inner flange
A= area of cross section = B(R4- R 3 )+b(R3 -R 2 )+B(R2 -R1 )
2
-h = -A
R [ R4
B In R Ra + B In -R
+b I R
11
R2 ] - l.
R2 a 2 1
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13B'Nbhio oF cuRvEo BARS
i - - - - ~ - - - R,4 ------1
Inn er flongt
C
B
.L
~ t~ R1
Rz ______.
~--R
Fig. 19·6 Fig. 19·7
(iii) Channel section. Fig. 19·7 shows a channel section with

B= breadth of web
b=breadth of flanges
R = Radius of curvature upto centroid G of the section
R 1 =Radius upto inner surface
R 2 = Radius upto outer edge of web
R3 = Radius upto the oute(edge of flange
A= Area of cross section = B(R 2 -R 1) + 2b(R 3 - R2)
_.!!._.!i[2h In !i_a + B In .!!:.:...J-1

R2 - A R2 R1
(iv) Box section. Fig. 19'8 shows a box section with

B= Breadth
b=Thickness as shown
R = Radius of curvature u pto the
centroid G of the section
R1 = Radius upto inner surface
R2=Radius upto inside edge as
shown
R 3 = Radius upto other inside edge
Rt=Radius upto outer surface of
the section
A = Area of cross section
= B (R2-R1) + 2b(R3 - R2)
+B(R 4 - R3 ) Pig. 19·8
R2
2
-h = -R [
A
R2
B In --+2b
R1
I1i -R 3 + Bin -R4
R 2
- - - 1.
· Rs
J
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Example 19 3-1. A curved beam whose ceniroidal line is a circular arc of 12 cm
radius. The cross section of the beam is of T-shape with dimensions as shown in the Fig. 19'9.
Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses set up by a bending moment of 6
tonne-ems ; tending to decrease the curvature.
M
Fig. 19·9
Solution. The Figure shows the curved bar with T-sectiou subjected to a bending
momertc M tending to decreas~ the curvature ; therefore there will be tensile stresses between
to G, and compressive stresses between G to B .
Let us first calculate the distance of centroid from the outer edge of web
= sx1x2·s+6x1xs·s = 12·s+33 = .
Yl s+6 11 4 116
- cm
y 2 = 6- 4'136 = 1'884 cm
Radius of curvature, R= 12 cm (given)
Radius upto inner surface, R1 = 12- 1'884= l O' l 36 cm
Radius upto outer edge of flange, R2 = l l '136 cm.
Radius upto outer edge of web, R 3 = R1 + 6 = J0' 136+ 6 = 16'136 cm
B= 6cm,b = I cm, Area,A=6 x l + lx5 = 11 cm2
h
R2= A
2
R[ R2
BJ,, R1 + b In R
3
R2
J - 1
h2 12 [ 6 11'1 36 16'136]
R2 =u Xln 10'1 36 + I In 11'136 -l
= :~[ 6 x o·93s + o·3712 J - 1= 1·01694- 1= 0·01694

2
R = 59.03
h2
Maximum compressive stress at point B
_
- AR
M [ l + !!:._ x
h2
___b._J-
R+y 1
6x 1 [
11 x 12 l +
-
59'03x 4·t36]
16'136
= 0'733 tonne/cm 2
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Maximum tensile stress at point A
= ~ [ /~Y2 X ~:-l ]=11:12[12~81~:84x~\03 - I J

= 0·453 tonne/cm2
Example 19'3-2. Fig. 19·10 shows a press applying 200 kN force on a job. Deter-
mine the stresses at the points a and b. Th•:! section is hollow as shown.
R = 37cm
cm
R1=24cm R2 :30cm
Section at a - b
R3 = 50 crn R4 = 5~ cm
punch press
Fig. 19·10
Solution. Let us first deter mine the position of the centroid

l 6 X4X2-l- 2 X20 X 14 X4-l-24x6x27
Yi= I6 X4 -tix20 X 4-l-24 x6
_ 128-1-2240+ 3888 - 17
- 368 - cm
Y2=30-17= 13 cm.
Radius of curvature, R= 24-l-13= 37 cm
Area of cross section, A=24 x 6+2 x 4 x 20+4 x 16 = 368 cm 2
h
2
w= R l-
A 24 ln 30 50 54
24 +2x4X /n30 +l6X /n 50 -1
J
37
= 368 [24xo·2232+2x 4 x o ·s1 05+ 16 x o·o169]- 1
= 3!~ [5·3568-1-4'084+ t '2304]- l

37
= 3°6'g X ]0·6712- 1 = l "07292-1= 0'07292
2
R = 13"714
1z2
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Bending moment, M =Force x(60 + R) = 200X97 kN cm

200
Direct tensile stress, fa=37s = 0'543 kN/cm 2
Bending stress due to Mat a
=
M
AR
L- Y2
R-y2
X R2 - I
h2
J
200 x97 [ 13
= 368 X37 37-13- xJ 3·7 l 4 -- l
J
= 9' 159 kN/cm 2 (tensile)
Bending stress due to Mat b
=-M [ 1+-11____ X. R_22_]
AR . R+Y1 h
, 200 X 97 [ 17 . J-
= 368 X 37 1+37+17 X 13 714
= 7'576 kN/cm2 (compressive)
Resultant stress at the point a
= 9' 159+ 0'543=9'702 kN/cm 2
= 97·02 N/mm 2 (tensile)
Resultant stress at the point b
= 7·576 - 0'543 = 7'033 kN/cm 2
= 70'33 N/mm2 •
Exercise 19'3-l. An open ring of channel section is subjected to a compressive force
of 50 kN as shown in Fig. 19· 11 . Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses
along the section ab.
t~
1·5cm ~
~f.-6cm~itJ
a - b-+---+-
l--scm~
Sec1ion a1 a- b
Fig. 19·11
[.Ans. f a= 246'69 N/mm 2 (compressive),fo = 230'24 N/mm2 (tensile)J
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BENDING OF CURVED BARS
Exercise 19'3-2. A load P = 15 k N is applied on a C-clamp as shown in the

Fig. 19' 12. Determine the stresses at the points a and b.
(Ans. f.,= 257·55 N/ mm2 (tensile), 112'65 N/mm 2 (compressive)J
-t,or~9n-,,or I
---,~ ·C
2 0 m t ~ a ·· 1
r-30m rn--j
Section at a-a
~2
Loa d lin e
b
P:: 15 kN
R1 = 30mm
R 2 = 80mm
ac:: 30mm
Fig . 19·12
19'4. Ah 2 FOR A TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION

Fig. I9· 13 shows a trepezoidal section of a curved bar with breadths B1 and B 2 and
depth D and radius of curvature R. Say C is the centre of curvature, and G is the centroid
of the section. Then
B +2B2 D ·
1
J11= -- - x-
B1 + B2 3
Consider a strip of depth dy at a dis-

tance of y from the centroidal layer. dy
If b= breadth of the strip Fig. 19·13
Area of the strip,
Yi
Now Ah2 = f _Bi:_dA = -AR2+ J Rs dA
J R+ y . R+ y
- y.
Yi
= - AR2+Rs I[ B1+B2D Bi (yi- y ) .J R ~y dy

-~ '
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Yi Yi
= ··-AR2+Ra f ..J!J___ dy+Ra f _!!_2-BL. ---12_ dy
jR+y J D R+y
-y, -y,
+Yi
- Ra J ( B2-;;B1 )Rty dy
-Ys
Example 19'4-l. Determine the maximum compressive and tensile stresses in the
critical section of a crane hook lifting a load of 5 tonnes. The dimensions of the hook are
shown in the Fig. 19'14. The line of application of the load is at a distance of 8 cm from the
inner fibre. (Rounding off of the corners of the cross section are not to be taken into account).
C = Cen tre of cur va ture

K = load - ax is
Sec t ion along A - B
Fig. 19·14
Solution. Fig. 19' 14 shows, a crane hook anti the trapezoid&! $ection. The load line
{(/(' is away from the centre of the curvature <;;.
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t3EN~IN(, Of CURVED BARS
Position of CG of the section

B1 + 2B2 D
Y1 x - where B1 = 4 cm ; B2 =8 cm ; D= 12 cm
B 1 +B2 3
4+16 12 20
4+8 X T =3 cm
16
So Y2= cm
3
16 34
Radius of curvature, R= 6 + --
3
= -
3
CID
4 8
Area of cross section, A = BiiB 2 X D = ;- x l2 = 7.2 cm2
Now { 2 = -I+~ [{ B1+ B ~B

2 1
(Yt + R)}ln ~~~:-(Bi-B1) J
Substituting the values
h~ 34 [ { 4 8 -4 ( 34
R 2 = -l +3x72 +-1-2- 3 +320 )}
In
l.!+
3 79
3 l
34 _ ~ -(8.- 4 )
J ·3
= -I + i~ [10 In 3-4] = -1 + ~~6 [lOX I '09876- 4]
= -1 + ] '0999 = + 0·0999
2
R = 10"01
ft2
16 ' 40
Distance KG= y 2 + 8= + 8= cm
3 3
40 200
M=5 X
Bending moment,
3 = - 3- tonne-cm
This bending m oment tends to reduce the curvature so the portion GA will be in
compression and portion GB will be i n tension.
Direct stress, /d =-2._

72 = 0 '0694 tonne/cm
,.
2 (tensile)
Maximum compressive stress at A,
/ A=
M [ 1+ Ra
AR b2 X R+Y1
Yi J.r -Jd
200 X 3 [
x x
3 72 34
. 20 1
1+ 1001 x 3 x 18 -006.74
J.
as R+ Yi= 18 cm
= 0'0817 [4'7074]- 0"0694= 0·3t52 tonne/crn2
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STRllNbtH OF MA'l'EiltAL~
Maximum tensile stress at B
/B = ~ [R~\ 2
X :: - 1 ]+fd
= 3 ~o~;/34 [ 136 x 1~·01 -1 ]+0·0694

= 0"0817 [7 "898]+0"0694 = 0"7146 tonne/cm2 •
Exercise 19"4-l. The section of a crane hook is a trapezium. At the critical section,
the inner and outer sides are 40 mm and 25 mm respectively and depth is 75 mm. The centre
of curvature of the section is at a distance of 60 mm from the inner fibres and the load line
is 50 mm from the inner fibres . Determine the maximum load the hook can carry if the
maximum stress is not to exceed 120 N/mm 2 • [Ans. 30'56 kN]
19"5. Ah2 FOR A CIRCULAR SECTION

Fig. 19"15 shows the circular section
of diameter d of a curved bar of radius of d
curvature R, from the centre of curvature C 2
upto the: centroid G ~f the .section.
Area of cross sectiqn, A= ~d2

. 4 C
- R=-1
Consider a strip of depth dy at a dis-
tance of y from the centroidal layer as shown.
Breadth of the layer,
b=J( ~ Y-y2 dy
Area of the strip, Fig. 19·15
dA=bdy=~ ( ~ r-y 2
• dy
Now Ah2= Jy~

+dR A
+d/2
or
R
h2 = A
J R+y
y2 4R
dA = 1ed2
1(R+y2 y) X \JI ( 2d )3 -y2. dy
-d/2
d2 [
=16 1 (
l+2 d )
2R
2
15 (
+16 d
2R)
4
+ ... J
Exalllple 19"5-1. A curved bar is formed of a tube of 8 cm outside diameter and
thickness o·s cm. The centre line of this beam is a circular arc of radius 15 cm. Determine
the greatest tensile a?d compress.ive stresses set up by a bending moment of 2 kNm tending to
increase its curvature. ·
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BENbU-l'G OP CURVED BARS
Solu.tion. The Fig. 19' 16 shows the

cross section of a curved bar of radius of
curvature R = 15 cm.
...
A=
4 (8 -7 ) = l l '781 cm
2 2 2
Area of inner circle,
Area of outer circle,

A2 = : (8 2)=50'266 cm2 Fig. 19· 16
Bending moment, _ M=2 kNm=2X 105 N cm
Now AN= I Ry2dA

R+y
For a circular section
For inner circle hi2 = 1(,2 [ l+ ; ( Jo )2 + ;6 ( ;o r+". J

= ~: [l + 0·0212 + 0·0009] = 3'14856
For outer circle d2 [

2
l ( 8 I
h21 = 16 l+ 2 30) + 5 ( 8 )'
16 30 + ... . J
= :; [1+0·03555+0·00158J = 4·14s52
A/z2 = .A. 2 h22 -A 1 h12 = 50'266 X 4' 14852-38'485 X 3' 14856

=208'53 - 121' 17=87'36
h2= 87'36 = 7'415
l l '781
R2 15 X 15
Iii'= 7·415 30' 344
Maximum tensile stress at b,
f~= M[ I +/ii"R x R+Yi

AR
Yi]
2
where Yi = 4 cm
2Xl05 [ 30'344X4]
= 11 ·781X l5 l + (15+4)
-= 1131'766 (1+6'388)=8361'5 N/cm2
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934 STRENQTH OP MATEJllALS
Maximum compressive stress at d,
•a=
1
'
M
AR c~ h2 xR-y
~-1
2
J
2 x1 0~
= 11 .781 x 15
[30'344 x 4 J
05 _ 4) - 1 = 11356"36 N/cm
2
Exercise 19'5-l. A bar of circular

cross section is bent in the shape of a horse
shoe. The diameter of the section is 8 cm
and the mean radius R is 8 cm as shown in
the Fig. 19' I 7. Two equa l and opposite
forces of I 5 kN each are applied so as to
straighten the bar. Determine the greatest
-r
Bern
tensile and compressive stresses and plot a d ia
diagram showing the variation of the normal t
stresses along the central section.
[Ans. 39'22 N/mm 2 (maximum
compressive stress)
99'83 N/mm 2 (maximum
tensile stress)]
14-- - 20 cm ---l
Fig. 19·17
19'6. RING SUBJECTED TO A DIAMETRAL LOAD

Fig. 19'18 shows a circul ar ring of
mean radius R subjected to a diametral pull P.
Consider a section CD at a11 angle 0 from
the line of application of the load i.e., Y1 Y2 ,
and determine the bending moment and
stresses in this section . Due to symmetry,
the ring can be divided into four equal
quadrants. Say M1 is the bending moment
on the section AB along the line of symmetry
X1X2,
Takin.& moments about CD,
Bending moment at the section CD,
M = M1 +; (R- R sin 8)
-< I
From equation (5) of article 19' I. p

2 p ..E.
1 1 2
M=E(l+€0) ( - - - - )Ah2
R1 R
where E= Young's modulus Fig. 1~·18
€0= Strain in cen;troidal l~y~r

R =lnitial radius of curvature
R1 = Radius of curvature after bending
r Ry2
. ..Ah~= j . R+y 4A,
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BENDING OF CURVED BARS 9 35
1 1
So E(l +£0 ) - - - \Ah2 ,= M 1 + PR -· PR sin 20
{\. -
. R1 R J 2 2 ,
Multiplying this equation throughout by Rd0 and integrating for one quadrant
i.e , 8=0 to
2
n/2
I0
E (l + £ 0) ( ~
1
- ~ ) Ah2 Rd0
n/2 n/2 n/2 '
= I M1RdO+ j _P; 2
d6- } P~
2
s in 6 dO
0 0 0
n/2
1
0
-2!.. + p R2i; - p R2
= M1R 2 4 2 ... (1)
Now (I +£ 0 ) = ~
1
. :L (equation (2) of article 19"1 )
Now for one quadrant initial · angle 0= 90°= n/2 and final angle 01 = 90~= n/2 due to
symmetry, i.e., angle L Y1 0X1 remains 90° even after the applicati on of diamctr a l load
R
So (I + £ 0) R = I
1
Substituting this in equation ( I ) above, we get

rt/2
i EAh 2 • d0 - E(l +f 0 )Ah2 f = M R; + 1 p~
2
-( ; - I )
0
~ ~ ( ~
or -E£ 0 Alz 2T= M 1 R
2 + -PR2
2- 2 - 1
) ... (2)
Again by equation (4) of art icle ( 19"1)

Normal force on the section,
F= E£ 0A+E(l+£0) ( -y-y )J1+ L
i
y dA
R
Now
1l +-1'... I
- y
R
dA= -Ry- dA-
R+y
-I R
+Y
I
Ry+y2-y2 dA = ydA- I
Ry2
+y dA
1 f Ry2 dA = - Ah2
= 0- - .. . (3)
R JR +y R
1 1 ) Ah2
T herefore normal force, F = E£oA - E( 1+£o)( Ri - R -R
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936 STRl!NG111 OF MATERIALS
Normal force on the section CD,

p . ()
F= Sill
2
= EA£ 0 - 1 (refer to equation 5 again)
= Eh 0 - ~ - ; (R-R sin 6)
2
= Eho-
M1P
R-2 P
+2
.
sin
e
So,
Substituting the value of E 0 in equation (2) above
-EAh2X ; [~}+2;A]= M2~rt+ p~2 ( {-1)

2
-M
R 1 xh2 x 2,.; - 4P xh2rc= -M 2-+2
1 R,.; PR ( ,.;
T- 1 )
p PR 2 PR 2 TC M1 Tt
- 4 . h2,r - 4 ,r + - 2- =M1R 2- + -R fi2 T
PR
n
2
_ PR
2
2
_ Ph
2
2
= M 1[ R2 +h2
R J
l
PRS PR PR [ R2 ... (4)
M1 = n( R2 + 1i2f-2 =2 R2+h2
Now M=M1 + PR
2
0 - sin 8)
PR R2 2 PR PR PR .
- 2 X R2+1i2X ,; - 2 + 2 - 2 sin 6
= 2PR[ R2+1i2
R 2 .
X -;- -sm 8
2
J
M will be maximum when 0= 0°
PR
M.,.a• = rc(R2 + hZ)
. -1 R2 2
M will be zero when O=sm - x-·
-R2+h2 ~
So there will be 4 sections, one in each quadrant where the bending moment M will 1:>~
zero ~nd consequentl y the stress due to bendin~ will be ?:ero, ·
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Now substituting the value of M 1 in equation

M1 ~p P R2 ... (5)
€o= EAR +2EA = EA x1.(R 2 +h2 )
1 1 ) M
and E(1+£o) ( Ri-R = Ah2
Stress, f=E£o+E(I +€0) ( +-+)--y-

1 i+ L
R
[Refer to equation (3) of article 19· 1, f= EE]
P R2 M Ry
= A X n(R 2 +h2 ) + Ah2 X R+y
_ _! R2 Ry _1JP R R2 2 PR .
- A x 7t(R2+1i2)+ R+y x Ah2~ 2 x (R2+1i2) x-;-- T sm 0
J
p [
- A
R2 R2 ( R2 2
n(R2 -l-h2)+ 2h2 R2 +h2 X re
. ) y
sm 8 R+y
J
. .
Direct stress at any section,
r,
1tt=
p sin
A
e
2
Resultant stress at any point on the section
p [ R2 R2 ( R2 2 . ) y
fa= _A rc(R2+h2' + 21i2 R2 + lz2 x-; - sm 0 R+ y
J+ p .
2A sm (}
Stress along Y 1Y2 axis, where 0= 0°

p r
R2 R2 ( R2 2 \ y
/R = --Alrc(R2 +h2)+ 2h2X R2+1z2 x-;- / R+ y
J
PR
2
[ R2 .r
= A1t(R2+ 1i2) 1+ h2XR+y
J
at the point K, y = d/2 ... where d=diameter of the rod of the ring
PR2 [ R d
ft = Arc(R2+h2) 1+ h2 X 2 R+d
2
J tensile
at the point J, y = -d/2

2
PR2 [ R d ]
fJ = rcA(R2+h2) h2 X 2R - d - 1 compressive.
It can be observed that maximum stress occurs at the point J, where the ciiametral
load is applied.
Stresses along X 1X 2 axis, where 0= 90°.
JR = A
, p L- R2
,;(R 2 +h 2 )
R2 (
+ 2h2 R2+h2- X-;- -
R2 2
l
) y
R +y
J+ p
2A
At the point B, y=+d/2

fb' = ~
p [- R
2
n(R2+h2 )+ 2h 2
R
2
(
R2 +h 2 X ~ - l) 2R+d +"""""£4
R2 2 d J P
(compressive)
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938 STRENGTH OF MA TE}.\1,ALS
At the point A , y =-d/2

p [ R2 R2 ( R2 2 ) d ] P .
/,4' = 7: n(R:i+ hi) 21z2 R2 + h2 x -; - l 2R-d + 2A(tenstle).
Exam ple 19"6-1 . A r ing is made of round steel 2 bar cm diameter·and the mean diameter
of the ring is 12 cm. Determine the greatest intensities of tensile and compressive stresses
alon! a diameter XX if the ring is Sl;l_~jected t o a pull of 10 kN along diameter YY.
S0h1tioa. Fig. 19" 19 shows a ring of mean dia meter 12 cm, bar diameter 2 cm,
subjected to a diametral pull P.
Radius of curvature, R = 6 cm
Bar diameter, d= 2 cm
Pull, P= 10 k N
Area of cross section, A = _!:. (2)2 =3"1416 cm 2

4
r
P: 10 ~ "J
2
/z = t; l 1+ ~( 2! r ~
+ 1 ( 2~ +... J y
= ;~ [ l+ ~ ( :2 / + J~ ( -l2 ; + ··· J
= ![ I + 7~ + I~ X 3~ X 3~ + ... J
= !- [t+o·o1388 + 0·00024J= o·25353
Ri 6x 6
or h.2 = 0·25353 = 142.
Stresses
Fig. 19·19
f A= A
P[ R2
rt(R2-t- fz~) - -
R
2
( R
2
21zi X Ra+ 1z2X -;-1

2 ) d
2R - d
J+2AP
tensile ,r.
10,000 [ 36 142(
= 3·141 6 ~(36+ 0·25353)- 2
36 rt
(36 + 0·25353) x 2 -l
) 2 J 10 000
12- 2 + 2 x i ·14I6
= 3183"09[0"316-14'2(0·632- I)] + 1591"54
= 17639"41 + 1591"54= 19230"95 N/cm 2= 192"30 N/mm2
p[ R2 R2 ( R2 2 ) d ] p
f B= A ,;(R2+ 1z2) + -2_7ii R2+1z2 X-; - 1 2 R+ d + 2A compressive,
1 2
= 3183"09 [ 0"316+ ~ (0"632 - 1) X ~ ]+ 1591"54
12 2
= 3183'09(0'31 6- 3"7326] + 1591"54 · .- 9283 '71 N/cm2
;;=- 92"83 N/ mm 2 (compressive stress)
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: BENDING OF CURVED1 DARS 939
Exercise 19·6-l. A ring is made of round steel rod of diameter 2·4 cm. The mean
diameter of the ring is 24 cm. The ring is pulled by a force of JOO kg. Determine the greatest
intensities of tensile and compressive stresses along the diameter of loading.
[Ans. 260'95 kg/cm 2 (tensile), 303·33 kg/cm 2 (compressive]
1
19'7. CHAIN Ll'Nk SUBJECTED TO A TENSILE LOAD
Figure 19'20 shows a chain link of p
mean radius R, length of the straight portion
/, subjected to pull P. Consider a section CD
at an angle O from the line of application Y1 Y2
of the pull P. Let us determine the bending
moment and stresses in this section. Due to
symmetry, the ring can be divided into four
equal parts as shown. Say M 1 is the bending
moment on the section AB along the line: ox1 .
Taking moments at the section CD,
M=M1 +; (R-R sin 0)
From equation (5) ofiarticle 19· 1
M=E(l+E 0) ( ~
1
- ~ ) Alz2
where
E= Young's modulus
E0 = Strain in the centroidal layer
R = Initial radius of curvature
R 1 = Final radius of curvature
p
Ah~=J Ryi dA
R+y Fig. 19·20
Therefore,
I 1 ) p
E{l + Eo_) ( R~-R Ah2 = M 1 + (R-RsinO)
2
Multiplying throughout by RdO and integrating from O to rc/2
rc /2
f E{l + i;o) ( Ril
1
1 \
- ~ R J Ah2 RdO
0
n/2 rc/2 rc/2
= J M1 J PRS
0
• Rd0+
0
1
0
- -
2
sin 0 dO
rc/2
J0
PR 2 PR 2
= M1 R -2TC + -4
- x rc- 2 ' . ' (1)
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S'l'RBNOTH OP MAtBlUALS
Now, (equation (2) of article 19' I)
In this case initial angle 0= L X 10Y1 =90°

But final angle 61 will not be 90°, but there will be slight change from 90°.
Slope at X- M1l
1- E/X2
where / is the moment of inertia of the section
rc/2
R(I +to) di = .!!_ - M 1 I
J
0 ,
R1 . 2 2 El
EAh 2 11 )-Ell+€o) Ah
(...!:2 __ 2MEl 2 .!: =MR.!!.+ PR2_(_!:-1)
1
2 2 2 2
Ah2 !!_ = M 1 R ~ + PR (-K--1 ~I

2
-EAh2 X M 1_!_-E €
O ... (2)
2El 2 2 2 2
Again by equation (4) of article 19' I
Normal force on the section CD,
F= E e0 A + E (l + £ 0 ) (-RI - 1
__!____)
R
J_!!l.._
R+y .
dA
Now
f R+y
_Bl_ dA = r Ry+ y - yz dA =
R+y
2
r ydA-J _l'.:_ dA
R+y
= 0- -1_ f R~ dA = - Ahz
R J R+y R ... (3)
Therefore normal force,
F= Ee0 A- E(l+e0 ) ( -
I
- -
I '\-
Ah2
-
R1 R1 R
=zP .
Sill
e
!'_ sin
· 0- EA E0 -EA h2 (.J +e0 ) ( - 1 ___ I ) x--
1
2 R1 R R
M
= EA t o- 7f (by equation (5) of article 19'1)
= £0 EA- ~ [ M1+ p: (I-sin 6)]

M1 PR
= Eo EA-R-
2
R + 2P sin 0
So M1 P
Eo= EAR+ 2 EA ... (4)
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BENbING OF CURVED BARS 941
Substituting the value of E 0 in equation (2) above
-EAh2 M1_!__EAh2
X 2 EI
_i,;I~
2 \ EAR
_!_)=M1 2R
+ 2EA
'1t
+
PR2
2
(~-1)
2
PR1
- 2-
where l=Ak 2 ; k = radius of gyration of the section

nR 1ziz w 1i2 ) p R2 ( ii: ) ii:
M1 ( y + 2k2 + 2 x R. =-2- 1-y -Ph2 4
Dividing throughout by rc/2
2
h2J h \ P R2 ( 2 ) p1z2
M1 ( R+-+-1=-
nk2 R · ?.- - -1 - -
TT 2
p
,.
(.B: - B:__!!_)
2 2
M 1-- - - - · -h2J
- - - Jz2 ·--- ... (5)
R+ rr:k2 +y
R
But M=M1 +- (R - R sin 8)
2
p ( .B:_ _ R2 _ !!:_)
i,; 2 2 PR .
= ---'----h2/ h2 +-2- (1-sm O) ... (6)
R+ rck2 +If
Substituting the value of M1 in equation (4)
1
Eo = EAR
p
-·
(!!:_-
re
h 2l
~-..!!..)l+
2
h2
2 P
2EA.
[ R+ nk2 +R
.j
Stress at any layer at a distance of y from the neutral layer is
f = E Eo+E (l+E0) ( - - - -
1
R1
1
R
)-y-
r+L
R
1
Moreover E (1 +e: 0) ( Ri - R1 ) = M
Ah2
M y
f=E 'o+ Ah2 X
M Ry
=E e:o+ Aha X R+y
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stilENaTiI op MAtERrAts
Putting the values of M and t 0, stress due to bending moment
I
p (!!:...
re
__R22 _}!:_\
2 J
J P Ry 1
fb -= AR
[
R+ h2 / !!__ + 2A + (R+y) X Ah'
rck 2 + R
R2 R2
( -;--2-2h2 ) ]
p Ry 1 PR .
X
[
lz2/ fi2 + R+y X Ah2 x-2- (l-sm 8)
R+ nk 2 +R
Direct stress 'due to F, fa= {A sin 0
Resultant stress,
d. '
This is the equation for resultant stress in any section along the curved portions
X2 Y1 X1 and X2' Y2 X1 ' of the chain link.
The bending' moment M 1 on the straight portion X1 X1 ' and X2 X2 ' will remain constant
and for the straight .'portion bending stress will be found with the help of general flexural
formula. To obtain the resultant stress in this straight portion, direct tensile stress P/2.A will
be added to the bending stress.
On the inner surface or" the ring which is also called intrados stress can be obtained by
putting y = - d/2 in equation ,(5) where d is the diameter of the bar of the chain link. Similarly
for the outer surface which is also known as extrados the resultant stress is obtained by
replacing y by +d/2 in equation (6) above.
Ma:simum stress along Y1 0 Y 2 axis
0=0°
JR= p [
AR
Ri
I+ Jiz X
y
R+y
J[~-y-~] h2/
R+ nk2 +2
h2
. :..· PR2 y P
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+ 2h2 A X R+y +2,4
,j!.:.
d
At the intrados y= - -
2
d
At the extrados y=+-
2
[~-f-}] h2/
R-1--
n2k
h2
+--
R
Ma-ximum stresses along X 1 0 X 2 axis

0= 90°
d
At the intrados y=--
2
R2 R 2 1i2
-;-- r-T J
,
/RI=
p R2
A~ [ l - h2 X
d
2 R- d J --"Ji:!... !!:_
[ R-1- nk 2 -1- R
+-x
p
At the extrados
,=-ARP[ 1+7z2
R2
d
R2
~R2 - ··2- h~
2 J P
jRE X 2R+d I h2/ h2 -j- A
[ R+---+ -
nk2 R
Maxi1nu1n stres~ in straight portion

X1 Xi' or X2 X2'
Bending moment
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3
Stress due to bending, /b= ; :1
P 2P
Direct stress, 'd= -2A -- -nd2
f1t., resultant stress at introdos and extrados
32 M1 I 2P
= nd3 :c .,,.d2 •
:Example 19·1-1. A chain link is made of round steel rod of 1 cm diameter. If
R = 3 cm and /= 5 cm, determine the maximum stress along the section where tensile load is
applied. If P= l kN.
Solution. R = 3 cm, d=l cm, 1=5 cm, and P= l kN
h=2
+(2~- r i6 ( :R r
:~ [ 1+ + + ... J
=-h-C 1 ~ ! r f6 (i) 'J
+ ( +
= -fu" [l + 0·01390 + 0·00024]=0'06 338
R2 3 X3
h2 = 0'06338 = 142
Area, A=; ( 1) 2 = 0'7854 cm 2 ,
d I I
Radius of gyrat ion, k=
4 =4 cm k2=
16
R2 R2 h2 9 9 0'06338
R 2 2 - R 2 2
= 2'8648 - 4 50l.-0'03169= -J '66689
+.!!_ = 3 +0'06338 X 5 X 4 X 4 0'06338
R+ !!_,r.k2/
2
R 1, X l + 3
= 3+ J '6 139 + 0·0211 = 4'635
( RZ
,r.
- R2 _ _!!~ )/( R
2 2
+ _!!:!_+
rr.k 2
}£
R
)= - !_'_§6§__8.2_ =- 0'3 ,96
4'635
8= 0°, Therefore
Maximum stress at intrades,
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1000x [
= 0 . 7854 3 1-142x
5
1 J[-0'3 596]
1000 X 142 l 1000
-2X0'7854 X5+ 0·7859X2
=424'4[9'853]-18079'96+636'62
= 4181 '61 - 18079'96+636'62 = -13261 '73 N/cm 2
= -- 132'61 N/mm2 (compressive)
Maximum stress at extrados,
/RE = JR[ l+ ~
2
x 2R:d] [ :•
R+ rck 2
-I. lJ
--,Z-=+R
P R2 d P
+ 2A x F x2R+d+ 2A
1000 X [ 1 +
= 0 . 7854 3
I
I 42 X 'l J[ -0'3596]
1000 I 1000
+ 2 X 0'7854 X
142 X 7- + 0'7854 X 2
=- 3248'50 + 12914'26+636'62 = + 10302'38 N/cm2

=+ 103'02 N/mm2 (tensile)
Maximum stress occurs at the intrados, i.e. where the load is applied.
Exercise 19'7-l. A chain link is made of round steel rod of l cm diameter. If

R = 3 cm and /= 5 cm, determine the maximum stresses along the section at the end of the
straight portion. A load of 1000 N (tens ile) is applied on the chain link.
[Ans. 54·54 N/mm 2 (tensile), 19'75 N/mm 2 (compressive)]
19'8. DEFLECTION OF CURVED BARS
In order to estimate the stiffness of a curved beam subjected to bending moment it is

necessary to determine the deflection of t he curved beam and in such cases the influence of the
initial curvature of the beam on its deflection is considerable. Fig. l 9·21 shows centre line
ABCD- centri line of curved

bar.
AD-chord
BG - Perpendicular to the chord.

from the poin·t B .
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946 STRENGTH OF MA1\ERIJ\LS
ABCD of a curved bar subjected to variable bending moment. Consider a small portion BC
of length ds along the centre line. Say the bending moment at Bis Mand M-1-'SM at C. Due
to the bending moment say the centre line of the curved beam takes ne w position ABF and the
ele ment BC rotates by an angle d<p = L DBF a t the point B. The angular rotation is small
and the displacement of the point D is also small.
Displacement DF,c:BD d:/>
LBDF,::,,,90° for very sma ll displacement DF
Components of the displacement are DE perpendicular to the chord AD and EF parallel
to the chord AD i.e. the line joining the ends of the centre line of the curved beam considered.
FE shows negative displacem ent towards the poiut A.
Deflection of the point D with respect to A is 'SD j and considering the small length els
only say the deflection is
6.8D;1=-EF=-DF cos C1. •• •• •• where LDEF= rr..
=-(BD def>) cos a
LA DF=r1.
Therefore LBDG = 90°-a. or LDBG = a
and BD cos z=BG
Therefore b. 'SDA = -(BD cos ix) d4,=-BG dcp =-h dcp
where h is the perpendicular distance of the point B from the chord AD.
Moreover d /, = J! ds
El
So 6.'SDA = _ M h ds
El
Total deflection of D with respect to A

A
'SDA = - r /z M ds
J El
D
(i) D eflection of a clo!':ed ring

,,
Fig. 19·22 shows the quadrant of a M
ring of mean radius of curvature R subjected
to diametral pull P along OY1 • We have to
determine the deflection along the load line
or a long the chord Y2Y1 .
OY1 is half the chord Y2 Y1 , Consider

a small length ds at Cat an angular displace-
ment 8.
CC1 = perpendicular di&tance on I
~ - i;~ ~ -
chord from the point C
=/i =R sin~
Fi¥. 19·~
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Bending moment at the section C,
M =M1 + PR (I - sin 0)
2
3
_ PR PR_+ PR
(l - sin 0)
rc(R 2 +h2 ) 2 2
PR I R2
= 2L R2+h2
2
x-; -sm 0
.
J (see equation 4 of article 19·6)
i>y1 o = deflection along the load
Y1
_ f (R sin 8) [ PR ( __!!::_ 1__ .
-- j El 2 R2 +1z2X re sm 0 )] Rd0
0
Note that we have considered only one quadrant, when we consider the complete ring,
the deflection: along the load will be 3r1 r2.
+ PR3 I~ ___sin 2~
n/2 rc/2
p R3 { -;-
= - EI
2 ( R2
R2+h2 )I - cos 8 I } EI 2 4
J
0 0
3 2 3 1
pR ( R ) 2 pR rt
x -2
= - EI R 2 +h2 x-; + EI X 2
p Ra 2 ( R2 ) P Ra re
= - EI . x-;-\R2 +h2 +Elx -4
=
PRa [
El
re
4-
2 (
~ R 2+ h2
R
2
)l
j
(ii) Deflection perpendicular to load line

Refer to the Fig. 19·22 again, now the chord is
OX1 and perpendicular distance CC2 =h on the chord OX1 from C ; h= R cos (J
3x1 o-=deflection perpendicular to load line
X1
f ( R cos 0 )[ PR I RZ 2 .
=- j EI R2+1z2 X -; -sm 0 )] Rd0 2\
0
Total deflection, J
dO
n/2
p R3 I2 R2 cos 2 0
=-
I
E-I - -n:- lR2·+h-2 ) sin e+-.4--
. .,.
\ .
I0
= - El
PR3
X
[ 2 (
-;
R2 )
R2+ 1i2 . X l + -±-(- 1-1) J
p Ra [ I 2 ( R2 )]
!.... = .E I r---; RZ+h2
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STRENGtH OF MATERIAt.'s
Example 19'8-l. A ring with a mean diameter of 120 mm and a circular cross section
of 40 mm in diameter is subjected to a diametral compressive load of 10 kN. Calculate the
deflection of the ring along the load line. E=200 GN/m2 •
Solution. Since the diametral load is compressive, there will be reduction in diameter
alon2 the load line and increase in diameter perpendicular to the load line.
R =60 mm=6 cm; d=40 mm= 4 cm ; P=lOX 103 N
E= 200 GN/m 2 =200 x 105 N/cm2
h= 1; [ I+~ ( ;R / +
2
16 (
5
;R r+ ... J
= ~[ 1 ++( :2 / + ·t6 ( :2 r
+,. L] - 1
= 1[ 1+o·oss5+o·oo38J = 1·0593 = 1·0593
R 2 36
R 2 + h 2 = 37'0593 = 0· 97
11:d' 71:
I= = (4)4 = 411:= 12'5664 cm'
64 64
Deflection along the load line
= -
PR3[ 4n -
El
2 (
;-
R2 )
·R.2 +h2
J
= -
LO X 103 63
200 X l05 X ]2'5664
[ n 2
4 -4X 0' 97
J
=- 0'0398 X 10-s [0'7854- '6167] X 216 cm
= - 0'0067 x 10-sx 216 cm
= -1 '443 X 10-s cm (reduction in diameter).
Exercise 19'8-l. A ring with a mean diameter of 150 mm and a circular cross section
of 30 mm is subjected to a diamctral tensile load of 4 kN. Calculate the deflection of the ring
along the direction perpendicular to load line. E=200 kN/ mm 2 [Ans. 2'786 x 10- 2 mm]
U)'9. DEFLECTION OF A CHAIN LINK

Fig. 19'23 shows the quarter of a chain p
link subjected to axial tensile load P. The
radius of curvature of the link is R and length
of the straight portion is /. Consider a
section at an angle 0 from the axis OY1 • We
have to determine the deflection along the
load P or along the chord Y 2Y 1 •
CC1 =h=perpendicular from C to l

2
the chord
= R sin 8
0 Ca X
Fig. 19·l3
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BENbING OP CURVED BARS 949
Bending moment at the section
p (!f._-
re
R2 _ j
2 2
12 )
M= lh2 h2 + 2PR (l - .
sm 0)
R+ ,rk a +R
(Refer to equation 6 of article 19'7)
R'A RI hZ
= PK'+ p: (I - sin 0)
l --;- - 2 -2
wh ere K /hfJ h'A
R+ .,,.ks +R
Over the length //2, the bending moment is constant and is equal to
M 1 = PK' where the value of K' is as above.
Deflection along the line of loading
rc/2
8 2R XPK' X _!_
8:r 1:r2 ' - 2JR sin { PK' + PR (I sin 0) } Rd/j17 -
- - El 2 - EI 2
0
rc/l
2R J{PK' Sill
= - EI
2
. 0+ P
-2.'?...sm 0
v-
· 2e
PR sm }de -m-
RPK'I
2
0
rc /2 rc/ 2
- - 2R2 I- PK' cos 0 j_2R2
- El El
I- PR cos
2
6 \
0 0
rc/2 rc/2
+2R I PR(
2
El 2
~ - sin
2 2
20)1- RPK'l
El
0 0
JJI:....
= E I x ( PK)
_ , _ 2R 2 (
El
PR
2 x 1 + EI
) 2R 2
LPRn]
8 •-
RPK'I
EI
2
__ 2R [ PK'+ P R _ PRn] - RPK'/
- EI 2 8 EI
_ PR2[ rcR - 2K'- R ] - ~

- El 4 El ·
Deflection due to direct load P/2 is
"'
0
Pl
= 2AE
Total deflection t- ·
o:r1:r2 = o r1Y2
~ '+~'o = PREI [rcR
4
2
- 2 K, - R J- El !_ + 2AE
RPK' Pl
where
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STilENGTII OF MA1FER:1ALS
(ii) Deflection perpendicular to load line

In this case chord is XX and CC 2 = h= R cos 0+ //2
rr/2
" _ r-xr--
Oxx - R cos 0 {PK' + PR (l -sm
-
2
. e) }
Rd0- fK'IR
El
0
Froin _theory of st!Ilple bending deflection in straight portion
,, = ( M1
EI x I '\.I R ~here M 1 is bending moment on straight
portion and / is the length of the straight portion.

rr/2 rr/2 n/2
8xx= -
2R2
El
[rj PK' cos 8 d0+ JfPR rPR ] PK'!R
2 cos 0 d0 - } 4 sin 28. d0 - ~
0 0 0
rr/2 rr/2 rr/2.
i' .. 2 \+f I sin 0 I+ : \cos 28
= - Pf/ [ K' \sin e \ ]- f;j/-
o O 0
\·· j\·i'/ _ _ 2PR
2
[ K'+ B_ + B_( - 2) ] - PK'lf!._
\.\
- EI 2 8 El
2
_ _ 2PR ( K ' +Ji ) - PK'IR
-- El 4 EI
where where k = radius of gyration .
Example 19'9~1. A cha in link is made of a steel r od of 12 mm d iameter. The straight

poi;tion is 60 ~m in length and the ends are 60 mm in radi us . Deter mi ne t he deflection of the
link alpng the"load line when subjected to a load of 10 k N. E = 200 X 10 3 N/mm2 •
''
Solution . Rod diameter, d = 1·2 cm.
2
Area of cross section, A ~ rc: = 1'131 cm2
Length of straight portion 1= 6 cm

Radius of curvature, R = 6 cm
Load, P = lO kN
E = 200 X 105 N/cm2
~adius of gyration, k = d/4= 0'3 cm
·., ' -
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BENDING · OF CURVED BARS 9:S l
R2 R2
36 h2
36 0'09045
K' _ · rc _=_T - 2
= -;- - 2 - 2
- R + lh 2 .!!:_ +6X0'09045 0'09045
6
-rrk2 + R rc x 0·09 + 6
l l '459-18-0'0452 -6'5862
= 6+ 1·919+0·01so = 1·934 = - 0 ' 83
rcd 4
= n:
I ,
I= (1'2) 4 =0'1018 cm4
64 64
Deflection along the load lin~
~
"Y1Y2 "'--=
PR 2
EI
[ 1tR
-4-- 2K' -R
J -
PRK'l
EI
Pl_
+ uE
l OX I 03 X 63 [ rt X 6
=2oox10 5 x o·1018 -4-+ zxo·83 - 6
J
10 X 103 X 6 X0'83 x6 lO x 103X 6
200 X I 05 XO· l 078 ~. 2 X 1' l 31 X 200 X 105
+
= 1060'9 x 10-3[0'3724]+ 146"76x 10-a+ J '326 x 10-s cm
= 10-a[39S'08+ 146'76 + l '326]=543· i66 x 10-s cm
= 5'43 mm.
Exercise 19·9-l. A ch:: in link is made of a steel rod of 12 mm diameter . The
straight portion is 60 mm in length and the ends are 60 mm in radius. Determine the deflection
of the link along the direction perpend icular to the load line if the chain link is subjected to a
load of 100 kg.
E=2000 x 10 3 kg/cm 2. [Ans. 0'3837 mm]
Problem 19· 1. A curved bar of rectangular section with breadth B and depth 6 cm
is bent to a radius of curvature 6 cm. It is subjected to a bending moment of 4000 kg cm
tending to reduce the curvature. Determine the breadth of the section if the maximum stress is
not to exceed 500 kg/cm 2 •
Solution. Fig. 19'24 shows a
curved bar of rectangular section B X 6 cm
subjected to a bending moment tending to
reduce the curvature .
M = 4000 kg-cm
y 1 = J2 = 3 cm
R= 6cm
A = 6X B cm 2
lz~ R 2R -;- D
R2 = D In 2R-D
= _i_ x ln · 12 + 6 - l = /113 - 1
6 12-6 Fig. 19·24
= J '09876 - 1= 0'09876
8:_= 10' 126

fl2
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In this case maximum tensile stress will occur at the inner fiber at point a
_ _!!__(· _B.2
Stress.j.,- .AR h2
X Y2
R -y2
-
1
)=6xBx6
4000 ( . 26 _3_ _ 1)
10 I x 6-3
1014
=~ = 500 kg/cm 2
1014
or Breadth, B= =2 ·028 cm .
500
Problern 19·2. For the frame of a punching machine 1,,hown in Fig. 19 25
determine the circumferential stresses at A and Bon a section inclined at an angle 0= 45° to the
vertical Force P= 100 kN.
1, •
P sin 0
Pc~~
K,
Fig. 19·25
Solution. Force P = 100 kN

Perpendicular force on the section AB= P sin 45°= ;
2
Tangential force on the section AB= P cos 45°= , :

2
Area of cross section, A= 30x I0+5x20+: 5 x 10 = 550 cm 2
Location of G
30 X IO X 5 + 20 X 5 X 20 + 15 X IO X 35
)'2 = 550
1500+2000 + 5250 = 15 . cm
9
550
y 1 = 40- 15'9=24'1 cm
Radius of curvature, R =R 1 + Y2= 20 + 15'9= 35'9 cm
M= J 2
x(OK'+ OA + y 2)
JOO
=-:Jz x (lOOx V2+35"9)
;= 1n3s·9 kN cm
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BENDING OP CURVED BARS 95)
Direct force on the section,

P'=_f._ =___!_22_ =70·7 kN
...;2 ...;2
h2
R2 = AR [
30 In 30 50 60
20 + 5 In 30 + 15 In 50 - 1
J
;: = ~~6 [30X0"4056+5X0"5106+15X0"1824]- l
=0"0652[12" ]68 +2·553+2·136] - l = l '1382-1 =0' 1382
R2
-h2= 7"236
Tensile stress at point A

= M [---1.l:_ X _!!: - I ]+P'
AR R- h h2
A
= 12538'9X 1000[ 15"9 7 236 _ l]+ 70·7x 1000
X .
550 X 35'9 3S-9-15' 9 550
==635'04 [4'752] + 128' 54
= 3146'25 N/cm2 = 31 '46 N/mm2
Compressive stress at point B
= M [ 1+ R2
AR h2
x---2L-]-
R+Yi
p~
A
12538'9 X 1000 [ l + 7'236 X 24' I ] - 70'7 X I 000
550 X 35'9 35' 9+24" 1 550
= 635'04 [3'906]- 128'54
= 2351'9 N/cm2 =23'52 N/mm2.
Problem 19'3. The radius of the inner fibres of a curved bar of trapezoida'l section
is equal to the depth of the cross section. The base of the trapezium on the concave side is
four t imes the base on the convex side. Determine the ratio of the stresses in the extreme
fibres of the curved bar to the stresses in the same fibres of a straight bar subjected to the same
bending moment.
Solution.
Now R 2 =D
R 1 =2R2 =2D
B2 = 4B1
_ B 1 +2B2 x D
Yi - Bd-S2 3
= _!11+8B1 X ..Q._= 0'6 D
B 1 +4B1 3
So y 2 =0'4 D
D
Area, A=(B1 + B2)
2 Fig. 19·~6
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R = R2 +Ji= 1·4 D
~: = ~ [{ B1 + B ;B
2 2
)-(B2-B J-1
(Yi+R)} In ( ;:~: 1)
= ~ [{ B + 3t XR }/n c::~~~:~~)- (3B )J-1

1
1
1 1
1·4D
= ~ [7B1 I,. 2-3B1 ]-l
1"4D
. BiD [7B1 /11 2-3B1] - I
25
=0. 56[7 X 0·693-3]- l = 0·03656
Let us consider that this curved bar is subjected to a bending moment, M tending to
reduce the curvature.
Maximum tensile stress,
(when y = -y2)
f-~[----1'.L
12 - R-y2 .
AR
R2 - 1
f12
J
- M [
- 2·5B 1 D x 1·4D _ 1"4D - 0·4Dx
0"4D 2T3'i
--
I J
i
= ~ . ~ ~ D" [10.94-1]
·' ) 1 ~
2·&4 M
- B1D2- ... ( I)
Maximum compressive stress,

(when y = + Yt) I '•
... (2)
Stresses in the straight bar

Let us divide the section in two triangles as shown, as to calculate the moment of
inertia In.
Area of triangle / ,
Area of triangle II, A 2 = B~D = 2B 1D

.\
/Yr of triangle I, about its C.G.
= B1Ds
J6
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BENDING · oi:i CURVED BARS
Distance, h1 = (0·6 - 0·333) D=0·2661 D

Jyy of triangle II, about its C.G.
. = B2Ds
36
Distance, h 2 =(0·4-0·333) D= 0·06661 D
3
Jyy of the whole section=_p ~ ~ + Bt (0'2667 D)2+B1 i 3
+2B1 D (0'0667 D) 2
= J_B1 Da + B1D ~ Dz+ 2B1 DXD2 X4

36 2 X 900 900
- 11 B D3
- 60 1
Maximum tensile stress,

r' = -M
12 - XY2
1n
Maximum compressing stress,
So the ratios ft - 2·84 = 1·303

N - 2·18
and !1 = 2·627 = 0'804.
!1' 3·27
Proble1n 19'4. The cross section of a triangular hook: has a base of 5 cm and altitude
7·5 cm .and a radius of curvature of 5 cm at the inner face of the shank. If the allowable stress
in tension is 100 N/mm 2 and that in compression is 80 N/mm2, what load may be applied along
a line 7·5 cm from the inner face of the shank.
Solution. Fig. 19'27 shows a triangu-
lar section with base 5 cm and altitude 7· 5 cm.
Radius of curvature R1 is equal to 5 cm.
C.G. of the section lies at a distance of
7·5
T cm from the base. l on d
p
So y 2 = 2'5 cm, y 1 =5 cm
Radius of curvature, ·
R = 5+ 2'5 = 7'5
Breadth, B1 = 0 and B2 = 5 cm R 1 :5cm
and depth D= 1·5 cm
Area of cross section, Fig. 19·27
A= 5 x 7·5 = 18'75 cm2

2
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}!:__
R2 - A
__ B_[{· B + B -DB1
1
2 (
Yi
+R)J Jn R.+ Yi -(B - B) ]-I
R-y2. 11 1
= 1 .·5 [{ O+ ~
18 75
5 X (5 + 7 . 5) } In 1·5+5
1 .5 _ 2.5 -5
J- I
= ; / [8' 33 x o·916- 5J-1=1·os2-1=o·os2
75
RS
- h2 = 19·23
Say load api;>ll.ed =P New,tons ;

Bending moment M =(7' 5+2'5) P = lO P N cm
Maximum tensile stress at A,
= Mr
AR L R-y2
_ l!_ x~-1
2 h
J+_f_A
= fg·~Osi fs[ 7.;~ 2·5 X 19'23.-1 ]+ 1i75 = 10000 N/cm2
or P[0'6126+ 0·0533] = 10000
or P = 15017·2 N = lS'Ol 7 kN
Maximum compressive stress at B,
= AR
M [ 1 R
+: h2
2
X R+Y1
Yi JA
-
P
•
lOP
= 18·1s x 1·s
[ 1 19 23 5
+ · x 1·s+5
J-is P
75
= P[0·6180- 0·0533] = 8000 N/em2
P = 14166'8 N = 14' 166 kN
So the maximum permissible load is 14'166 kN.
Problem 1,9:5, A ehain link is made 0f round~ steel1 110d of; diamet¢r, !121 mm. If
R= 40 mm and /= 601 mm, draw the stress distribution diagram along the intrad'Os if the link
is- subjected to a tensile load of l '5 kN.
Solution.
Bar diameter, .d = 12 mm
Radius of curvature, R= 40 mm
Length of straight portion,
/= 60 mm 1
Load, P = l500 N
h
2 d2 [
= 16 1(
l+2 2R
d ,2
J +I6 2R
5 ( d )4+ ...... J
1·
=~
(12) 2 [ 1 ,· 12 ) 2
1+ -iC 5(12)'
so,
+ 16 + ..... ,so 1
4
= \~ r1 + 0·0112s+ o·ooo16J = 9·10299;
R2 402
7i2 = 9·10269 = 175 ·77
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Area of cross section, A=~ (12) 2= 113·098 mm 2
4
p 1500 . 2
-y= 113 .098 = 13 26 N/mm
2
Radius of g,yvation = k 2 = !!:_ = (1 2) =9 mm
16 16
Moreover
R2 RZ h2 1600 1600 9· 10269
n - --y-T=-n- --2- - 2 509.29-800-4.55
=- 295'26
R+·h2l +J!:=40+ 9'10269x60 + 9·10269 =40+19'316+0·227
nk2 R nX9 40
=59.543
Along the intrados y= - d/2, the equation for the resultant stress is
/Ri=
p [ R2
AR . l - ~ x 2R - d_
d J[7--y-
h1
h~]
h~· 2
R+ nk 2 +R
PR2 . d P
- 2Alt2 (1 - sm 6) 2R-d + 2A (l+sin 8)
Substituting the values

· I 500
Jiu = 113·098 x 40
[ . 12 J .
l - t 7577 x 80-12 [- 4959]
1500 . . 12 1500
2X ll3.098 X 175 7? (1-sm e) 80-12 + 2 X 113·098 (l+sfu' ,,,
= 49.357-205'695 (1-sin 6)+ 6·631 (l+sin 6)
= 49·357-205'695 + 6·631 =- 149 707 N/mm 2 at 0=0°
=49·351- 2os·695 (1-0·2588)+ 6·631 0 + 0·25s8)
= 49.357-152.461+8'347= - 94·757 N/mm 2 at 8= 15°
= 49. 357-205'695 ( 1- 0· 5) + 6·63 I (1 + 0·5)
= 49.357-102'847+9·946=-43 '544 N/mm2 at 6= 30°
= 49.357 - 205'695 (l-0'707)+6·63 I O + 0·107)
= 49'357-60 ·268 + l J ·319= + 0'408 N/mm2 at 0= 45°
= 49.357- 205'695 (l-0'866)+6·63 l ( l + 0·866)
= 49·357-27'565+ 12·373=+ 34.167 N 1mm~ at 0= 60°
= 49. 357- 205'695 (1-0'9659)+ 6·63 l (I + 0·9659)
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Sf.RBNGTH OF MATBkIALS
·= 49'357-7·014+13'036=55'379 N/mm 2 at 0=75°

=49'357-205 '695 (l-1)+6'631 (1 + 1)
=49' 557-0+ 13'262=62'619 N/mm2 at 0=90°
Fig. 19'28 shows the variation of resultant stress along the intrados, showing that
maximum compressive stress occurs at the inner fibre where load is applied and maximum
te&sile stress occurs at the section where the straight line portion in the link _commences.
------r
+ 62 ·619 N/mm2 . .
r ·. o,_____,.~~----~,--~~_..L
-1l.9· 707N/mm 2
90·
l_l - &
Pig. 19·28
SUMMARY
I. If a curved bar of radius of curvature R and area of cross se~tion A is subjeeted

to a (i) bending moment tending to increase the curvature
Stress in any layer. M
f= AR R2 X R+
[ l +h2 y
y
J .
tensile for positive y
2
M [ R
:= AR 1z2 X y
R-y - 1 J compressive for negative y
•
(ii) Bending moment tending to decrease the curvature
Stress in any layer, M [ I +h2x

f = AR R2 R +y y J compressive for positive y
AR h
2
= 1ef_ [ R2 X _ Y_ - 1
R- y
J tensile for negat ive y .
2. For a rectangular section

h2 R R2
R2 =n In R1 - l
'\"~qn; :- · D=depth of the section
R 2 = radius of outer surface of curved bar
R1 =radius of inner surface of curved bar.
{ ·'Fora circular section of diameter d
, d
2
r 1( d
h2 = 16l 1+2 2R
)2 +I6
s ( 2R
a )"- J
+ ... ....
4. For a trapezoidal section.
L
Rhi2 =AR [{ B1+ B 2 -B
D
1 (R)} /
2
R1 )
n ~ -(B2 -B1) --- 1
where Bi, B2 = width of the outer and inner surfaces respectively

Ri, R 2 = radius of outer and inner surfaces respectively
· D=depth of the section
,. A= area of the section.
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BENDING OF CURVED BARS 9S9
5. A circular ring of mean radius R is subjected to a diametral pull P, then resultant

stress on any section at an angle 6 from the load line is
jR= A
p [ R2
nfR2+h2f
R2 (
+ 2h2
R2 2 . ) v
R2+1i2 x-; -sm 0 R+y
J+ 2.A P .
sm 0
where y=distance of the layer under consideration from the centroidal layer.
6. A chain link of radius at end R, le ngth of the straight portion /, is subjected to an
axial tensile load P.
Resultant stress on any section inclined at an angle 0 from the load line
p r- y l p R2 p
jR = AR L1+ R2fl X -k+y - K'+
y
2Ah2 (I-sin 8) R+y + 2A (I +sin 0)
R2 R2 h2
K' _ -;- - 2 _ - 2
-where h2/ lz2
R+ 1tk2 +7J.
y=distance of the layer under consideration from the centroidal layer' ·
k=radius of gyration of the section.
7. Deflection in· a curved bar along a chord
f hMds
~e;,,ord=-J ~
where M=bending moment o n a section

h=perpendicular distance from the point on centre line of the sectio1~ to the
chord · 11 >
E= Young's modulus of elasticity ., r . .

/ = moment of inertia of the section.
8. A circular ring of mean ril,dius R subjected to a diametrnl load P
PRa [ T? 2 ( R2 ) ·1
Deflection along 1he load = E I 4 --; R2+1z2 _J
Deflection perpendicular to the load line
PRa r I 2 ( R2 )]
=EIL 2--; R2+ h2 .
9. A chain link of mean radius at ends R and length of the straight portion/, subjected
to axirul load P · · ·
. - !' t,.
Deflection alo ng the load line
·
= PR 2
- gj-
[ "1;
·- ;;·-.-:- 2K' - R -
J ~+PRK'l Pl
2AE .
\he value of K' is as above

Deflection perpendicular to the load line
.. '· _ _ 2PR
2
[ K' + .B__J- PRK'l ! ·n,f'\', : ..)
- El 4 El . ;. . '!
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160 ~'J'RIENGTR OF •Mii\!fBR!IM'.;S
MUL TIPL•E CH01.CE QUESTIONS
1. A bar of square section 4 cm X 4 cm is curved to a mean a radius of 8 cm. A bending

moment Mis appl.ied on the bar. The moment M tries to straighten the bar. If the
stress at the innermost fibres is 80 N/mm 2 tensile, then the stress at the outermost fibres is
(a) ·8 0 N/mm 2 (compressive) (b) 80 N/mm2 (tensile)
(c) More than 80 N/ mm 2 (compressive) (d) Less than 80 N/mm2 (compressive).
2. The most suitable section of a crane hook is
(a) Square (b) Round
(c) Hollow round (d) Trapezoidal.
3. If bar of square section 4 cm X 4 cm is curved to a mean radius of 80 metres. A bending

moment M, tending to increase the curvature is applied on the bar. If the stress at the
outermost fibres is 1000 kg/cm 2 tensile, then the stress at the innermost fibres wiU be
appproximately equal to
(a) 1500 kg/cm2 (compressive) (b) 1250 kg/cm 2 (compressive)
(c) 1125 kg/cm 2 (compressive) (dJ 1000 kg/cm2 (compressive\
4. A ring is subjected to a diametral tensile load. The variation of the stress at the intrados
surface from the point of loading up to the section of symmetry is
(a) Maximum tensile stress to maximum compressive stress
(b) Throughout tensile stre~s
(c) Maximum compressive stress to maximum tensile stress
(d) Throughout compressive stress.
5. The distribution of stress along a section of a curved bar subjected to a bending moment
tending to increase its curvature is
(a) Linear (b) Uniform
(c) Parabolic (d) Hyperbolic.
ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (d)
EXERCISES
19·1. Prove that the ratio of the extreme tensile and compressive stresses in t!he case
of a curved bar subjected to pure bending is approximately 1·76 if the bar is of rectangular
section whose depth, D=8 cm and the radius of curvature, R= 10 cm.
19'2. A curved bar of rectangular section with breadth Band depth D = 2B is bent to
a radius of curvature .equal to 1·2 D. It is subjected to a bending moment of 1 k Nm tending
to increase its curvature. Determine the size of the section if the maximum stress is not to
exceed 80 N/mm2 • [Ans. B= 24'35 mm. D=4'8·7 ·mm1
19'3. For the frame of a punching machine shown in Fig. 19'25. Detertnine the
circumferential stress at the points A and B on a section inclined at an angle 0=60° to the
vertival. Ta}(e fon;:e P = 1~0 kN. ~Ans. so·o~ N/mm 2 (tensile) 1 36'86 N/mmt (comvressive)l
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19'4, A curved beam with a circular

centre line has a trapezoidal cross section
shown in Fig. 19'29 and is subjected to pure
bending in its plane of symmetry. The face
b1 is of the concave side of the beam. If
h= 10 cm, and a= 10 cm, find the ratio of
b1/bi of base widths so that the extreme fibre
stresses in tension and compression will be
numerically equal. [Ans. 1'87) Fig. 19·29
19· 5. The cross section of a triangular hook has a base of 4 cm and altitude 6 cm and
a radius of curvature of 5 cm at the inner face of the shank. If a load of 500 kg is applied
along a line 8 cm from the inner face of the shank, determine the maximum tensile and com-
pressive stresses developed in the critical section of the shank.
[Ans. 579·02 kg/cm 2 (tensile), 560'48 kg/cm1 (compressive))
19·6. A chain link is made of round steel rod of diameter 12 mm. If R=40 mm and
/=60 mm, draw the stress distribution diagram along the extrados for an angle of 90° starting
from the outermost edge (along the direction of loading) of the curved bar, if the bar is .
subjected to a tensile load of 10 kN.
[Ans. 119'32 N/mm 2 (tensile) to-27'08 N/mm 2 (compressive) stress]
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20
Unsymmetrical Bending and Shear Centre
In chapter 8 on theory of simple bending, an assumption is taken that section of the

beam is symmetrical about the plane of bending. This condition is satisfied if the plane of the
loads contains the axis of symmetry of all the sections of the beam. Beam sections like
circular, rectangular, square and I sections are symmetrical about the plane of bending and
about the neutral axis, while T-section and chall};l~l section with web horizontal are symm~tri~al
about the plane of bending but unsymmetrical about the neutral axis. Then a beam section
such as angle-section, is not symmetrical about both the centroidal axis. If the cross section
of the beam has an axis of symmetry then this axis of symmetry is always a principal axis of
inerti a, and if beam section has two axes of symmetry, then these are two principal axes.
If the load line on a team does not coincide with one of the principal axes of the
section, the bending t :1 kes place in a plane different from the plane of principal axes. This
type of bending is known as unsymmetrical bending. There are two reasons of unsymmetrical
bending as follows :
I. The section is symmetrical like I section, rectan gular section, circular section but
the load-line is inclined to both the principal axes.
IT. The section itself is unsymmetrical like a ngle section or a channel section with
vertical-web and load line is along any centroidal axis.
Fig. 20·1 (a) shows a beam with I section with load-line coinciding with Y-Y principal
axis. I-section has two axes of symmetry and both these axes are principal axis. Section is
symmetrical about Y-Y plane, I.e. , the plane of bending. This type of bending is known as
symmetrical bending.
Fig. 20' l (b) shows a cantilever with rectangular section, which has two axes of
symmetry which are principal axes but the load line is inclined at an angle oi with Y-Y axis.
This is first type of unsymmetrical bending. Then Fig. 20·1 (c) shows a cantilever with angle-
section which does n ot have any axes of symmetry, i.e., X-X and Y-Y are not the axes of
symmetry. Load line is co inciding with Y-Y axis. This is the second type of unsymmetrical
pendin~.
96i
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UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING AND SHEAR CENTRE
~nsyrn mitr,co~ be n d ing
Symmetricel_-~~oitig S, r t,ie i r,co! s cc t, cn bu t

ob l ,c:; yi h od
Unsyrnme tr,co l ben d ,og

( Unsymmetrical section )
( C )
Fig. 20·1
Before we proceed further let us study about the principal axes crf a section.
20·1. PRINCIPAL AXES
V
. Fig. 20·2 shows a beam section which
is symmetrical about the plane of bend ing Y-Y,
a requirement of the theory of simple bending
or symmet11ical bending. G is the centroid of
the section. XX and YY are the two per- y
pendicular axes passing through the centroid.
.x X
Say the bending moment on the section (in the
plane YY of the beam) is M. a bout the axis
XX. Consider a small element of a rea dA with
(x, y) co-ordinates
Fig, 20·2
M
Stress on the element, f =1- .y ... (1)
.ex
MydA
Force on the element, dF= - - -
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1x,r
964 STRENGTH OF MAtERIALS
Bending moment about YY axis,
dM = MyxdA
fxx
Total moment, M'=J MyxdA

fxx
... (2)
If no bending is to take place about YY axis, then

M'=O
or MyxdA = O
f lxx:
or }ef Jxy. dA = O
fxx
or JxydA=O ... (3)
The expression fxydA is called a product of inertia, of the area about X-X and YY
axis, represented by l;,y· If the product of inertia is zero about the two co-ordinate axes
passing through the centroid, then the bending is symmetrical or pure bending. Such axes
(about which product of inertia is zero) are called Principal axes of the section and moment of
inertia about the principal axes are called Principal moments of inertia.
The product of inertia may be positive, negative or zero depending upon the section
and co-ordinate axis. The product of inertia of a section with respect to two perpendicular
axes is zero if either one of the axes is an axis of symmetry.
Example 20·1-1. Show that product of inertia of a T-section about a centroidal axis
is zero.
Solution. Fig. 20·3 shows a T-section · · -..&) •
with flange BX h1 and web b X h2 • The section
is symmetrical about YY axis. Say G is the
centroid the section on the axis YY, and X-X
and YY are the centroidal axes
/,, 11 =/zp' for flange+/.,./' for web
For flange x varies from

B
- 2 to + 2B
!Y j
For web x varies from Fig. 20·3
- ~ to + ~
Ya + B/2 Y, +b/2
Now, j J xy dx dy +I J xy dy dy
lzr =
-b/2Ya - B/2
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- Yi
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING AND SHEAR CENTRE
Y3 + B/2 Y2 +b/2
=I I~ l
2
y dy+ 111~ I y dy
Y1 -B/2 -YI -b/2
Yo Y1
=0 X
1 y dy + oxJ
-yl
y dy =0
Y1
(for flange) (for web)
Example 20·1-2. Determine the product of inertia about axes X and Y for a triangular
section shown in the Fig. 20"4.
Solution. Consider a small element

of area dA at co-ordinates x, y. y
Product of inertia about!XY axis,

20 2y
In= f
0
I
0
xy dx dy
Note that limiting value of

x=40 mm=2X limiting
value of y Fig. 20·4
20 2y 40
= f [ f x dx Jy dy and also =I [
0 0 0
20 2y 20 20
= iIt I
0 0
y dy = f 2Y ·Y
0
2
dy = I
0
2y3 dy
20
=
y4 I= 204
= 80000 mm4 •
I2 2
0
Exercise 20·1-1. Consider an I section

with flanges Bx t1 and web H X t 2 and show I~
that product of inertia about its centroidal
axes is zero.
Exercise 20·1-2. Fig. 20·5 shows a T.h.
rectangular section with breadth b and height
h. Determine the product of inertia of the
section about X-Y axis. 1 . )(
O
J---b 4 ,/
Fig. 20·5
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S'i'RENGTH OF 'MA'F.t!RfA:tS
20'2, PARALLEL AXES THEOREM FOR PRODUCT OF INERTIA

Fig. 20'6 shows a section with its cent- y
roid at G and GX', GY' are the two rectangular Se~tion
co-ordinates passing through G. Say the
product of inertia about X' Y' is Dry, let us
determine the product of inertia about the
axes OX and OY i.e. lzv.
Say distance of G from OX axis=J
and distance of G from OY axis=x
Consider a small element of area
dx. dy V
~----'----~-+---- (x_
Say co-ordinates of the element about
the centroidal axes GX', GY' are x', y'.
Then co-ordinates of the element about
X-Y axes are Fig. 20·6
x =x+x' and y=y+y'
So product of inertia, I~,= I xy dA= J(x+x')( y+y') dxdy
.,. = Jx'y' dA+xy J dA+y J x' dA+ x J y'dA

= I:xy+x y A+o+o
( because Jx' dA = Jy' dA=O about centroidal axes )

lxy=l:xy+A x y
i.e. the product of in~rtia of any section with respect to any set of co-ordinate axes in
its plane is equal to the product of inertia of the section with respect to the centroidal axes
parallel to the co-ordinate axes plus the product of the area and the co-ordinates of the centroid
of the section with respect to the given set of co-ordinate axes.
Example 20'2-l. Fig. 20·7 shows an unequal channel ·section, determine its product
of inertia Ix, and l:xy·
Solution. Let us break up the section

into 3 rectangular strips I, II and III as shown
and write the co-ordinates of their centroids 2cm
with respect to the given set of axes YOX.
- - - ---- -- - --- - - - - - - - I 8cr'n

Strip
I
Area
20 cm 2
i
I
Siem
x y
1cm
Ax y
100 cm4
:r:l ---ti" .. _:l
II 8 cm2
Ill 112 c~2 '

0''5 cm
3 cm
6cm
11 cm
24 cm4
396 cm4
.
,,,m _J--r,x
10 cm
2cm -
Fig. 20·7
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UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING AND SHEAR CENTRE 9.6:l
Remember that the product of inertia of these rectangular strips about their principal
axes passing through the respective centroids is zero, because rectangular strips have two axes
of symmetry.
Uxy)i=O+ 100 cm4 (using the parallel axis theorem for
(J,,.)11=0+24 cm 4 product of inertia)
Ux,.>m=0+396 cm 4
Ix,=520 cm4
To determine L _, let us first determine the position of the centroid of the section .
xy
__ 2oxs+sxo·5+12x3 _ .
.t - 20+8+ 12 - 3 5 cm
y
20X l+8x6+ 12 X 11
20+8+ 12 = 5 cm
Area of crnss section, A= 20+8+ 12=40 cm 2
lxy=lzv-A x y=520-40x3·Sx5=- 180 cm'
Exercise 20·2 -t. Fig. 20·3 shows an

an unequal angle section , determine its product
of inertia Ix. and '-y (through the centroidal
axes) .t
fAns. 24'75x 104 mm4,

-32'30 X 104 mm 4 ]
Fig . 20·8
20'3. DETERMINATION OF PRINCIPAL AXES:
In article 20· 1 we have learnt that principal axes pass through the centroid of a section
and product of inertia of the section about principal axes is zero. Fig. 20·9 shows a section
with centroid G. XX and YY are two co-ordinate axes passing through G. Say UU and VV
is another set of axes passing through the centroi~ G and inclined at an angle e to the X-Y
co-ordinate. Consider an element of area dA at pomt P having co-ordinates (x y). Say
u, v are the co-ordinates of the point P in U- V co-ordinate axes. '
So u= GA' = GD+DA' = GD +AE (as shown in the enlarged figure)
where GD=GA cos 8= x cos 8
AE= DA'=y sin 8
·· or u=x cos o+ y sin 8
v=GB' = PA'=PE-A'E
= PE- AD since A'E= AD
= PA cos 8-x sin 6=y co~ 8-x sin o
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·968 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Similarly x, y co-ordinates can be written in terms of u, v co-ordinates .
. -)(
X
GA= Su
G8 1t6v
GC =6
~ :Neutr,, \
ox i~.
Fig. 20·9
x = GC- AC= GC-A'F= u cos 8- v sin 0

(as PA'= vand GA' = u)
y=GB=PA = AF+ FP= A'C+FP= u sin 0+v cos()
Second moment of area about U-U
/,,,, = J v dA = f (y cos 0-x sin 8) dA

2 2
= J y cos 0 dA + f x sin 6 dA - J 2xy .sin 0 cos 8 dA

2 2 2 2
= lxx cos2 0+In sin 2 0- Jsin 2 6. xy dA

= f xx cos 2 8+ l>Y sin 2 0- l:ty sin 2 8
= i U... + In)+l Uxx-ln) cos 2 8-/~11 sin 2 0 ... (I)
Second moment of area about V-V
/-.= Ju 2
dA = f (x cos 8+ y sin 9)2 dA
f
= x 2 c0s2 0dA + Jy 2
sin2 8 dA+ J2 xy sin 6 cos 0. dA
= lvv cos1 o+Iu sin 2 0+ 1.'I sin 2 ()
=! (/.u+ I,.)+ t (/1111 - lu) cos 2 0+ / , " sin 2 6 .. . (2)
From equations ( l) and (2 ',
J,,.,+J, 0 =lxx (sin1 8+cos1 0) + In (sin• 8+ cos1 0)= Ixx+ In ... (3)
Product of ;nertia about UV axes
/u v= I UV dA·= r(x cos 9+y sin 8) (y cos 0- x sin 6) tf!{
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UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING AND SHEAR CENTRE 969
= J xy (cos2 0-sin 2 e) dA+ Jy2 sin 8 cos 0 dA- j x 2 sin 0 cos 9 dA

sin 29 sin 20
J.,.= Ix, cos 28+ 1,.,, -!yy
2 2
:Blilt as per the condition of pure bending or symmetrical bending Iu.= 0, then U and V
will be the principal axes
or 2 lx y COS 28-1-(Ixx- fyy) sin 20=0
Or tan 20 = 2 l xv = 1
'"• ... (-4)
f,v - f xx (/yr-f:u)/2
Say 01 and 82 are two values of 0 given by equation (4)
62=81+90°
lxy (J,,,- l xx)/2
r
. 20
sm 1 - J=·-=-=:. . . . :. .:. -. ==== an d cos 201 =
. ( ~ ;Ixx + Ix,,2 J( fvv; f.,., )9+lx>
2
Substituting these values of sin 2 01 and cos 201

1 1
2 (J,,,.--Jn) 2 (l,,,-Ixx)
Uxx + Ivv)+
J[ } (/, y- I xx ) J2+1..,,2
~[ { (l,,- l xx) J+ i
I ..
(/uu)d1 = ~ Urx+ J,,)-Jl + (/11v - fxx) J+J.-; 2

.. . (5)
Similarly (Jvt)01 =} Uxx+ fvv)+ J[~ (/yy- J,.-) T+ l.-,2 - .. . (6)
Now for 02=81 + rt/2

sin 20 2 =sin (20 1 +rc) =-sin 29 1
cos 28 2 =cos (20 1 +7t)=-cos 20 1
Substituting these values in equations (I) and (2)
(/uu) o2= ~ ly_i,___f.,-:1)-J- + 1~,2
(/~x+ Ivvl+J[-~-(-
2
... (7)
{Jvu)e2 = ~ (f,,,,+ J,,)- J [ ~ (111 - fxx) J + fx_..2 ... (8)
From equations 5, 6, 7, 8 we learn that

(/.. .,)01 = (J,.)02, and (1.. ),1 = (/vu)11 2
1t{aximum and minim um values of luu and lvu
1 1
[,,,,= -i· (!.... + In)+ 2 Un- l ,n.) cos 20+1.. , sin 28
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970 STRENGTH OF MATER1X[;S
For maximum value of l,m,

dfuu = O
dB
i.e. {- (1,,,-lxx) (-2 sin 20)+lxyX2 cos 28 = 0
I_.,
or tan 28
This shows that the values of (/.,11)e 1 and U vv)e 1 are the maximum and m10 1mum values
of fu u and Iv,. These values arc called the principal values of moment of inertia as luv= 'O.
The directions 81 and 82 are called the principal directions .
Moment of inertia about ~-ny axis

If the principa l moments of inertia /.,,. and /,. are known then moment of inertia about
any axis inclined at an angle 8 to the principa l axes can be determined. Say u, v are the
co-ordinates of an element of area dA in the U-V principal axes system. X and Y a re the
co-ordinates axes inclined at an angle 8 to the U-V axes.
x co-ordinate of element = u cos tj-v sin 8
y co-ordinate cf element=u siu a+v cos 8
Moment of inertia, /})'=-:} x 2
dA= J(u cos 9- v sin 6)2 dA
= J u2 cos 2 8 dA+ J v2 sin 2 9 dA--- j 2 uv sin c;s e dA

= h v COS 2 B+Iuu sin2 0-0 since J dA = O
UV
= l ,v cos 2 e+Iuu sin2 8 ... (9)

Similarly fu = f.,u cos2 8+ I .v sin 2 0 •.. (10)
From equations (9) and ( 10)
J,,.+ J,,= /,..,+ f ov=J,
,.
polar moment of inertia about an axis passing through G and normal to the section.
Example 20·3-1. Determine the

principal moments of inertia for the equal
angle shown in the Fig. 20· 10.
Solution. Let us consider the angle

section in two portions I and II as shown a nd
determine the position of the centroid
(due to symmetry x=_y)
Moment of inertia, l srr-= I11~
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UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING AND SHEAR CENTRE 97!
10Xl 3 9 X l3
= - - - +10 (2·81-o·s)2 + +9 c2·81-o·sp
12 12
=;: o·833 + s6· 169 + 0·1so+ 50·552
= 108'304 cm4
. Co-ordinates of centroid of portion I
= [(5-·2'87),-(2'87-0'5)]=(2" 13, -2·37)
Co-ordinates of centroid of portion II
= [-c2·s1-0·5), (S-5-2·87JJ =(- 2·31, 2·63)
Product of inertia, l zy= lO (2'13) (- 2"37)+9 (2°63) (- 2'37J
(as the product of inertia about their own centroidal a xes is zero, since portions I anJ 11 are
rectangles).
So fxy= -50'481-56"098= - 106"579 cm4

If O=angle of the principal axes VU with respect to X-axis
106'579
CIC
o·o
or 2 0=90°, or 8= 45°
Principal angles are 01 =45°, 02 = 90°+ 45"= 135°
Principal moments of inert ia
I l
Iu .. = ·2 (l..,+ Tyy)+ Un-In.) cos 201 - /,,v sin 201
2
=} (108'304+108·304)+ ~ x oxcos 90°+ t06"579 Xsin 90°
= 108"304+ 106'579=214·883 cm4

fvv = fxx+ln- f,.,. =2X 108'304- 214'883
= 1·725 cm 4 •
Example 20 3-2. Fig. 20· 11 shows

m I section 15 cm X 20 cm. Axes X'X' and
'' Y' are inclined at an angle of 30° to the
.xes of symmetry. Determi ne the moment
,f inertia a bout th!se axes. Calculate also
1e product of inertia /,,'/.
u
Solution. The I section shown has
wo axes of symmetry i.e. , VU and VV passing
h.r ough the centroid G. Therefore. these are
1e principal axes and f uu and f ,v are the
rincipal moments of inertia. The angle of
.
-~ 1T1c.
. ,;~
1clinations of VU and VV axes with respect I/ I

> X'X' and Y'Y' axes is 0=30°. y
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Fig. 20'Jl
972 I;TR'ENGTH OP MA1'BRIALS
sini 0= 0'25 cos 2 8=0'15

// ,'= Irv cos2 B+ l «u sin2 p
2
Ix'x' = l uu cos O+Ivv sin 0 2
Now !,.,.=
15
;;os - 14
;
2
161
10,000- 4778'667=5221'333 c~
lvv=
2
~? 3
+
16
:i 13 2 53
+ ~~ 562'5+1'333+562'5
= 1126'333 cm4
Therefore, [y'y'= 1126·333 x 0·15 + 5221 ·333 x 0·25
d: 844'749 + 1305'333 = 2150'082 cm•
/x'x' = 5221 '333 X 0'75+ 1126'33 x 0'25
= 3915'999 + 281 '583 = 4197'582 cm4
Now luu = f (/x' x ' + IY 'y')+T (Jx'x' -fy'y' ) cos 26-Ix'r' sin 20
522 l '333 = ~ (4197'582+ 2150'082)
+ + (4197 '582 - 2150'082) cos 60°- Jx 'y'X 0'866
522 1'333 = 3173'832+51 J '875 - /x 'y 'x 0'866
Ix I I =- 15 15' 626 = - l 750' l 45 (

Y 0'866 cm
Exercise 20'3-l. Determine the

principal angles and principal moments of
inertia for the section shown in the Fig. 20· 12.
[Ans. 29° 31', 119° 31';
luu = 360'044 cm',
Iw = 38'29 cm']
Exercise 20'3-2. Consider a rect-
angular section of 6 cm width and 12 cm
depth. Determine /xx, /yy and Jxy about XX
and YY axis inclined at an angle of 45° to the
principal axes.
[An,;;. 540'0 cm', 540'0 cm', - 324 ·o cm'] Fig, 20'12
20'4. STRESSES DUE TO UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING

When the load line on a beams does not coincide with one of the principle axes of ti
section, unsymmetrical bending takes place. Fig. 20· 13 (a) shows a rectangular sectio·
symmetrical about XX and YY axis or with U-U and V- V principal axes. Load line is inclim
at an angle ef, to the principal axes VV, and passing through G (centroid) or C (shear centre) ,
the section.
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UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING ANO SHEAR CENTRE 973
p p
"'
Y,V \ y
\ I I
-- u,x X · -x.t:J
(, I E"
V,t y
( 0) v,v (c)
(b)
Fig. 20·13
Fig. 20' 13 (b) sho,vs an angle section which does not have any axis of symmetry.
Principal axes UU and VV are inclined to axes XX and YY at an angle 0. Load line is inclined
at an angle cf, to the vertical or at an angle (90-¢- B) to the axis U-U. Load line is passing
thtough G (centroid of the section) or C (shear centre).
Fig. 20'13 (c) shows a cha:mel . section which has one axis of symmetry i.e., XX.
Therefore, UU and VV are the principal axis. G is the centroid of the section while C is the
shear centre. Load line is inclined at an angle cf, to the vertical (or the axis VV) and passing
through the shear centre of the section.
Shear centre for any transvers'e section of a beam is the point of inter section of the
bending axis and the plane of transverse section. If a load passes thrcugh the shear centre
there will be only bending of the beam and no twisting will occur. If ?. section has two axes
of symmetry, then shear centre coincides with the centre of gravity or centroid of the section
as in the case of a rectangular, circular or I section. For sections having one axis of symmetry
only, shear centre does not coincide with centroid but lies on the axis of symmetry, as shown in
the case of a channel section.
For a beam subjected to symmetrical bending only, following assumptions are made :
(i) The beam is initially straight and of uniform section throughout
(ii) Load or loads are assumed to act through the axis of bending ·
(iii) Load or loads act in a direction perpendicular to the bending axes and load line
passes through t!ie centre of transverse section.
Fig. 20' 14 shows the cross section of
1Y M : M sine
a beam subjected to bending moment M,. in 1
the plane YY. G is the centroid of the section 'M Mz:M cosEl
and XX and YY are the two co-ordinate axes GA' :u
passing through G. Moreover UU and VV GB:v
ttre the principal axes inclined at an angle 0
to the XX and YY axis respectively. Let us
determine the stresses due t o bending at the
point P having the co-ordinates u, v corres-
ponding to principal axes. Moment in the X
plane YY can be resolved into two components
A
M 1 and M 2 .
M 1 , moment in the plane UU= M sin B Ll:1$A • cit
M 2 , moment in the plane VV= M cos 9
The components M 1 and M2
have their axes along VV and UU respec-
tively. Fig. 20·14
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Resultant bending stress at the point P

1 M2 • u M • v M sin ~ .u + M cos 6 . v
Jib---+---=
- fvv luu fvv luu
=M [ v cos 8 + u sin 8
luu loo
J ... (1)
The exact nature (whether tensile or compressive) depends upon the quadrant in which
the point P lies. In other words sign of co-ordinates u and vis to be taken into account
while determining the resultant bending stress.
The equation of the neutral axis can be determined by considering the resultant
bending stress. At the neutral axis bending stress is zero i.e.,
M[ v cos
luu
6 + u sin 8
lv 0
]=o
sin 8 luu
or V=--- x - .U
COS 8 l oo
= -tan o;. u ... (2)
where tan sin 8

o;= - - -
luu
=tan 6 ( -luu )
COS 8 · lo v / 00
This is the equation of a straight line passing through the centroid G of the section.
All the points of the section on one side of the neutral axis have stresses of the same nature
and all the points of the section on the other side of the neutral axis have stresses of opposite
·nature.
J
Example 20'4-l. A40 romX40 mmx
5 mm angle section shown in the Fig. 20· 15 is
used as a simply supported beam over a span l .
of 2'4 metres. It carries a 0·200 kN of load
along the line YG, where G is the centroid of /
.the s,ection. Determine resultant bending
stresses on point A, B and C i.e., outer corners
of the section, along the middle section of the
beam.

position of the centroid
x~J= 40x5 x 2·5+35 x 5 x 22·5
200+ 175
_ 500+3937'5 _ 11 '83 Fig. 20·15
- 375 - mm
Moments of inertia, I x, =
5
7}53 + 5 x 35(22'5- 3
ll'83)2+ ~ ~/ +40 X5(11'83 - 2'5)2
= 17864'583+ 19923'557+416'667 + 17409'780

= 55614'537 mm4= 5'56I x 10' mm4
= In (because it is equal angle section)
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Co-ordinates of G1 (centroid of portion I)

= + (20 - 11·83), - (11 ·83 - 2·5)
= (8·11, -9'33)
Co-ordinates of centroid
G2=- (11 ·83-2·5), + (22·5 - 11 ·83) = -9·33, + 10·61
Product of inertia, l x;= 40 X 5(8 ' 17)(- 9'33) +35 x 5(-9'33)(10'67)
(Product of inerti a about their centroidal axes is zero because porti on I and II are
rectangular strips)
fry = - l 5245'22-17421 '44 = - 32666 '66 mm 4
=- 3'266 x 104 mm4.
Principal angle, 0
tan 20=, - _!x!__ = -3'266Xl04=<X

2 u~v- lxx) 0
= tan 90° 6=45°.
Principal Moment of Inertia
1......= lUxx+I~v)+Hixx-ln) cos 90°-lzll sin 90°
= H5'56l +5'50) x 104+} x OXcos 90°+3'266 x 104
•=5'561 +3·266) x 10'1 =8'8 27 x 104 mm4
fvv = fx., +fyv-fuu=l5'561 +5'561 - 8'827) X 104
= 2'295 x 104 mm4
3 3
Bending moment M = WI= 0'200 x 10 X2'4X 10 = O·J 20X l06 N mm
4 4 .
Components of bending moment,
M 1 = M sin 45°= 0·12oxo·101 x 106 = 84'84x 10a N mm '~:. \'J
M 2 = M cos 45°= 0·12oxo·101x 106 = 84'84x 10s N mm
u-v co-ordinates of the points
-·-; , ;
Point A. x= -11 '83, y = 40- l I '83 = 28'17 . '
u= x cos B+ y sin S= - l l'83X0'707+28 ' 17 x0·7o7 = 11·55 mm

v= y cos 0- x sin 6=28 ·11 x o·101+ 11·83x0·7o7= 28'28 mm
Point B. x = - 11 '83, y = - 11 '83
u= -11·g3 X 0'707- J l '83 X 0'707= - 16'727 mm, V=O
Point C. x = 40-11.83 = 28·11. y = -11'83
u= 28'17xcos 45°-1 1· g3 sin 45°
= 28' l 7X0'707- l l '83 X0'707 = 11 ·55 mm
v= -11 '83 X 0'707-28'17X 0'707 = -28'28 mm
Resultant bending stresses at points A, Band C.
J A= f::!1u + M2v=84.84x1oal 11·55
lo f~•
28'28
L2'295 X ]04 + 8'827XIQ4
J
= 69'88 N/mm2~
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- -11"627 0
/n=84"84xto:iL2·295XlO' + 8"827xl0' =-42"98 N/mm2
J
- •
/c-84 84X 10
3 [ 11 ·55
!"'.!95 X lO'
!8"!8 J
S"8!7Xl0' =+15" 51 N/mm2.
Example 20·4-2. Fig. 20· 16 llhows I section of a cantilever 1·2 metres Ion: imbjected
to a load W =40 kg at free end along the direction Y'G inclined at 15° to the vertical. Deter-
aine the resultant bending staess at corners A and B, at the fixed section of the cantilever.
Solution. I section iii symmetr ical about XX and YY axis, therefore XX and YY
are tlle principal axes UU and VV.
Moment of Inertia
3x53 2·sx4·53
fuu = fx x= ~ 12
=31"25-21"26 ...
=9"99 cm'
0·25 x2x3a 4·5x(o·2)s
IH=lyy= 12 +-12-
= 1"125 + 0·003 = 1·128 cm'
Maxm. Bending moment
M = W/=40 X l 20=4800 kg-cm
Components of bending moment
M1 = Msin 15°=4800 X0"2588
= 1242"24 kg-cm
M 2 =M cos 15°= 4800 X 0'9659
= 4636"32 kg-cm
Due to bending moment M 1 , there
will be tensile stresses at points B and and
compressive stresses at points D and A Fig. 20·16
Due to bending moment M 2 there will be tensile stress on points A and B and com-
pressive stress on points C and D.
.. .. Resultant bending stress on A,
463~-~x2·5 - 124~·-~~; 1·5 = 1160'24- 1651'91
= -491'67 kg/cm2
Resultant stress on B, fB
- M 2 x2·5 + M 1X 1·5
/ .,,. IH
4636"32 X2'5 1242'24X ]"5
9·99 + 1· 128 = 1160"24+ 165) '!} t
= ~8 12"15 k~/cm\
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UNSYMMETRICAL DENDING AND SHEAR CENTRE
Exercise 20·4-l. Fig. 20· 12 shows Z-secticn of a beam simply supported over a
span of 2 metres. A vertical lo(td W= 2 kN acts at the centre of the beam and passes through
the centroid of the section. Determine the resultant bending stress at points A and B.
[Ans. - 11·05 N/mm 2 , 17'05 N/mm2 ] +
Exercise 20·4-2. A cantilever of rectangular section of breadth=4 cm and depth
6 cm is subjected to a n inclined load W at !he free end. The length of the cantilever is 2
metres and the angle of inclination of the load to the vertical is 25°. What is the maximum
value of W if the maximum stress due to bending is not to exceed 200 N/mm2 •
[Ans. 1558·24 NJ
20'5. DEFLECTION OF BEAMS DUE TO UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING

Fig. 20· 17 shows the transverse section
of a beam with centro id G. X-X a nd Y-Y y GA :
y
ar e two rectangular co-or dinate axes and GB =
U-U and V-V are the principal axes inclined
at an angle 6 to the XY set of co-ordinate
axes. Say the beam is subjected to a load W
along the line YG. This load can b~ resolved
into two components i.e., ___ \.)
Wu=Wsin 0 X
(along UG direction)
W.=W cos 0 ,.
'\ --
(along VG direction) \
Say deflection due to Wu is G.4 in t he
direction GU
y ' '\/
i.e. , GA=Su= K.w.. .za
E l vo Fig . 20·17
where K is a constant depending upon the end conditions of the beam and position of the load
a long the beam .
Deflection due to w. is GB in the direction GV
KWv/ 3
i.e.,
EI,,,,
Total deflection ,
= KW/3 { sin2 0 + cos 2

0
E \J lv, 2 I ,.,.2
Total deflection 6 is a long the direction GC, at angle y to VV axis
CG GA Wu f .,,;,
tan Y= GB = GB = 7;.,- X W.
W sin 0 I~u luu
= W cos 8 X I•• = tan 0 l .v
Comparing this with the equation (2) of article 20 (4)
f uu
,. • I • tan o:= tan 8 . - - ,
1v~
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•
STRENGTH OF 'MATERIALS
where ex is the angle of inclinat·ion of the neutral ax·is with respect to UU ax,is
tan y = tan 0 . -
luu
and
1vv
where y is the angle of inclinations of direction of 8 with respect to VV axis
y=ri, showing thereby that resultant deflection 8 takes place in a direction perpendicular
to the neutral axis.
Example 20'5-l. A simply supported beam of length 2 metres carries a central load
4 kN inclined at 30° to t he vertical and passing through the centroid ·of the section. Determine
(!) maximum tensile stress (2 / maximum compressive stress and (3) deflection due to the 1oad
(4) direction of neutral axis. Given E = 200 x 105 N/cm2.
,v
r---------.sj_T -r-
A
2cm
U-,-x-- · ----111!'::-.~ - ~
~:72°
\
'1NA
15cm
4 -64cm
-Ne':ltrl.
QXIS
~ 12·36cm
C 0
- ~
1cm
'Beam with central

load .
Fig. 20·18
Solution. Let us first determine the position of the centroid of the T section shown
in the Fig. 20'18.
1s x 1x 1·s+10 x 2x os+n 12'36 cm
J= 15+ 20
The section is symmetrical about vertical axis, therefore the principal axes pass through
the centroid G and are along U-U and V-V axes shown.
23
So +20 (4'64-1 '0)2+ l X !SB+ 15 (12'36-7'5) 2
lO X
12 12
= 6'667+264 '992 + 28 l '250+ 354'294
=907'203 cm4
2 X 103 15 x i s
!,,=lu= l f + l f = 166'667+ 1·7S0 = 1~7'917 cm
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UNSYM;M(i'tRlCAL BENi>iNG ANb SHEAR CENTflE 919
Load, W=4000 N
CompG)nents of W, Wv=4000xcos 30°=4000x0·866= 3464 N
W.,=4000 X sin 30°=4000 X 0"500 = 2000 N
Bending moment, M.= W~ x l = 3464:200 173,200 N cm
Bending moment, M .. = -w../ I = 2000: 200 = 100,000 N cm
Dne to M., there will be maxi.mum compressiv.e stres.s on A and B ~.nd maxim\im
tensile sti;ess at C and D.
Du.e to Mu there will be maximum compressive stress at Band D and max~mum tensile
stress at A and D.
So maXiimum c0mpressive stress at B,
fs -M.-xluu
-4··64 MuX5
- +--
Iv.
= 173200 X4'64 -1- 100000 X 5 = 88 5' 852 + .
907'203 · 167'917 •. · ' ·2977
· 661·
=386 3·5 N/cm 2 =38'63 N/mm2
Maximum tensile stress at C
Jc= Mo X 12"36 + Mu X 0'5
luu l vv
_ 173200 X 12'36 + 1oooooxo·5
- 907'203 167'9 L7
or = 2359·727 + 297·766 =2657·493 N/cm2
= 26' 57 N/mm 2
Deflection 8
-
KW/ 3
- E- -
J--+-
l vv
sin2
cos2 0
-2
l uu
()
2
where K= 1/48 as the beam is simply s upported and ca rries a concen-

trated load at its centre
So
KW/3
8= - E
luu
J. ( ov
2
sm2 0X -1luu ) +cos2 8
Now sin 8=0'5 ; sin 2 8=0'25

cos 0=0'866, cos 2 0=0'75
1 4000 X (200) 3
3 =48 x 200 x 105 X907'203
f 0'25 X ( 9o7·20J )'+0·75
V 169'917.
= 0·0367 .fo·25x2s·so + o·15
=0'0367X2'8065=0'103 cm= 1'03 mm
Position of the neutral axis
1.... 300 907'203
tan oi:= tan 0 ~ = tan x . = 0·5774 x 5· 3;39
169 917
= 3'0828
oi: :::72°
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980 STRENGTH'. -Otifr,fa TERIA LS
Ex ercise 2o·s-t. A cantilever 2·8 m long having T-section with flange 12 cm X 2 cm

and web 13 cm x 2 cm carries a concentrated load Wits free end but inclined at an angle of
45° to the vertical. Determine the maximum value of W if the deflection at the free end is not to
exceed 2 mm. Given E= 200 x 103 N/mm 2 • What is the direction of neutral axis with respect
to the vertical axis. [Ans. 221·-20 N, 15° 2-4']
20·6. SHEAR CENTRE

In chapter 9 we studied about the distribution of shear stresses in the transverse section
·or a beam subjected to bending moment M and shear force F. Summation of shear stresses
over the section of the beam gives a set of forces which must be in equilibrium with the applied
--~hear force .F. In the case of symmetrical sections such as rectangular and I sections, the
applied shear force is balanced by the set of shear forces summed over the rectangular section
or over the flanges and web of I section and the shear centre coincides with the centroid ·of the
sect ion. If the applied load is n ot placed at t he shear centre, the section twists about this
point and this point is also known as centre of twist. So the shear centre of a section can be
defined as a point about which the applied shear force is balanced by the set of shear forces
obtained by summing the shear stresses over the section.
For unsymmetrical sections such as angle section and channel section, summation of
shear stresses in each leg gives a set of forces which should be in equilibrium with the applied
shear force.
Sh em
(a ) ( b) cen tr e (d
F ig , 20·19
- . . ._ Fig. 20· 19 (a) shows an equal angle section with principal axes UV. We have learnt in
previous ·examples that a principal axis of equal angle section passes through the centroid of
the section and corner of the equal angle as shown in the ·F ig. Say t his angle section is
subjected to bending about a principal axis VU with shearing force F at right angles to this
axis. The sum of the shear stresses along the legs, gives a shear force in the direction of
each leg as sh own. It is obvious that the resultant of these shear forces in legs passes through
the corner of the angle' and unless the applied force F is applied through this point, there will
be twisting of the angle section in addition to bending. This point of the equal angle section
is called its shear centre or centre of twist .
For a beam of channel section subjected to loads parallel to the web , as shown in
Fig. 20·19 (b), the total shearing force carried by the the web must be equal to applied shear
force F, then in flanges there are two equal and opposite forces say F 1 each . Then for equili-
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UNSYMMETRICAL BENDiNG=AND SHEAR CENTRE 98i
brium F x e:, is equal to F 1 .h') , and we can determine the position of' the shear centre along
th . f .. . F Xh
e axis o symmetry 1.e. e= - 1F -
Similarly Fig. :w· 19 (c) shows a T-section and its shear centre. Vertical force in web
F is equal to the applied shear force F and horizontal forces F 1 in two portions of the flange
balance each other at shear centre.
Example 20'6-l. Fig. 20·20 shows a channel section, determine its shear centre.
Solution. Fig. 20·20 shows a channel

section with flanges bx t 1 and web h x 12. X-X
is the horizontal symmetric axis of the section. A
Say F is the applied shear force, vertically
downwards. Then shear force in the web will
be F upwards. Say the shear force in the
top flange = F1,
Shear stress in the flange at a distance x-

of x from right hand edge
Fay
= fxx t
where F = applied shear force
Fig. 20·20
aY = (t 1 • x) ~ , first moment of area about ~xis X-X
t= ! 1 (thickness of the flange)

F.t 1 x h Fxh
q= f.u,l1 ·i - = 2 f xx
Shear force in elementary area

(t 1 dx= dA.)
Total shear force in top flange

b
= Jq.t1 .dx where b=breadth of the flange

0
b
(say) Fi = r f'x t h 1 dx= Ft 1 h b2
I 2 fu /,., 4
0
T here will be equal and opposite shear force in the bottom flange .
. Say shear centre is at a distance of e from web along the symmetric axis XX.
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98,2 StkilNGTH OP MA Tl!RrA,is
;· Motnei1t of inertia, 14»= \2~ -1-

3 .
2
x~;.
113
.
+2 X b X t 1 ( ; r
. wh.1ch , t he expression
m . 2bf13 . \' 'bl . .
~ 1s neg 1g1 e m companson to other terms
\ .. ,
.,- ; .. 11
Substituting this in the expression for e

t 1b2h 2 12 3t 1b2
e= -4- X h 2 (t 2h + 6bt1 ) = (t /i + 6bt1)
if we take bt 1 = area of flange = A,
ht2 =area ofweb=Aw
3b At 3b
Then e=
Ato+6A,
= + Aw
6
A,
Exercise 20'6-J. A channel section has flanges 6 cm x I cm and ·web 8 cm x o·s cm.
Determine the position of its shear centre. [Note that b=5'75 cm and h= 9 cm.]
[Ans. e=2·543 cm]
Problem :zo·1. Find the product of inertia of a q uadrant of a circle about axes X and
Y as shown in Fig. 20'2 l.
So1ution. Fig. 20·21 shows the quad-

V
rant of a circle of radius R. Consider a small
element at radius r, radial thickness dr and
...
subtending an angle d8 at the centre.
Area of the element,
dA=r dl.dr Ty
Co-ordinates of the element _t_ ~ - - - - --__.....__
x=r cos 0 and y=r sin 0 1-x~ Fig. 20·21
R rr/2
Product of inertia, l , o= J J (r cos 0.r sin i) rd0 dr
0 0
R rt/ 2
= I{ J
0
r 3
0
sin 8 cos 0 d0 } dr
R rt/2 R
= I ,s I
0
cos 20
4 Idr=J ,s( i) dt= f
0 0
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UN SYMMETRICAL ·BENDING AND SHEAR CENTRE 983-
Proble1n 20·2 A beam of angle section shown in Fig. 20 22 is simply supported over
a span of J·6 metres with 15 cm leg vertical. A uniformly distributed vertical load of IO k N/m
is applied throughout the span. Determine (a) maximum bending stress (b) direction of
neutral axis (c) deflection at the centre. E=2IO kN/mm 2 •
position of the centroid
,= to x 1 x o·5+I4 x l xs
14+10
NA-Neutrol axi'!
•
= _!__!7_= 4·875 cm
_
24
14 xo·s+1 o x5
;'( = - - - 14+1_0_
>
57
=
24
=2"375 cm
Moment of inertia
I = JOXI3 + 10(4"875- 0"5)2
xx 12
143
1
+ + 14(7 +1- 4"875) 2
X
12
=0"833+ 191"406+228"667 + 136"718 Fig. 20·22
4
= 557"624 cm
1 108 1
lyy = ;2 + I 0(5-2" 375)2 + ~; JS + 14(2"375- 0"5)2
=83"333+ 68 '906 + 1· 167 +49'218=202"624 cm4
Co ordinates of G2 and G1 : [ - l ·875, (8-4"875)] and [(5-2"375),-4'375]
l xy=' 14(8 - 4"875)(-1 "875)+ 10(5-2'375)(-4'375)
= -82 "031-114"843 = - · 196·874 cm4
(Note that parallel axes theorem for product of inertia is used here and product of
inertia of rectangular .strips about their own centroidal axes is zero)
Dire~tions of Principal axes

l .zy = -19..,,..,
6"=87,....,4~...,..,--
tan 28 = -uyy- lx.)/2 (202·624 - 557'624)/2
= 19~"874 = I '1091
177·5
28= 47° 58' or 0=23° 59'
cos 28 = 0"6695 sin 20 = 0'7420.
Prjncipal mo1nents of Inertia
luu= ~ (l,.., + lyy) + "I Uxx - l yy ) COS 0-lxy sin 20 ;· .:,-,
=+ (557"624 + 202.-624) + ~ (557"624-202'624) X0'6695

+ 196'874 X 0·742
~ ~80" li4 + 177·5 X0"6695 + 14f080 = 64~"040 yt:P, 4
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984 STRENUTH OF MATER IALS
h-11 = ~ (l..,,.+!yy)+ + (Jy,. - la) cos 2e+lxy sin 28

= 380. I24 - 177' 5 X 0·6695 -196.874 X 0·742
= 380.124- I 18'836-146'080= 115'208 cm4
(a) Maximum b ending stress
w= rate of loading= 10 kN/m= 10,000 N/m= 100 N/cm
Components,
wu= w sin 8 = lOO x0·4065=40'65 N/cm
wo = w cos O=IOOX0"9 i38 = 9l 38 N/cm.
The beam is simply supported and carries uniformly distributed load, the maximum
bending moment occurs at the centre of the beam.
. w., / 2 40'65 X 16:) X 160
Bendmg moment A4u= - - = · --- -- - - = 130080 N cm
8 8
(above span length /= 160 cm)
. wo/ 9I"38X160Xl60
2
Bendmg moment Mo =
8 - = 8
=292416 N cm
As is obvious, maximum bending stress occurs at tbe point A with co-ordinates

x=--2'375, y= 15- 4'875 = 10· 125
Co-ordinates u=x cos O+y sin 8= -2·375 X 0·9138+ 10' 125 X 0'4065
= -2·170+4' l 16 = + 1'946 cm
v= y cos 0-x sin 0= 10' 125X0'9138+2·375X0'4065
= 9·252 + 0'%5=10'217 cm
Maximum Bending stress,
f-4 = Mu.U + Mv.V
I •., I .. u
= 130080X 1·946 + 29"2416X 10'217 = 2 l 97' 20+ 46~31" 67
115'208 645·040
=:= 6828·87 N/cm 2 = 68'28 N/mm2
Direction of neutral a~is
64 4
tan (/. = tan 8. 1u" = 0'4448 X S'0 0 = 2·49o4
1"° 115·20s
CY.= 68° 7'
.
Deflection at the centre
kl4 w
= --E
Jsin
-
2
- 1vv 2 +
(J cos2 0
1, 2
uu
where w= rate of loading

5
Const~nt, k = 384
Span length, I= 160 cm.

5
E=iIO
,. . x -10 N/cn1~
.
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V?,lllY~TRICAL BENDING AND SHEAR CENTRE 985
Detlection, ~
o=
5
384 1604
X 210 X 105 XI
OO 1
X Tu;;
J\Jf sm. 2 . Iu ..2
1••2 +cos2
e
= 40"635 f ~0"4065)2X ( 645:040 )2 +(0"9138)2

luu \J 115 208
!~··6!~ xJ
6
5180+0·835=0·I54cm=1"54mm
(in the direction perpendicular to the neutral axis)
Problem 20"3. A cantilever of I section 3 m long carries a load of 2 kN at the free
enti and 3 kN at its middle. Line of load 2 kN is passing through the centroid of the section
and inclined at an angle of 30° to the vertical and the line of application of load 3 kN is also
passing through the centroid but inclined at 45° to the vertical on the other side of load 2 kN
a1 shown in the Fig. 20·23. I section has two flanges 12 cm x 2 cm and web 16 cm x 1 cm.
Determine the the resultant bending stress at the corners A, B, C and D.
2k N
I
_J_
2cm
T16cm
3kN 2kN
J_
/
f ixe d
end 2cm
T
Fig. 20·23
Solution. Moment of Inertia,

3
I _ 12 X20 _ ll X l 63 8000 - 3754·667
xx- 12 12
= 4245"333 cm4
_ 2x2x12s+ 16Xl3 = 576 + 1. 333
In - 12 12
= 577·333 cm4
I section shown is symmetrical about XX and Y Y axis, so principal axes UU and VV
passing through the centroid of the section are along XX and YY axis.
Loads applied can be resolved into components along U and V directions.
Components of 2kN load
Wu1 = 2000 Xsin 30°= 100 N
W, 1 = 2000 X cos 30° = 1732 N
Comppnents of 3 kN load
w..2 = 3000 Xsin 45° = 3000 x o·107=2121 N
W,~= 3000xcos 45°= ~000 x 0·707= 2121 N.
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986 STRENGTH d F- MATERIAi.S
Bending moments at the fixed end

... .' . . .
~
Mu-=Wu1 X3+Wu2X 1'5

= -1000 x 3+ 2121 x 1·5 Nm
=181 '5 Nm=0'18 x 105 N cm
Mv= Wo1 X 300 +Wv2 X 150
= 1732X300+2121 X 150
=8 ·38 x 101 N cm .
Resultant bending stresses
- Mv XI O O·J8 x lOi x 6 8·38 X l05 X I0
Mux 6
f
A- - T+ fuu 577·333 + 4245·333
2
= - 1·s10 + 19·739)x 10 N/cm = 17:869 N(m1?2
2
fs =+ Mu X 6 + J,-1, X IO ( + I '870 + ]9·739) X 102 N/ mm2 .

!av fuu
= 21.609 N/ mm2.
Due to Mu there will be tensile stresses on points Band C and compressive stresses on
points D and A.
Due to M. there will tensile stress on points A and B, and compressive stress on points
C and D.
Jc=+ 6Mu _ M . XIO = ( +1 ·870 - 19'739)X l02 N/cm2

Stress,
Iva fuu
=- 17·869 N/ mm 2
Jo=- 6Mu M.X l0· = (- 1'87 - J9·739) X l02 N/cm2

Stress,
f vv fuu
=- 21 ·609 N/mm 2
Problem 20·4_ Fig. 20·24 shows an unequal I section. Determine the position of its
shear centre.
Solution. Fig. 20·24 shows an unequal
I section, with flanges b1 -\- h2 wide and t 1
thick. The web 1s h high and t 2 thick.
The section is symmetric about X-X axis,
therefore shear centre will lie on this axis.
Fig. shows the direction of shear flow in
flanges and in the web. Say the shear force in
flange for width b1 is F1 and for width b 2 is F2 .
The shear force in web is say F 8 • The applied
shear force is F acting at the shear centre.
For equilibrium
F 3 =F ... (1)
Shear stress in any layer,
FaJ
q=h Fig. 20·24
f1S + (b + ,
where I = I xx = 2(b l +b2 ) J2 2 1+b2Jf1 X h2 f2 ,
hJ.
12 · •.;:,'•- ... (2)
4
t= thi<;kae~s of the se<;tion
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'. UNSYMMBb.ICAL BENDING AND SHEAR CENTRE 987
Shear Force F 1
Considering an area dA=t 1 dx.
h
aJ=x . t 1 •
2
bi
F1 =J q . dA= Fxti
fu fI
!!_ Xt dx
2 1
0
b1
J2 ~xx Xh f1 . X dx
0
b1
= Fht1
~2Ixx
Ix2 ]= Fa4 t
2
1
fx..
b1
2
... (3)
0
Similarly the shear force in the other portion of the flange,
Fh t1 • bl
F2
4Ixx
Taking moments of the shear force about the centre of the web
F2 Xh=F1 xh+F . e
(F2-F1 )h= F. e
Fh2 t1 (b2
-
2 - b i 2)-
- .1l7.·e
4fxx
or distance of shear centre from the centre of the web
t1h2 (b22 -b1 2 )
e= 4 [ .,.,
Problem 20·5, Determine the position of the shear centre of the section of a beam
shown in Fig. 20·2s:
Solution. Fig. 20·25 shows the section
for which the shear centre is to be determined.
In the diagram direction of shear flow is given. A
Due to symmetry shear forces, F 1 = F6 shear
forces, Fi=F,. The section is symmetrieal
about the axis XX, therefore shear centre will F
lie on this axis.
Let us determin e sh ear force F 1
or F 6
Shear stress in the vertical portion AB
. FAJ
q--
-f,..,h
F(b1- y)t1 (!!_+ +b1 - Y)
. [.,~ t1 X 2 y 2
= F(b 1 -y) (h + b1+Y )
[.,., 2
where F _is the applied shear force on the section
Fig. 20·25
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.Now, dA=f1 dy
b1
Shear force Fi= Ip (~i.z:) (h+b1 +y) f1 dy

0
b1
= 2
;:: I
0
(hb1-hy+b1 2-b1y+b1y-y2 ) dy
=
2lo
Ft1 [ b 1 2h·-!!_b1 2+b1 3_ b1S
2 3
J
= Ft1 [ b1 h
2fxx 2
2
+2h1
3
3
]= 12Fbi2/1 [Jh+ 4b1] fxx
Shear force in horizontal portion BC

bs
F2= J lxx~2 X (b1!1 X ( h+ ~ )+t2X. ~ ) tidx
0
I
__f_l
- fxx
b1t1h
2 X
+ b12!1 +
2 X
t2h
2
~ ,
• 2
bs
= -
F [ b1b2t1h
lxx 2
b2b1
+- 2
t bz2h
-+- 4
-
2
t1 2 J
= F4 (due to symmetry)
Taking moments of the shear forces about the centre O of the vertical web
F.e+ 2f1.b2 =f'/..h --....
Fe = Fh
lxx
[b1bst1h +b1 bat1 + t1blh J- F5ablxx1 t
2
2
2 4 6
1
1 [Jh+4bil
e= ..!!_ [ b1bit1 + t aba 2

J + hb1 2b2t 1 _ b'il.bJtib _.!_ X b.hi't1
lxx 2 4 2Ixl!J 2 lxx 3 lxx
~ !!:_ X b1bat1+ h t2b2 2 2

_! btf>i1 t 1
-y;;;-
-
= b1bat1
lxx
lxx
c~ _ 2
2
4 lxx
]:__bi2]+ t 2h b2
3 4 lxx
- 3
1 2
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·uN'sYMMETRICAL BENl>rNo AND sHEAR OlNTRB 919
Moment of inertia !.,,,

= 3
2 X b1 X f1
12
+2b11t ( yh +yh1 )
2
+ 2b2tl
12
+2b2t 2 (.!!_)
2
2
+th
12
3
3
Problem 20·6. Fig. 20'26 shows a section of a beam subjected to shear force. Deter-
mine the position of the shear centre of the beam.
Solution. The Fig. 20'26 shows a
section with web h X t, flanges b 2 x t and pro-
jection b1 x t. Say the applied force is F and
shear force in different portions is F 1 , F2, F 3 ,
F• and F 5 as shown.
Due to symmetry F 1 ~= F5 and F2 = F1
Shear stress in any layer
q=--
FaJ
lxxt h
Portion V. (i.e. vertical projection)
area a=y.t
J=(, !.-b
2 )+ L2
1
=( h-~1+Y)
area, dA = t.dy Fig. 20·26
Shear force
... (1)
Portion IV-Flange
ay= (t.x ) 2h +b1Xt (lz2 -b1 +-f-b)

= tx !!...+b 1 t(!!__!!.L)
2 2 2
and dA = dx.t
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STRENGTH OF MATERI~ts
Shear force
ba
= iL I 0
(xh+b 1h-b13 ) dx
=2~:x [ ~
2
xh+b1h1h-h1 h2
2
J
Taking moments of the shear forces about the centre O of the web
F.e=2 F5Xb2+F4 xh
= t h12 b2 (3 h+4b1)+___!_!: ( b22h +b 1b2 h- b1ib2 )
e 6 lu 2 lxx 2
= t h12h2 (3h + 4b1)

6 lxx
+~
4 J,,.,
(b
2
2 h+2b b h -2b ' b)
1 2 1 2
= 1/Jx., (6th h12 b2+8 t b1 8 b2+3t h2b22 + 6 t b1b2h2-6 b1 1b2t h]
= l2t lxx (8 bi8b2 + 3h 2b22+ 6 b1b2h~]
where I,
.. ,,
= txhs
12
+
12
3
2Xb2X (t) + 2b t
2
(}!_2 )2+ 2XtXb1
12
3
+ 2b 1 t X ( ~ - bl r
= \~s + b26 8
t · + b2 ~ h
2
+ t :1 + ~1t
3
(h- b1) 2
Problem 20·1. For a ,ection shown in the Fig. 20·21, determine the position of the
shear 9entre. The thickness of the section is t thr oughout.
Sol•tion. Due to ._c;ymmetry
Shear force in portion AB, F 1 = F4 , shear force in portion DC
Shear force in p ortion BO, F2= F 3 , shear force in portion CO
Shear force F 1
Fay
Shear stress, q= IN A l
where F=applied shear force
S:h.ear force,
where a=zt (as shown)

So dA=t dz
Distance, .Y=(a2 sin 45°- a1 sin 45°) + _!__s in 45°

2
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\
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING AND SHEAR CENTRE 991'
F ox,s
SC - 9H::or
centre
·;J. ·- ~ ·
Fig. 20·27
a1
Shear force, F1 = r£.!..!_(

j t INA
2a 2 - 2a1 +z ) t dz
2v'2
0
a1
= 2 : 2 1NA
1
j 2a2 z.- 2a z+z 1
2
) dz
0
Moment of I.,.,
Moment of inertia of AB, about their principal axes
r - a1 ta I . -'-' t . a1 s
l uu - ~, vv-~
0= 45° (as shown in Fig. 20'27)

fuu+lw
lu= luu cos2 e+ Iv e sin 2 6
2
a1t (
= 24 a12+ t2)
lNA
1
= lu, +ta1 [ (a 2- ~
1
) sin 45° J2
= /, + ta1(2a2- .a 1) 2
h 8
.,..,
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STRENGTH OP MATBRIAf.S
= ;i (a 2+t2+ 12a +3a -12,, a

1 1
2
1
2
1 2)
= i~ .(t 2
+4a + I2a ?- l2a a
1
2
1 1 2)
Similarly moment of inertia of BO

, a~ta I' = tasa
I uu = ~ , w 12
8= 45°
,= f U u, 2(J + f , . 2 {)
= -fuu'+
-2 f,n'
-
Ix~ COS ID Sl11
a2t
= 24 ( Ozz+ t 2)
INA = I.,.,/+a 2t ( ~ 2
11
/ sin2 45°
= azt ( a2z+ t 2)+ a2 t

24
( af)
= 1~ (4a22 + t2)
Fig. 20·28
Total mome,1t of inertia of the section,

INA = 2INA 1 + 2INA"
fN,4 = ~~ (t 2 + 4a12+ 12 a 2 2 - 12 a 1a 2)+ ~~ (4a2 +t2 )
Taking moments of the shear forces about the point 0

F Xe= F1 X a2 + F1 Xa2
Ft a1' a2 (3 )
= 3v2 INA az - 201
t a1ia2 ( )
Of ~- 3y~ !NA 3a2-2a\
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SUMMARY
1. Unsymmetrical bending occurs in a beam (i) if the section is symmetrical but load
line is inclined to the principal axes (ii) if section itself is unsymmetrical.
2. Product of inertia, Ix,= JxydA
Product of inertia of a section about its principal axes is zero.
3. For a .;ymmetrical section, principal axes are along the axes of symmetry.
4. Parallel axes theorem for product of inertia
lx,= Lxy +AxJ
where lx1 =product of inertia about any co-ordinate axes X-Y
/x.Y=Product of inertia about centroidal axes ,.y_f'
x, .Y=Cordinates of the centroid of the section about XY co-ordil)ates.
5. If/""' / .,,, Ix.,. are moments of inertia about any co-ordinates axes X-Y passing
through the centroid of the section, Inclination of Principal axes with respect to X-Y axes
1 1 2/x,
8 = - tan-
2 f yy -fxx
Principal moments of inertia

luu, Iv. =hlxx+ 1.,.,.)± V[!(I>, - lxx)] 2 + lx.,.2.
6. If principal moments of inertia of a section are / ,,.,, [.. then moment of inertia
about an axis X-X inclined at angle (} to U-V axis is
lx.,. = f,.,, cos2 0+1•• sin2 6.
7. Stresses due to unsymmetrical bending , if u, i• are the co-ordinates of a point and
Mis the bending moment applied on the section and O is the angle of inclination of ax is of M,
with respect to the principal axes UU.
Resulant bending stress at the I?.9inL
fo = M [ v cos 0
fu u
+ u fvsin~]·
u
8. Angle of inclination of neutral axis with respect to principal axis UU
ix= tan - i ( tan e . ::: ).

9. Deflection of a beam under load W causing unsymetrical bending
3 2
8 _ KW/ Jsin 20 +cos 2
0
- E l vo luu2
where K=Constant depending upon end conditions of the beam and
position of the load
0=Angle of inclination of load W with respect to VV principal
axes .
10. If the direction of the applied load on a beam passes through the shear centre of
the ~ection, no twisting takes place of the beam. . ·
11. For a section symmetrical al:,out two axes, shear centre lies at the c;:entroid of the
~ection.
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12. For a section symmetrical about one axis only, shear centre lies along the axis of
symmetry.
13. About the shear centre, the moment due to the applied shear force is balanced by
the moment of the shear forces obtained by summing the shear stresses over the various
portions of the section.
1. The product of inertia of a rectangular section of breadth 4 cm and depth 6 cm. about its
centroid axes is
(a) 72 cm' (b) ~2 cm'
(c) 32 cm' (d) None of the above.
2. The product of inertia of a rectangular sectiou of breadth 4 cm and depth 6 cm about
the co-ordinate axes passing at one corner of the section and parallel to the sides is
(a) 144 cm4 (b) 72 cm4
(c) 52 cm 4 (d) 32 cm4 •
3. For an equal angle section, co ordinate axes XX and YY passing through centroid are
parallel to its length. The principal axes are inclined to XY axes at an angle
(a) 22·5° (b) 45·0°
(c) 67'5° (d) None of the above.
4. For an equal angle section, mom·ents of inertia /,.~ and ! yy are both equal to 120 cm4 • If
one principal moment of inertia is 210 cm4, the magnitude of other principal moment of
inertia is
(a) 210 ~m4 (b) 120 cm 4
(c) 60 cm' (d) 30 cm 4•
5. For a section, principal moments of inertia are fuu = 360 cm4 and / ,u= 160 cm 4 • Moment
of inertia of the section about an axis inclined a t 30° to the U-U axis, is
(a) 310 cm4 (b) 260 cm4
4
(c) 210 cm4 (d) 120 cm •
6. For an equal angle section lxx= l n=32 cm4 and lx,.=-20 cm4 • The magnitude of one
principal moment of inertia is
(a) 52 cm4 (b) 42 cm'
(c) 32 cm' (d) 16 cm'.
7. For a T-section, shear centre is located at
(a) Centre of the vertical web (b) Centre of the horizontal flange
(c) At the centroid of the section (d) None of the above.
8. For an I section (symmetrical about X-X and YY axis) shear centre lies at
(a) Centroid of top flange (b) Centroid of bottom flange
(c) Centroid of the web (d) None of the above.
9. For a channel section symmetrical about X-X axis, shear centre lies at
(a) The centroid of the section (b) The centre of the vertical web
(c) Tlte centre of the top flan~e (d) None of tp.e c\POYe,
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tiNsYMMtTR!CAL BBNDING AND SHBAR CENTRE
10. If the applied load passes through the shear centre of the section of the beam, then there
will be
(a) No bending in the beam (b) No twisting in the beam
(c) Bending and twisting in the beam (d) No deflection in the beam.
ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a)

6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (b).
EXERCISE
20'1. A section is a quadrant bounded by two concentric circles of radii 5 cm and

8 cm. Determine its product of inertia about axes OX and OY, passing through the centre of
circles. [Ans. 433'875 cm4J
20·2. A beam of angle section 12 cm X 8 cm X 2 cm is simply supported over a span
of 2 metres with 12 cm leg vertical. A wrtical load of l tonne is applied at the centre of the
span. Determine (a) maximum bending stress tb) direction of netural axis ( c) deflection at the
centre of the beam. Given E = 2 LOO tonnes/cm2 •
[Ans. (a) 107 J ·8 kg/cm 2 , (b) 42° 55' with respect to X-axis (c) 3' 1.5 mm)
20·3. A beam 4·5 metres long is of a rectangular section 12 cm wide and 18 cm deep.
The beam is simply supported at each end and carries a concentrated loads of 3 kN, l '5 m
apart from each support. The plane of the loads make an angle of 30° to the vertical, and
passes through the centroid of the section. Find
(i) bending stress at the corner of the quadrant of the section, in which the lead is
applied
(ii) direction of neutral axis.
[Ans. (i) 11 '22 N/mm2, (ii) 52° 24' with respect to horizontal axis]
An unequal I section is shown

20'4.
in Fig. 20'29.
Shear centre lies along X-axis.
e1 t b 23
Show that - =-L_b 8
• Determine the value
e2 ti 1
of ei, if b1 = 6 cm, b2 = 8 cm and t 1 = t2 = f 3 =

1 cm and h= 12 cm. [Ans. e 1 = 8'44 cm]
20'5. Determine the position of the
shear centre of the section of a beam shown in
Fig. 20·25 if b 1 =4 cm, b 2 = 6 cm, h = 8 cm and
t 1 = t2 =t8 =1 cm. [Ans. [e= 2'021 cm] Fig. 20·29
20'6. Determine the position of the shear centre of the section shown in Fig. 20'26,
if b1 =3 cm, h 2 = 5 cm, h = lO cm, t = 1 cm. [Ans. e= 3'557 cm]
20·1. For a section shown in the Fig. 20'27, determine the position of the shear centre
if a 1 = 4 em a2 = 6 cm, t = 1 cm. [Ans. e= 1 '59 cm]
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21
Mechanical Propetties
Any machine member or a structure designed to sustain loads must have the necessary
mechanical properties as strength, stiffness, toughness, hardness etc., before they can serve
. any other purpose in addition to sustaining the loads. In this chapter mechanical properties
· and how these are determined will be discussed. The behaviour of the materials under various
types or°loads and moments and how they fail will also be analysed briefly.
'21·1. BJ!:HAVIOtJR OF MATERIALS UNDER STATIC TENSION
Members of engineering structures and devices are often subjected to steady axial -tensile
loads, and response of the material to other types of loading sometimes be explained or
predicted on the basis of their behavio'ur in ·simple tension. In J st chapter we have studied
about the tensile test on the most commonly used structural material-mild steel and have
· acquai~ted ourselves with terms like stress, strain, yield point, elastic and plastic behavio1.1r,
, duct ili~y etc., etc.
When a solid bar is loaded in tension, it elongates as the load is increased. The
,,;mechanism by which elongation takes place in the solid material can be viewed as a simple
separation of its atoms in the direction of loading. The atoms are displaced f:roJ?,?. their
normal position of equilibrium and develop attractive forces between them which · balance
db =ab =bc,cd =da:r

ab= be= cd,: dd = r'
Extensio n
/ ,
= bd - bd
l ater al, ,contraction
=c a -c a
y
p
Fig. 21·1
996
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l.lBCHANICAL PROPERTIES
t:ke applied loads. In most crystalline materials, atoms are closely packed. Fig. 21' l shows
four atoms in a close packed structure, with r as the interatomic distance. When a tensile
force P is applied in the direction db, the interatomic distance changes to r'. Distance db
increases to d'l>', while the distance ac decreases to a' c'.
d'b'-db
Normal strain - db
a'c'-ac
Lateral strain
ac
So long as the elongation involves only simple separation of atoms by very small
amounts (not so large as shown in the figure) release of the applied force will allow the atoms
to return to their normal equilibrium positions. The axially loaded bar will return to its
original size and shape and the deformation is said to be elastic. Upto the elastic stage the
deformation is reversible or recoverable.
Say extension along Y-axis
=By or dd'=iL
2
Contraction along X-axis= B,, or cc' = ;x

Loeb= Locd = 30° or L.bcd=60° since db ~ bc """" cd
db=r and ac= r v3
or
,. I' ,~
..ob =--
2 and oc= -
2
y,;;
Consider that while applying the O'

load on atoms at b and d, position of
atom b is fixed and atoms a, c and d are C
displaced, and so the centre o shifts to o'.
Say · the displacement is very small and
distance between b and c remains r or
r'~r. Then displacement cc" is perpendicular oc = ..!:. ""3
to line be. Displacement of point c (i e., 2
centre of atom at c) has two components r
b' ee = 2
c'c"=&
2 Fig. 21'2
and , Bx
cc=
2
But Bx 2 o I
- x - = t an 30 = - -
2 By v3
Bx
a;= v3
B,. B,.
Now linear strain
= bd =-;:-
Lateral strain
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998 StRilNGTH OF MATBRiALS
r
Poisson's ratio = Lateral strain
Linear strain -
-- -8x 8,..
- x---------
r\/3
1
oy - -v3 oy - -3
Most metals are found to have value of 1/m (Poisson's ratio) close to 1/3.
Now as the tension on a solid bar increases and atoms are pulled farther apart, a
stage is reached where the elongation is no longer a simple separation of atoms and irrecover-
able structural changes take place in the material and the material's behaviour is said to be
in elastic. Some of the atoms or molecules of the material under the distortion produced by
tensile force, slip to new equilibrium positions at which they form new bonds with other
atoms, thus permitting an elongation in excess of that produced by the simple elastic separation
of atoms. After the removal of the load, there is no tendency of the atoms to return to
their original positions. Such deformation is also called the plastic deformation. This stage
i.e., onset of plastic deformation is said to be yielding of the material. The material which
yields is said to be ductile.
The most common mechanism of yielding in crystalline materials is slip, in · which two
planes of atoms slip past each other causing one full section of the crystal to shift relative to
the other. Slip occurs m,)St easily on certain crystallographic planes depending upon the
crystal structure. Generally, the planes of easy slip are those on which atoms are most closely
spaced-those having the largest number of atoms per unit area.
The stress required to separate the two planes of atoms, breaking all the bonds
simultaneously is much larger than the maximum elastic stress. Similarly the shearing stress
necessary to shift one layer of atoms past another all at the same time is much larger than
the actual shearing stress. The reason is that slip is progressive rather than simultaneous,
it starts at one point in the slip plane where the presence of an imperfection in the crystal
lattil:e makes it possible and moves through the crystal by a progressive shifting of atoms
along the slip plane.
The imperfections usually responsible for slip are called dislocations. These are small
groups of a toms in the crystal lattice that are displaced from their regular positions, distorting
the lattice slightly. Dislocations are present in great numbers in all crystals. These are
formed during crystal growth and by plastic deformation. (The reader is advised to refer to
a book on Materials Science and to study the various types of dislocations such as edge and
skew dislocations).
Most crystalline materials are aggregates of many crystals or grains. The directions
of the plant.s of easy slip of individual crystals are oriented at random in all possible directions,
throughout the material.
When a tensile stress is applied along the axis of the bar, the maximum shear stress
occurii on planes at 45° to the axis of loading. This stress will coincide with the planes of
easy slip in some crystals but not in the majority of the crystals. Hence there are weak and strong
cryiitals and slip will generally start in weak crystals- i.e., those which are most favourably
oriented for slip. After slip has begun in certain crystals, its continued progress through the
material involves slip in adjacent crystals and because of their different orientations, a greater
stress is required-resulting in strain hardening.
Fig. 21 ·3 (a) shows the stress strain curve for a general ductile material. From O upto
A i:;; a straight line, beyond A the curve is not straight and the material has yielded. Stress
at A is called the yield point stress. From A onwards, increasing stress upto the maximum
la.ad point, (where necking takes place) is required to continue the slip or the plastic defor-
mation. The material is strain hardened from A to Pm a.,. Fig. 21·3 (b) shows the stress strain
curve for mild steel. 0 to A is a straight line, at B there is considerable extension with slight
decrease in load (from B to C). This point Bis called the upper yield point, C is the lower yield
point. This · type of yielding is called discontinuous yielding which is a typical characteristic
of mild steel. At C, strain hardening in the material starts and ends at the maximum load
point P "'""' where necking takes place in the bar.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 999
Pmax
-1,/) (Strain hardening)

/I
.....~
1,/)
1,/)
( Strain
slip planes
hardening)
, I
:r
"' .
I-
0 G
.
I I
I
A Ductile material
H
:1
i'!!.
0
Mild stee l
-, Ept(LI- Struin, E:
Grorn
boundaries
St re in Polycrystollinf
structure
( 0) (b) ( C)
Fig. 21·3
The crystal boundaries. offer m?re 1:esistan7e to s~ip th~n the in_tcriors of the crystals.
Fig. 21 · 3(c) shows ~ polycryst~llme matenal with ranao?-1 or~entat!on of slip planes of individual
crystals' The gram boundanes. are harder than th~ mtenor of the c~ystal, :,vith the net result
that the slip through the boundanes 1?ecomes very difficult b~c~us~ d1slo~at10ns are impeded
both by atomic disorder at the gram boundary and by prec1p1tat1011 of impurity atoms along
grain boundaries.
The range of mechanical ?~haviour in which_ yieldi~g and s~rain hardening takes place
is called plastic stage. In add1t10n to the plastic stram there 1s a recoverable elastic strain.
To provide the necess~ry internal stresses _to ba~~nc~ the ext~rnal loads, th~ a!oms are always
separated by a certam amoun_t _fr".rn thelf ~qu1hbrmm spacings. As t?e y1~Idmg continues, the
atoms are shifted to new equ1hbnu~ pos1t10n~ and at th~ sa~e time mteratomic spacing
changes to develop the necess~ry mter at~m1c forces. . Fig. 21 3 (a) shows unloading of the
bar from the point B, where BG 1s the unloadrng stress-stram curve.
Elastic strain (recovered) =GH= EL
Plastic strain (permanent) = OG=EP.
In many materials, the rate of strain hardening decreases with increased strain and at
the maximum load point i.e. P nm, strain hardening becomes zero i.e., where the strain
hardening no larger compensates for the increased stress caused by the reduction in area.
At this stage constriction or neck begins to form in the specimen .
f brittle failure
I
.!:.
crack f or med
f
crac k
cup-c one type fibrous

u
star type
1n the centre of fra ctu re fracture fracture
the neck
( 0) ( b) (c) ( d)
Fig. 21·4
The plastic range ends in the fracture of Jhe. bar, the break occurs at the smallest
section of the n .ck. The very centre of the neck _is m a state of triaxial tension, which
~ncourages brittle type fracture. Fracture starts with a small crack in the centre of the neck.
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The crack spreads rapidly outwards. By the time the crack has spread nearly to the circum-
ference, there is only a narrow ring of material like a tube supporting the load. This tube
fails by shearing action all around resulting in a cup and cone type fracture for ductile materials.
In steels with increasing carbon content, the depth of the cup becomes shallower until
for high carbon steel it may completely disappear. Fig. 21 ·4 (a) shows the formation of a fine
crack in the centre of the neck. Fig. (b) shows the cup and cone type fracture for a ductile
material as mild steel. Fig. (c) shows the fibrous fracture for very soft materials like wrought
iron Fig. (d) shows the star type fracture for high carbon steel.
High carbon ~teel
Strq~s
mild stee l
~tress
l
cost iron
L,ron ula r'

0 fracturq
Strain of cast
Strain
(b) iron.
Fig. 21 ·5
Fig. 21 ·s (a) shows a comparison between the stress strain curves for wrought iron,
mild steel and high carbon steel. As the carbon percentage increases in steel, its ductility goes
on decreasing but strength goes on increasing. If we compare the strain energy absorbed by
the specimen uptil fracture , then it is observed that wrought iron absorbs maximum strain
energy t ill breaking and high carbon steel absorbs the least a mount of strain energy. In
other words wrought iron is tougher than mild steel and mild steel is tougher than high carbon
steel. The toughness of a material is defined as its ability to absorb energy and deform
plastically before fracture. Toughness is proportional to the combined effect of strength and
ductility.
When the carbon percentage in steel increases further and carbon comes out in the
form of graphite flakes rendering the material weak, as in the case of cast iron, the material
fails with very little extension with granular type of fracture showing separation of grains in the
direction perpendicular to the axis of load. This type of fracture is called a brittle fracture.
Non linear elastic properties. Some
materials do not follow Hooke's law, therefore 8
their stiffness does not remain constant but
varies with stress. Sometimes average stiffness is ,/ I
taken at a given stress. This average stiffness A // I
is given by secant modulus. / I
E,ecan1= ( L €
)=
jB
€B
/ I
/ I
Secant modulus depends on the loca- / • I
tion of point B. // ; I
If the stiffness associated with a small
increase in stress is designed, the instantaneous ---------e--8
0 ......
stiffness is determined from the slope of the
tangent to the curve at that point. This slope Str ain
is called the tangent modulus. As CD is the Non- linea r elastic cur ve
tangent to the curve OAB at the poin~ A.
· E1anur.n1= ( Je) f =/A
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The modulus of resilience (discussed in chapter I) is not applicable in such cases

because proportional limit does not exist in the non-linear behaviour of the material.
Though the material is elastic, the f
strain energy is not always fully recoverable.
The Fig. 21 ·7 shows a typical non-linear stress-
strain diagram for rubber. Curve O' 1 A is
the loading curve and the area under this
curve gives the strain energy absorbed per
unit volume when the rubber is stretched.
Curve A 20 is the unloading curve and
the area under this curve gives the strain
energy recovered during unloading. And o---- --------
---1> €
Area. between the loading and unload- Strain
ing curves = Strain energy lost in the form of
internal friction between the molecules of Fig. 21"7
rubber during one loading-unloading cycle.
This is a very good example of mechanical hysterisis and accounts for high damping
capacity of rubber when used for vibration isolation supporting the vibrating machmery.
Here the term resilience denotes the ratio between the recoverable strain energy and the energy
absorbed by the material during deformation. A low resilience is desirable for good damping
and a high resilience is desirable for low internal heat generation.
Repeated loading. In a tensile test on a ductile material, if after unloading, the

member is loaded again, the atoms will simply be displaced to the position they occupied just
before unloadmg, after which further yielding will take place Fig, 21 · 8 shows that load is
applied beyond the yield point (loading curve OABCD and then gradually released (unloading
curve DEF), there will be permanent defor-
mation in the material (shown by OF). On -
reloading, it will be observed that (i) material
loses elasticity and it no longer obeys Hooke's
law (ii) yield point is considerably raised
(from point B to point H) and (iii) unloading
t
and reloading curves form a mechanical
hysterisis loop which represents the strain l
energy lost in friction.
The yield point is raised by a signi-
ficant value, almost as high as the stress o~-::--:':-----
value at the end of the previous loading. fhe
material ,s said to be strain-hardened or Strain
work-hardeued as in the cases of processes like
cola rolling and drawing. Repeated loading Fig. 21 ·s
al),d ®loading may raise the yield ~oint near _the ultimate stress point and the ductile material
fails with only a very small elongat10n and with only a small reduction in area.
21'2. BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS UNDER STATIC COMPRESSION
For a material, stress-strain diagrams for tension and compression generally differ .
Similarly the ductilitY. and mode of failure exhibited by a material under tensile and com-
pressive loading also diff~r. It is in the l_)lastic range for yielding that differences between
the behaviour under tens10n and compression are the greatest. Behaviour in the elastic
range is important for brittle material which do not exhibit yielding. ·
. . .
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Jn crystalli ne materials, the elastic action in compression is exactly the same as the
elastic action in tension but in the reverse directio n. So the elastic stress-strain curve in
compression is a linear extensi0n of that in tension for many materials as shown in
Fig. 2r9 (a).
+f
+f Te nsion +f
Tension
( fy p) Te nsion
T
-E
-
-(-()
-f +E +(
I
I
I iron
I
compression -- (f ) Break
1
comp ression YP c
- f compression
i_f - f
(a) (b) ( C)
Fig.2 1·9
In ducti le materials subjected to compression i,lipping of ato ms on crystallogr aphic

planes leads to yielding at a stress approxi mately the same as the yidd stress in tension. This
applies to discontinuous yieldi ng also as in the case of mild steel, whi?h has upper and lower
yield points in compression that arc usually the same as those for tension.
In brittle materials, slip leads to fracture along a single shear plane or a multitudes
of sma ll failures or shear (or slip) planes in all directions leading to fragmentation.
The axial compressive stress required to cause fracture in a brittle material is much
greater than the required tensile stress. In tension, fracture is initiated by stress raisers in the
form of cracks, holes and other impe1 fections even through the stress is well below that necessary
to cause slip on the 45° shear plane. Since in compression, those imperfections cease to act
as stress raisers. Instead if cracks or holes are present in the material, these tend to close up
under compressive force and their effect vanishes. The stress can then reach the larger values
needed to initiate slip. Imperfections oriented a long the shear planes act as shear stress
raisers. But t hese are far less effective than the stress raisers in tension. So the strength of
a material is compression is often increased. Cast iron, concentre, soils 'are examples of this
effect. The net result is that brittle materials are stronger in compression than in tension.
Fig. 21 ·9 (c) shows the complete stress-strain diagram for a grey cast iron in tension and
compression. The tensile strength c f a typical grey cast iron is 150-160 N/mm2 but its
compressive strength is 750-800 N/ mm 2 •
The plastic range in compression extends from the end of the elastic stage to final
fracture. Both the area of cross section and the strength of the material increase with
compressive plastic strain, the former due to Poisson's effect and the latter due to strain
hardening. Therefore the load wl1ich is the product of the area and the stress, always increases
throughout the plastic range. The plastic range is potentially much larger in compression
\h?;n tn t~n~ion: · · · · ··
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MECHA:f.iICAL PROPERi'iES 1003
Testing. A universal testing machine fitted with compression plates is usually used to
to apply the compressive loads. As it is impossible to make specimens having perfectly
parallel ends it is desirable to pr ovide some
adjustment in compression plates so that
they can be made to apply a uniformly distri-
buted load over each end of the specimen.
/
The simple adjustable compression plates
have spherical seats as sho wn in Fig. 21·10. \
I
Effects of eccentricity are more pro- ' 'r-' cone shape
streng t hened
nounced in compression than
cause of the lateral instability
in tension be-
involved while
J_ ion,.
I
/ '\
applying compressive loads. Therefore it is
utmost necessary to avoid eccentricity m
compression plate of testing
loading the specimen. mac hine
The maj ority of compression tests are

made on other than ductile materials, the Fig. 2t·lO
samples are tested upto fracture. In cast irOi1 and concrete shear surfaces tend to run from one
corner to the other coraer of the specimen and not necessarily o n 45° p lane of the max.imum
shear. This is due to the end restraints which strengthen the material in a cone-shaped region
at each end and leaves a w~akness around the edge, as shown in Fig. 2 l"10.
Cast iron Concre t e
F ig.(21·11
Cylindrical specimens of concrete tend to fail ~along conical shear surfaces forming
the typical hour-glass fracture of concrete.
Wood has fibrous structure and fibres are aligned in one direct ion and load is applied
along the fibre direction. At the time ?f ~racture each fibrous stick in wooden specimen
breaks giving the type of fracture shown 10 Fig. 21 · 11.
Load revers al in com pression. In crystalline materials loading in the plastic range
in tension and then unloadin~ results in permanent deformation wi th elastic recovery. When
the material is loaded again in tension, yield strength is raised to a highe r value. But instead
of applying the tensile load on reloading, if the load is reversed and a compressive load is
applied, an interesting effect is observed i.e. yield strength in compression is reduced.
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1004 -STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Say a ductile material has equal strength in tension and in compression i.e.
(Jvf))T=(fvf))c as shown by the points A and A' in t he Fig. 21 · 12. A specimen made of such
a ductile material is loaded in tensi,on upto the
point B and unloaded. (As shown by the +f e
loading curve OAB and unloading curve BC).
Now the specimen is loaded again but in
·compression, it is observed that the compres-
sive yield strength has been decreased i.e.
from the stress at the point A', now it is
reduced to the stress at the point D. This is
the well known Bauschinge1 's effect. .. l
One of the reasons of Bauschinger's

effect is that yielding in a polycrystalline
metal is non-uniform. The crystals are ori-
ented at random and when the specimen is
loaded in tension, there crystals yield by
different amounts so that stress varies slightly Bo usch in ger's
from crystal to crystal. When the specimen Effect
or a machine member is unloaded. it contracts
until the average stress becomes zero. The -f
crystals that yielded the least do not quite
return to zero and remain in tension while the
crystals that yielded the most go beyond zero Fig. 21 ·12
and are under compression. Therefore there
are microscopic residual stresses throughout the material, some in tension and some in com-
pression. Now when the material is subjected to compressive load, the crystals that a lready
have residual compressive stresses will yield at a lower than nor mal stress aud therefore over-
all yield stress is lowered i.e. fv </11.'.
21"3. BEHAVIOUR OF THE MATERIALS UNDER BENDING
In pure bending, no shear stress is present and only the normal stresses are present
across the section. Fig. 21 ·13 shows a beam ABCD carrying loads W each, at distance 'a'
from each support. The portion BC of beam w
is subjected to pure bending, as is obvious w
from the SF diagram, shear force is zero A,-_J-s_ _ _ __ .1....:c~_ D
along the portion BC and the bending moment
is constant and equal to Wa throughout its
length of (l-2a). O
1-<e a >--J-
r
-20
For convenience the beam may be

thought of as composed of longitudin al
elements of infinitesimal cross section or
fibres, each of which is in a state of simple +w·D m
J_ ~1 _J_
Q -w
tension or compression. In chapter 8 we have
studied about the relation ship between bend-
ing moment, stress, section modulus and
T S.F. Diagram
·~~
-,
-~~
radius of curvature, and we have shown that
variation of strain along the depth of the
section is always linear even when the extreme
~; ;;
( «
;
«
;
( .~Wo
8 . M .Diagram
fibres of the beam go to the plastic stage.
F ig. 21·13
If the material were perfectly brittle, the flexure formula could be used all the way
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'MECHANICAL PROPBRTIE~ 100S
upto rupture fr = M, · Y , is called t11e modulus of rupture where M, is the bending moment
f xx
causing rupture in the beam.
Since no material is actually perfectly brittle, stress fr is never quite equal to the
maximum stress in the b;;:am at rupture. It is however a commonly used property for materials
like ceramics, cast iron, concrete, wood and brittle plastics even though some of these have
considerable plastic deformation before rupture.
,(
I
I . \
I\
C
Ii I \. Compression face
(ffi~ Tension
I
Te n sion face
Fig. 21·14
Accompanying the change in length of the longitudinal fibres is a lateral strain, just as
in simple tension and compression (due to the Poisson's effect) the fibres on the tension side of
the beam contract laterally and those on the compression side expand iaterally. Consequently
the beam becomes wider on the compression side and narrower on the tension side. A
transverse curvature is produced in the opposite direction from the longitudinal curvature, (as
shown in Fig. 21 '14 (b).
Yielding in pure Bending. The atomic mechanism of yielding in pure bending is the
same as in simple tension ; slip along planes in the general direction of the maximum shearing
stress at 45° with the axis of the beam. When the extreme fibres (those farthes! from the
neutral axis) reach the strain at which yielding begins in simple tension ; local yielding takes
place. As bending continues, yielding progresses gradually inward towards the neutral surface.
The stress in each fibre follows the stress-strain relationship for simple tension.
+fp -I+ fp
-E
-f,
-fp -f -j -fy 1,.- -.j -fp i,.-
stre ss - s train Eklstic - s tress Ela s tic-plast ic - st r ess
diagram in simple distribution j ust distribution after y ield ing
tension and before yie lding
compression.
(a) ( b) ( C)
F ig. 7.1·15
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1006 STRENGTH ()If MATEilIAtS
s
Fig. 20· 1 (a) shows the stress-strain diagram for the material of the beam, in simple
tension and compression. Fig. 21 · 15 (b) shows the stress distribution across the section of the
beam just before yielding and Fig. 21 ·15 (c) shows the stress-distribution diagram across· the
section, after yielding has started in extreme fibres of the beam.
Because of the concentration of the maximum stress in the extreme fibres and the
support given by the inner fibres, the beam usually docs not begin to yield until some what
higher stresses are reached than are ordinarily observed in tension. When yielding does begin
at some point, owing to imperfection it forms a small slip band starting at the extreme
surface and progressing inward towards the neutral surface in the form of a wedge. This
wedge acts like a notch having stress concentration at its tip and inner fibres therefore yield at
stresses lower than the stress at extreme fibres.
Final failure in beams made of ductile materials usually involves either excessive
deformation or lateral buckling of some kind.
Mild Steel. Beams of mild steel are of particular interest because of their wide use
as structural members and because of the discontinuous behaviour in yidding of mild steel.
After the yielding has progressed some distance from the outer surfaces, the stress distribution
,-
has the appearance shown in Fig. 21 ' 16 (a) the maximum stress Jui (stress at the lower yield
_L-j I- -i ty~
yiTgotp
tye
I
de p'th
t
u-- _L )2
-1 !-fyt
(o)
---1 fyt
( b)
r-
Fig. 21 ·16
point) is approximately constant over the depth of yielding. At the limit, as the yielded region
approaches t he centre of the beam, the stress distribution can be represented by two rectangles
as shown in Fig. 21 ·16 (b).
This distribution is referred to as the fully plastic condition and the corresponding
moment can easily be calculated. So long as the strain hardening does not occur, the bending
moment cannot increase beyond this value, which is therefore called the ultimate moment, Mu
bh \ h bh 2
Mu= ( /111. T ) y=/111 · 4
where /w1=lower yield point stress
b= breadth of the cross section
lz=depth.
The bending momeat at which yielding begins,
J.,.,
M y=fvi. h/2
M · ---"r b/zZ
j'J • 6 .
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Therefore Mu
M, = 1·5 or t I1e u 1. · 50 per cent more than the
t1mate moment 1s
yield moment.
Ratio Mu/M, depends'upon the shape of the cross section ofthe beam therefore it is
called a shape factor . For circular sections the value of shape factor is approximately 1·s.
Residual Stres~es . . After a be~m has been bent into the plastic r ange, removal of the
load leaves the beam with mtcrnal residual stresses. because the stress-strain diagram for
unloading is different than for loading. Fig.
21 • 17 shows the distribution of residllal
stresses in the beam after unl oading. AOB is
the stress distribution after the beam has been M M
loaded producing stresses in the plastic range
i.e., beyond the yield point. When the beam
is unloaded, the stress distribution for un-
loading is A'OB' and is linear as the strain N A
distribution is always linear acrosss the depth
of the section during loading of the beam and
also during unloadin g of the beam so as to
satisfy the assumption that plane sertions
remain plane in pure bending.
Residual stresses after complete
When the load is completely removed, unloading.
the moment of stress distribution must be
zero, so as to maintain equilibrium. Conse- F ig. 21·17
quently the stress all across the cross
section is educed further (i.e., beyond zero) such that the stress in the outer fibres changes
sing and produces an opposite moment to balance that of the remaining stress in the inner
fibres . Line A'OB' represents the necessary superimposed linear stress distribution. The
rostult is that in most parts of t he unloaded beam, the residual stress is not zero. On the
tenion side the re, are residual compressive stresses (/c a) in the outer fibres and tensile residual
stresses in interior. On the compression side, there are residual tensile stresses (fc11.) in
the outer fibres and compressive residual stress in the interior, the net moment of the distribu-
tion is zero.
Experimental Methods. Fig. 21 'I 8 (a) sh ows the experimental set up for pure
bending on beam ABCD. The portion BC of the beam is subjected to pure bending or cons-
tant bending moment and no shear force. Following conditions must be satisfied during testing
(]) Loading h as to be in the plane of symmetry so as to avoid unsymmetrical bending
(2) Freedom from longitudinal restraint (3) Constant bending moment with zero shear in the
portion of the beam under considerati on.
Experirr.ental observations are made on load and either deflection or strain. Deflection
in the centre can be measured with a dial gauge a nd strain on top and bottom surfaces can be
measured with the help of electrical resistance strain gages.
Fig. 21 ·1g (b) shows the set up for 3-point loading of beam or bending with shear. The
bending moment is not constant. Transverse shear transforms the stress in a beam from
uniaxial t o a biaxial state. The longitudinal fibres are no longer under simple tensile or com-
pressive stresses, and the state of stress changes from point to point due to variation in bending
moment.
In the elastic analysis of bea ms, it is assumed that the effects of transverse shear and
those of the normal and bending stresses can be considered separately. But in the plastic
range, this cannot be done without introducing a certain degree of approximation.
Be:nding tests with shear are also used to analyse the performance of full-sized
members, as the bending test provides a direct means of evaluating th~ effects of su9h factors
~s shape factor on the structural stabilit~ of the members.
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lQQS STRENGTH. OF. ?ytATBRIALS
loadtd b~am
w
T w
Beam
A
-r-. t:ti..
2
Purr - bending 3 Point loading

(a) (b)
Fig. 21·1 8
21"4. BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS UNDER TORSION

Torsion tests are performed on materials to determine properties rnch as Modulus of
rigidity, yield strength and modulus of rupture. Parts such as shafts, axles and drills are
subjected to torsional loading in service and torsion test is performed on such full sized mem-
bers otherwise a test specimen is made on which the test is performed. The specimen generally
has a circular cross section and in the elastic range, shear stress varies linearly from zero at the
centre to the maximum at the surface. In the case of a thin walled tube, shear stress is nearly
ur;tiform over the cross section of the specimen and it is preferable to use thin walled tube
specimens for the determination of yield strength and modulus of rupture.
The torsion-test specimen shown in the figure 21"19(a) is gripped in the chucks of a
tarsi.on-testing machine. Twisting moment is gradually applied on the twisting head gripping
'!wisting
moment
Torsion test specimen -lr offset

Angular tw,st e ----.
(a) ( b)
Fig. 21"19
one end of the specimen and torque T is measured on the weighing head connected to the other
end of the.specimen . Angular twist 6 is measured.with the help of a trnptomet,e.r, near one
end of the test section with respect to tlhe test section of the specimen at the othet; end. A
torque Vs. 8 (angular twist) dia~ram usually obtai.rie<;i for ll . d1,1~~il.~ ~ater.i~l i~ ~he ~!l \:µ t:P,<:
Fig 21·19 (b):
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The elastic properties in torsion may be obtained by using the torque at the propor-
tional limit or the torque at some offset angle of twist, generally 0'04 radian/metre of gauge
length, and calculating the shear stress at the twisting moment Tyv, using the torsion formula.
Because of stress gradient acro,;s the radius of the solid shaft, the surface fibres are
restrained from yielding by the less highly stressed inner fibres. Therefore, the first onset of
yielding is not readily apparent. The use of a thin-walled tubular specimen minimises this
effect because the shear stress is nearly uniform in the section of tube. However, an ultimate
torsional shear strength or modulus of rupture is frequently determined by using Tm"'" in the
torsion formala.
Modulus of rigidity, G= Tl
J0
where 0=angular twist within the elastic limit corresponding to torque T .
. . J rcd4
P olar moment of mertia, =
32
M o d u1us o f rupture, q,= -Tmax
J-
X d
2
where d=diameter of solid circular section
/=Gauge length of the specimen.
TORSION FAILURE
Fig. 21 ·20 shows the state of stress at a point on the surface of the circular specimen
tested under torsion. The maximum shear stress occurs on two mutually perpendicular planes,
parallel and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis XX of the specimen. The principal stresses
Pi and P2 make an angle of 45° with the longitudinal axis and are equal in magnitude to the
X X
{b) (c)
shear(ductile) Tensile ( britt le)
failure failure
Fig. 21·20
s.h ear stresses, Pi is a tensile stress and P2 .s an equal compressive stress.

Torsion failures are different from tensile failures. Ductile materials fail in tension
after considerable elongation and reduction in area, and showing cup and cone type fracture
while in torsion a ductile material fails by shear along one of the planes of maximum shear
stress. Generally the plane of fracture is normal to the longitudinal axis as shown in
Fig. 21 '20(b). A briltle material fails in torsion along a plane perpendicular to the direction
of the maximum tensile stress. This plane bisects the angle between the two planes of maximum
shear stress and makes an angle of 45° with the longitudinal axis, resulting in a helical fracture
(as shown in Fig. 21 '20(c)).
21'5. BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS UNDER IMPACT
The Impact tests are used in studying the toughness of the materials i e. the ability
of the material to absorb strain energy during plastic deformation. In static t ensile test, the
area under the load extension curve gives the strain energy absorbed by the specimen uptil
breaking. In order to have high toughness, the material should possess high strength and
large ductility. Brittle materials haw low toughness since they exhibit very small deformation
before fracture. The use of such mat ~rials in structures or machines is dangerous since fractur~
µiay occur suddenly without any noti~eble deformation:
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In the case of polycrystalline materials there are two types of fractures (i) brittle fracture
as in the case of cast iron (ii) shear fracture (or the ductile fracture) as in the case of mild
steel nnd aluminium. The strength of the meterial can be described by two characteristics i.e.,
(i) resistance of the material to separation and (ii) resistance of the material to sliding. If the
resistance to sliding is greater than the resistance to separation, the material is brittle and if the
resistance to separation is greater than the resistance to sliding, the material is ductile.
Three basic factors contribute to a brittle type of fracture i.e., (i) a triaxial state of
stress (ii) a low temperature and (iii) a high strain rate or rapid rate of loading. All the three
factors need not be present at the same time to produce a brittle fracture.
(i) Triaxiality of s t resses. Fig. 21 ·21. shows a round bar with a groove (or notch)
subjected to axial tensile force P. Due to the presence of the groove or the notch, the stress
at the root of the notch is very high due to the effect of the stress concentration. Maximum
stress at the root of the notch depends upon the root-radius. The material in the centre of the
Pr
L----_ -------
p
Fig. 21·21
bar, carrying the tensile load tries to contract laterally (i.e., along the radius) because of
Poisson's effect, but it is hindered by the resistance of the unstrained material. The result is
that there are tensile stresses acting radially outward on the inner portion of the material which
produce a state of triaxial tension. These tri axial stresses f a, p,, pr leads to the brittle 'failure
of the material along the notch. Therefore, the impact test on ductile materials is generally
performed on bars with a notch, so as to have the effect of triaxiality of stresses.
(ii) Effect of Temperature. Steels are used for building purposes and the notch
impact strength of steel depends on temperature. The energy required for a given notched bar
impact test falls rapidly and irregularly once
the temperature drops below a critical tem- 400
perature and usually a ductile steel breaks in a o.o,i. c
brittle manner. I
...J- Transit i on zone for 11
In general, at high temperatures, 1.
J' I 0-22. C
fractures in steel occur with large deformation I ll
and high values of impact energy are obtained.
The fracture is fibrous in character. As the
temperature drops, the impact energy values
fall more or less rapidly within a critical tem-
perature range, and brittle fractures occur (i.e.
fracture with a very small deformation). The
fracture is granular having crystalline appear-
ance. At transitional temperatures mixed
. Temperature ----,..-
fractures occur with an alternating sequence of
the; deformation ap.9 ip~~antan~ou~ fracture~ :
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MECHANICAL PROPERTiES 1011
It can be easily seen that the transition curves flatten out as the carbon content is
increased in steel and also the maximum impact energy at which only ductile fracture occurs,
falls as the carbon content is increased. ln the Fig. 21 ·22, three zones for 0'22% carbon steel
are shown, i.e., brittle zone, transition zone and ductile zone. If the temperature of 0'22% C
steel is less than -140° F, brittle fracture occurs and if the temperature is more than 40°F,
ductile fracture occurs. '
(iii) Effect of Straining Rate. The µlastic stress-strain curve of a ductile metal is
raised by increasing the strain rate. In other words, if a tensile load is applied on a metallic
specimen with a very high strain rate, its yield point is increased in comparison to the yield
point obtained in static tensile test. This effect is also temperature dependent and is more pro-
nounced near the melting point of the metal. The effect is fairly small at room temperature. For
example increasing the strain rate by a factor of l 00 increases the yield stress of copper by only
10 to 15 per cent at room temperature. But if at the temperature near the mdting point if the
strain rate is increased from 10-6 to 10+3 per second, the yield stress is almost doubled.
Especially in mild steel, the yield point is subjected to striking variations with strain
rate, which is closely associated with the causes of discontinuous yielding. With h igh strain
rates, the stress can reach much higher values before gene·ral yielding begins in mild steel.
The importance of increased yield strength at higher strain rates lies in its effect on
ductility. The result is a decreased ductili ty and a greater tendency to brittle fracture, so
increasing the rate of loading has the same general effect on ductility as increasing the triaxiality
of stress.
Ductile and Brittle States. We have learnt that the following three factors control
the ductile or the brittle type of fracture or yielding and fracture stress.
(a) Triaxiality (b) Temperature (c) Rate of loading.
F ig. 21 ·23 illustrates the effect of these 3 fact ors. Consider a material loaded at point
A representing the given triaxiality, strain rate and temperature . As the stress is increased
along the line AA', the material is yielded at
YA as YA<FA . Th erefore, material will be in
a ductile state and the final fracture will be B
ductile fracture. Now consider loading at fy ,
C A
point B, high triaxiality and strain rate and a
lower temperature will produce brittle fracture.
Obviously the point YB will never be reached
and the material is in a brittle state. The
transition value of triaxiality, strain rate or Fracture
temperature is represented by the point C. To stress
the right of this transition point C, the
material is in a ductile state and to the left it
is in a brittle state.
In the neighbourhood of the point C,
there will be usua lly some yielding followed by Brittle state Ducti l e.s tate
fracture. This transition phenomenon occurs Transition
over a wide range of values.
B C A
Impact loading of unnotched samples -Increasing t ri axial ity
provides evidence of transition strain rate above
which ductile materials behave in a brittle ---- increa s i ng strain rate
manner. Low temperature testing of unnotch- Increa sin g temperature-
ed specimens shows the existence of a _tran-
sition temperature. Similarly, the ductile
materials tend to become brittle if triaxiality Fig. 2.1·23
increases .
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1bl2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Notch Effect. The strress concentration at the root of the notch provides large stress
necessary to raise the yield stress and a high local strain rate at the root.
Say K,=theoretical elastic stress concentration factor
/a,=average stress at the section containing notch
fmaz=K, ,fao
<>r fma• =K·t fa•
E . E
Differentiating both the sides with respect to time

0 0
f!:ma,.=Kt Ea~
This shows that the local strain rate at the root of the notch is multiplied by the same
concentration factor as the stress.
lf the combined effect of triaxiality, high strain rate, low temperature and stress
concentration raises the yield stress above the fracture stress, a crack . will form n·ear the root
of the notch, which is locally yielded. The immediate effect of crack formation is a sharp
local increase in strain rate which further increases the yield stress and brittle fracture continues
and the crack rapidly runs through the material.
Notch Sensitivity. The tendency
of a ductile material to behave in a brittle
manner in the presence of a notch is called
notch sensitivity. This property also depends Impact
on strain rate, triaxiality and temperature. en.ergy
The effect of notch sensitivity is obtained by
plotting a curve between impact energy and )
temperature for a notched bar impact test,
keeping traxiality constant by using a standard U
notch for all specimens and keeping strain
rate constant at some high value by standard
impact loading. The high overall strain rate
multiplied by the stress concentration factor
of the notch produces local strain rates as high
as 108 cm/cm/second.
Notch sensitivity is measured partly Temperature, T
by the sharpness of the transition in the
fracture energy or impact energy versus Fig. 21·24
temperature curve shown in Fig. 21 '24 for a
low carbon steel. The sharper the transition the more notch sensitive is the material. In
the case of low carbon steel, the transition is so abrupt that a single temperature T defines it.
Notched Bar Impact Test. This is a standard test on notch sensitivity combinin_g all
the three factors i.e., triaxiality (notch), high strain rate (pendulum) and temperature. High
temperatures upto 2000 °F are obtained in ovens/furnaces. Low temperature are obtained by (i)
forced air circulation over dry ice (-109 °F) (ii) liquid nitrogen (- 319°F) and (iii) liquid
hydrogen (-423 °F). The pendulum of the impact testing machine must be carefully
constructed with the striking edge at its centre of percussion to minimise vibrations.
In the case of Charpy impact test, standard specimen with a notch in the centre is
supported like a beam loaded at the centre as shown in the Fig. 21 '.t.5 (a). The notch is on the
tension side. While in the case of Izod impact test, the specimen is fixed as a cantilever loaded
at the end.
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M'BCHANICAL PROPER fl ES .1013
. Striking
specimen edgett
10 x 10 x 55mm
T
28mm
ot:h
45;,-......_ I_ _ Direction Of
).-/ blow
40mm
-f!nr- specimen
lfJaimm l0x10x75mm
cross section at
riot ch
Izod Impact
Charpy Impact test
t est
( a) ( b)
Fig. 21·25
The Charpy test has two advantages over the Izod test i.e. (i) It is easier to place the
specimen in the machine, an impor tant consider~tion in low. temperature te,~ts when the test
niust be performed within a few seconds aft~r removmg the specimen from a l0w temperature
bath. (ii) It is also free from compressive . stresses around the notch, which are produced
in the Izod specimen by the vice, when we consider the complexity of the stress distribution
introduced by the notch itself.
When the notched bar impact test is used to compare the notch sensitivities of
materials, the significant information is simply a tabulation of comparative impact energy
values.
21·6. HARDNESS
Hardness is the property of a material by virtue of which it resists penetration,

indentation, scratch, wear and tear, abrasion and cutting. An appropriate definitio n of hardness
is the resistance of the material to permanent deformation of its surface.
The relationship between hardness an~ atomic structure was first developed by a
German mineralogist Mr. Mohs, who determined hardness by surface scratching of one
material by another material. He assigned Mohs hardness number from I to IO. .Mohs
hardness number 10 was given to diamond, 9·7 was given to Tungsten cirbide. But the
measurement of hardness by scratching is difficult to standardise and to interpret. Therefore
for most engineering applications, Mohs' scale does not define the hardness nu mber in a clear
quantitative manner.
Hardness Measurement. One way in which surface may be deformed permanently

is by indentation. An indentor having a diamond point or a hardened steel ball is pressed on the
surface of the material and a permanent deformation is produced. The depth of the penetra-
tion or the area of the indent and the required compressive force are easily measured and provide
an indication of hardness. The resistance to permanent deformation is simply expressed in
terms of load applied and area of the impression. _
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·1014 ~'rn.ENGTIJ OF MA tERiAs
Indentors ate inade 1ii various geoinetricai shapes such as spheres. cones and pyramids.
The area over which the force acts increases with the depth of penetration.
p
p p
square:
I
pyramid
Knoop
Indenter
surface
i
~
1"R I
'l ndentatioo~ /x
\../[gj Indentation-!~
$
r Indentation
--l 1-
8 d
Increase in area of contac~

(e) {b) (c) (.d)
Fig. 21·26
In the Fig. 21 '26 (a) to (d) indentations produced on surfaces by conical, square
pyramid, knoop and ball indentors are shown. Around the indentation produced by a ball
the stress distribution is highly complex. As the material is forced outward from the region
. of indentation, it is subjected to triaxial stresses which vary greatly from the centre to the
edge of the i_n dentation. Friction ?etween. th~ ball and the surface adJs t o the hydr~static
compression component. [Note that 1f the prmc1pal stresses arc p, p, p each, equal rn all
'the directions, it is said to hydrostatic component of stress). In the case of pyramid indentors
the sharp corners produce even more complex stress conditions.
Pyramid Hardness. Diamond points are ground in the shape of square or rhombus
pyramids.
Hardness= P / A
Load, P= ). d 2
where d= diagonal of the square
Area, A= ~d2 where ~ is a constant
>.d 2 ).
Hardness number H = (Jd2 =T ·
independent of both the load and the size of the indentation.
The hardness number of a material for the given shape of the pyramid is the sanie
regardless of the load used. The independence of hardness number and load makes it possible
·. to use a wide range of loads for different purposes. Large loads for large indentation for
measuring gross or average hardness and smaller loads for measuring local hardness are used.
It is easier to measure the diagonal of a pyramid indentation due to sharp edge than
to measure the diameter of a circular impression.
In the case of Vicker's Pyramid Number (VPN) the angle between the opposite faces
--0f the pyramid is 136°. ·
Surface of contact between indentor and impression
d2
A= 2 sin r,..12
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where «= 136°
(X p
VPN=; X2 sin -2 = 1"8544 -d 2
where P = Load in kg
d=diagonal in mm.
Knoop Indentor is developed especially to study the microhardness i.e., the hardness
of microscopic areas as in the individual metallic grains. The Knoop Hardness number is
computed from the rrojccted area of the impression rather than the area of contact.
p
Knoop hardness - .07028 d 2
0
where P=Applied load in kg
d= Long diagonal of the impression in mm
Brinell Hardness Number. J.A. Brinell used hardened steel ball to determine the
hardness of the metals.
p
BHN=A
where P=load in kg
A=area of the indentation in mm2
• 2p
= ,; D (D-4D2-a2)
where D =diameter of the ball

d= diameter of indentation
BHN is dependent on the load used. For this reason. it is necessary to use the same
load for all meaurements with a given ball if a comparison of hardness of different materials
i.s to be made.
Rock well Hardness Test. This method is used to determine the hardness of a wide
range of materials. Rockwell Hardness is m~usured by use of either a steel ball or a cone shaped
diamond indenter. It differs fro m I3HN and VPN as in this test depth of impression is
measured in place of diameter or diagonal of the indentation. But depth and diameter are
always geometrically related, the hardness measurement is the same in principle.
For metallic specimen 3 tests are used as
Rockwell A-For case hardened materials and thin metals such as safety razor blades.
Rockwell B-For soft or medium hard metals as mild steel, brass, copper etc.
Rockwell C-For hard metals such as high speed steel, high carbon steel, tool steels etc.
For Rockwell A and C, diamond indentor (120° cone angle) and for Rockwell B steel
ball inductor (diameter 1·59 mm) are used. A minor load of 10 kg is applied initially to
overcome the oxide film thickness on the metal which may have been formed in due course of
time. Then additional load of 50, 90 and 140 kg is applied on the indenter in the case of Rock-
well A, B and C tests respectively.
t
Rockwell hardness = H- .
0 002
where H = a constant depending upon the type of the inductor used
= 130 for steel ball indentor
= 100 for diamond cone iQdentor
! = depth in mm ·
9·902 m~1 = 1 uni~.
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Mechanism of Indentation. When the indentor is pressed into the surface under a
static co mpressive load , large amount of plastic deformation takes place locally. The material
thus deformed flows out in all directions. The region affected extends to a distance approxi-
mately 3 times the radius of indentation. Taking into account the principle of constant
volume during the plastic deformation, the surface surrounding the impression bulges out slightly
to account for the volume of the metal displaced under the indentor. In some cases, the metal
bulges out ar0uncl the indentation as shown by Fig. 21 ·27 (a) this is called Ridging. This is
Ridgin g Sin1< 1n9
metal tlow metal flow
{al (b)
Fig. 21-27
generally obtained in cold worked alloys. While in same cases, the metal bulges out at the
ends resulting in sinking at the impression shown by Fig. 21 '27 (b). Sinking takes place in the
case of annealed metals.
In the case of ridging type impression, the diameter of the indentation is greater than
the true value, whereas with sinking type impression, the diameter of the impression is slightly
less than the true value.
Time is an important factor in the process of hardness measurement as large plastic
deformations are accompanied by large amount of transient creep which varies with the
characteristics of the material.
With the harder materials, the time required to reach the maximum deformation is
n~arly 15 seconds. Such as for iron and steel. Soft materials like magnesium may require
unreasonably long time, sometimes 2 minutes.
Rebound hardness. Hardness measurements are sometimes made by dropping a
hard object as on the surface and observing the height' of the rebound. Usually a diamond
point is used to strike the surface. As it falls its potential energy is converted into the kinetic
energy. A part of this kinetic energy is stored in the form of recoverable elastic strain energy
in the surface and a part is dissipated in producing plastic deformation. The amount of strain
energy stored depends upon the yield point, stiffness and damping capacity of the material.
All the elastic strain energy is not recovered in the form of rebound of indentor due to the
internal friction of the metal. So the rebound hardness measures a combination of hardness,
stiffness and damping capacity.
In the Shore seleroscope tests, a poil).ted hammer is allowed to fall from a heigb.;t of
25·4 cm, within a glass tube, which has graduated scale inscribed on it. The standard hammer
i.s a pproximately 6'35 mm diamete~, l '9 cm long and 2·4 gm weight with a diamond stri.king
tip of radius 0·25 mm. The scale 1s graduated in 140 divisions. A rebound of 100 is approxi~
mately equivalent to the hardness of a martensitic high carbon steel.
2·1. FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS
Materials subjected to fluctuating loads or repeated load cycles tend to develop
characteristics different from their behaviour under steady loads. This behaviour is called
fatigue and is characterised by (i) loss of strength (ii) loss of ductility (iii) increased uncer-
tainty in strength and service li~e. The inhomogeneit~ of the lllaterial is responsi~le for ~q
i4e~e 3 features of fati~ue behaviour! ·
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The fatigue of the materials is primarily an effect of the repititions of the loads and
not simply a time effect. The rate of application of the load is not an important factor in
fatigue. A STM defines fatigue as "A general term used to describe the behaviour of materials
under repeated cycles of stress or strain which cause a deterioration of the material that results
in a progressive fracture.
Fatigue occurs at stresses well within the ordinary elastic range as measured in a
static tensile test on the material. Fatigue occurs under all kinds of loadings and at high and
low stresses.
Deterioration resulting from fatigue consists primarily in the formation of cracks in
the material. These cracks originate from visible discontinuities which act as stress raisers.
These discontinuities include design details such as holes, fillets, keyways etc ; imperfections in -
the material such as inclusions, blowholes or fabrication cracks.
The progress of simple fatigue can be traced in 3 stages (i) nucleation (ii) crack
propagation (iii) fracture as shown in Fig. 21 "28. In short, localised changes in the atomic
structure begin within the first few cycles at scattered points in the material. These changes
in atomic structure soon develop into submicroscopic cracks which grow as the loading cycles
continue into the microscopic sizo and eventually~ become'.hlarge cracks which are visible.
Finally when the cracks have grown to some critical size, the member becomes weak and it
breaks.
crack
0 0{)
nucleation
(a)
crock growth
( b) ( C)
sudden
fracture
final fracture
( d)
Fig. 21"28
(a) The mechanism of nucleation and cracks growth for metals can be explained as
follows :
, Fatigue in metals begi~s with highly locali~ed yielding: In polycrystalline metals in
simple tension, there always exist a few crystals which are so onented that slip can easily start
iri these crystals. As the load is increased, these weak crystals yield first, but since they are
surrounded by elastic material, they do not affect the static stress-strain diagram noticeably.
Nevertheless they do yield and at an overall stress that is within the elastic range of the
material. If the material is loaded only for once, the effect of the localised yielding is insigni-
ficant. But if the load is repeated, each repitition produces additional localised yielding which
eventually results in the formation of submicros~opic cracks in the yielded region, due to the
strain hardening effect produced by repeated loadmg cycles.
Fig. 21 ·29 (a) shows a cantilever type cylindrical specimen rotating at w radian/sec-
and subjected to a vertical load at the free end. The critical se:cticn of the specimen is sub
. to a ·bending moment M = WI resul tmg
jected . .m maximum
. stress /tmaa,= 32
ndaM . If a point .A.
is considered on the periphery of the sectio~, then it i~ subjected to a · stress cycle 0, Ima,,, O,
-/ma,, as shown in the Fig. 21 ·29 (b). Say m a particular crystal near the outer surface· of
the specimen, at the cri~ical section, the str~ss has _exceeded fyp, as sh?wn in the Fig. (c). ~ith
each stress reversal, yield stress goes on mcreasmg and when the yield stress reaches the ulti-
'American Society ror Testing and Materials,.
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STRENGTH OF MATER~ALS
-mate stress of the material submicroscopic crack is developed at the point, which has acted as a
stress raiser. As load cycles continue new submicroscopic cracks are formed mostly in the
t$@:-.:=3-.)w
Stress dtveloped in a
a crystal
f ult
Bearing
(a)
JW section
c-c
at
-€:
+ £ ( Appli¢d}
- f (-( )
max
Applied stress
cycle on specimen
( b) ( €)
Fig. 21·29
same crystal and these submicroscopic cracks join together to make a microscopic crack. The
microscopic cracks have been observed after only 0·1 per unit of the total number of cycles
endured before failure. In general, the fatigue cracks start in the surface of the member
possibly because the crystals adjacent to the surface are less restricted by the surrounding
crystals.
The first microscopic cracks appear in slip planes in certain unfavourably oriented
crystals : i.e. crystals whose orientation is such that slip planes coincide with the planes of
ma:ximum ·shear. So tbe microscopic cracks grow in these planes which are at 45° to the axis
of the member, and these cracks usually originate in more than one such planes. The inter-
section and joining of a number of such microscopic cracks produce a zig zag crack in a
d,irection at right an~le to the axis. of the me~ber .. G~owth beyond the c1_:ystal of ori~in to
adjoining crystals brmgs about slight .changes m d1rect10n to accomodate the planes of·easy
s'lip.
A notch effect accom'panies the crack and increases its tendency to grow in the gener:al
direction at right :angle to tb:e tensile stress Fig. 2 I '28 (b) shows the gra"du8!l crack growth.
Wiren the remaining cross sectional area becomes small enough, final fracture ,0ccurs in ~hieh
!again the notch effect is ,the controlling factor . Thus the failure in ifatigue is ia 'btiitde
failure. Sometimes the members are subjected to high maximum stre'Sse's •a nd gross !yielding
of t4e eIJ,tire section takes place. Jn such a case strain hardening in general plays dominant
role t'han the localised slip.
f
A majority of fatigue failur,es start at visible discontinuities which act as str{l~~ raisers,
such as shown in Fig. 21 '30 (a) and (b). In such instances the initial yielding is causea nbt
by ,ah unfa:vouraffiy oriented ·crystal 1but by a focal increase in stress resultfn~ f.roJD ·str.ess
cen'eentraflon. 'Nucleation ·is •still highly locaHsed. The weak 'l)o'i.nts are itt0w 'the· -small
ire'gions a ,ffectecl by the s'fress concentration. Fig. 21 ·30 ·~a~ shows the ifaligue :failu¥e ,o f ca shlaft
wbjectM :t0 111oad icydles, the shaft is havfog a large fillet radius and therefore fow <&tress :con-
~ntr-ati0-n. -Cra9ks -nuvleate frQm a few poin,s on ~he s1.1rface and cracks ~row and ·propa~at~
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1(}19 ,
Largt fillet
crock propagot,on
I
\
era ck n uc lea tion

low stress
concentration
(a)
1
C crac k propagation
nuc leotion
C High stress
....__ _ __. concentration
(bl
Fig. 21 30
in more or less in the radial direction and final fracture takes place at the central section shown.
Fig. 21 '30 (b) shows the fatigue failure of a shaft having high stress concentration arnund the
circular corner CC. All around the p eriphery cracks are nucleated due to high localised stress
and all these cracks join together to form an irregular crack all near the circumference. The
crack progresses rat! ially till the final fracture takes place.
(b) Statistical Nature of Fatigue. In fatigue, fracture depends on a random distri-
bution of weak points and the whole chain of events preceding fatigue fracture depends on a
series of random processes and varies widely from one member to another. Therefore the
scatter in observed values is considerable. Consequently neither a single observation nor an
average of several observations can, give a measure of fatigue life. So the fatigue life of a
material can only be truly depicted as a distribution of values for individual specimens. With
the use of statistical methods, the distribution of values can be used in a much more rational
manner than the individual values with a suitable factor of safety. With the statistical analysis
of data, a machine member can be designed for a low percentage of failures or a high
percentage of survivals .
(c) Fatigue Properties. The total number of cycles required to bring about the
final fractures under the given conditions (of stress amplitude, maximum stress and rate of
cycling) is the basic fatigue property. This is directly measured from experiments for indivi-
dual specimen.
Fig. 21 '3 L(a) shows the stress vs. number of cycles (upto failure) curve for a phosphor
bronze strip subjected to reversed bending1 where m~an stress is zero, (b). The vertical axis
represents the maximum stress,/max, the horizontal axis represents the number of cycles to
failure or fatigue life N. The range of N becomes large !n comparison to /max and there is
conside:i:a@le curvature at all points of the tange except for very large N. But if N is; pk>tt-ed:
on- a logarithmic scale, the first part of the curve often becomes nearly a straight line and it
is possible to fit most of the observations quite well by two straight lines intersecting at a point,.
as shown in Fig. 2 L·3 L (b ). If is interesting to note in this example that the point where, the.two
lines meetis near the proportional limit stress for the material.
When the f-N curve approaches a horizontal asymptote, the corresponding stress is.
called the endurance limit fe, and the fatigue life at stresses lower than / • is assumed to bo
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STRENGTH OF MA1BlliA~S
300 maximum
s tress
/ 2 250
N;m m
N/mm/OO
1
maximu m
100 fe
- - -- --- -=-=-=---
stress 100----::---.........,.- - ~ - - ~
0 2 4 6 8 5 6 7 8
6 10 10 10 10
( >< 10 cycl es)
N( n umber of cycles)
Fatigue l ife - l o g s c a le
Cb )
·( Q)
Fig. 21·31
infinite. Ferrous metals usually have a fatigue limit whereas non ferrous metals often do not
have fatigue limit, fe.
Fatigue Strength ( fn) . In a general way fatigue strength is defined as the stress
which a material can withstand respectively for N cycles, and is developed by interpolation
froxµ graph of stress ver~us fatigue life.
(d) Factors Affecting Fatigue. Fig. 21 '32 (a) shows a general stress-cycle, with
·
f,mu= max1mum stress ; J,n1tn= m101mum
· · stress, J,m= mean stress= fm •m+fmtn ~ II d J"=a
./' lternattbg
·,
2
fmaz-fm,n
stress = Most of the fatigue data in the literature have been determined for
2
'
f
Gerber parabola
l Good man line

Sod erberg tint
0
mean s t ress fm -
s tr ess - cycle: - -tension
compress,on Cb)
Fig. 21·32
completely reversed cycle of stress i.e., f m=O, because this type of cycle produces the worst
type of effect. However conditions are frequently met in industrial applications where the stress
cycle consists of an alternating stress and a superimposed mean or steady stress. For each
value of mean stress, there is a different value of range i.e., fm ax- J,,,in which can be withstood by
the material without failure. Fig. 21 ·32 (b) shows the variation off, with /,. (mean stress). As th'.e
mean stress becomes more tensile, the alternating stress f a, is reduced, until at the tensile strength
j~ the st~ess range is zero_._ However for practical purposes testing is usually stopped when
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MECHANICAL-:PROPERTIES 1021
the yield stress/, is reached. A straight line relationship follows the suggestion of Goodman,
while the parabolic curve was proposed by Gerber. Test data for ductile metals generally· fall
closer to the parabolic curve, but the tests data on notched specimens fall closer to the
Goodman line, the linear relationship is usually preferred in engineering design. Relationship
Eetwcen stresses can be expressed as
fa f • [ 1-( ~: )]
"here x= 1 for Goodwan straight line
x=l for Gerbar parabola
fe =endurance stress or fatigue limit for completely reversed
loading.
But if the design is based on yield strength, then dashed straight line given by Soderbeg
can be used and in the above expression/,, is replaced by f, (yield strength). ·
(e) Fatigue Damage. The problem of design for variable loading spectrum is of
primary importance in the design of rotary wing aircrafts. It has been observed that fatigue
cracks are nucleated during the first few cycles of loading, therefore practically no phase of
service lift is free from damage of some kind. Crack propagation involves many factors, cut
of which stress gradient is an important factor. Cracks propagate at different speeds in
different materials, under different conditions. Experiments have been performed in which
crack length was measured as a function of the number of cycles. Fig. 2 l '33 shows some
typical curves of crack growths under various
stress levels. Each curve ends with fracture at
some critical crack length. Another effect of tiow
stress level is its effect on the character of crack;
low stress level produces fine cracks and high
stress levels produce course cracks. The
order in which stress levels are applied has ..,
C.
r
important effects on the progress of fatigue Ol
C
damage. A course crack started by high "' eroc k)
stress level will not propagate very rapidly ""'u
under a subsequent low stress. On the other 0
hand a fine crack started by a low stress level L.
u ' - - -- - - - ---- - - - -
might propagate very rapidly under a sub-
sequent high stress.. At the same ti11:e, strain - - - N, cycles
hardening at the tip of crack plays important Fig . 21·33
part on how it behaves under subsequei:t ~igher . ,
or lower stress levels. All these vanat10ns tend to average out 1f stress levels are applied in a
random order and cumulative damage theory has been developed on this very basis.
According to this theory each series of stress cycles accounts for a certain fraction of total
damage and when these fractions add upto unity failure occurs.
~ n, _ 1 n1 n2 n3
4J N, - or N1 +N +N
2 3
...... """l
The value of N is observed from stress versus fatigue life curves for different stress
levels.
( /) Surface l:ffects. It has been observed that most fatigue cracks are nucleated
near the surface of members. Therefore the condition of the surface is very important. A
rough surface can lower the fatigue strength by as much as 15-20 per unit. Therefore
surface scratcher must be removed by slow grinding and polishing operation.
Electroplating a s~1rface. usuall)'. lowers the resistance to fatigue beeause electricall)'
deposited metal layer contams microscopic cracks.
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The most coninion surface treatments for improving the resistance to fatiq,ue. and,
increa-se service lift are those which produce residual compressive stresses in the surface such, as1
Peening.
Peening consists in striking the surface with a rounded hammer or ball, which m~~es
a series of overlapping indentations covering the entire surface. The surface layer of the
member is compressed which acts as a crack-resistant armor around the inner material
and markedly improves the resistance to fatigue Metallic shots of diameter 0·2 mm to 4 mm
in diameter are propelled against the surface at high velocity around 60 m/second. Cold
surface rolling also introduces compressive residual stresses in the surface.
(g) Understressii,.g. In some materials having well defined fatigue limit (/e) it has
been obsei:ved that application of stress cycles at stresses below f • can strengthen the material.
If these cycles are applied to materials in a series of increasing-stress cycles starting from just
b,elpw f• (say IO million cycles at each level). These materials have found to withstand much
higher stresses than /c'without failure. This process of repeated cycling, at successivel;y hi·g her•
levels, by which the fatigue properties of materials are improved, is called understressing.
(h) Experimental Methods. Fatigue tests are performed on members by apply,ing.
cyclic load in (a) simple axial loading i.e., tension-compression loading (b) rotating bending,
(c) twisting (d) combination of these loads.
There are two types of fatigue testing machings
. (i) Constant load type, loading cycle remains the same throughout the experiment
and deflection usually increases as specimen becomes weaker.
(ii) Constant deflection type, a fixed cycle of displacement is imposed on the spc.c imcn
and the resulting stress may change as fatigue progresses.
The machines which are most commonly used in la boratories are
(i) Rotating bending machine with pure bending
(ii) Rotating bending machine with load on specimen suppo1ted as cantilever.
Fig. 21 · 34 (a) shows the most popular type rotating beam fatigue testing machiIJ.e the
specimen is carried between two bearings and connected to shafts wl1ich are supported-in·
bearings. The assembly is connected to an electric motor and a revolution counter. Loaq' is•
supported at the ends of the specimen as shown in the F ig. This type of load ing gives constm1,t'
!.
shaft
C
8 - Bearings
S-Spec,men CS - cr ,t,cal
M-Electric motor s ection
. RC·Re.v olution co~nter
(a) W-Weight (b )
F.g. 21 34
bending moment throughout the length of. the specimen. But the section of the specimen-
varies uniformly with minimum diameter at the centre. Therefore maximu.m bending stress
occurs at the centre. In this case stress is al ways completely reversed 'With means stress f,. = 0.
The rotational speeds attainable are 3600- 10,000 R.P.M.
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Another variation of rotating bending machine uses a specimen which is mounted and
·loaded as a cantilever as shown in the Fig. 2l'34 (b). In this case bending moment linearly
varies along the length of the specimen and specimen has mioimum diameter at the critical
section shown.
21'8. CREEP
In many applications, materials are required to sustain steady loads for long periods
of time for example blades of a turbine rotor, plastic mountings of electrical appliances,
filaments in vacuum tubes, timber beams in roofs of building, steel reinforcement and concrete
in prestressed concrete beams and lead sheathes of telephone cables. Under such conditions
the material continues to deform until it is rendered useless.
ASTM defines creep as the "The time dependent part of the strain resulting from
stress". ·
Because the creep is very much dependent on temperature it is generally thought of ~s
elevated temperature effect.
Lead and plastic exhibit considerable creep at room temperature, while asphalt and
tar creep even at temperatures far below room temperature. For materials like concrete and
wood, temperature is not an important factor.
Mechanism of Creep. A constant stress or a constant load is applied on a member
and strain is measured with respect to time.
( fracturt) D
wc·J-i-
ci
._
E:o
_ -- -
_Trans
l-- ient - ~
--
s teady stat e _
~
; 1-t-A l Instantane ous
-
elastic+ plasti c ~
strain Ill
Eo• cre11p s tage i--- - + - -- - II _ _.....,
Int er cept _ _ _.___ _ _.__ ____ _ _ _..1-stoge - -
stage
0 ...
- -- --- Time t
'
F ig, 21·35
. Fig. 21 ·35 shows the stra in-time curve with 3 distinct stages. Total strain at any time
has following components
(a) Elastic plus the plastic strains (if the stress is high enough) occur almost instant-
aneously when the stress is applied,-represented by OA. This component is generally omitted
in the creep curve
(b) Transient creep strain.
(c) Steady state creep strain.
The main characteristic of transient creep is its decreasing rate as is obvious from AB
part of the curve. Def,..lrmati?n is rapi? at first but . gradually become~ ~low~r anc;l ~lower-
~ it aprroaches the fixed stratr~ rate-1.e., steady Stram nit~,
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1024 STRENGTH OF MATER~ALS
The steady strain continues under constant stress which remains constant
throughout deformation. So it is identical with viscous flow and sometimes referred to as
viscous creep. Steady strain rate is also dependent on temperature, it is also called hot creep.
Transient creep takes place at all temperatures even at zero degree temperature so it is also
called cold creep.
The creep curve can be divided into 3 stages
1. Transient creep or the primary creep.
2. Steady state creep or the secondary creep
3. Creep fracture or the tertiary creep.
Transient creep. In crystaline materials, transient creep consists of a small additional
yielding produced by thermal activation. (At higher temperature, the yield stress of the
material is reduced) . Application of stress is accompanied by initial plastic strain which
ceases as soon as the stress is just balanced by the strain hardening effect. Thereafter impulses
of thermal energy contribute to cause further small increase, in strain and each increment in
strain causes strain hardening. Consequently each increment becomes a little more difficult
and further increments less and less frequent. Thus transient creep gradually approaches to
a minimum. This mechanism also operates at stresses in the upper elastic range, where
thermal activation can sometimes induce localised yielding at scattered points.
In amorphous materials which do not strain hardden, transient creep is due to thermal
activation only. Creep in concrete has been observed at stresses as low as one percent of the
ultimate compressive strength. This is possibly due to (i) Flow of adsorbed water out of the
cement get as a result of external pressure (ii) Closure of internal voids in the hardened
cement paste.
Viscous Creep. In crystalline materials which strain harden, viscous creep takes
place when the strain hardening effect is just balanced by the thermal softening effect. Each in-
crement of plastic strain is accompanied by an increase in yield stress (due to strain hardening)
which in turn is gradually lowered by thermal softening so that more plastic strain occurs and
the cycle is repeated continuously. It is shown by the part BC of the creep curve or the
secondary creep.
In amorphous or thermaplastics, viscous flow is the natural form of plastic deforma-
tions. The chain molecules slip past each other constantly breaking and reforming their bonds,
but there is no strain-hardening. Therefore entire deformation can be classified as creep.
A secondary process in viscous creep of polycrystalline materials is the flow of the grains
themselves as semi-rigid bodies. It is called grain boundary shearing and results in the
rotation of grains during creep process. It ordinarily contributes only a small part of the
c ; c c ks or
rn c i p i e n t c r a c ;. ,;
grain bou n dary

shear ing
After creep
( dork areas ore crocks or
incipient c r oc k s).
Le ad ·under
. r f ~P trc:icW r v
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES i025
total creep strain but plays an important part in fracture by creep, since the cracks are
developed around the grains rotated during creep as shown in Fig. 21.36.
Creep Fracture. As the member under steady load continuously elongates, there is
always an accompanying reduction in area and viscous creep in tension inevitably ends in
fracture if allowed to continue long enough. This is shown by the part CD of the creep curve
and at D, eventually the fracture occurs. ·
In the tertiary stage, at higher temperatures or under longer times, ductile metals
begins to lose their ability to strain harden, when it occurs, more elongation is required to
counteract the effects of thermal softening and the rate of elongation increases, and the
fracture may occur without formation of a crack. If the elongation is large fracture is
still ductile.
Sometimes at high temperatures or after long periods of loading, metals fracture with
very little plastic elongation. Under there conditions grain boundary shearing becomes
important. The movement of whole grains relative to each other causes cracks to open up
because of their irregular shapes , when one crack becomes large enough or several cracks join
to form a larger crack, it spreads slowly across the member until fracture takes place.
At low stresses acting for a long time deformation is sometimes almost negligible and
fracture tends to be brittle.
All the 3 stages of creep may not
I
always appear
(a) If fracture is brittle, without appre-
ciable reduction in cross section, the third
stage may be missing entirely. D
D
(b) For highf or T, the second stage
is reduced and at still highe1 values, second
stage may be completed, missing.
(c) If the stress or temperature is low
enough, the second stage increases to a con-
siderable extent, as shown in Fig. 21 ·37_
Study of creep is complicated by the Time , t
fact that four variables are involved : creep
strain, time, stress and temperature. Generally Fig. 21 ·37
the creep-time curve is taken as the primary variation and effects of temperature and stress on
it are studied.
The creep tests are usually limited to 1000 hours or less. The extrapolation to service
lives more than 10 times the duration of the test are sometimes necessary. The life of a steam
power plant is 40 years, or 350,000 hours.
Creep Properties. The most important properties used in design for creep are
1. Creep strength--is defined as the highest stress that a material can withstand for a
specified length of time without excessive deformation or rupture. The creep rupture strength
is often referred to as the stress -rupture strength. These properties vary with temperature, a
constant temperature is assumed and must be specified, for example the creep strength required
for a steam turbine blade may be that stress which provides 0·20 per cent creep in 100,000
hours at 1500°F. In a jet turbine only a very small strain is permitted because of the close
tolerances (as 0'01 per cent strain in 2000 hours)
Creep strength is determined experimentally as follows
(a) Several specimens are simultaneously tested at the expected operating temperature
but each under a different stress. The length of time required to produce the allowable strain
j~ ~easured for each s~ecimen. A curve of stress versus time can be plotted. Fro~ th~
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results creep strengths can be tabulated on the b asis of a specified amount of creep strain for
various temperatures.
(b) Another method is based on creep rate.
A curve of creep rate versus stress is obtai ned for a series of creep time tests at the
expected operating temperature. Each test is made at a di fferent stress and is cont inued until
the minimum creep rate appears to be well established.
V0 = Bf"
where V0 = creep rate
B=a constant
/ =stress
In Vo = ln B+n In f ... (1)
In f is plotted against In v0 •
In using such a curve, total allowable strain E is d ivided by the service life t to give an
allowable V0 • Corresponding to Vo, the value off i.e. creep strength is obtained.
Stress relaxation . Bolts and other members required to hold two or more rigid
plates in tight contact are frequently found to have relaxed considerably after· long periods
of time as a result of creep. This is called stress relaxation and defined as the time dependent
decrease in stress in a memb~r which is constrained t o a certain fixed deformation.
Say t wo plates· are joined by a bolt and a nut a nd €,=i nitial strain in bot t. lf this
initial strain €' is maintained constant the elongation caused by creep is simply substracted from
it, thereby reducing the elastic part of the total strain.
Elastic strain at a ny time €et= €t- €cr (creep strain)
The stress due to the reduction in elastic strain €cl goes on decreasing with time ~s
shown in the d iagram 21 "38.
f
s t ress - reloxat,on
- - - ·- T , me
---~
Fig. 21·38
Experimental Methods. Stress is applied by a testing machine which applies either

a constant load or a con stant stress. In a constant stress mach ine the load is adjusted conti-
P\lOUsly to conform to the changing cross sectiona l area.
. P =f,.A= fc ( Ao/o )
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ro21·
where lo= constant stress
A=cross sectional area at any instant
Ao, /0 =initial area and initial length
/=length at a particular instant.
Utmost care must be taken t0 avoid eccentricity of the loading.
The specimens for creep tests are usually the same as for the conventional tensile test.
Elongated ends having a thermocouple well in each may be provided.
f 1,; c,oce
WO 11
{ ~ gauge leng th
r,1 " Pio t inum t u he
F ig. 21·39
Strains in creep tests can be measured by a travelling microscope. A pla tinum alloy
wire is spot welded to the specimen at one end of the gauge length and a platinum alloy tube
is spot welded to the specimen at the other end, as shown in Fig. 21 ·39_ The wire slides inside
the tube and reference marks on both are observed through a single telescope at the middle.
Elongation is measured on a scale provided in the telescope. Temperature control is maintain-
ed by the furnace.
1. The Poisson's ratio for most of the metals is close to

(a) ..!_ (b) J_
5 4
1 (d) J_
(c) 3 2
2. A metallic specimen is loaded in tension beyond the yield point, then it is unloaded com·
pletely and reloaded again in tensi on. After unloading its yield point has
(a) slightly decreased (b) slightly increased
(c) considerably decreased {d) considerably increased
3, The most important, reason for Bauschinger's effect in ductile materials is
(a) ductile material's weakness in shear (b) compressive residual stress
(c) tensile residual stress (d) None of the above
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·.\Qf~ 'sTRllNGTH O'fl ~~r~,iµ~
4. The length between the supports of a Charpy Impact test specimen is
(a) 60 mm (b) 50 mm
(c) 40 mm (d) 30 mm
5. The notch-angle in the Izod Impact test specimen is
(a) 25° fb) 30°
(~) 35° (d) None of the above
6. The angle between the opposite faces of the diamond pyramid in the C!l!\e of Vi~kefs
Pyramid Hardness test is
(a) 120° (b) 128°
(c) 136° (d) 144°
7. For the measurement of microhardness, the indentor used is
(a) Vickers Diamond Pyramid (b) Brinell Ball
(c) Knoop Indentor (d) None of the above.
8. The depth of penetration of the hardened steel ball . in the specimen is 0' 140 mm. The
Rockwell 'B' hardness of the material is
(a) 70 (b) 60
(c) 50 (d) 40
9. The depth of penetration of diamond indentor in a specimen is 0·126 mm, the Rockwell
C hardness number of the material is
(a) 63 (b) 50
(c) 37 (d) None of the above
10. The process which does not improve the fatigue strength of a material is
(a) shot peening of the surface (b) cold rolling of the surface
.. (c) electroplating the surface (d) understressing the surface
11. The clearance between the turbine rotor blade and the casing is reduced by Oi3, mm in,
100.0 hours. If the blade length is 300 mm, the creep strain rate per hour is
(a) l microstrain/hour (b) 2 microstrain/hour
(c) S microstrain/hour (d) 10 microstrain per hour
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2.(b) 3. {b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c)
7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c) 11. (a)
EXERCISE
1. Explain the process of yielding in polycrystalline materials.
2. Show that Poisson' s ratio for most of the metals having crystalline structµre is
close to 1/3. ·
3. · What is discontinuous yielding '?
4. Differentiate between the following :
(i) Elastic strain and plastic strain
(ii) T angent modulus and secant modulus
5. What do you understand by mechanical hysterisis loop'? Explain how repeated
loading increases the yield stress of the material.
6. Why is. the strength of cast iron more in compression, than that in tflnsion,
explain?
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M!C}IANICAL PROPERTIES 1029
7. Compare the type of fracture in tens.ion for
(a) Mild steel and wrought iron
(b) High carbon steel and cast iron.
8. Compare the type of fracture in compression for wood, cast iron, concrete and
brick.
9. With the help of a neat sketch, explain the Bauschinger's effect. What are the
main reasons for this effect.
10. Explain the process of yielding in pure bending.
11. Explain the following in pure bending
(a) Modulus of rupture
(b) Shape factor
12. What is the difference between pure bending and bending with shear ?
13. Mild steel ad cast iron are tested upto destruction in torsion. Compare their
fractured surfaces.
14. Explain how triaxial stresses are developed at the root of the notch in a cylindrical
specimum subjected to uniaxial tension.
15. Explain the temperature dependence of medium carbon steel for their impact
behaviour.
16. Explain clearly the ductile, transition and brittle zones far a material under impact.
17. Discuss the effect oftriaxiality, strain rate and temperature on the impact energy
of a material.
18, What is notch sensitivity ?
19. What are the various types of indentors used for hardness measurement ?
20. Explain the principle of hardness measurement by Rockwell Hardness test.
21. Explain the principle of hardness measurement by Brinell's Har,dness Test.
22. Explain the mechanism of indentation in hardness measurement and how ridge
around the indentor ic; formed ?
23. Explain clearly the three stages which occur during a fatigue failure.
24. Explain how a submicroscopic crack is initiated during fatigue loading of a
member.
25. What is the difference between fatigue strength and endurance limit in fatigue ?
26. Explain Gerber parabola and Goodman straight line law for the determination of
stress ampJitude.
27. What is cumulative fatigue damage?
28. Explain how fatigue strength is improved by shot peening, cold rolling and under-
stressing the sur-face of the machine member.
29. Explain how the strain rate goes on decreasing till it becomes constant during the
transient creep.
30. What is the difference between hot creep and cold creep ?
31. Explain the temperature dependence of creep strain-time curve.
32. Explain the stress dependence of creep strain-time curve.
33. Explain how the following properties are determined experimentally
(i) Creep strength
(ii) Creep rate
34. What is the difference between creep and stress relaxation ?
35. Describe the procedure of performing a standard creep test on a specimen.
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Index
A Cup and cone fracture, 1000
Angular Twist, 652 Curved bars with,
Axial Stress, 188 - Box sections, 925
-Channel sections, 925
B -Circular sections, 932
BM diagram, 291 - I-Section, 925 -
BM diagram, graphical, 313 - Rectangular section, 921
Bar of Uniform Strength, 20 - T-Section, 924
Barba's constants, 29 - Trapezoidal section, 929
Beam continuous, 282
Beam fixed, 282
Beam of Uniform Srength, 380 D
Beam Simply Supported, 282, 283, 286, 291,
294 Deflection of beam, cantilever, 499
Beam with Stepped Section, 538 Deflection due to shear, 827
Bauschinger's effect, 1004 Deflection of a beam (due to unsymmetrical
Bending Moment, 292 bending), 977
Bending of Curved Bars, 917 Deflection of a chain link, 948
Beltrami and Haigh Theory, 851 Deflection of a closed ring, 946
Bimetallic Strip, 384 Deflection of curved bar, 945
Bracing of girders, 773 Directional shear stress distribution, 470
Brinell Hardness, l O15 Disc of uniform strength, 880
Bursting force, 188 Ductile and brittle states, lO11.
Bulk Modulus, 26, 174
Built-up Sections, 377 E
C Eccentric loading of long columns, 779

Eccentric loading on a simply supported
Cantilever, 288, 290 beam, 516
Cantilever with stepped sections, 534 Economic section, 393
Castigliano's first theorem, 814 Effect of straining rate, 1011
Chain link under tensile load , 948 Elastic limit, 28
Chimney shafts . 434 Electrical resistance strain gages, 158
Circumferential stress, 189 Ellipse of stresses, 137
Composite bar, 75 Equivalent length, 768
Composite beams, 386 Euler's theory of buckling, 763
Compound cylinders, 229 Extension under self-weight, 19
Compound shafts, 660
Composite systems, 80 F
Complementary shear stress, 23
Conjugate beam method, 532 Factor of safety, 45
Continuous beams (Clapyron's theorem), 604 Fatigue, 1016
Continuous beams with fixed ends, 619 Fatigue da mage, 1021
Core, 430 Fatigue life, 1019
Coulomb's theory, 845 Fatigue properties, 1019
Crack growth, 1018 Fatigue strength, 1020
Creep, 1023 Fixed beams, 587
-Fracture, 1025 Flexure formula, 357, 501
1030
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STBEIGTl 1

1st Ed. : 1989

Constructive suggestions for improvement of the book are always solicited.

Chapter Page Nos.

Chapter Page Nos.

Chapter Page Nos.

Chapter Page Nos.

1o· 1. Shear stress distribution 460

11 ·1. Relations between slope, deflection, radius of curvature and

Chapter Page Nos.

17. Theories of Failure 842

Chapter Fage Nos.

18. Rotating Discs and Cylinders 870

19. Bending of Curved Bars 917

Chapter Page Nos.

1· 1. NORMAL AND SHEAR FORCES

f, Tensile stress= :n (Tensile)

Example J·1-1 A bar of rectangular section 20 mm X 30 mm carries an axial force

Solution. Fig. 1·4 shows a bar of rectangular section 30 mm x 20 mm, carrying an

Area of cross-section of portion II,

Exercise l'l-1. A cylindrical rod , of diaJ.+).eter 1'6 cm is subjected to a t axial tensile

1·2. NORMAL STRAIN

Final diameter- Initial diameter

Lateral strain ' "' . . 1 .. d

where P = axial tensile .force

. .In the second case, normal stress

is the compressive stress or a negative direct stress.

If E for the material is given, then

Fig. 1 ·7. Tensile Test Specimen.

Area of cross-section, A= ~ ( 10)2

_J_OOOX 1000 = l x JOs N/ 2

Normal stresi:, J="' E

Lateral strain = ag = 0·32 x ·oo12

Exercise 1·2-2. A steel bar of rectangular cross-section 10 mm X J 5 mm and length

t·3. BARS OF VARYING CROSS SECTIONS

F ig. 1·8 . II•'

Normal stress in portion I,

Normal stress in portion TI ,

Where Areas of cross-sections are

The normal strain in each portion is

" 1 =- 1, , " 2= - ~ and E3 =- 1e (negative)

Change in length in each portion

Tota l change. in length, 8L= ilL1 + 8L2+ U 3

= £ 1L1 + E2L2+ £3L3

Lateral strain in each portion will be

The change in diameters will be

Total ch ange in length =+

Change in diameters 8D1 = - <~:i = - n1 2 X ,~J = - r;D~:E

t ·4. TAPERED BARS

Strain at the section,

Change in length over dx i.e.,

Total change in length,

Breadth B2-- B-.

Area of cross-section, AIIJ= B,,. t = (B1 +Kx) t

Change in leHgth over dx,

Consider a section X-X at a distance of x from end A.

.=+ 0~2 [-fo-- -k- J.

.. . Example t·4-2; In a bar of rectangular section, the width tapers from 25 mm to 15

Again consider an element of length dx, at a distance of x from the end A.

Area of cross-section, A,,= w., t,.= (2s - 0·02x)(12- ·008x)