The different properties exhibited by each class of
materials can be tied directly to their macro/micro/nano-structures Typical process engineering problem You are the chief metallurgist at a stamping plant. At your plant, 304L stainless steel sheets are stamped into oil cans. You produce 20 cans/minute. The first 1000 cans form perfectly with no defects or failures. However, ten of the next 200 cans fail during stamping. Then, 25 of the next 200 fail. 100 of the next 200 fail. This is summarized below.
# cans total # cans #failures
1000 1000 0 200 1200 10 200 1400 25 200 1600 100
Your job is to determine what is causing the failures during
processing. Solution to process engineering problem
MATERIAL PROCESS In this particular problem, deformation characteristics change with time.
Dislocation generation & motion
Work hardening Transformation induced plasticity Ms, Md (martensite temperature) Solution to process problem – cont’d Temperature of die rises above the martensite start temperature during processing. This increases work hardening during processing, which is good for increasing the amount of uniform plastic elongation, but which also makes it more difficult to deform the material uniformly. The solution is not just an application or mechanics problem. Rather it is related to intrinsic materials properties. A Typical Materials Engineering Problem • Tungsten light bulb filaments fail after a few thousand hours.
• Why? • How? • What can be done to increase their service lifetimes? Centre de Recherche Public, Gabriel Lippmann http://www.crpgl.lu/en/sam/sem_metals.php3 Solution to Filament Problem
• A tungsten light bulb filament can creep under its
(c) (d) Schematic microstructures of (a) drawn W wire and (b) such a wire following high-temperature exposure. Figures (c) and (d) are light optical micrographs of W before and after high-temperature exposure.
The schematic illustrates a fine-grained microstructure where the grains are elongated along the drawing direction. Upon exposure to high temperatures, the cold worked structure in the drawn wire recrystallizes producing a “bamboo” structure. The bamboo structure consists of grains having diameters equal to the wire diameter and grain lengths several times this diameter. The boundaries between grains will display cusp-like features as illustrated above. Figures (a) and (b) were adapted from T.H. Courtney, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 2nd Ed., Waveland Press (2005), p. 322. Figures (c) and (d) were adapted from P. Szozdowski and G. Welsch, Scripta Materialia, 41 (1999) pp. 1241-1245 A Typical Materials Selection Problem
• Engineers designing computer systems for long-
term use in Earth orbit or in space deliberately use 1980’s era microprocessors as opposed to modern ones. Explain why and hypothesize a solution that would allow the use of modern microprocessors.
• To solve this problem you will need a good
understanding of physical metallurgy, in particular point defect generation in space (due to irradiation), and deformation mechanisms. A Typical Materials Engineering Problem
• Pure copper (Cu), which has a face centered cubic
crystal structure, is highly deformable and work hardens slowly. With the addition of a small quantity of Au in solid solution, the deformability of Cu decreases significantly and its work hardening rate increases. Explain what is happening.
• An understanding of physical metallurgy and
deformation mechanisms is needed here. Engineering structures are subject to many different types of forces/loads
• Surface forces/loads: – forces from contact • Ex., friction, point load, etc…
• Volume forces/loads: – forces that act over the entire body • Ex., gravity, magnetic forces, etc…
In most engineering applications, surface forces are
more significant than volume forces; but there are exceptions… – “can you think of any?” Engineering structures are subject to many different forces
• Static forces/loads: – Forces that do not vary with time. They are constant in magnitude, direction and location.
• Quasi-static forces/loads: – Forces that vary “slowly” with time.
• Dynamic forces/loads: – Forces that vary with time – Steady-state forces –maintain the same character (frequency, amplitude, etc) over a long time. – Transient forces – change their character with time (e.g., decay). WHEN EXPOSED TO EXTERNAL FORCES, MATERIALS WILL EITHER
DEFORM
OR
FRACTURE Basic Types of Deformation
Time Independent • Elasticity* • Plasticity*
Deformation [i.e., change shape] Time Dependent • Viscoelasticity • Viscoplasticity / Creep* After N.E. Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, 3rd Ed., (Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 2007) p. 2. TIME INDEPENDENT DEFORMATION 1. Elastic deformation: reversible deformation that is recovered immediately upon unloading. It is analogous to the stretching of atomic bonds. In the elastic regime, stress σ is usually linearly proportional to strain ε. Hooke’s law applies: σ = Eε where E is the modulus of elasticity.
2. Plastic deformation: permanent deformation that is not
recovered upon unloading. Plastic deformation commences at the proportional limit. At this point the material is said to yield. Yielding is characterized by the yield strength σo. After yielding, σ is not linearly proportional to ε. Empirical relationships other than Hooke’s law have been developed to describe the relationship between σ and ε. TIME-DEPENDENT DEFORMATION 3. Creep/viscoplastic: permanent deformation that occurs with time. Usually occurs at high homologous temperatures (i.e., T/Tmp ≥ 0.4). Creep deformation is permanent and is not recovered upon unloading. – Think of it as deformation that occurs in a material that is subjected to a constant load or stress that is often below the yield point of the material.
4. Viscoelastic: reversible deformation that occurs with
time. “Rubbery” behavior. Types of or Causes for Fracture Static Loading • Brittle • Ductile • Environmental • Creep* Rupture
Fracture*
[i.e., “break” into pieces]
Cyclic Loading (Fatigue*) • High cycle After N.E. Dowling, Mechanical • Low cycle Behavior of Materials, Engineering • Fatigue crack growth Methods for Deformation, Fracture, • Corrosion fatigue and Fatigue, 3rd Ed., (Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 2007) p. 2. FRACTURE Separation of body or object into pieces.
1. Ductile materials can sustain lots of plastic deformation
prior to fracture.
2. Brittle materials fracture with little or no plastic
deformation are called “brittle.” Failure • Anything that might cause a component to lose its structural tolerances, thus prevent it from serving its intended purpose.
• This generally this means:
(i) fracture, (ii) plastic deformation, or (iii) excessive elastic deformation.
• We design and select materials to avoid failure.
The Engineer’s Approach to Mechanical Behavior • Strength of materials approach (1)
– Principles of elasticity and plasticity are used to predict
material response. You learned about these things in statics, dynamics and strength of materials courses.
– This approach is applied with great frequency in design.
Still very useful!
– The advantages of this approach are that relatively few
constants are needed to predict mechanical behavior. The Engineer’s Approach to Mechanical Behavior • Strength of materials approach (2) – Problem: general theories break down when the atomic nature of materials is introduced as a variable.
– Examples: • Creep (a form of high temperature deformation). Microstructure changes with time.
• Stress concentrations at crack tips. Local stress may be higher
than global stress.
• Ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) in steels.
Fundamental changes in the material behavior cause a brittle solid to function like a “plastic” material. The Engineer’s Approach to Mechanical Behavior • Strength of materials approach (3)
– In engineering design, strength of materials is still used.
– To effectively design or properly select a material for a
given application, structure must be taken in to account at some level.
Macrostructure (x1)
Microstructure (x106)
Nanostructure (x109) General Assumptions – The member is in static equilibrium • Fi=0; Mi=0 (external forces = internal resisting forces)
– The body is continuous
• It contains no voids, holes, or spaces. • ALL materials contain flaws on some level. – The body is homogeneous • It has properties that are identical at any point • ALL materials and structures contain local inhomogeneities. – The body is isotropic • Properties don’t vary with direction or orientation. • If properties do vary, then the body is anisotropic. • Crystalline materials are inherently anisotropic. Problems with Assumptions – The member is in static equilibrium • Fi=0; Mi=0 (external forces = internal resisting forces)
– The body is continuous
• It contains no voids, holes, or spaces. ►ALL materials contain flaws (on some level). – The body is homogeneous • It has properties that are identical at any point ►ALL materials and structures contain local inhomogeneities. – The body is isotropic • Properties don’t vary with direction or orientation. • If properties do vary, then the body is anisotropic. ►Crystalline materials are inherently anisotropic. B* Fundamental Types of Mechanical Behavior
