Module #6a

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 17

HOMEWORK

From Dieter
8-1, 8-6, 8-7, 8-8

Module #6a

Stress-strain curves
Plastic deformation
Empirical relationships for stress and strain
Criteria for necking

READING LIST
DIETER: Ch. 8, pp. 275-295

Ch. 3 in Meyers & Chawla, 1st ed. (pp. 112-160)


Ch. 1, Pages 1-39 in Courtney
Engineering Stress-Strain Curve in Tension
ELASTIC PLASTIC
Ultimate tensile • Elastic deformation
Stress (Force/Area)

Strain strength, u or UTS


Hardening
up to elastic limit.
(σ = Kεn) Necking • Plastic deformation
Elastic after elastic limit.
limit
• Uniform plastic
deformation between
Elastic elastic limit and the
Modulus UTS.
E (σ = εE)
0.2% Offset yield stress • Nonuniform plastic
(o, ys, YS, etc.)
deformation after
UTS.
Recoverable
elastic strain • In tension this non-
energy uniform deformation
Strain is called necking.
0.2% STRAIN, p=0.002

Uniform plastic strain Non-uniform


Elastic strain
plastic strain
Strain Hardening
• The stress-strain curve (i.e., flow curve) in the region of
uniform plastic deformation does not increase proportionally
with strain. The material is said to work harden (i.e., strain
harden).
• An empirical mathematical relationship was advanced by
Holloman in 1945 to describe the shape of the engineering
stress-strain curve.
σ = K εn,
where is the σ true stress, ε is true strain, K is a strength
coefficient (equal to the true stress at ε = 1.0), and n is the
strain-hardening exponent. Thus, one can obtain n from a log-
log plot of σ versus ε.
Strain-hardening exponent
d (log  ) d (ln  )  d
n  
d (log  ) d (ln  )  d 

n = 0 for perfectly plastic solids


n = 1 for perfectly elastic solids
n = 0.1 – 0.5 for most metals

Strain-hardening rate
d 
n
d 
Post-necking deformation
Necking Non-uniform
begins plastic
deformation
Uniform
plastic
deformation
Fracture F F

UTS
F (or s = F/Ao)

YS
Lo Af
Ao Li
Lf
Ai
necking

F
0.2% eu ef F

L = L-Lo (or e = [(L-Lo)/Lo])


Why does necking occur?
• We can explain things mathematically by considering
strength increases caused by strain hardening and
reductions in cross-sectional area caused by the Poisson
effect.

• During plastic deformation, the load carrying capacity of


the material increases as strain increases due to strain-
hardening.

• Strain hardening is opposed by the gradual decrease in the


cross-sectional area of the specimen as it gets longer.
Why does necking occur?
• At maximum load (i.e., the UTS on the engineering stress-
strain curve) the required increase in stress to deform the
material further exceeds its load carrying capacity. This
leads to localized plastic deformation or “necking.”
F F

“The material can’t


sustain the increase in
Af
Lo
Ao Li
Lf stress required to
Ai
necking continue deforming and
work hardening it”

F
F

• Necking represents “unstable” flow (deformation)


Criteria for Necking
• Let us start by considering the amount of force (dF)
that is required to deform a specimen by dε.

F  A
NOTE: We are
The slope of the stress strain curve is: using true stress
and strain (i.e., , ε)
dF   dA     d  here rather than
       A   engineering stress
d   d    d  and strain (s, e)

• (d/d) is the Work Hardening Rate. It is the slope of


the stress-strain curve. It is always positive.

• (dA/d) is the Rate of Geometrical Softening. It is the


rate at which the cross-sectional area of the
specimen decreases with increasing strain due to
constancy of volume. It is always negative.
Criteria for Necking – cont’d
• Local ↓ in A (i.e., deformation) causes that region to
strain harden locally (relative to the rest of the cross
section). The remainder of the cross section then
deforms until a uniform cross-section is re-
established.

• The rates balance at the UTS [(dA/d) = (d/d)].

• When (dA/d) > (d/d), deformation becomes


unstable. The material cannot strain harden fast
enough to inhibit necking.
Criteria for Necking – cont’d

• The criteria for instability is defined by the condition


where the slope of the force distance curve equals
zero (dF = 0):
F  A
where
F  load, NOTE: We are using true
stress and strain here
  true stress, rather than engineering

A  area at max load

dF   dA  Ad  0 ……………..(*)
Criteria for Necking – cont’d

• Recall that deformation is a constant volume process.


Thus:
Lo Ao  LA  constant

dL dA
  d
L A

• If we invoke the instability criteria from above (*) then


we get:

dA d
   d
A 
Criteria for Necking – cont’d
• Thus, at the point of tensile instability,
d
 When “necking” occurs.
d
• If we incorporate engineering strain e, into the equation
presented above, we can develop a more explicit
expression:
d d de d dL / Lo d L d
    (1  e)  
d  de d  de dL / L de Lo de
or
d 

de (1  e)

• This is known as Considère’s construction.


Considère’s Construction

True stress
uts
suts

-1 +1
0
1.0 euts Engineering strain
1 + euts
Unstable deformation
• If we substitute the necking criterion,
d

d

into the equation for the work hardening rate, we get:

d 
 n 
d 
which, after re-arranging, becomes:
n

Work hardening exponent True uniform strain or


Strain at the onset of
necking
F F F
Process of Necking F

(a) During tensile deformation, strain can


become localized along the sample length. (b)
When strains are less than the UTS, work
hardening strengthens the material in the strain
localized area relative to the rest of the Lo Li1 Li2 LUTS AUTS Lf
Ao Ai1 Af
specimen. (c) The work-hardening rate (WHR) Ai2
decreases as strain increases. At εUTS the
decrease in cross-sectional area becomes
equal to the increase in flow strength due to
work hardening. As a result, the localized
region (i.e., “neck”) becomes permanent. (d) as F
strain increases, the neck gets bigger until the F F F
material fails.
ε=0 ε < εUTS ε = εUTS ε > εUTS

Parameter Fundamental Before Necking After Necking


Definition

F F F
Engineering stress σe e  s  e  e 
Ao Ao Ao

F F F
True stress σt t    t  t 
Ai Ai Aneck
L L L
Engineering strain εe e  e  e  e 
Lo Lo Lo
Ao Li A Ao
True strain εt  t  ln  t  ln  ln o  ln 1   e   t  ln
Amin Lo Ai Aneck
Other Stress-Strain Relationships
• We’ve already considered the strain hardening
exponent. We’ve noted how it increases with
increasing strength and, as you will learn later,
decreasing dislocation mobility.

• Stress-strain behavior is also influenced by the rate


of deformation (i.e., the strain rate):

  K  m

  true stress
K   constant = stress at strain rate of 1 s
-1

  true strain rate


m  strain-rate sensitivity factor  d log  d log 
3  2  1
3 ,T3
or
2 ,T2 T1  T2  T3

1 ,T1
s = F/Ao

Increasing strain rate


or
decreasing temperature

e = [(L-Lo)/Lo]

Mechanical properties are sensitive to temperature and strain rate.

HOW AND WHY?

You might also like