Lecture Notes On Structural Theory (CE 131) Desired Learning Outcome

Davao Oriental State College of Science and Technology
Institute of Computing and Engineering
Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5

Desired Learning Outcome
By the end of week 5, the students shall be able to:

1. Determine external reaction forces and moments and internal stresses in statically determinate
structures.
2. Sketch influence lines for external and internal forces/stresses due to moving loads.
1. Introduction
In this lecture, we will be dealing with the analysis of external reactions and internal stress resultants of
statically determinate structures. You are already done with beams and simple frames in your previous
exercises, so this lecture will focus on plane and space trusses, cables, and arches.
2. Trusses
A truss is formed by connecting at least three straight members (or bars) at their ends by frictionless
(pins/hinges) connections. Recall in your previous lecture notes that a truss structure does not develop
bending moments and shears forces because truss loads are ideally applied at joints (frame analysis should
be carried out on a structure with loads applied member spans). As such, a truss member is a two-force
member supporting either a compressive or a tensile load. A truss can be planar or spatial, depending on
the geometry of construction. A truss is planar (or plane truss) if all the members and loads lie on a single
plane. On the other hand, a truss is spatial (or space truss) if the members and loads form a three-
dimensional geometry.
2.1 Plane Trusses
Basic Plane Truss

The construction of a basic plane truss that is internally stable starts by connecting the ends of three
members (Fig 1a). If we start with less than three members, what we will get is an internally unstable
configuration. Starting with four members will also result in an internally unstable (collapsible) structure
or a mechanism with members acting as displacement links (Fig. 1b). So, the number 3 is the perfect
number to construct a just stable truss. Specifically, a basic truss has 3 members connected by 3 joints to
form a rigid triangular structure.
Simple Truss
A basic truss can be extended or enlarged by repeatedly adding 2 members and 1 joint (Fig. 2). A truss
constructed in this manner is called a simple truss. A simple truss consists triangular geometries that are
bounded by 3 joints and 3 members. From the construction procedure, it is easy to see (by plotting the
numbers of members and joints each truss enlargement step or solving the number series) that the numbers
of members m and joints j of a simple truss are correlated by the following equation:
𝑚 = 3 + 2(𝑗 − 3) = 2𝑗 − 3 (1)
members joints
Fig. 1 Pin connected configurations
E. B. BARBAS ║ CE 131 Lecture Notes ║ Nov 2020║ PAGE 1 OF 30

Fig. 2 Simple truss
Compound Truss
A compound truss is formed by connecting two or more simple trusses. The connections can be done
by attaching the joints of the simple trusses to a common joint plus an added extra truss member
(Fig. 3a) or by adding at least three members to rigidly join the simple trusses (Fig. 3b).
(a) (b)
Fig. 3 Compound truss
Complex Truss
A complex truss is one that cannot be classified as being simple or compound truss (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 Complex truss
Internal Stability
Equation (1) presents the minimum number of members m required for internal stability of a truss having a
total number of j joints. Based on this member-joint compatibility condition, we may state that if
𝑚 < 2𝑗 − 3 the truss is internally unstable

𝑚 > 2𝑗 − 3 the truss is internally stable (2)
It is important to note, however, that equation (2) is not the sole criterion for ensuring the internal stability
of a truss. Even if a sufficient number of joints and members (as required by eqn. 2) is supplied, a truss
may still be unstable internally if the members are not properly arranged. A good example is shown in Fig.


5. The truss shown satisfies the member requirement given in eqn. 2. However, the member configuration
of a portion bounded by joints B, E, D, and G defines a collapse mechanism (see Fig. 1b). In this case, the
rigid portions ABCD and EFGH will independently move (or deform) because they are linked by parallel
members BE and DG. These horizontal parallel links do not develop resistance to vertical forces (because
truss members only support axial forces either tensile or compressive). As a rule, any portion of a truss
must be connected to the rest of the truss structure on at least 2 joints by at least 3 nonparallel and
nonconcurrent members.
Fig. 5 Internal instability due to improper member arrangement
Determinacy
The joints of a truss are dimensionless. So, the members forces acting at a particular joint are concurrent at
the joint. This condition automatically satisfies the moment equilibrium of each joint. To ensure
translational equilibrium, the net force acting on each joint must be zero in all directions. That is, ∑ 𝐹𝐻 =
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0. This gives us 2 equilibrium equations every joint. Thus, a truss having j number of joints has a
total of 2j equations available for solving the unknown reaction r and member forces m. By simple
comparison between the unknowns and equations, we can evaluate the static determinacy of a truss as
follows:
𝑚 + 𝑟 < 2𝑗 the truss is unstable

𝑚 + 𝑟 = 2𝑗 the truss is statically determinate (3)
𝑚 + 𝑟 > 2𝑗 the truss is statically indeterminate
The second and third statements in eqn. (3) must be complemented with visual inspection of member
arrangements because, like in eqn. (2), these conditions only evaluate the static determinacy based on the
given number of parts (m, r and j) and are insufficient to tell the internal stability of a truss. In other words,
you need to inspect first for any unstable arrangements before proceeding to determinacy evaluation. If a
truss possesses any instability, there is no point in telling whether it is determinate or not (we just say it is
unstable period). The degree of static indeterminacy i is simply the difference between the unknows and
the available equations, or
𝑖 = (𝑚 + 𝑟) − 2𝑗 (4)
Classical Methods for Determining Member Forces and Reactions

There are two classical methods available for determining the member forces and reactions of statically
determinate trusses. These are the method of joints and method of sections. The details on these methods
are elaborated on the application part.

Method of Joints
In this method, we isolate and draw the free-body diagram of a joint where the member forces and/or
reactions of particular concern act. Again, since the forces are concurrent at the joint, the moment
equilibrium is automatically satisfied (there is no moment arm anyway) so we only satisfy the translational
equilibrium in the horizontal and vertical directions (∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 and ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0). Hence, this method can
only be effective if there are no more than 2 unknown forces act on the joint.
Method of Sections
The method of sections is a direct method for computing the desired member forces. It involves passing
through an imaginary section to cut the truss into two parts. The three equilibrium equations (∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 ,
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 , and ∑ 𝑀𝑜 = 0) are then applied to either one of the parts to determine the desired member
forces. Since there are only three equations for solution, the “sectioning” of the truss must only involve
cutting of at most members. But, there is an exception (of course) depending on how the members are
arranged; we can cut more than three members so long as there exists a point of concurrency among the
“sectioned” members.
Examples:
Ex. 1-2. Classify each of the plane trusses shown as unstable, statically determinate, or statically
indeterminate. If the truss is statically indeterminate, then determine the degree of static indeterminacy.
Solution:
We count for the number of joints and members per eqns. (3) and (4) and do visual inspection for
instability.
a) m=22; r=3; j=13; m+r=25; 2j=26; m+r<2j; The truss unstable. When loaded, this truss will
collapse by rotation at the center pin connection. To stabilize this internally unstable truss, all supports
must at least be restrained from translating (like in part b).
b) m=22; r=4; j=13; m+r=26; 2j=26; m+r=2j; The truss is statically determinate
c) m=23; r=3; j=13; m+r=26; 2j=23; m+r=2j; The truss is statically determinate
d) m=16; r=3; j=9; m+r=19; 2j=18; m+r>2j; i=1
The truss is statically indeterminate to the first degree.


Ex. 2.
a) m=14; r=3; j=8; m+r =17; 2j=16; m+r > 2j; BUT the arrangement of the center portion
creates a deformable mechanism. So, the structure is unstable.
b) m=9; r=3; j=6; m+r =12; 2j=12; m+r = 2j; The truss is statically determinate
c) m=15; r=3; j=10; m+r =18; 2j=20; m+r < 2j; The truss is unstable
Ex. 3. Determine the forces in the members identified by ‘‘x’’ of the truss shown and state if the members
are in tension or compression.
Solution:
a) Solution by method of joints. By inspection, the truss is stable and statically determinate. The members
forces required are the forces in members CD, DI, and IN. To solve these forces, we need to isolate the
joints of the involved members (e.i., to solve F cd we can isolate either joint C or D; for Fcd, we isolate either
joint I or join D, and so on). Remember that the method of joints will only work for a joint involving at
most two unknown forces. So, we cannot directly solve for the required forces as the joints (I, N, C, or D)
of the members connect more than two members of unknown bar forces. In this case, starting at joint G
and moving towards the joints of members marked “x” appears promising (and we can do that actually).


However, it’s a long route. I suggest we start at joint A, then move towards the joints C and I. Joint A has
four unknowns; two reactions + two member forces. Hence, we need to solve first for the reaction forces
by considering the equilibrium of the entire truss.
o Reactions at A
∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0 (𝐶𝑊 +)
𝐴𝑣(90) + 20(90) = 0
𝑨𝒗 = −𝟐𝟎𝒌
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (to the right +)
𝑨𝒉 = 𝟎
Ah
Dv
Av
o At joint A
We do not know yet the correct senses (tension or compression) of the member forces. For solution,
the directions of these forces must be specified (otherwise we won’t be able to perform the vectorial
summation). We can assume any directions provided that we maintain the consistency of that
assumption. In this case, we assume the member forces to be in tension (arrows are away from the
joint). Then, we resolve the bar forces in inclined members in terms of their horizontal and vertical
components.
FALV
FAL ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +)
𝐹𝐴𝐿𝑉 + (−20) = 0 ; 𝐹𝐴𝐿 (sin 45) = 20

𝜃 = 45° FALH
𝑭𝑨𝑳 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟖 𝒌 (𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏); [The sign of the numeric value is positive.
FAB Thus, the assumption that this force is in
tension is correct]
-20k ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +)
𝐹𝐴𝐿𝐻 + 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = −𝐹𝐴𝐿 (cos 45) ; 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = −28.28(cos 45)

𝐹𝐴𝐵 = −20 𝑘 ; [The sign of the numeric value is negative.
Thus, the assumption that this force is in
𝑭𝑨𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑. )
tension is wrong]
If in case an incorrect assumption is made regarding the direction of a bar force (like in F AB), we can
either do a correction by changing the direction of the bar force and take its positive value (this will


force you to make erasures on your paper), or continue using the direction assumption but take the
negative sign of the force. The latter is preferred as this option does not require any changes (no
erasures) in the sketched FBD of joint.
o At joint B
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +)
FBH
𝐹𝐵𝐻 = 40𝑘 (𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
FAB = FBA
FBA =-20k FBC ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +)
𝐹𝐵𝐶 = −20𝑘 ; (we assumed tension, but the result is negtaive)

𝑭𝑩𝑪 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑. )
o At joint L
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +)
FLAH −𝐹𝐿𝐴𝑉 − 𝐹𝐿𝐻 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐿𝐻 = −28.28 cos 45

FLM 𝐹𝐿𝐻 = −20 𝑘 ; 𝑭𝑳𝑯 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏)
FAL=FLA 𝜃 = 45°
FLA=28.28k ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +)
FLAV FLH
𝐹𝐿𝑀 = 𝐹𝐿𝐴𝐻 ; 𝐹𝐿𝑀 = 28.28 sin 45
𝑭𝑳𝑴 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌 (𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏)
o At joint H
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +)
FHL= FLH=-20k FHMV 𝐹𝐻𝑀𝐻 + 𝐹𝐻𝐶𝐻 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐻𝑀 sin 𝜃 + 𝐹𝐻𝐶 sin 𝜃 = 0

FHM
𝜃 = 63.43° 𝜃 FHMH 𝐹𝐻𝑀 = −𝐹𝐻𝐶 (1)
FHCH ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +)
𝜃
FHC
FHB=FBH=40k FHCV 𝐹𝐻𝐿 + 𝐹𝐻𝑀𝑉 − 𝐹𝐻𝐶𝑉 − 𝐹𝐻𝐵 = 0
−20 + 𝐹𝐻𝑀 cos 63.43 − 𝐹𝐻𝐶 cos 63.43 − 40 = 0 (2)
Plug in eq’n. (1) to eq’n. (2)
−20−𝐹𝐻𝐶 cos 63.43 − 𝐹𝐻𝐶 cos 63.43 − 40 = 0
𝐹𝐻𝐶 = −67.07 𝑘
𝑭𝑯𝑪 = 𝟔𝟕. 𝟎𝟕 𝒌 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏)
From eq’n. (1)

𝐹𝐻𝑀 = −(−67.07); 𝑭𝑯𝑴 = 𝟔𝟕. 𝟎𝟕 𝒌 (𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏)

o At joint M
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +)
𝜃 = 63.43°
−𝐹𝑀𝐼 − 𝐹𝑀𝐻𝑉 = 0 ; 𝐹𝑀𝐼 = −67.07𝑐𝑜𝑠63.43
FML=FLM=20 k FMN
𝐹𝑀𝐼 = −30 𝑘 ; 𝑭𝑴𝑰 = 𝟑𝟎 𝒌 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏)
FMHH
𝜃
FMH=FHM
FMHV FMI
=67.07 k
o At joint C
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +)
𝜃 = 63.43°
−𝐹𝐶𝐵 − 𝐹𝐶𝐻𝐻 + 𝐹𝐶𝐷 = 0 ; 20 + 67.07 sin 63.43 + 𝐹𝐶𝐷 = 0
FCH=FHC FCHV FCI
=-67.07 𝐹𝐶𝐷 = −80 𝑘 ; 𝑭𝑪𝑫 = 𝟖𝟎 𝒌 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑. ) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
k 𝜃
FCHH FCD ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +)
FCB=FBC=-20k
𝐹𝐶𝐼 + 𝐹𝐶𝐻𝑉 − 40 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐶𝐼 − 67.07 cos 63.43 − 40 = 0
𝐹𝐶𝐼 = 70 𝑘 (𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
o At joint I
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +)
FIM FINV
FIN 𝐹𝐼𝑁𝐻 + 𝐹𝐼𝐷𝐻 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐼𝑁 sin 𝜃 + 𝐹𝐼𝐷 sin 𝜃 = 0
𝜃 FINH 𝐹𝐼𝑁 = −𝐹𝐼𝐷 (3)
𝜃
FIDH
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +)
FIC FIDV FID
𝐹𝐼𝑀 + 𝐹𝐼𝑁𝑉 − 𝐹𝐼𝐶 − 𝐹𝐼𝐷𝑉 = 0
−30 + 𝐹𝐼𝑁 cos 63.43 − 70 − 𝐹𝐼𝐷 cos 63.43 = 0 (4)
𝜃 = 63.43°
FIM=FMI=-30k
FFIC=F CI=70 k
=F =-8.95k
IM MI −30 − 𝐹𝐼𝐷 cos 63.43 − 70 − 𝐹𝐼𝐷 cos 63.43 = 0
FIM=FMI=-8.95k
𝐹𝐼𝐷 = −111.78 𝑘 ; 𝑭𝑰𝑫 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 𝒌 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑. ) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
From eq’n. (3)
𝑭𝑰𝑵 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 𝒌 (𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
There you have it! The method of joints may involve a sequential evaluation of joint equilibrium
because truss joints, in most cases, connect more than two members of unknown bar forces.
b) Solution by method of sections. The method of sections provides a very convenient means for solving
bar forces in a truss. However, the identification of a strategic section may sometimes be tricky. The
idea is to pass a section cutting the member/s of desired bar force/s. But, sometimes that identified


section may inevitably cut more than three members (only three equations right?). Cutting more than
three members of unknown bar forces is problematic if there exists no point of concurrency among the
bar forces where we can strategically evaluate the moment equilibrium. For example, if we consider
section a-a’ and isolate either the left portion ABCHILM or the right portion DEFGJKNOP, there will
be four unknown bar forces with no strategic point of concurrency, where the application of moment
equilibrium would directly yield one bar force. So how do we select the section? I suggest we pass
either section b-b’ or c-c’, isolate the left portion (pwede pud right portion pero mas daghan man gud
siyag members and loads, so medyo karaw or hasul especially if you are to draw it on paper), and sum
up moments about an axis passing through joint M.
c b a
c’
b’ a’
o Considering section c-c, left truss portion
M
∑ 𝑀𝑀 = 0 (CW +)
30 ft
−20(60) − 40(30) − 𝐹𝐶𝐷 (30) = 0
FCD
𝐹𝐶𝐷 = −80𝑘 ; 𝑭𝑪𝑫 = 𝟖𝟎𝒌 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑. ) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
-20 k
30 ft 30 ft
Now that we solved FCD, we can take section a-a’ and sum up moments about joint I to solve FMN.
The rest of the member forces are computed by the summation of the vertical and horizontal forces.
o Considering section a-a, left truss portion
∑ 𝑀𝐼 = 0 (CW +)
−20(60) − 40(30) + 80(15) + 𝐹𝑀𝑁 (15) = 0

𝐹𝑀𝑁 = 80𝑘 (𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)

FINV
FMN=80k
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +)
𝜃 FIN
FINH −20 − 40 − 40 − 𝐹𝐼𝐷𝑉 + 𝐹𝐼𝑁𝑉 = 0
FIDH 30 ft
𝜃 −100 − 𝐹𝐼𝐷 cos 63.43 + 𝐹𝐼𝑁 cos 63.43 = 0
FID
FIDV FCD=-80 k 𝐹𝐼𝐷 = −223.57 + 𝐹𝐼𝑁 (5)
-20 k ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +)
30 ft 30 ft
𝐹𝑀𝑁 + 𝐹𝐶𝐷 + 𝐹𝐼𝑁𝐻 + 𝐹𝐼𝐷𝐻 = 0
𝜃 = 63.43° 80 − 80 + 𝐹𝐼𝑁 sin 63.43 + 𝐹𝐼𝐷 sin 63.43 = 0

𝐹𝐼𝑁 = −𝐹𝐼𝐷 (6)

𝐹𝐼𝐷 = −223.57 − 𝐹𝐼𝐷 ; 𝐹𝐼𝐷 = −111.78 𝑘
𝑭𝑰𝑫 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 𝒌 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑. ) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
From eq’n. (6)

𝑭𝑰𝑵 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 𝒌 (𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
It is oftentimes best to solve member forces of truss by employing a combination of method of joints and
method of sections. This approach shortens the tedious process of writing and solving simultaneous
equations involving several unknown bar forces. An example application is given in the next sample
problem below.
Ex. 4. Determine the forces in all the members of the complex truss. State if the members are in tension or
compression.
Solution :
Although statically determinate, the configuration of this complex
truss makes the solution to the member forces quite tricky. It’s not
possible to start with the method of joints because each joint
connects three unknown member forces. Also, if we try to formulate
simultaneous equations from the equilibrium of six joints, we will
end up having identical equations. So, here is one solution; we get
the relation between the internal diagonal member forces F AD and
FCF by considering section a-a’. Another relation (for FAD and FCF)
can be formulated by considering the moment equilibrium of forces
acting on section b-b’(right portion) about the point of intersection
M of FBC and FDE. This solution gives us two simultaneous equations
for solving FAD and FCF.

b
o Reaction Forces (Considering the entire structure)
3.464ft
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 (CW +)
a a’ 600(15.464)
𝐶𝑉 = ; 𝐶𝑉 = 773.2 𝑙𝑏 ↑
O 12
6 ft ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +) ; 𝐴𝑉 = 773.2 𝑙𝑏 ↓
AH
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +) ; 𝐴𝐻 = 600 𝑙𝑏 ←
6 ft
AV CV
b’
o Considering section a-a’, upper portion
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +)
FFCH FDAH
45o 45o
FFC FDC 𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐻 − 𝐹𝐷𝐴𝐻 + 600 = 0
FFA FDA F
FFCV FEB DAV
𝐹𝐹𝐶 sin 45 − 𝐹𝐷𝐴 sin 45 + 600 = 0
FDA=FAD ; FFC=FCF 𝐹𝐹𝐶 = 𝐹𝐷𝐴 − 848.528 = 0 (1)
FDE FDEV
x o Considering section b-b’, right portion
FDEH 30o
FDAH 45o
∑ 𝑀𝑀 = 0 (CW +)
60o y
45o
FDA FDAV M −𝐹𝐷𝐴𝐻 (𝑦) − 𝐹𝐷𝐴𝑉 (𝑥) + 𝐹𝐶𝐹𝑉 (𝑥) + 𝐹𝐶𝐹𝐻 (𝑧) + 773.2(𝑥) = 0
75o
12 ft −𝐹𝐷𝐴 (cos 45) (4.393)−𝐹𝐷𝐴 (cos 45) (7.608)
FCFV
FCF
45o z + 𝐹𝐶𝐹 (cos 45) (7.608)
FCFH 45o
45o + 𝐹𝐶𝐹 (cos 45) (7.608) + 773.2(7.608)
FCBH 45o
=0
FCB
773.2 lb −8.486𝐹𝐷𝐴 + 10.759𝐹𝐶𝐹 + 773.2(7.608) = 0 (2)
FCBV
Plug in eq’n. (1) to (2)
Calculation of moment arms x, y, and z −8.486𝐹𝐷𝐴 + 10.759(𝐹𝐷𝐴 − 848.528) + 773.2(7.608) = 0
From sine Law; 𝑭𝑫𝑨 = 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟖. 𝟕𝟐𝟒 𝒍𝒃 (𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

12 𝐷𝑀 𝐶𝑀 From (1)
= =
sin 75 sin 45 sin 60 𝑭𝑭𝑪 = 𝟓𝟕𝟗. 𝟖𝟗𝟔 𝒍𝒃 (𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
𝐷𝑀 = 8.785′ ; 𝐶𝑀 = 10.759′
𝑥 = 𝐶𝑀 cos 45 = 7.608′ After having FDA and FFC solved, we can use the method of joints
𝑦 = 𝐷𝑀 cos 60 = 4.393′ (starting from either A, C, D, or F) to determine the forces in the
rest of the members.
𝑧 = 12 − 𝑦 = 7.608′


2.2 Space Trusses
A space truss is a type of truss structure that is constructed in a three-dimensional space. Like in plane
trusses, space trusses support a system of loads through their frictionless ball-and-socket joints. A ball-and-
socket joint provides full fixity against translation in any direction but offers no restraint against any
rotation. Thus, the members of a space truss are also two-force members carrying either compressive or
tensile forces.
A simple internally stable space truss is created by connecting six members together with four ball-and-
socket joints. This arrangement forms a tetrahedron (Fig. 6a). This tetrahedron truss is considered to be a
basic space truss element which can be extended to form a simple space truss through repetitive additions
of three members and a single joint (Fig. 6b &6c).
Fig. 6 Simple space truss
Static Determinacy and Stability

For a space truss to be externally stable, its supports must be able to counter the translation and rotation
effects of a system of three-dimensional forces. At least six reactions are needed to ensure that no net force
and no net torque develop on the truss (we call this equilibrium conditions):
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0
(5)
∑ 𝑀𝑥 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑦 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 0
So, if:
𝑟<6 the truss is externally unstable

𝑟=6 the truss is externally stable (6)
𝑟>6 the truss is statically indeterminate externally
To ensure translational equilibrium, the net force acting on each joint must be zero in all directions. That
is, ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = ∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0. This gives us 3 equilibrium equations every joint. Thus, a truss having j
number of joints has a total of 3j equations available for solving the unknown reactions r and member
forces m. By simple comparison between the unknowns and equations, we can evaluate the static
determinacy as follows:
𝑚 + 𝑟 < 3𝑗 truss is unstable

𝑚 + 𝑟 = 3𝑗 truss is statically determinate (but inspect for instability) (7)
𝑚 + 𝑟 > 3𝑗 truss is statically indeterminate (but inspect for instability)


The second and third statements in eqn. (7) must be complemented with visual inspection for instabilities
because these conditions only evaluate the static determinacy based on the given number of parts (m, r and
j) but are insufficient to tell the internal stability of a truss.
Analysis of Member Forces

The method of joints and method of sections we previously applied for analysis planar trusses can be
extended for application to space truss analysis. The procedures involved remain essentially the same,
except that the spatial configuration of members will require the following additional equilibrium
requirements:
Method of Joints
An additional translational equilibrium is required. Hence, it is no longer sufficient to describe forces using
the horizontal and vertical orientations. So, we define the space dimensions in terms of the usual
orthogonal x, y, and z directions (axes). The equilibrium equations are now ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0,
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0. Since only three equilibrium equations are available, the method of joints for
spaces trusses are carried out only on joints connecting not more than three unknown member forces.
Method of Sections
Any portion of a “sectioned” space truss must satisfy the six equilibrium equations given in eq’n. (5). For
solution, the selected section must pass through more than six members of unknown forces.
Force Components
It is usually more convenient to perform member force analysis when the forces in inclined members are
expressed in terms of their rectangular projections (or components) along the x, y, and z directions.
Because the member forces are axial, their rectangular force components are related to the x, y, and z
projections of member lengths. The relations are briefly derived below with the aid of Fig. 7.
In Fig. 7, we have an inclined member AB of length LAB carrying a tensile FAB. The force FAB has
components FABx, FABy, and FABz along the reference x, y, and z axes. Also, the member length LAB has xab,
yab, and zab projections along the same reference axes. So, we can imagine the member ends A and B as the
longest opposite corners of a box with sides measuring xab, yab, and zab units. From the geometry, we see
that
𝑥𝐴𝐵 𝑦𝐴𝐵 𝑧𝐴𝐵
cos 𝜃𝑥 = ; cos 𝜃𝑦 = ; cos 𝜃𝑧 = (8)
𝐿𝐴𝐵 𝐿𝐴𝐵 𝐿𝐴𝐵
Also,
𝐹𝐴𝐵𝑥 𝐹𝐴𝐵𝑦 𝐹𝐴𝐵𝑧
cos 𝜃𝑥 = ; cos 𝜃𝑦 = ; cos 𝜃𝑧 = (9)
𝐹𝐴𝐵 𝐹𝐴𝐵 𝐹𝐴𝐵
From simple inspection, we see that the total member length is
𝐿𝐴𝐵 = √(𝑥𝐴𝐵 )2 + (𝑥𝐴𝐵 )2 + (𝑥𝐴𝐵 )2 (10)
Equating (8) and (9), we get

𝑥𝐴𝐵 𝑦𝐴𝐵 𝑧𝐴𝐵
𝐹𝐴𝐵𝑥 = 𝐹𝐴𝐵 ( ) ; 𝐹𝐴𝐵𝑦 = 𝐹𝐴𝐵 ( ) ; 𝐹𝐴𝐵𝑧 = 𝐹𝐴𝐵 ( ) (11)

The sum of the squares of the direction cosines given in (8) is equal to unity
𝑥𝐴𝐵 2 𝑦𝐴𝐵 2 𝑧𝐴𝐵 2

cos 2 𝜃𝑥 + cos 2 𝜃𝑦 + cos 2 𝜃𝑧 = ( ) +( ) +( )
(𝑥𝐴𝐵 )2 + (𝑦𝐴𝐵 )2 + (𝑧𝐴𝐵 )2

cos 2 𝜃𝑥 + cos 2 𝜃𝑦 + cos 2 𝜃𝑧 =
𝐿𝐴𝐵 2
form (10)
(𝑥𝐴𝐵 )2 + (𝑦𝐴𝐵 )2 + (𝑧𝐴𝐵 )2

=1
𝐿𝐴𝐵 2
Thus,
cos 2 𝜃𝑥 + cos 2 𝜃𝑦 + cos 2 𝜃𝑧 = 1 (12)
Ex. 5. Determine the force in each members BC and DE of the space truss and state if the members are in
tension or compression. The truss is supported by a ball-and-socket joint at A and short links at B and C.
Solution:
First, we solve the reaction forces at joints A, B, and
C. Then, we isolate joint B to solve F BC. To solve
FDE, we can isolate either joint D or joint E. The
latter is preferred but this would require solving one
of the four member forces acting on the joint. So,
for this purpose, we are also going solve F BE from
joint B. The load -600k lb indicates that the load
magnitude is 600 pounds, acting at joint E in the
negative z direction (k is a unit vector directed along
z axis).


A’
+ RCy
∑ 𝑀𝐴′ = 0 (+ direction as shown)
RBy 𝑅𝐶𝑦 (8) = 0 ; 𝑅𝐶𝑦 = 0
B’
RBx ∑ 𝑀𝐵′ = 0 (+ direction as shown)
+
𝑅𝐵𝑦 (8) − 600(8) = 0 ; 𝑅𝐵𝑦 = 600 𝑙𝑏 (𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)
∑ 𝑀𝐶′ = 0 (+ direction as shown)
RAx RAy −𝑅𝐵𝑥 (8) + 600(4) = 0 ; 𝑅𝐵𝑥 = 300 𝑙𝑏 (𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)

RAz C’
+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
−𝑅𝐴𝑥 − 𝑅𝐵𝑥 = 0; 𝑅𝐴𝑋 = −300 𝑙𝑏
∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
−𝑅𝐴𝑧 − 600 = 0; 𝑅𝐴𝑧 = −600 𝑙𝑏 𝑅𝐴𝑦 − 𝑅𝐵𝑦 = 0; 𝑅𝐴𝑦 = 600 𝑙𝑏
600 lb FBC o At Joint B

The force FBE is inclined with respect to the ref. x, y, and
z axes. We resolve this force in terms of its rectangular
y components (but not shown in the figure to avoid
300 lb congestion). Note that the length projections are the
x
difference between the end coordinates. Assuming F BE
FBE
FBA to be in tension;
𝑥𝐵𝐸 = 𝑥𝐸 − 𝑥𝐵 = 4 − 8 = −4
𝑦𝐵𝐸 = 𝑦𝐸 − 𝑦𝐵 = 8 − 0 = 8
𝑧𝐵𝐸 = 𝑧𝐸 − 𝑧𝐵 = 0 − 8 = 8
𝑦𝐵𝐸 8 2𝐹𝐵𝐸 𝑥𝐵𝐸

𝐹𝐵𝐸𝑦 = 𝐹𝐵𝐸 ( ) = 𝐹𝐵𝐸 ( ) = 𝐹𝐵𝐸𝑥 = 𝐹𝐵𝐸 ( ) ; 𝐿𝐵𝐸 = √82 + 42 + 82 = 12ft
𝐿𝐵𝐸 12 3 𝐿𝐵𝐸
𝑧𝐵𝐸 8 2𝐹𝐵𝐸 −4 −𝐹𝐵𝐸
𝐹𝐵𝐸𝑧 = 𝐹𝐵𝐸 ( ) = 𝐹𝐵𝐸 ( ) = 𝐹𝐵𝐸𝑥 = 𝐹𝐵𝐸 ( ) =
𝐿𝐵𝐸 12 3 12 3
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
−𝐹𝐵𝐸
300 − 𝐹𝐵𝐶 + 𝐹𝐵𝐸𝑥 = 0 ; 300 − 𝐹𝐵𝐶 + =0 (1)
3
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
2𝐹𝐵𝐸
−600 + 𝐹𝐵𝐸𝑦 = 0 ; −600 + = 0; 𝐹𝐵𝐸 = 900 𝑙𝑏 (𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
3

From (1)
900
𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 300 − ; 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 0 Ans.
3
FEC
FED o At Joint E
FEB 600 lb All members are inclined with respect to the ref. x, y, and z
=900 lb z
axes. Assuming the member forces to be in tension, the
length projections should be:
𝑥𝐸𝐶 = −4 ; 𝑦𝐸𝐶 = −8 ; 𝑧𝐸𝐶 = 8 ; 𝐿𝐸𝐶 = 12 ft

𝑥𝐸𝐷 = −4 ; 𝑦𝐸𝐷 = −8 ; 𝑧𝐸𝐷 = 0 ; 𝐿𝐸𝐷 = 4√5 ft
FEA
y 𝑥𝐸𝐴 = 4 ; 𝑦𝐸𝐴 = −8 ; 𝑧𝐸𝐴 = 0 ; 𝐿𝐸𝐴 = 4√5 ft
𝐹𝐸𝐵 = 𝐹𝐵𝐸 = 900 𝑙𝑏 (𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛) 𝑥𝐸𝐵 = 4 ; 𝑦𝐸𝐵 = −8 ; 𝑧𝐸𝐵 = 8 ; 𝐿𝐸𝐵 = 12 ft
x
The members ED and EA do not have length projections along the z axis. We will use this condition to
solve FEC.
∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0
8 0 8 0
𝐹𝐸𝐶𝑧 + 𝐹𝐸𝐷𝑧 + 𝐹𝐸𝐵𝑧 + 𝐹𝐸𝐴𝑧 − 600 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐸𝐶 ( ) + 𝐹𝐸𝐷 ( ) + 𝐹𝐸𝐵 ( ) + 𝐹𝐸𝐴 ( ) − 600 = 0
12 4√5 12 4√5
8 8
𝐹𝐸𝐶 ( ) + 900 ( ) − 600 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐸𝐶 = 0
12 12
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
−8 −8 −8
𝐹𝐸𝐷𝑦 + 𝐹𝐸𝐵𝑦 + 𝐹𝐸𝐴𝑦 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐸𝐷 ( ) + 900 ( ) + 𝐹𝐸𝐴 ( )=0
4√5 12 4√5
𝐹𝐸𝐴 = −𝐹𝐸𝐷 − 670.82 (2)
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
−4 4 4
𝐹𝐸𝐷𝑥 + 𝐹𝐸𝐵𝑥 + 𝐹𝐸𝐴𝑥 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐸𝐷 ( ) + 900 ( ) + 𝐹𝐸𝐴 ( )=0
4√5 12 4√5
−𝐹𝐸𝐷 + 670.82 + 𝐹𝐸𝐴 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐸𝐴 = 𝐹𝐸𝐷 − 670.82 (3)
Equating (2) and (3)
𝐹𝐸𝐷 − 670.82 = −𝐹𝐸𝐷 − 670.82 ; 𝐹𝐸𝐷 = 𝐹𝐷𝐸 = 0 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
From (2)
𝐹𝐸𝐴 = −670.82 ; 𝐹𝐴𝐸 = 670.82 𝑙𝑏 (𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)


Ex. 6. Determine the reactions and the force in member AC, AD, and BC of the space truss. Indicate if the
members are in tension or compression.
Solution:
The supports are slotted rollers which are constrained in
cylinders. A slotted roller support is free to slide along
the longitudinal axis of the slotted cylinders.
Consequently, there will only be two reactions for this
support type. We will solve first the reaction forces.
Then, we evaluate the equilibrium of joints A and B to
solve FAC, FAD, and FBC, respectively.

+C’
∑ 𝑀𝐴′ = 0 (+ direction as shown)
−500(8) − 𝑅𝐴𝑧 (6) = 0 ; 𝑅𝐴𝑧 = −666.67 𝑙𝑏
∑ 𝑀𝐵′ = 0 (+ direction as shown)
𝑅𝐶𝑧 (5) = 0 ; 𝑅𝐶𝑧 = 0

A’
+ ∑ 𝑀𝐶′ = 0 (+ direction as shown)
+ B’ RCy
−𝑅𝐶𝑦 (5) − 500(3) = 0 ; 𝑅𝐶𝑦 = −300 𝑙𝑏
RAy
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ; 𝑅𝐵𝑥 = 0
RAz RCz
RBx ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
RBz
𝑅𝐴𝑦 + 𝑅𝐶𝑦 + 500 = 0 ; 𝑅𝐴𝑦 = −200 𝑙𝑏
∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0
𝑅𝐴𝑧 + 𝑅𝐵𝑧 + 𝑅𝑐𝑧 = 0 ; 𝑅𝐵𝑧 = 666.67 𝑙𝑏
z FAD o At Joint A
𝑥𝐴𝐵 = 0 ; 𝑦𝐴𝐵 = 6 ; 𝑧𝐴𝐵 = 0 ; 𝐿𝐴𝐵 = 6 ft
𝑥𝐴𝐶 = −5 ; 𝑦𝐴𝐶 = 6 ; 𝑧𝐴𝐶 = 0 ; 𝐿𝐴𝐶 = √61 ft
𝑥𝐴𝐷 = −3 ; 𝑦𝐴𝐷 = 4 ; 𝑧𝐴𝐷 = 8 ; 𝐿𝐴𝐷 = √89 ft
FAC
x FAB ∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0
RAy =-200 lb y
−666.67 + 𝐹𝐴𝐵𝑧 + 𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑧 + 𝐹𝐴𝐷𝑧 = 0
RAz =-666.67 lb

o At Joint A (Cont’d)
∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0
0 0 8
−666.67 + 𝐹𝐴𝐵𝑧 + 𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑧 + 𝐹𝐴𝐷𝑧 = 0 ; −666.67 + 𝐹𝐴𝐵 ( ) + 𝐹𝐴𝐶 ( ) + 𝐹𝐴𝐷 ( )=0
6 √61 √89
𝐹𝐴𝐷 = 786.17 𝑙𝑏 (𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
0 −5 −3
𝐹𝐴𝐵𝑥 + 𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑥 + 𝐹𝐴𝐷𝑥 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐴𝐵 ( ) + 𝐹𝐴𝐶 ( ) + 𝐹𝐴𝐷 ( )=0
6 √61 √89
−5 −3
𝐹𝐴𝐶 ( ) + 786.17 ( )=0 ; 𝐹𝐴𝐶 = −390.51𝑙𝑏 ; 𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 390.51 𝑙𝑏 (𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝. ) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
√61 √89
FBD o At Joint B
FBC
𝑥𝐵𝐴 = 0 ; 𝑦𝐵𝐴 = −6 ; 𝑧𝐵𝐴 = 0 ; 𝐿𝐵𝐴 = 6 ft
FBA 𝑥𝐵𝐶 = −5 ; 𝑦𝐵𝐶 = 0 ; 𝑧𝐵𝐶 = 0 ; 𝐿𝐵𝐶 = 5 ft
𝑥𝐵𝐷 = −3 ; 𝑦𝐵𝐷 = −2 ; 𝑧𝐵𝐷 = 8 ; 𝐿𝐵𝐷 = √77 ft
x
y ∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0
RBz=666.67 lb 666.67 + 𝐹𝐵𝐴𝑧 + 𝐹𝐵𝐷𝑧 + 𝐹𝐵𝐶𝑧 = 0

0 8 0
666.67 + 𝐹𝐵𝐴 ( ) + 𝐹𝐵𝐷 ( ) + 𝐹𝐵𝐶 ( ) = 0
6 √77 5
𝐹𝐵𝐷 = −731.25 𝑙𝑏 ; 𝐹𝐵𝐷 = 731.25 𝑙𝑏 (𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝. )
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝐹𝐵𝐴𝑥 + 𝐹𝐵𝐷𝑥 + 𝐹𝐵𝐶𝑥 = 0

0 −3 −5
𝐹𝐵𝐴 ( ) + (−731.25) ( ) + 𝐹𝐵𝐶 ( ) = 0
6 √77 5
𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 250 𝑙𝑏 (𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

3. Cables
Cables are often used to constitute the main load-carrying element in many structures like in suspension
bridges, suspension roofs, cable car systems, etc. When a cable is used to hang or support large loads along
its length (like in the mentioned systems), its weight may be neglected in the analysis of forces. However,
when it is used to provide tension support like in radio antennas and power lines, its weight induces
significant contribution in shaping its deflected profile and to the distribution of the tensile loads. So, when
used primarily for tensioning, the cable’s weight must be accounted for in the analysis.
Two cable cases are discussed in this section: 1) Cables subjected to concentrated loads, and 2) Cables
subjected to uniformly distributed loads. The cable-load system used in the discussions is coplanar. Also,
the cable is assumed inextensible so it maintains its deformed shaped after loading, and perfectly flexible so
it only develops tensile loads (nothing more).
3.1 Cables Subjected to Concentrated Loads
A cable subjected to concentrated loads will have a deformation profile consisting several straight-line
segments. Because the cable weight is neglected in the analysis, each segment will be subjected to constant
tensile force. Also, if the applied loads are all vertical loads, the horizontal component of tension will the
same for all segments. The methods we use to analyze cables with concentrated loads are practically
similar to that we use for analyzing plane trusses – we can formulate two equilibrium equations ( ∑ 𝐹𝐻 =
0 and ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0) for each joint and three equilibrium equations ( ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 , ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0, and ∑ 𝑀𝑜 = 0 )
for each isolated section. The writing of solutions is always aided with geometric data. So, the
familiarization of cable nomenclature is necessary. In Fig. 6, the span of the cable is designated by the
letter L, which is the horizontal distance between supports. The straight line extending from A to B is
called cord, and the sags yC and yD are measured from the cord.
Fig. 6 Cable with concentrated loads


Ex. 7. Determine the tension in each segment of the cable and the cable’s total length
Solution:
We don not know the orientations of cable segments BC and CD, so we cannot proceed to evaluating the
equilibrium of joints B and C. The position of B relative to A is given. Hence, we can cut segment AB at A
and evaluate the equilibrium of the right portion.
TAB RDV ∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0 (𝐶𝑊+)

TABV
𝜃 −50(8) − 100(3) + 𝑇𝐴𝐵𝑉 (12) = 0
TABH RDH
−700 + 𝑇𝐴𝐵 (cos 29.74) (12) = 0
𝜃 = 29.74° 𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 67.18 𝑙𝑏
o At Joint B
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +)
−𝑇𝐴𝐵𝐻 + 𝑇𝐵𝐶𝐻 = 0
−67.18 sin 29.74 + 𝑇𝐵𝐶𝐻 = 0
TAB TABV 𝑇𝐵𝐶𝐻 =33.33 lb
𝜃
TABH TBCH ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +)
𝛼
TBCV TBC 𝑇𝐴𝐵𝑉 − 𝑇𝐵𝐶𝑉 − 50 = 0
TCDV 67.18 cos 29.74 − 𝑇𝐵𝐶𝑉 − 50 = 0

TCD 𝑇𝐵𝐶𝑉 =8.33 lb;
Joint B
TCB TCBV Hence,
𝛼 𝛽
TCBH TCDH 𝑇𝐵𝐶 = √(𝑇𝐵𝐶𝐻 )2 + (𝑇𝐵𝐶𝑉 )2
TCD
TBC = TCB 𝑇𝐵𝐶 = 34.35 𝑙𝑏
𝑇𝐵𝐶𝑉
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) =14.03o
𝑇𝐵𝐶𝐻
Joint C

o At Joint C
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +) ; −𝑇𝐶𝐵𝐻 + 𝑇𝐶𝐷𝐻 = 0 ; −33.33 + 𝑇𝐶𝐷𝐻 = 0 ; 𝑇𝐶𝐷𝐻 = 33.33 𝑙𝑏
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +) ; 𝑇𝐶𝐷𝑉 + 𝑇𝐶𝐵𝑉 − 100 = 0 ; 𝑇𝐶𝐷𝑉 + 8.33 − 100 = 0 ; 𝑇𝐶𝐷𝑉 = 91.67 𝑙𝑏
Hence,
91.67
𝑇𝐶𝐷 = √(33.33)2 + (91.67)2 ; 𝑇𝐶𝐷 = 97.54 𝑙𝑏 ; 𝛽 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) ; 𝛽 = 70.02°
33.33
o Total length of cable (L)
7 5 3 7 5 3
𝐿 = 𝐿𝐴𝐵 + 𝐿𝐵𝐶 + 𝐿𝐶𝐷 = + + = + + ; 𝐿 = 22 𝑓𝑡.
cos 𝜃 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 cos 29.74 cos 14.03 cos 70.02
Ex. 8. Determine the forces P1 and P2 needed to hold the cable in the position shown, i.e., so segment BC
remains horizontal.
Solution:
We first solve FCD from the equilibrium of joint D. We then proceed to joint C to solve P2 and FBC. Lastly, we
consider joint B to solve P1.
TDEV TDE o At Joint D
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +) ; −𝑇𝐷𝐶𝐻 + 𝑇𝐷𝐸𝐻 = 0
∅
TDCH
𝜌 TDEH −𝑇𝐷𝐶 cos 36.87 + 𝑇𝐷𝐸 sin 36.87 = 0
TDCV 𝑇𝐷𝐶 = 0.75𝑇𝐷𝐸 (1)
TDC
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +)
𝑇𝐷𝐸𝑉 − 𝑇𝐷𝐶𝑉 − 8 = 0 ; 𝑇𝐷𝐸 cos 36.87 − 𝑇𝐷𝐶 sin 36.87 − 8 = 0

Joint D
𝑇𝐷𝐸 = 0.75𝑇𝐷𝐶 + 10 (2)
∅ = 36.87°
Plug in (2) to (1)
𝜌 = 36.87°
𝑇𝐷𝐶 = 0.75(0.75𝑇𝐷𝐶 + 10) ; 𝑇𝐷𝐶 = 17.14 𝑘𝑁

TCDV o At Joint C
TCDH TCD
H ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +) ; 𝑇𝐶𝐷𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶𝐵 = 0
TCB 𝜌 = 36.87°
TCDH TCDH 𝑇𝐶𝐵 = 17.14cos 36.87 = 13.71 𝑘𝑁
H
Joint C ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +) ; 𝑇𝐶𝐷𝑉 − 𝑃2 = 0
𝑃2 = 17.14 sin 36.87 ; 𝑃2 = 10.28 𝑘𝑁
TCD=TDC=17.14 kN
TBA TBAV o At Joint B

TCDH TCDH
H 𝛾 = 38.66°
H ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +) ; 𝑇𝐵𝐶 − 𝑇𝐵𝐴𝐻 = 0
TBAH TBC
TCDH TCDH
13.71 − 𝑇𝐵𝐴 sin 38.66 = 0; 𝑇𝐵𝐴 = 21.95 𝑘𝑁
H H
Joint B ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +) ; 𝑇𝐵𝐴𝑉 − 𝑃1 = 0
𝑃1 = 21.95 cos 38.66 ; 𝑃2 = 17.14 𝑘𝑁
TBC=TCB=13.71 kN
3.2 Cables Subjected to Uniformly Distributed Loads
When a cable is loaded uniformly along its length (with its own weight neglected), its deformed profile
takes a parabolic shape. To derive some basic formulations needed for analysis, consider the uniformly
loaded cable shown in Fig. 7. The magnitude of the distributed load is wo. The deformed profile of the
cable is defined relative to a coordinate axes drawn at the lowest point on the cable (where the slope is
zero). The total span is L and the vertical distance between supports is h. To investigate on the equilibrium,
𝑤𝑜 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇
𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Fig. 7 Cable with uniformly distributed loads


we isolate a differential cable element of length dS and span dx. The forces and other geometric details for this
element are shown in Fig. 7b. Note that the tension in the cable will not be the same. So, if the tension at the
left end is T, at the right end (which is only dS away) the tension must be T +dT (we interpret dT as a very
small or differential change in T). Same changes also apply to the end slopes (𝜃 and 𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃). If we evaluate
the equilibrium of the element, what we will get are the following:
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +)
−𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + (𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇) cos(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) = 0

−𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + (𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇){cos 𝜃 cos 𝑑𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑑𝜃} = 0 {The cosine of a very small angle d𝜃 is very close
𝑑(𝑇 cos 𝜃) to 1, the sine of d𝜃 yields a very small number}
=0 (1)
𝑑𝑥
Integrating (1) yields
This means that the horizontal
𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 or
component of tensile force is constant
𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑇𝐻 (2) along any point on the cable
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +)
−𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑤𝑜 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇) sin(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) = 0

−𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑤𝑜 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇){sin 𝜃 cos 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑑𝜃} = 0
𝑑𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑤𝑜 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑜𝑟
𝑑(𝑇 sin 𝜃)
= 𝑤𝑜 (3)
𝑑𝑥
𝑇 sin 𝜃 = 𝑤𝑜 (𝑥) (4)
Dividing (4) by (2) gives the slope of the cable at any point
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑜 (𝑥)
tan 𝜃 = = (5)
𝑑𝑥 𝑇𝐻
Integrating (5) gives the parabolic equation of the cable as follows:
𝑤𝑜 𝑥 2
𝑦= (6)
2𝑇𝐻
We may apply the square property of parabola to determine the sag at any point measuring x from the
origin (which is at the lowest point).
𝑦 ℎ
2 = 2 (7)
𝑥 𝐿
Finally, it is evident from eq’n (2) that the maximum tension Tmax in the cable occurs at a point where the
slope 𝜃 is also maximum and the minimum tension occurs at 𝜃 = 0𝑜 . Meaning, 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇𝐻 and
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √(𝑇𝐻 )2 + (𝑤𝑜 𝐿)2 (8)


Ex. 9. The cable supports the uniform load of wo = 600 lb/ft. Determine the tension in the cable at each
support A and B.
Solution:
We can calculate the resultant cable tension given its horizontal and vertical components. Luckily, the
horizontal component TH is the same at all points on the cable. We will calculate TH by cutting the cable at
the lowest point. Hence, we need to locate this point.
o Locating the lowest point on the cable

From the square property of parabola (SPP);
10 15
2
=
𝑀 (25 − 𝑀)2
𝑀 = 11.24 𝑓𝑡
25 − 𝑀 o For the tension at A

𝑀
𝑀
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 (𝐶𝑊 +) ; −𝑇𝐻 (10) + 600(𝑀) ( ) = 0
2
𝑇𝐴
𝑇𝐴𝑉 11.24
−𝑇𝐻 (10) + 600(11.24) ( )=0
𝑇𝐴𝐻 2
𝑇𝐻 = 𝑇𝐴𝐻 = 3790.13 𝑙𝑏
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +) ; 𝑇𝐴𝑉 − 600(𝑀) = 0
𝑇𝐻
𝑇𝐴𝑉 = 600(11.24) = 6744 𝑙𝑏
Hence, 𝑇𝐴 = √(𝑇𝐴𝐻 )2 + (𝑇𝐴𝑉 )2 = √(3790.13)2 + (6744)2
𝑀 𝑀 𝑇𝐴 = 7,736.06 𝑙𝑏
2 2
o For the tension at B (imagine the entire cable removed from supports)
600(𝑀)
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +) (Note that TBH =TH)
𝑇𝐴𝑉 + 𝑇𝐵𝑉 − 600(25) = 0 ; 6744 + 𝑇𝐵𝑉 − 600(25) = 0 ; 𝑇𝐵𝑉 = 8256 𝑙𝑏
Hence, 𝑇𝐵 = √(𝑇𝐵𝐻 )2 + (𝑇𝐵𝑉 )2 = √(3790.13)2 + (8256)2
𝑇𝐵 = 9084.42 𝑙𝑏


Ex. 9. The beams AB and BC are supported by the cable that has a parabolic shape. Determine the tension in
the cable at points D, F, and E, and the force in each of the equally spaced hangers.
Solution:
If the cable is to have a parabolic shape, then, the tension in equally spaced hangers must be of uniform
magnitude. The cable supports D and E are of the same level, so point F, which is at the midspan, is the
lowest point on the cable. We solve first the hanger tension T by isolating beam AC, then we solve the
tensions in the main cable.
o Entire beam
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +)
7𝑇 + 𝑅𝐴𝑉 + 𝑅𝐶 − 8 = 0 (1)
𝑅𝐴𝐻 = 0
o Considering span BC
∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 (𝐶𝑊+)
𝑅𝐴𝑉 𝑅𝐶
5(2) − 2𝑇 − 4𝑇 − 6𝑇 − 8𝑅𝐶 = 0
(3) and (2) to (1) 10 − 12𝑇 − 8𝑅𝐶 = 0 (2)
3 3 5 3 o Considering span AB
7𝑇 + ( − 𝑇) + ( − 𝑇) − 8 = 0
2 2 4 2 ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 (𝐶𝑊+)
21
4𝑇 − =0 ; 𝑇 = 1.31 𝑘𝑁 −3(4) + 2𝑇 + 4𝑇 + 6𝑇 + 8𝑅𝐴𝑉 = 0
4
−12 + 12𝑇 + 8𝑅𝐴𝑉 = 0 (3)
𝑇𝐷𝑉
𝑇𝐷 o Cable span DF
𝑇𝐷𝐻 = 𝑇𝐻
∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0 (𝐶𝑊+)
𝑇𝐹 = 𝑇𝐻 1.31
1.31(2) + 1.31(4) + 1.31(6) + (8) − 3𝑇𝐻 = 0
2
𝑇𝐻 = 𝑇𝐹 = 7.0 𝑘𝑁
1.31
1.31 1.31 1.31
2 ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +) ; 𝑇𝐷𝑉 = 3.5(1.31) = 4.59 𝑘𝑁
Due to symmetry, 𝑇𝐷 = 𝑇𝐸
𝑇𝐷 = 𝑇𝐸 = √(7)2 + (4.59)2
= 8.37 𝑘𝑁

4. Arches
Arches are structures that are purposely curved to a shape of an inverted parabolic cable to minimize, if not
completely eliminate the development of bending actions. Arches are compression structures that are
primarily used to support loads distributed in long spans. Depending on application, arches can appear in
different configurations: Fixed, two-hinged, three-hinged, or tied. A fixed arch (Fig 8a) is very rigid and
redundant but sensitive to settlement. It is also indeterminate to the third degree. A two-hinged arch (Fig 8b) is
insensitive to settlement but still statically indeterminate to the first degree. Adding an internal hinge to a two-
hinged arch would make it statically determinate three-hinged arch (Fig 8c). The insertion of an internal hinge
eliminates the capacity of a three-hinged arch to support bending actions along its span. If limited by the
characteristics of the founding soil, it may be necessary to control the amount of horizontal thrust at the
supports. In this case, a tie element is added, forming a tied arch (Fig 8d).
The analysis part of this section is limited to statically determinate three-hinged arch. The computation of
forces (internal or external) is basically involves a simple demonstration of the application of equilibrium
concepts (see sample problem).
a) Fixed arch b) Two-hinge arch
c) Three-hinged arch d) Tied arch
Fig. 8 Types of arches


Ex. 10. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at A, B, and C of the three-hinged arch.
Assume A, B, and C are pin connected.
Solution:
o Entire structure
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +)
𝑅𝐴𝐻 = 𝑅𝐶𝐻 (1)

𝑅𝐴𝐻
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +)
𝑅𝐴𝑉
𝑅𝐶𝐻
𝑅𝐴𝑉 = 15 − 𝑅𝐶𝑉 (2)
𝑅𝐶𝑉
∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0 (𝐶𝑊+)
20𝑅𝐴𝑉 + 4𝑅𝐴𝐻 − 10(17) − 5(4) = 0 (3)
o Span AB
𝐵𝐻
∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 (𝐶𝑊+) ; −4𝑅𝐴𝐻 + 8𝑅𝐴𝑉 − 10(5) = 0
𝑅𝐴𝐻 = 2𝑅𝐴𝑉 − 12.5 (4)

𝐵𝑉
𝑅𝐶𝐻 o Span BC
∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 (𝐶𝑊+) ; −12𝑅𝐶𝑉 + 8𝑅𝐶𝐻 + 8(5) = 0

𝑅𝐶𝑉
o Span BC 𝑅𝐶𝑉 = 0.667𝑅𝐶𝐻 + 3.33 (5)
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 (↑ +) o Solving equations
(4) to (3)
𝐵𝑉 = 5 − 6.43 = −1.43 𝑘𝑁
20𝑅𝐴𝑉 + 4(2𝑅𝐴𝑉 − 12.5) − 10(17) − 5(4) = 0
𝐵𝑉 = 1.43 𝑘𝑁 ↓
𝑅𝐴𝑉 = 8.57 𝑘𝑁
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (→ +)
From (4) and (1), 𝑅𝐴𝐻 = 𝑅𝐶𝐻 = 4.64 𝑘𝑁
𝐵𝐻 = 4.64 𝑘𝑁
From (2), 𝑅𝐶𝑉 = 6.43 𝑘𝑁


Answer as many problems as you can. This will serve as your final exam. Happy holidays everyone…
Problem 1. Classify the trusses as stable or unstable. If stable, indicate if determinate or indeterminate. If
indeterminate, indicate the degree of indeterminacy.
(a)
(c) (d)
(b)
Problem 2. Determine the forces in members BH and LE. Indicate if bar forces are tension or compression.
Use any method you like.
Problem 3. Determine the forces in member CG. Indicate if bar forces are tension or compression. Use any
method you like.


Problem 4. Determine the force in AC and AB of the space truss, and state whether they are in tension or
compression.
Problem 5. The cable supports the loading shown. Determine the magnitude of the vertical force P so that yC
= 6 ft.
Problem 6. The cable AB is subjected to a uniform loading of 300 lb/ft. If the weight of the cable is neglected
and the slope angles at points A and B are 30o and 45o, respectively, determine the curve that defines the cable
shape and the maximum tension developed in the cable.


Problem 7. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at A, B, and C of the three-hinged
arch. Assume A, B, and C are pin connected.

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Davao Oriental State College of Science and Technology

Institute of Computing and Engineering

Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5

By the end of week 5, the students shall be able to:

2.1 Plane Trusses

Basic Plane Truss

Fig. 1 Pin connected configurations

E. B. BARBAS ║ CE 131 Lecture Notes ║ Nov 2020║ PAGE 1 OF 30

Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5

Fig. 2 Simple truss

Fig. 3 Compound truss

Fig. 4 Complex truss

𝑚 < 2𝑗 − 3 the truss is internally unstable

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Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5

Fig. 5 Internal instability due to improper member arrangement

𝑚 + 𝑟 < 2𝑗 the truss is unstable

Classical Methods for Determining Member Forces and Reactions

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Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5

E. B. BARBAS ║ CE 131 Lecture Notes ║ Nov 2020║ PAGE 4 OF 30

Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5

E. B. BARBAS ║ CE 131 Lecture Notes ║ Nov 2020║ PAGE 5 OF 30

Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5

∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 (to the right +)

𝐹𝐴𝐿𝑉 + (−20) = 0 ; 𝐹𝐴𝐿 (sin 45) = 20

𝐹𝐴𝐿𝐻 + 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = −𝐹𝐴𝐿 (cos 45) ; 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = −28.28(cos 45)

E. B. BARBAS ║ CE 131 Lecture Notes ║ Nov 2020║ PAGE 6 OF 30

Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5

𝐹𝐵𝐶 = −20𝑘 ; (we assumed tension, but the result is negtaive)

FLAH −𝐹𝐿𝐴𝑉 − 𝐹𝐿𝐻 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐿𝐻 = −28.28 cos 45

FHL= FLH=-20k FHMV 𝐹𝐻𝑀𝐻 + 𝐹𝐻𝐶𝐻 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐻𝑀 sin 𝜃 + 𝐹𝐻𝐶 sin 𝜃 = 0

From eq’n. (1)

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Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5

E. B. BARBAS ║ CE 131 Lecture Notes ║ Nov 2020║ PAGE 8 OF 30

Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5

o Considering section c-c, left truss portion

o Considering section a-a, left truss portion

−20(60) − 40(30) + 80(15) + 𝐹𝑀𝑁 (15) = 0

E. B. BARBAS ║ CE 131 Lecture Notes ║ Nov 2020║ PAGE 9 OF 30

Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5

𝜃 = 63.43° 80 − 80 + 𝐹𝐼𝑁 sin 63.43 + 𝐹𝐼𝐷 sin 63.43 = 0

Plug in eq’n. (6) to eq’n. (5)

𝑭𝑰𝑫 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 𝒌 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑. ) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

From eq’n. (6)

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Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5

o Considering section a-a’, upper portion

FDA=FAD ; FFC=FCF 𝐹𝐹𝐶 = 𝐹𝐷𝐴 − 848.528 = 0 (1)

From sine Law; 𝑭𝑫𝑨 = 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟖. 𝟕𝟐𝟒 𝒍𝒃 (𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

E. B. BARBAS ║ CE 131 Lecture Notes ║ Nov 2020║ PAGE 11 OF 30

Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5

Fig. 6 Simple space truss

Static Determinacy and Stability

𝑟<6 the truss is externally unstable

𝑚 + 𝑟 < 3𝑗 truss is unstable

E. B. BARBAS ║ CE 131 Lecture Notes ║ Nov 2020║ PAGE 12 OF 30

Lecture Notes on Structural Theory (CE 131) WEEK 5