1

Review

Deforestation causes, impacts and restoration strategies.

Sivakumaran Sivaramanan*
Environmental Officer, Environmental Impact Assessment unit, Environmental Management and Access division, Central Environmental Authority, Battaramulla,
Sri Lanka.
[email protected] DOI: 10.13140/2.1.4663.9685

Abstract
Restoration forestry or eco-forestry or sustainable forestry is basically not aimed to produce forest trees for logging or any sort of human consumption
instead it mainly aiming the environmental protection in order to maintain Carbon dioxide and Oxygen levels as well as pacifying weather changes
and the effects to the natural habitats. This article attempts to justify the reasons of deforestation, afforestation and reforestation with available
examples and current techniques as per discussions of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Land use, land use, change and forestry
(LULUCF) of Kyoto protocol. Paper also sporadically justifies forest restoration programme of International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO)
and related international treaties on forest ecosystem.

Key words: Deforestation, Afforestation, Reforestation

Introduction has started clearing forests several thousand existence of our planet, almost 20 per cent
Increasing human population and needs years ago this also mainly for agriculture of worlds Oxygen is produced in Amazon
causes increase in exploitation of natural and ranching purposes. In the nineteenth forest as the forest maintains the balance
resources mainly the forest, changing century transformation of Modern man in between Oxygen and Carbon dioxide,
patterns of consumption and techno terms of industrialism, urbanism, liberal maintains rainfall and gives significant
machinery further fuel this issue. World’s democracy and capitalism he overexploited contribution in water cycle, nutrient and
annual deforestation is estimated as 13.7 the nature mainly the nature’s forest mineral cycles are maintained, maintaining
million hectares, equal to the area of resource. This causes various negative whether pattern and reduces the effect of
Greece, if this continues in the same rate the impacts in the entire ecosystem, the global warming and prevent soil erosion and
total forest cover may get completely existence change in weather patterns, global maintaining soil fertility, prevent the
vanished in next hundred years. However, warming, outbreak of epidemics, droughts, spreading of disease and pests, trapping the
still 30 per cent of the land cover is desertification and behavior, existence and pollutants of air and water, sink for various
occupied by forests. According to DCCEE distributional changes in entire biota and its mineral elements, for its services such as
(Department of Climate Change and Energy diversity. However, in today’s postmodern source biodiversity, source of gene pool,
Efficiency) 2012 report estimated current era man has well understood the importance reservoir of carbon, source for shelter, food(
average net CO2 emission is 27 Mt-e and it to conserve nature and becoming eco- bush meet, fruits, oils & nuts), for medicinal
is projected to be 43 Mt-e in 2020. We are centric. “What we are doing to the forest of needs, natural fertilizer, natural pesticides,
inevitably committed to involve in the world is but a mirror reflection of what valuable timber, lumber, pulp, gum and
reconstruction of socio, economic and we are doing to our self and to one fibers, in addition it also known for its
environmental factors to promote inclusive another”- Mahatma Gandhi. educational, recreational, aesthetic value,
developmental strategy to ensure the and refreshing the mind and soul.
sustainability of forest ecosystem as it leads Importance of forest ecosystem
to firm existence of life in our planet. Man Forest ecosystem is essential for the

Figure 1: Deforestation, Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (‘Trees’, n.d.).

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Effects of Deforestation drought, which is more severe during ENSO  Habitat loss
Deforestation causes decline in rainfall all events. According to WWF orangutan, elephants,
over the world, unusual weather pattern tigers, rhinos and many other species lose
alter the distribution of species as it  Desertification and soil erosion their habitats in the tropical regions such as
increases the effect of global warming Destruction of forest in a huge are Africa, Latin America, and Asia. This also
which causes the loss of habitants of eventually cause degradation of soil fertility increases human animal conflict.
animals such as polar bear and Penguins due and water holding capacity. This is Deforestation leads to habitat fragmentation
to melting of glaciers, increase in amplified during the slash and burn which minimizes the chances of meeting
occurrence of landslides, forest fires and harvesting as the nutrient loss is high. among a group of population or between
flooding. Oppression and conflicts rises in Burned ash do not support for cultivation at communities, it severely affects the natural
the society due to poverty, the hardships of all. Many of the today’s desert lands were balance, interrelationships and access to
sudden weather change, desperately poor forest lands several million years ago, as the food and other ecological spots or resources,
resort and increase sex slavery (Figure 2) carbon in pre-historic trees now available in alter the seasonal migratory pattern and
(‘Deforestation’, n.d.). the form of fossil fuel. Deforestation ultimately increases the stress or changes in
directly facilitates soil erosion as open soil animal behavioral patterns.
 Loss of Biodiversity is easily taken by wind and flowing water
destruction of forest threaten both fauna and this also leads to siltation of dams that  Human animal conflicts
flora, indeed it leads to severe extinction of reduces the water holding capacity. Loss of Increasing human population increase their
entire biota, there are several species over 100 tons per ha. have been reported in needs, constructions such as roads,
completely become extinct due to several parts of India, China, Yemen, El highways and irrigation schemes dams, etc.
anthropogenic means such as Tasmanian Salvador, the Dominican Republic, Kenya, This causes habitat fragmentation which
wolf, Moa, Wooly mammoth, Cape lion, Madagascar and Ethiopia. (Paul, 1993) increases the chances of meetings between
Atlas bear and several wild plants, there are animals and man several road accidents
many other species are red listed as  Floods and Landslides with wild animals are recorded in many
Critically Endangered and plenty of species Flooding and land slide events are rare in parts. Elephants and monkeys cause many
are becoming vulnerable. the forest regions which is extremely high in conflict events. Elephant cause destruction
urban lands. However, deforestation caused of houses and agricultural farm lands even
 Increase in Greenhouse gases several land slide events around the world injure the ranching herds, this is very
Forest trees absorb Carbon dioxide and resulting loss of live hood and properties. common in south Asia. Similarly, Territorial
releases Oxygen, reduction in forest and Chances of landslides are extremely high behavior of Rhinos often results in conflicts
increased anthropogenic Carbon dioxide when deforestation occurs at mountain with human and other animals commonly
emission together amplifies the effect of forest. seen in Africa and some parts of India.
global warming. Effects of the warming are
loss of habitants of polar bear and penguins  Spread of diseases
due to the melting of glassier, rising sea Forest provides natural boundary between
level also causes small islands to be sunken colonies of human population. This prevents
permanently such as Maldivians questioned the direct access between communities thus
their existence in near future (a span of reduced the chances of epidemics and also
several hundred years). According to filter the air and water for infectious agents.
Australia’s Emission Projections report Diseases such as swine flu, Dengue, Ebola
(2012), emission from deforestation can be sealed from spreading to other
activities is 44 Mt-e and removal from regions.
reforestation activities is 26 Mt-e, resulting
net emission during the Kyoto period (2008-  Increase in pollutants
2012) is 26 Mt-e. And this net value of Forest traps the pollutants and increases the
emission is projected to be 43 Mt-e in 2020 chances of biodegradation. Deforestation
where as projected deforestation emission to declines this natural process and this
be 47 Mt-e. meliorates particle pollution and effects of
toxic gases. Particles smaller than 10
 Change in weather pattern micrometers in diameter pose the greatest
Forests can withstand severe weather threat when inhaled it may even reach the
changes due to its high resilience. Increase blood stream. Some such particles and
in temperature and effect of cyclones are droplets are possibly human carcinogens.
minimized in forest covered areas than bare. Eg. Great smog of London in 1952.
It further amplifies the effect of natural
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Figure 2 Effects of Deforestation Adopted from Giornalettismo (n.d.).

History palm and vegetables. badly affected by colonial deforestation.

There is evidence of clearance of rain forest 3. Subsistence farming through slash In Sri Lanka 162,700 acres of forest area
at least 3000 years ago in Africa. 7000 years and burn forest cuttings including was cleared for Coffee cultivation by 1867
ago in south and central America and unplanned ‘chena’ (Sri Lanka coffee, n.d.) in Madagascar up to
possibly 9000 years ago in India and New 4. Logging for commercial needs 7 million ha of forest were cleared in the
Guinea. Also evidences of slash and burn such as pulp, rubber, resins, first three decades of the colonial period
technique was retrieved in Northern South timber harvest, charcoal and fire (Perrier de la Bâthie, 1921) as cited in
America, South East Asia and Central wood. Claudia, 2010). The Transmigrasi Program,
Africa 12,000 years ago. Land hunger, 5. Development for expanding commenced 1974, caused an average annual
increased economic needs for resources civilization, industrialization, loss of 200,000 ha. in Indonesia (Colchester
causes the destruction. Historically, English irrigation, mineral mining, & Lohmann, 1993 as cited in
and Dutch migrants lured by a gold rush, energy, transport and Tourism. ‘Rainforestinfo’, n.d.).
collecting spices and mono culture 6. Natural catastrophic event such as 3. Debt Burden and Exploitation by
plantations such as tea and rubber are the hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, developed countries
pioneer reasons for the destruction of forest forest fires or El Nino and other Developing nations of South and South East
cover in Brazilian Amazon, North America sudden climatic change. Asian countries uses money of developed
and South Asian regions. When considering 7. Manmade environmental nations for their infrastructural development
tropical rainforests, in Bangladesh, Haiti, problems and they pay the loan with their natural
India and Sri Lanka almost all rainforest lost 8. War and civil unrest. resources including timber countries such as
by 1988, China 50% loss in Xishuangbana Adopted from Hogan, 2014. Japan utilize their forest resources and
province, by 1960-85 Philippines and granting loans for various development
Underlying causes of Deforestation
Thailand loss 55 and 45 per cent of rain schemes (Colchester and Lohmann, 1993 as
forest respectively (Chris, 1992). In the year 1. Development and over consumption cited in ‘Rainforestinfo’, n.d.).
between1990 and 2000 the world is Massive development programmes such as In both least developed and developing
estimated to have suffered a net loss of 8.9 road or high way constructions, rail ways, countries factors such as cheap labor,
million hectares of forest each year, but in water reservoirs, dams, grounds for athletic reduction in tax or land price or subsidies by
the period 2000-2005 this was declined to and sports development, air ports and government, increase in the demand of
an estimated 12.9 million hectares per year, industrial zones, harbors, mineral mining timber or agricultural land or other forest
recent deforestation rate is annually 7.3 projects, power plants, military expansion commodities, mineral value and debt burden
million ha. (‘IPCC’ 2007: 544). Overall, programmes and scientific research have accelerate the effect, changes in
world lost about 3 per cent of its forests in programmes and housing and services international trade.
the period 1990 to 2005, at present we are development activities. 4. Role of Poverty and Over
losing about 200 square kilometers of forest 2. Colonialism population
each day. During colonial times forest trees logging Increasing population increases the land
was carried for establishing rail ways needs for shelters, agriculture, industrial and
Types of deforestation mainly for sleeper bars and for building other developmental needs. Poverty
1. Land clearing for the grazing of naval boats massive mono culture severely effects least developed countries as
dairy cattle and other life stock programmes such as coffee, tea rubber and well as developing countries this increases
2. To obtain and expand spices were carried out in Sri Lanka, Kenya, the over consumption of forest resources
Agricultural lands, mono culture Togo, and India (Assam and Kumeon). without any impact assessment or analysis.
such as tea, wheat, paddy, oil Similarly, Araucaria Zone of southern Adopted from ‘Rainforestinfo’, (n.d.).
Brazil, Sahelien Africa and Thailand are
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Causes of deforestation cultivation of soy, most of the soy is used Organization (FAO) of the UN estimates as
by poultry, pork, cattle and farm fish, in the cited in Lauren Berger, Brighter Green, 30
1. Land clearing for the grazing of dairy period of 1981-1990 about 75 million per cent of worlds’ land has been consumed
cattle and other life stock hectares were destroyed most of the area for the production of milk and meets
In Central America deforestation was was converted to pasture (David, 1996). In (Lauren, Brighter, n.d.). In New Zealand,
carried out for cattle production, over the South America about 4 million hectares of according to ministry of agriculture and
last four decades the forest cover has been forest are destroyed annually this includes forestry about 455,000 hectares forest land
declined by 40%, in the period of 2004- the most precious Amazon (Figure 3), is at risk due to pastoral expansion MAF
2005 about 1.2 million rainforest were Argentina, Brazilian Cerrado, the Chacoand (2006) similarly, deforestation for cattle
destroyed for Soybean crop as cattle feed. the Atlantic forest of South America. ranching severely affects East African
(Charles, Robert and David, 1995). In Latin According to Food and Agriculture countries such as Ethiopia and Kenya.
America forest lands are abducted for the

Figure 3 Causes of Deforestation in the Amazon 2000-2005, Source: The Merig (2014)
land for cultivation, this land is known as fallow period helps to retrieve the soil
2. To obtain and expand Agricultural swidden which is rich in nutrients but this nutrients. Burning and land clearing causes
lands, mono culture such as tea, land is left after short period of cultivation, loss of biodiversity as many species leave or
wheat, paddy, oil palm and then the vegetation reappears this is also die this includes the viable seeds.
vegetables. referred as shifting cultivation. However, (‘Geography’, n.d.).
According to recent studies of (Charles, regrown forest may not have the complexity In 20th century, swidden crops of Europe
Robert and David (1995) showed nearly as virgin forest and it may grow through the were turnips, flax, barley, wheat, rye, oats,
half (49%) of the deforestation in tropic succession. It is always advisable to do millet and radish, usually the duration is one
region is due to the illegal clearing for slash and burn while keeping the large trees year, in favourable soil this was extended to
commercial agriculture. Oil palm, soy, without cutting, downed vegetation is 2-3 years (Linnard 1970, 195 as cited in
rubber, coffee, tea, and rice plantations took allowed to dry to ensure efficient burning, ‘Shifting cultivation’, n.d.). During 1930-
much of the tropical forest area worldwide land is burnt to clear vegetation and drive 1950s this technique was widely used in
(‘WWF Global’, n.d.). In Malaysia more the pest away, remaining ashes are rich in countries such as Bosnia, Serbia, Hungary,
than 3.5 million ha. of forest have been nutrients and used for plantation. This the Caucasus, Estonia, Poland, Switzerland,
cleared for rubber and palm cultivation. method is used for over 12,000 years, often Germany and Austria. (‘Shifting
Annually worldwide deforestation for used in grass lands and rain forest, most cultivation’, n.d.).
Tobacco plantation alone ranging 1.2 to 5.5 commonly in practice in Northern South
million ha. (‘Science daily’, 2014) Western America, Southeast Asia and central Africa. 4. Logging for commercial needs such
Europe’s forests have been removed due to In South Asia this is most popularly known as pulp, rubber, resins, timber
ongoing population growth and as chena cultivation. harvest, charcoal and fire wood.
agricultural expansion. Major adverse effect is loss of soil fertility Indonesia, Sumatra, Bomeo, New Guinea,
due to erosion. As the loss of tree layers, Russian Far East, Atlantic forest region in
3. Subsistence farming through slash litter and roots subsequently reduces the Brazil and Southern Chile pulpwood
and burn forest cuttings including water holding capacity and causes close by industry took much of its natural forest.
unplanned ‘chena’ river flows to decline and land dry off. About 40% of timber is harvested for paper
Slash and burn agriculture is the process of Longer the crop higher the loss of nutrients, production. Mainly in poor countries
cutting down and setting fire and burn the reduction in cation exchange capacity and subsistence agriculture causes 48%,
chosen slot of forest land and then use the increase in soil acidity. However, longer commercial agriculture is responsible for
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32%, commercial logging 14% and charcoal mph which toppled the trees and debris soil Europe alone (University World News,
and other fuel wood removal causes less was taken as airborne sandpaper, according 2014).
than 6% of deforestation (Hogan, 2014). to the study of NASA in 2007 depicted, an El Nino of 1997-98 caused severe forest fire
estimate of 320 million trees were damaged which burned the forest vegetation in
Poorly designed property right system, in both Mississippi and Louisiana (Carrie, Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sulawesi, Iran, Java,
increasing population, widespread poverty 2012). In 1980 hurricane in Mount St. Papua New Guinea, Bali, Lombock and
increases the need for land and to increase Helens wiped out a forest area of 150,000 Sarawak, Malaysia the total area had
the per capita income many developing acres (Thomas H. M and Karen K., n.d.). reached up to 5 million ha. (Rhett, 2013),
countries have been foraging the forest 2005 earthquake in magnitude of 7.6 1982-83 ENSO caused depletion of
resources, lax forest management, Richter in Pakistan severely affected the moisture in both vegetation and soil and
displacement of indigenous people, loss of Himalayan region 3% of conifer forest was resulted in forest fire causing loss of 3.7
traditional way of food harvest, live hood lost (2009). Wenchuan earth quack of China million ha. in Kalimantan alone, this ENSO
and procurement methods (Hogan, 2014). in 2008 caused a loss of 330,000 acres of (called “Ash Wednesday”) also caused
forest area including the habitats of Panda. many public health implications. 1997
5. Development for expanding (Lu et al., 2012). In volcanic eruptions forest fires in Kalimantan and Sumatra had
civilization, industrialization, subsequent ass fall affects the trees, deposits a devastating effect. Forest fires are more
irrigation, mineral mining, energy, thicker than 100 mm affect young trees, frequent in Australia, Indonesia, Brazil,
transport, job creation and tourism. however, larger deposits greater than 500 Russia, Canada and Southern United States
mm can break the branches, even re- during the El Nino events.
Many governments increase the access of plantation on silicic ash such as rhyolite is 7. Manmade environmental problems
forest resources for poverty alleviation, job difficult due to the deficiency of N and Ca Emission of greenhouse gases caused global
creation and for the expansion of civilized (Neild et al., 1998). 1995 eruption of warming this intensifies the natural drought
2
area such as colonization schemes and Ruapehu, New Zealand destroyed 20 km of event or droughts during El Nino events
expansion of cities. Secondly, industrial beach forest (Cronin and others, 2003), rain further.
needs such as implementation of industrial fall with the volcanic emissions causes acid Acid rain and acid deposition due to air
processing zones and storage plants. rain due to its acidic contents, in Costa Rica pollution causes severe loss to natural
Thirdly, development activities including acid rain affects the vegetation as the forest; in China Sichuan basin among
rail way, road and high way construction, downwind of Poàs volcano flows over 275,600 ha of forest about 15,000 ha of
air ports, irrigation water ways, reservoirs (Peterson and Tilling, 2000). In 2010, forest have been died due to acid
and dams. Most of the mineral deposits such volcanic eruption of Merapi mount precipitation (Feng, 1993).
as Gold, copper, other precious metals, Indonesia caused a loss of 1.12 million trees
diamonds and gem stones are found in in 2,800 ha. of forest area net value of A Survey in 1983 in West Germany showed
forests. Amazon forest has been affected by destructed trees is approximately 222.2 34% of countries forest has been damaged
gold mining activities due to its alluvial dollars (‘Volcano eruption’, 2010). 1980s by acid rain; this is 14% in Switzerland
gold deposits; clearing also involved the use Mount St. Helens volcanic eruption caused (Ophardt, 2003). Southeastern Canada,
of heavy machinery. loss of timber worth $114 million at the Northeastern United States and most of
Tourism and hotel construction also affects Gifford Pinchot national forest said by Europe including portions of Sweden,
the forest ecosystem such as Cape forest supervisor Robert D. Tokarczyk Poland, Norway, and Germany are facing
Tribulation in Australia affected by (Foxworthy & Mary Hill, 1982). In 2007, more intense acidification occurrences. In
excessive tourist’s interference fires in Southeast Amazonia burned 10 addition, some amount of acid deposition is
(Rainforestinfo, n.d.). Projects of energy times more forest than in an average found in parts of South Asia, South Africa,
such as hydroelectric power, windmills, weather, area is equivalent to million soccer Sri Lanka and Southern India. (‘conserve-
nuclear reactor plants are constructed in fields said Douglas Morton, NASA. energy-future’, n.d.). According to China’s
cleared forest lands, in Brazil about 1750 (‘Science daily’, 2014) Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA)
2
km of forest area was flooded for the Severe drought in 2005 caused a dieback of annual loss in both forestry and agriculture
Tucurui dam, the estimated electricity canopy across an area the size of California, in China due to acid rain is $13.25 billion.
production is 7.6 megawatts (Wolfe and covers 30 % of the Amazon. The 2010 study
Prance, 1998). cites well documented recent forest die offs 8. War and civil unrest.
in Spain, Greece, Russia, Australia, and In some countries government and terrorism
6. Natural catastrophic event such as North America, During 2010 drought 57 % factors are dominant factors; war also
hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic of Amazonia had low rainfall.( Simon, another reason, Vietnam War causes
eruptions, acid rain, forest fires or El 2011; Caroline, 2013). massive sprayed defoliation, burning and
Nino and other climatic changes. destruction of forest trees. Destruction of
Hurricane of Katrina in 2005 affected 5 According to Derek Eamus, in Southern forest cover by US forces during the war
million acres of forest across Mississippi, Europe crop loss and mortality of forests alone was estimated as 4.9 million hectares.
Louisiana and Alabama the estimated were high, Crop losses and forest mortality, (Brian Hill, n.d.) Warfare in central Africa
damage in Mississippi alone is $ 1.25 during the drought in 2003, causes more also causes displacement of communities
billion, the speed of the wind was at 140 than 500,000 ha. of forest lost in southern and farm lands, this cause deforestation on a
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massive scale. collect pulp for paper industry, but unlike are managed this way. Variable retention is
Nuclear explosion of Hiroshima and indigenous varieties Pines absorb much a kind of harvesting and regeneration
Nagasaki in Japan 1945, destroyed nearby moisture required by their huge method which keeps the understory layer
forests including a large forest with accumulation of biomass and pine litter also and forest floor undisturbed in order to
Cryptomeria trees. (Horoshima, n.d.) reduces the infiltration of rain water through preserve the structural complexity. Clear
soil as it is not readily decomposed like cutting and patch clearing, here all
Afforestation and Reforestation ordinary mulch due to its oiliness. This unwanted tall trees are cut to facilitate the
Planting a tree is generally for establishing causes soil layers to dry up, and resulted in availability full sun light for saplings E.g.
wind breaks, shelter belts, timber, fuel depletion of perennial river flow (which Walnut, red oak, yellow poplar, yellow pine
wood, flowers, nuts, vegetables, medicinal directly affects the countries hydro power etc.
plants and wildlife. Maintaining or generation). In addition dry soil layers tend
protection against forest degradation can be to move apart, this resulted in landslides in III. Even aged and uneven aged
successful by planting, site preparation, tree many areas during rainy season said Prof. Usually stands that developed after pasture
improvement, fertilization, uneven aged Sarath Kotagama, University of Colombo, or heavy cutting events are generally even
stand management, thinning, pruning, Sri Lanka. Furthermore, they also cause in age. In uneven aged strands generally
weeding, cleaning, liberation cutting or forest fires during dry weather. So it is there is an over story above, so it ultimately
other appropriate silviculture techniques, important to study the possible impacts favours the shade tolerant crops such as
maintaining or increasing the landscape before implementing invasive species or any sugar maple, beech and hemlock. However
level carbon density using forest advanced techniques weather it suits or not. shade intolerant species also can be grown if
conservation strategies, longer forest In silviculture selecting the right variety is thinning and harvesting are done frequently.
rotations, fire management and protecting initially considered as a key element, rather
against insect pests. (IPCC, 2007) than working on ecological parameters and IV. Group selection
harvesting methods. Selection is depending Where small tree groups are removed
Ethnobiology (Indigenous knowledge) on the purpose; for what reason the forest to leaving large varieties (opposite to clear cut)
It is essential to get access to indigenous be generated mainly for. this method promotes uneven aged strands
community in every forest management for the entire forest. Only shade tolerant
programmes as they are considered as part I. Intermediate cuttings varieties can be cultivated such as sugar
of the forest ecosystem. They are well This includes commercial thinning of trees maple (on better sites) and oak (on poor
aware of native plant species, plant animal that have attained sufficient growth and to sites).
relationships, and locations of species be used for timber, pulp, fuel wood or saw.
richness, animal behaviors and exploitable In thinning by reducing the number of trees V. Crop tree management
resources such as medicinal plants, and given independence to the most desired Here a manager identifies good trees and
structural stratification of the area, soil type, tree from competition, smaller and species on better sites, then frees them to
weather pattern, etc. They also know the malformed trees are cut and give space, sun grow independently by clearing the rest
traditional methods of conservation of light and other resource to the desired ones. unwanted vegetation.
forest. Agro forestry has been managed by E.g. Low thinning, crown thinning
American Indian people for thousands of (increases light penetration), selection VI. But log forestry
year s they utilized natural animal behaviors thinning, mechanical thinning, free thinning, It resembles the crop tree management, in
for their own benefits Eg. American Indians loose thinning and Ecological this method veneer logs are produced in
cultivate nectar flowers in order to attract thinning( aims to the development of wild relatively short time. When crowns begin to
predatory ants as it gives protection and life). close week trees are removed branches of
techniques for culturing honey bees. the crops are trimmed at 17 feet.
II. Regeneration cuts
Silviculture techniques This occurs on mature older stands that are VII. High grading diameter limit cutting
Silviculture techniques are not so innovative ready for harvest, these also occur on young Where marketable trees over certain
in modern science instead there are adapted stands which are identified as poor in diameter (14" DBH for pine & 10" DBH for
or ameliorated practices and methods of our quality. This is usually done either seed tree hard wood) are cut and more suppressed and
ancient cultivars. However, using advanced method or shelter wood method, in seed tree less vigorous varieties are left.
techniques not always result in best result it method widely spaced residual trees are (Adapted from ‘Silvicultural Methods’, n.d.;
also require proper analysis and assessments kept to facilitate dispersal of their seedlings Silvicultural Systems, n.d.; Silviculture,
prior to the implementation and it is also in order to regenerate the forest, in shelter 2014.)
important to select the right species at the wood method trees are partially cut
right habitat for example, in Sri Lanka, Pine periodically for several years which is Most popular Afforestation and
and Eucalyptus(nonnative plants) trees are eventually culminates the final cut and gives Reforestation programs
introduced as a substitute to natural way to new generation even aged strand. Forest plantation in a land which does not
mountain forest, hence, other trees cannot Coppicing also a regeneration method and it have any forest in last 50 years of history is
grow in degraded soil without undergoing dose depend on the sprouting of cut trees, Afforestation, if it has an occurrence of
succession (it takes long time)and aiming to trees such as pines that sprout from stumps forest within last five decades then it is
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Reforestation. General features of this mechanism are 1. United Nations Framework

reforestation of native forests, plantations Convention on Climate Change
 China annually increased its forest for timber, agro forest or multipurpose tree (UNFCCC) or Kyoto convention.
cover by 11,500 square miles, an plantations and healing barren lands. Kyoto This was made due to the increased
area the size of Massachusetts, Protocol governs Land use, land use, change concern on global warming due to
according to a report from the and forestry (LULUCF) and modalities and anthropogenic means and mainly aiming to
United Nations in 2011. China’s procedures for CDM. Organizations such as limit the emission of greenhouse gases
Great Green Wall was designed to International Tropical Timber Organization protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11
plant nearly 90 million acres of new (ITTO) carried out the task according to the December 1997. It also discussed various
forest. discussed strategies. forestry practices including techniques of
(Jon, 2012). agro forestry such as tilling use of natural
 Reforestation in Korea: Between Role of International Tropical Timber fertilizers which could enhance the release
1961 and 1995, stocked forest land Organization (ITTO) of greenhouse gases. Discussions such as
went up from 4 million ha. to 6.3 International organizations such as ITTO, Land use, land use, change and forestry
million ha. Total timber rose from encourages conservation, sustainable (LULUCF) and modalities and procedures
30.8 million cubic meters in 1954 to development, use and trade of forest for Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
over 164.4 million cubic meters in resources. It has 59 members represent are major breakthrough in forest
1984. By 2008, 11 billion trees had about 80% of tropical forests and 90% conservation.
been planted about two-thirds of tropical timber trade worldwide. ITTO
South Korea is now clothed with collects analyses and circulates data on 2. Convention on Biological
forest. production and trade of timber and allocates Diversity (CDB).
funds since 1987. It has funded more than Treaty aims following three aspects
 Reforestation in Tanzania: the 750 reforestation and afforestation projects conservation of biological diversity,
Kwimba Reforestation Project: valued US$290 million. Donors are mostly sustainable use of components of
During the nine year period of the Japan, Switzerland and the USA. biodiversity and fair and equitable sharing
project’s run, over 6.4 million trees of benefits arising from the use of genetic
were planted. CDM projects resources. It covers levels of biodiversity
 Pearl River Watershed such as ecosystem, species and genetic
 Reforestation in Mexico: the Management, China: This project diversity. It covers biotechnology by
Mixteca Region: Center for Integral proposes to alleviate local poverty Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. In 2010 a
Small Farmer Development in the and reduce threats to forests by ten year strategic action plan (2011-2020)
Mixteca reforested with 1 million afforesting 4,000 hectares in the was adopted by relevant parties to ensure
trees covers more than 1000 ha. Guangxi Zhuang. Project also the safe guard of natural biodiversity.
includes half of the Pearl River
 Reforestation in the United States: basin. 3. United Nations Convention to
the Appalachian Regional Combat Desertification (UNCCD).
Reforestation Initiative: 60 million  Pico Bonito Forest Restoration, UNCCD targets those countries
trees have been planted on about Honduras: This is a pilot project on experiencing serious drought and/or
87,000 acres of active mine sites in agroforestry to support small scale desertification, mainly in Africa. It provides
Appalachia under ARRI’s guidance. farmers of 20 villages with in the strategic plan to combat desertification,
Pico Bonito National park buffer mitigating the effects of droughts,
 Reforestation in Colombia: zone of 2,600 ha. Main roles of the sustainable development, improving
Gaviotas: Villagers have project are introducing agroforestry productivity of the land, living condition
successfully reforested about for small scale farmers, and expansion of the forest.
20,000 acres as a result rainfall has reforestation to promote
increased by 10%. (‘Sustainablog’, conservation, establishment of 4. International Tropical Timber
2011). sustainable commercial grade Agreement (ITTA).
plantation. Its main objective is to promote the
 Japan after World War II, have international timber trade from tropical
done intensive reforestation from  San Nicolás Afforestation project: sources. However, it is adopted in 1992 in
1950-1970, during that period This project includes both forest order to achieve sustainable management of
professional silviculture spread out and agroforest plantation in an tropical forest as “Year 2000 objective” by
in every Japanese village. (Gerry, abandoned pasture land of 8,730 ha. International Tropical Timber Organization.
2005) in San Nicolás, Colombia.
(Timothy, Sarah and Sandra, 2006). 5. Other conventions related to
Forestry projects under the Clean forest.
Development Mechanism (CDM) of the International Conventions related to Ramsar convention on wet land (which aims
Kyoto Protocol. forest ecosystem and conservation to protect all kinds of wet land ecosystem),
 8

Convention on protecting World Cultural related to forest). integrated manner with the participation of
and Natural Heritage (this aims to protect (Adopted from Ruis, n.d.). relevant agents and departments such as
heritage of outstanding universal value, forest, wildlife, and representatives of
forest can be considered as natural heritage), Conclusion general public of the area with the sufficient
CITES( Convention on International Trade To conclude, the causes of deforestation are contribution of government and the
on Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and mostly anthropogenic except natural indigenous community. In addition, this can
Flora: aims to restrict the overexploitation disaster events. Effects of the deforestation be further ameliorated by implementing
of wild plant and animal species via take comparatively longer period to get inclusive developmental mechanism with
international trade), Convention concerning cured. It is believed well studied the collaborative effort of agriculturist,
Indigenous and Tribal People in deforestation, afforestation and reforestation Natural biologist, environmentalist,
Independent Countries ( aims to protect activities with a clear cut impact analysis indigenous community, economist,
social, cultural and economic rights of with definite goal would ensure the healing sociologist and policy makers.
indigenous people, it also includes of the adverse effects. It is also visible;
protecting their habitats as they are mostly forest management should be done in an

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