Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research

Vol. 34, September 2009, pp. 287-294

Review Articles

Yarn structure - properties relationship

Arindam Basua
The South India Textile Research Association, Coimbatore 641 014, India
Received 1 May 2008; accepted 4 November 2008

Yarn structure and its relationship with the properties have attracted many researchers and scientists. This has resulted
in a large number of published research works scattered in many places. The importance of this subject has increased due to
the need of yarn with best possible quality at optimum cost. Also, the diversification of textiles in various products, such as
technical textiles, where performance is the main criteria, necessitated better yarn engineering. An attempt has been made to
analyse the study reported in this subject area.

Keywords: Core yarn, Elongation-at-break, Mean fibre extent, Migration parameters, Packing fraction, Sheath yarn, Single
yarn tenacity, Wrapper fibre, Yarn evenness, Yarn imperfections

1 Introduction dimensionally and recommended that the

Yarn can be defined as a product of substantial improvement is needed to refine the analysis
length and relatively small cross-section consisting of procedure so it could be done automatically. Huh et
fibres and/or filaments with or without twist1. It forms al.5 carried out the three dimensional analysis of
an important immediate stage in many methods of migration and staple yarn structure.
textile production. Despite the growing use of several It is observed that any single parameter cannot
forms of nonwoven fabrics (directly assembled characterize the migration pattern in view of its
fibres), fabrics composed of interlaced yarns will statistical nature. Ishtiaque et al.6,7 adopted the
remain of predominant importance for many years. approach of cutting cross-sections of yarns and
Amongst the yarns, the continuous filament yarns are attempting to characterize the radial positioning of
the simplest in structure, but they are now being fibres in the yarn. They used the technique of soft
subjected to many modifying processes designed for cross-section for cutting the yarn samples. They used
bulkiness, texture, extensibility and other properties. a coating of polyvinyl acetate before cutting the yarn
Spun yarns made of staple fibres have the additional section by microtome. After drying, the samples were
complexity of the discontinuities at the fibre ends and embedded in a mixture of molten wax and paraffin by
difference in structures due to difference in spinning pouring the mixture to a receptacle, in the middle of
technologies. The interest in the studies of yarn which yarn was positioned. The thickness of the
structure and its influence on properties is continuing cross-section was maintained at 25 µm and xylene
from 1950s. In this paper, the work carried out on was used as immersion liquid while viewing under
structure and properties of staple fibre yarns during microscope. Jiang et al.8 also made yarn cross-
the last 15-20 years has been reported. sections to analyse the radial packing density. They
utilized personal computers to capture and store the
2 Structural Analysis of Yarn image from microscope. Fu et al.9 used hi-scope video
The tracer fibre technique introduced by Morton microscope to analyse the longitudinal and cross-
and Yen2 is being used till date as a reliable method to sectional fibre arrangement in a yarn. An attempt has
study the path of the fibre in the yarn. Alagha and been made by them to simulate three dimensional
Oxenham3, 4 adopted an image processing method for view based on those observations.
analyzing the structure of friction-spun yarn, which Some researchers studied the yarn structure by
provided several benefits over the traditional analysing the surface appearance and structure10-13.
microscopic method. They obtained the data two- Cybulska10 and Basu11 used image analysis for this
___________________ purpose. A microscopic image of a yarn was
a
E-mail: [email protected] registered by camera, sent to computer, and then
288 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2009

processed and analysed by the software. Soe et al.14 either drafting or twisting. As a result, the fibre
used a digital camera to investigate the visual distribution as well as surface structure became
assessment of the yarn surface structure. different as compared to ring-spun yarns. Though
It can be seen that the methods used by various many new technologies appeared during that time,
researchers broadly followed two approaches. One only four or five systems could become commercially
group tried to study the fibre configuration inside the successful. The technologies, such as rotor spinning,
yarn using migration and cross-section of the yarn air-jet spinning, friction spinning, air-vortex, compact
while the other group studied the surface structures. spinning, wrap spinning, have become popular within
Both groups tried to correlate the structural those newly introduced systems.
parameters with yarn properties. For yarns produced
by ring spinning method, the former method was 2.2.1 Rotor-spun Yarns
followed in most of the cases, whereas for yarns spun Many authors have classified yarn structure based
using unconventional method the surface structure on its surface morphology. Lawrence and Finikopulos19
method was used predominantly. classified rotor-spun yarn structures into seven classes
based on scanning electron micrographs. Class I may
2.1 Structural Features of Ring-spun Yarns be termed as ordered structure, because few, if any,
The yarn, spun by ring spinning method, is being outer zone fibres are present and the fibres are
used for longer period as compared to the yarns, spun uniformly twisted. In Class II, the loosely wrapped
by unconventional methods; its migration behaviour fibres are superimposed on the uniform structure of
is well researched and documented. Ishtiaque15 yarn core. Their wrapping angles differ from the twist
reported that the fibre packing density across the yarn angle of the core fibres and vary along the yarn length.
cross-section is not uniform and that it is not highest In Class III, the outer zone fibres are loosely attached
at yarn core. Najar et al.16 used wool and acrylic to the yarn and appear entangled. They give a hairy
fibres to produce the yarns. They found that the appearance to the surface structure. Class IV may be
migration index for the acrylic component is positive termed as multiple wrapped, because parts of the
for all three yarns used by them. It is deduced that the wrapping fibres are lightly coiled around the core,
acrylic fibre is preferably positioned in the outer layer whereas their remainders adopt lower wrapping angles.
and wool fibre migrates towards the inner layer of the In Class V, the outer zone fibres have an opposing
blended yarns. The lower tensile modulus and higher helix to the twist helix of the core fibres, and their wrap
denier of acrylic fibre may be responsible for its angle can be up to 75°. In the case of Class VI, the
outward migration. surface fibre appears tightly and closely wrapped
Anandjiwala et al.17 compared the ring yarns made around the core. These sections of yarn look uniform
from intimate (blow room) blended and draw frame and have no protruding fibre ends or loops. The angle
blended cottons and found that the compactness of of warp is approximately 90°. In Class VII, one or two
upland (shorter and weaker) fibres is slightly higher fibres are observed tightly wrapped around the core at
than that of Pima (longer and stronger) fibres in the an angle of 90°, forming a belt shape owing to the
core of the yarn. They observed that the net locally concentrated winding. Several authors have
distribution of fibre packing follows a trend. The studied the mechanism of wrapper formation19-21. It is
maximum number of fibres in the centre decreases reported that the number of wrapper fibre increases
gradually to reach the minimum number of fibres at with increased rotor speed, reduced rotor diameter,
the outside periphery. This finding is similar to the reduced rotor grove angle, increased yarn count and
findings of Goswami et al.18. Anandjiwala et al.17 fibre fineness. The rotor speed in relation to opening
observed that the preferential distribution of two roller speed influences the fibre configuration in the
fibres varies with the blending method but the net yarn21.
distribution of fibres remains similar. Ishtiaque et al.22,23 used the term spinning-in
coefficient to express the mean fibre extent. Spinning
2.2 Structural Parameters of Unconventional Spun Yarns fibre coefficient (KF) has been defined as shown below:
The introduction of new spinning technologies n
during 1970s opened up a new area in yarn structural ∑L /n i
L0
parameters. The unconventional spinning KF = i =1
=
technologies used different kinds of techniques for L L
 BASU: YARN STRUCTURE – PROPERTIES RELATIONSHIP 289

where Li is the individual fibre extent; Lo, the leading and both sides hooks. Viscose fibre has more
arithmetic mean of individual length projection along hooking tendency as well as more hook extent than
the axis of the yarn; n, the number of observations; polyester fibre.
and L, the mean fibre length. Ishtiaque and Khare6 observed that fibre packing
It was observed by them23 that for yarn samples density for ring, rotor and air-jet blended yarns is not
made of viscose fibres of 1.5 denier and 44 mm uniform across the yarn cross-section. Of all the three
length, the spinning-in coefficient for rotor yarn is yarns, rotor yarns show maximum packing density
0.46 against a value of 0.69 for ring yarn. Kumar et followed by ring-spun and air-jet spun yarns in the
al.24 also studied the effect of spinning process first zone (of five equal width zones) from the core.
variables on the packing density of rotor, ring and air- On the other side, air-jet spun yarn shows least
jet spun yarns. packing density followed by rotor- and ring-spun
yarns in the outermost zone of the yarn cross-section.
2.2.2 Air-jet Spun Yarns
In air-jet spun yarn, fibres are mostly packed in the
In air-jet spinning, the yarn formation principle is
first three zones, last two zones showing least packing
different from ring and rotor spinning and accordingly
density in comparison with the other two. However,
it produces yarn with unique structure. Lawrence and
the total packing coefficient, calculated as the ratio of
Baqui13 reported that air-jet spun yarn consisted of an
the total area of fibres in the cross-section to the yarn
untwisted core of fibres and a surface layer of fibres
cross-section, is maximum for air-jet spun yarn
wrapped around the greater part of the core. They
followed by ring and rotor yarns.
classified the yarn into three types w.r.t. its structure.
Punj et al.33 found that in air-jet spun yarn, a
How et al.25 observed that air-jet yarns are different
maximum density occurs towards the yarn centre and
from other yarns. Two parts, bundle fibres and outside
it gradually decreases from core to surface. The latest
wrapping fibres constitute the yarn. In the bundle
development in air-jet spinning technology is vortex
fibres, a majority of the fibres are inclined at an angle
spinning, in which yarn formation principle is
of 5° – 10° in ‘S’ and ‘Z’ directions; sometimes the different from conventional air-jet spinning34, 35. It is
fibres are parallel to each other or crossed together. claimed that MVS yarn has a similar structure to ring-
The outside wrapping fibres are gripped on the bundle spun yarn. It consists of core of parallel fibres covered
fibres in different styles, such as a ‘corkscrew like’ by the free fibres twisted over it35. Basal and
wrapping, irregular wrapping, linked wrapping, even Oxenham36, 37 observed that vortex yarn has more ring
wrapping featuring the edge free and fibres wrapped yarn like appearance as compared to air-jet spun yarn.
evenly on the bundles, loose wrapping and non According to them, in air-jet spinning only the edge
wrapped portions. Similarly, Basu12 and Oxenham26 fibres become wrapper fibres. In vortex spinning, on
classified the yarn structure into four classes. Basu the other hand, the fibre separation from the bundle
and Oxenham27 observed that the average length of occurs everywhere in the outer periphery of the
wrapped structure is different for yarns made with bundle, resulting in yarn with much higher number of
different fibres, mainly due to fibre length and other wrapper fibres as compared to air-jet spun yarns.
fibre properties. Bhortakke et al.28, 29 also studied the Artzt38 opined that the amount of wrapping fibres,
structure of polyester/cotton air-jet spun yarns. In which is somewhat below 10% in classical air-jet
another study, Oxenham and Basu30 studied the spinning, has been increased considerably in air-
influence of nozzle designs on the structural vortex yarn. Tyagi et al.39 reported that the vortex
parameters of air-jet spun yarn. The yarn properties yarn consists of about 50-60% of core fibres and rest
can be optimized by changing the nozzle design is wrapper or wild fibres.
parameters. Chasmawala et al.31 reported that the
prominent feature of air-jet spun yarn is the 2.3 Structural Characteristics of Friction-spun Yarns
predominance of leading hooks. These hooks could In friction spinning technology, generally two
have originated in the carding process or could be due methods are followed, namely open-end and core-
to either air currents or the frictional resistance sheath.
encountered by the fibres at the point of entry into the Lawrence et al.40 observed 50% fibre extent in the
nozzles. In contrast, Punj et al.32 observed that while yarn spun on a prototype friction spinning machine as
using polyester-viscose blended yarn for analysis, against 90-95% in corresponding ring-spun yarn and
there is a majority of trailing hooks as compared to 70-80% in rotor-spun yarns. Ibrahim41 also reported
290 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2009

very poor fibre orientation and low fibre length not uniformly distributed along the length of the
utilization in polyester open-end friction-spun yarn. fibres. The twist per unit length in leading end is less
According to Rust and Lord42, in the case of than that in the trailing end of the fibre. Variation in
friction-spun yarns the mechanism that causes twist can be due to the sliver positioning in the
migration in ring yarns cannot be present since the feeding zone of the sheath fibres.
fibres are applied more or less one at a time without
the cyclic differentials in tension. The principal 2.4 Structure of Compact-spun Yarns
tension in friction spinning might occur only after the Compact spinning, which is a modified version of
yarn structure is already formed, and the tensions ring spinning, has drawn attraction of various
acting on the fibre during assembly are likely to be researchers. In compact spinning, the fibre stream
very low. With the aid of the data of relative radial coming out of the drafting unit is condensed by means
positions of fibres along the axial positions, they42 of pneumatic or any other mechanical compaction. As
observed that the fibres in the friction spinning a result of this compaction, the structure of yarn
process move inwards radially towards the apex of the changes along with its various characteristics. Due to
cone as they are assembled into the yarn. the condensation of fibre flow, all the fibres lay close
Ghosh et al.23 observed that the OE friction-spun to each other and due to the absence of spinning
yarn exhibits a layer type of structure because the triangle, all fibres are twisted to the yarn body50. The
fibres are fed to the yarn tail at a different position packing fraction calculated from the yarn diameter is
along its length without tension. As a result, some higher for compact yarn as compared to that for ring
fibres appear at the yarn surface and others close to yarn50-52.
the yarn centre. The average helix angle of fibres in According to Basal and Oxenham53, the statistical
this yarn is substantially higher than that of fibres in model shows that for both compact and conventional
ring, rotor and air-jet yarns. ring-spun yarns neither the twist nor the spinning
Similarly, Alagha and Oxenham4 reported that the system have any significant effects on the mean fibre
amplitude of migration is found to be highest for position. However, the compact yarn has slightly
friction-spun yarns followed by rotor-spun and ring- smaller mean fibre position value. The mean fibre
spun yarns. position was in the range of 0 – 5 for both types of
In contrast, Lawrence et al.40 found no evidence of yarns, indicating that the density is greater near the
fibre migration from the macroscopically observations centre of the yarns. The compact spinning system
of successive cross-sections taken along the length of produces yarn with higher mean migration index. The
the yarn. They reported that the fibre paths progress root mean square deviation, the amplitude of
from yarn surface inwards towards the yarn core. migration, is also higher for compact yarn, which
There was no crossing or intermingling of fibres to indicates that the fibre migration in compact-spun
give a well-locked yarn structure. yarn is deeper across the yarn cross-section in
In the case of second type of friction-spun yarn, comparison with that in conventional ring-spun yarn.
there are distinct sheath and core components. The In contrast, Ganesan et al.54, 55 observed that for
core consists of a filament or a bundle of staple fibres, both pneumatic compacting and mechanical
which is false twisted43. The sheath fibres are compacting systems, the compact-spun yarn has less
wrapped helically over the core. Therefore, the mean fibre position, root mean square deviation and
structures of both core and sheath play important role. mean migration intensity, as compared to
Some researchers reported that the core exhibits conventional ring-spun yarn.
twist44-47. Merati et al.45 analyzed false twist Besides compaction during ring spinning some
distribution in the filament core of a friction-spun researchers attempted to make the yarn compact and
yarn. to reduce air hairiness by using various attachments
Tyagi et al.48 found that the packing density in on conventional machines. Wang et al.56 and Cheng
inner three zones (out of five concentric zones of and Li57 used air-jet nozzle after front roller of the
equal radial distance) was found to be considerably ring frame. They observed that the yarns produced by
higher and gradually decreased towards the outer this system are much leaner with fewer long hairs on
surface. Ishtiaque and Agarwal49 observed that twist the surface due to wrapping of surface fibres by the
distribution in a sheath is non-linear, i.e. the twist is swirling air currents in the air-jet.
 BASU: YARN STRUCTURE – PROPERTIES RELATIONSHIP 291

2.5 Yarns Produced by Other Systems the yarns, spun by their system, resembles with rotor,
The wrap spinning works on the principle of open-end friction or vortex-spun yarns. The open-end
wrapping filament on a staple core yarn. With the jet spun yarn has a true false twist structure and its
increase in wraps per unit yarn length, the yarn appearance is closer to that of rotor-spun yarn,
becomes more compact, i.e. the fibres in the yarn particularly with respect to wrappers68. The
pack more closely58, 59. Waviness on the yarn profile arrangement and orientation of fibres in the yarn are
is developed during wrapping of filament around core inferior to that of rotor-spun yarn but superior to that
fibre bundle due to high dynamic radial pressure of friction-spun yarn.
exerted by the wrapping element during the spinning Miao and Lui69 conducted microscopic
process60. Su et al.61 examined the structure of elastic examination of self-twist (repco) yarn and found that
core-spun yarn. According to the position of spandex the wrap fibres with traces of entanglement occurred
in the yarn, they classified the structure into four in both self-twisted and zero-twisted parts.
categories. Su and Leu62 produced composite yarns
spun from multifilament and staple fibres. Based on 3 Structure-properties Relationship
the study of cross-sectional structures they classified Beside the fibre properties, yarn structure is the
the structure into five representative classes. They most important factor which influences the properties.
observed that the size of the traveller influences yarn If the relationship is understood, the yarn structure
spinning tension, causing different fibre migrations can be modified for changing the yarn properties.
inside the yarn structure and directly influencing the Anandjwala et al.17 observed that the intimated
cross-sectional structure of composite yarns. blended (two cottons) ring yarns show better tensile
Ishtiaque et al.7 studied the structural features of strength than draw frame blended yarns, even though
siro-spun yarn and observed that the fibre packing the high strength constituent fibres are positioned in
density is not uniform across the yarn cross-section the core of the yarn. This is because non-uniform
and it is not maximum at the core. The maximum fibre distribution resulting from blending of different
packing density occurs at 1/3rd of the yarn radius from fibres affects the migratory behaviour of fibres. The
the yarn axis. Siro yarns are more compact near the tensile failure of such yarns is governed by the mode
yarn axis as compared to ring- spun yarns. The total of fibre breakage and fibre slippage as determined by
packing density of normal ring yarn is less than that the yarn structure, fibre distribution and migration.
of siro yarn. The cross-sections of siro yarns show a Choi and Kim70 used the ‘surface length
close resemblance to that of single ring-spun yarn distribution’ of fibres, i.e. the segment of fibre length
compared to conventional double yarn. Study by which appears on the surface of the yarn to study its
Johari63 revealed that the fibre extent of siro-spun influence on the abrasion resistance of the yarn. They
yarn improves with increased strand spacing. The observed that the yarn abrasion resistance is inversely
diameter of yarn also reduces with the increased proportional to the average surface length with a
strand spacing. coefficient of determination (R2) value of 0.948.
Lawrence et al.40 reported that rotor-spun yarns are
Lawrence and Chiu64 studied the structural features
weaker than ring-spun yarns due to their structural
of woolen yarns, spun by disc ring spinning system
difference. The tenacity value of cotton air-jet spun
developed by them. They observed that as per fibre
yarn is 55-60% of that of similar ring-spun yarn and
configurations, the yarn structure could be grouped
this value is 80-85% for polyester and
into seven classes.
polyester/cotton blended yarns71. Sreenivasamurthy et
Zhang and Li65 and Sawhney and Kimmel66 studied al.72 showed that single yarn tenacity of air-jet spun
a spinning method, which is a combination of friction yarn is lower as compared to that of ring yarns but the
and air-jet spinning. According to them the structure elongation-at-break values are similar to ring yarns. It
of friction-air-jet compound spun yarn resembles with is reported73-75 that in the case of polyester, viscose,
the structure of Dref 3 friction-spun yarn except that it acrylic or their blends with cottons, the difference in
has a core, which is fully parallel to yarn axis and tenacity values is less.
twistless as compared to the one in Dref 3 yarn, which Ghosh et al.23 conducted a detailed study on the
exhibits both straight and twisted portions. structure of ring, rotor, friction and air-jet spun yarns
Chongwen67 and Topf68 reported a new spinning and its influence on their tensile properties. They
concept, namely open-end spinning. The structure of observed that the OE friction-spun yarn is bulkier and
292 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2009

fibres in this yarn are most loosely packed, followed 100% viscose yarn was produced due to higher
by rotor, ring and air-jet spun yarns. The interlocking unwrapped proportion in the yarn.
of fibres due to their better migration in ring-spun The wrap-spun yarn contains parallel fibre core
yarn in comparison with others enhances the gripping wrapped with filament or yarn. The wrapping element
of fibre bundle; hence the ring yarn is strongest at exerts a radial tension on the parallel fibre core,
longer gauge lengths. When the gauge length is well thereby providing the necessary frictional force
below the fibre staple length, air-jet spun yarn between the individual fibres in the core60. During
displays the shortest failure zone length and its tensile loading along the yarn axis, structural
strength is even higher than ring-spun yarn. The open- deformation takes place before ultimate failure. The
end friction- spun yarn is the weakest as compared to breakage of wrap-spun yarn may be catastrophic or
others due to its poor fibre orientation. Realff et al.76 stick-slip type depending on the physical properties of
and Cybulska et al.77 reported similar findings. Soe et the wrapping element, wrap density, etc.82 The
al.14 observed that the difference in measured yarn breaking strength of wrap-spun yarn increases with
properties of ring, open-end rotor and vortex-spun the increase in wrap density up to a certain level and
yarns could be explained by the difference in yarn then decreases. Breaking elongation follows similar
structure. trend.
The observations on the unevenness and Park and Oh83 observed that the yarn bending
imperfections of the yarns reported by various rigidity depends on the bending and torsional rigidity
researchers71,72,78 show a general trend. According to of its constituent fibres, the arrangement due to twist
them air-jet spun yarn shows lowest unevenness, and the geometrical parameters such as the helix
followed by friction, wrap, rotor-spun and ring-spun angle. They have derived the bending rigidity of yarn
yarns. That is, friction-spun yarn has higher value in theory from the tensile modulus and inertia
than air-jet spun yarn, wrap-spun yarn has higher moment of the constituent fibres.
value than friction-spun yarn and so on.
4 Conclusions
It is well known by now that different yarn The yarn structure changes with the yarn
production systems produce yarns of different production technology, process parameters and fibre
structures. Within a system also yarn structure can be parameters. Within a system of yarn preparation
modified by varying process parameters, which, in various authors have reported contradictory views.
turn, changes the yarn properties. Basu11 has reported The ring yarn being in the system for so many years,
that the structural parameters, such as incidence of many researchers considered the structure and
wrappers per unit length of yarn, average length of properties of ring-spun yarn as standard. As a result
wrapped zone and the average number of wraps per they represented the structure and properties of
unit length of wrapped zone influence the yarn unconventional yarns in relative to that of ring-spun
properties. They are highly correlated with yarn yarn. For example, the yarn produced by rotor
tensile properties. spinning is weaker than the ring yarn. This may be
Chasmawala31 derived equations for air-jet spun due to too much simplification as the usages of textile
yarns in which the yarn structure has been related to material are no longer restricted to conventional
yarn properties. Basu79 observed that the physical clothing material. According to end uses, the yarns
properties of air-jet yarns are correlated with produced by one of the unconventional methods may
structural parameters. Rajamanickam et al.80 be more suitable as compared to conventional ring-
formulated a computer simulation model for the spun yarn. The knowledge of the structure-properties
prediction of yarn strength from the various relationship helps us in choosing ideal spinning
parameters, including the number of wrapper fibres, system and parameters.
the wrapping angle and the length of structural
classes. The type of wrappers also determines the References
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