THE PAPER

FACTORS THAT CAUSE BIODIVERSITY DEGRADATION

Compiled By :

Fajri Riadi

C1M017034

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE

MATARAM UNIVERSITY

2020
 CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY
1.1 Background

Biodiversity or biological diversity is a term that describes the variety of living beings on
earth. In shot, it described as degree of variation of life. Biological diversity encompasses
microorganism, plants, animals and ecosystem such as coral reefs, forest, rainforest, desert, etc.
Biodiversity also refers to the number, or abundance of different species living within a particular
region. It represent the wealth of biological resources available to us. It’s all abot the sustaining
the natural area made up of community of plants, animal, and other living things that is being
reduced at a steady rate as we plan human activities that is being reduced by habitat destruction.

In biodiversity, each species, no matter how big or small has an important role to play in
ecosystem. Various plant and animal species depend on each other for what each offers and these
diverse species ensures natural sustainability for all life forms. All of the Earth’s species work
together to survive and maintain their ecosystems. For example, the grass in pastures feeds cattle.
Cattle then produce manure that returns nutrients to the soil, which helps to grow more grass.
This manure can also be used to fertilize cropland. Many species provide important benefits to
humans, including food, clothing, and medicine. A healthy and solid biodiversity can recover
itself from variety of disasters.

Biodiversity is unvenly distributed. It varies globally and within regions. The various
factor that influence biodivesity include temperature, altitude, precipitation, solis and their
relation with other species. For instance, oceanbiodiversity is 25 times lesser than terrestrial
diversity. Biodiversity also increase it’s from as it moves from the poles towards the tropics.
Biodiversity is the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution. It has been subject to periods of
extinction. The lates and most destructive stage of extinction is Holocene extinction, which has
occured due to the impact of human beings on the enviroment.

Biodiversity has a number funtion on the eart. These are as maintaining balance of the
ecosystem, provision of biological resources, and social benefit. The role of biodiversity in the
following areas will help make clear the importance of biodiversity in human life such as a
source of clothing, shelter, and food, source of medicines. Medicines from nature account for
usage by 80% of the world population. Biological sources provide many industrial material.
These include fiber, oil, dyes, rubber, water, timber, paper, etc. Biodiversity also enhances
recreational activities like bird watching, fishing, trekking etc.

The earth’s biodiversity is in grave danger. In the present era, human beings are the most
dangerous cause of destruction of the earth’s biodiversity. In 2006, the terms threatened,
endangered or rare were used to describe the status of many species. The “evil quartet” identified
by Jared Diamond is overkill, habitat destruction, secondary extinction and introducrd species.
Factor identified by Edward Wilson are describe by the acronym-HIPPO standing for habitat
destruction, climate change, invasive species, pollution, human overpopulation, and over
harvesting. Thus, it’s very importan to write this paper to find out what factors affect biodiversity
degradation both caused by natural factors and due to human activities.

1.2 Writing purpose

The purpose of writing this paper to find out what factors affect biodiversity degradation or loss.
 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
Factors that cause biodiversity degradation or loss :
Natural biodiversity degradation/loss
An area’s biodiversity increase and deceases with natural cycles. Seasonal changes, such
as the onset of spring, create oppurtunities for feeding and breeding, insreasing biodiversity as the
populations of many species rise. In contrast, the onset of winter temporarily decreases an area’s
biodiversity, as warm-adapted insects die and migrating animals leave. In addition, the seasonal
rise and fall of plant and invertebrate populations (such as insects and plankton), which serve as
food for other forns of life, also determinate an area’s biodiversity (Encyclopedia Brittanica,
2019).

Biodiversity loss is typically associated with more permanent ecological changes in

ecosystems, landscapes, and the global biosphere. Natural ecological disturbances, such as
wildfire, tsunami, and volcanic eruptions, change ecosystems drastically by eliminating local
populations of some species and transforming whole biological communities. Such
disturbances are temporary, however, because natural disturbances are common and
ecosystems have adapted to their challenges.

1. Tsunami
Once referred to as tidal waves, a tsunami represents an extremely high wave of water
that moves from out at sea towards land. Because of the enormous volume of water and energy
that travels inland, extended areas along the coast are immediately devastated as these natural
disasters strike the coastal ecosystems. Underwater landslides, earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions can all cause tsunamis, by displacing gigantic waves that are sustained by gravity as
they travel towards land at over 800 kilometers per hour. Tsunamis are also caused as the ocean
floor suddenly deforms due to tectonic earthquake activity and vertically displaces the immense
volume of water lying above it. While out at sea, tsunamis have a small wave height, but
extended wavelength of up to 200 kilometers. The height of these waves rises dramatically,
though, as the tsunami reaches land and the resulting damage to coastal ecosystems can be
cataclysmic. As coral reefs, mangrove forests and wetlands are all dependant upon each for
nutrient supplies, the destruction of one will ultimately affect the overall coastal ecosystem. The
destruction of coral reef fish populations leads to the elimination of other species that depended
on them as a food source, while on land, the soil that was exposed to salt sedimentation, becomes
infertile, resulting in the loss of biodiversity in the form of coastal forests and the animal life that
they supported (Bolton, 2017).

2. Volcanic activity
The eruption of volcanoes and subsequent lava flow has an immediate negative effect on
surrounding ecosystems, but through the process of primary succession, the forest habitat begins
the process of re-colonization almost immediately. Many plants in the form of seeds and spores
and animal species, particularly insect life such as crickets and spiders, arrive from adjacent areas
to take up residence. These life forms are specifically adapted to survive in the severe conditions
following a larva flow and spearhead the succession process. The progeny of these pioneer
species change the original sterile conditions to the point where a new and normally more diverse
forest ecosystem has developed within a 150 year period (Bolton, 2017).

3. Wildfires
These uncontrolled and violent infernos, travelling at speeds in excess of 20 kilometers
per hour, are capable of destroying everything in their path. The perfect conditions for wildfires
include drought, heat and frequent thunderstorms. Once these fires exist, they can burn for weeks
and do great damage to the ecosystem that they travel through. Despite the initial destruction of
habitats, wildfires play an integral part in rejuvenation an ecosystem by consuming decaying
matter, destroying diseased trees and related vegetation, creating conditions for new seedlings to
germinate and by returning nutrients to the forest floor. (Bolton, 2017).

Human-Driven Biodiversity Degradation/loss

Biodiversity is traditionally defined as the variety of life on Earth in all its forms and it
comprises the number of species, their genetic variation and the interaction of these lifeforms.
However, from past few years the human-driven biodiversity loss are causing more severe and
longer-lasting impacts. Main reasons for biodiversity loss are as follows:

1. Overexploitation (especially overfishing).

For marine systems, the dominant direct driver of change globally has been overfishing.
Demand for fish as food for people and as feed for aquaculture production is increasing,
 resulting in increased risk of major, long-lasting collapses of regional marine fisheries.
Over much of the world the biomass of fish targeted in fisheries (including that of both
the target species and those caught incidentally) has been reduced by 90% relative to
levels prior to the onset of industrial fishing. About three quarters (75%) of the world’s
commercial marine fisheries are either fully exploited (50%) or overexploited (25%)
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).
 Exploitation of selected species
Exploitation of important plants in the medicine industry has resulted in their
disappearance from many of their natural habitats. Many of these plants are ruthlessly
collected for teaching and laboratory work (Global Issues, “Global Issues : Loss Of
Biodiversity”).
 Collection for research
If species are collected for research, there could be a disturbance in the ecosystem
(Global Issues, “Global Issues : Loss Of Biodiversity”).
2. Habitat transformation, particularly from conversion to agriculture.
Cultivated systems (areas where at least 30% of the landscape is in croplands, shifting
cultivation, confined livestock production, or freshwater aquaculture) now cover one
quarter of Earth’s terrestial surface. Under the MA scenarios, a further 10– 20% of
grassland and forestland is projected to be converted by 2050 (primarily to agriculture).
While the expansion of agriculture and its increased productivity is a success story of
enhanced production of one key ecosystem service, this success has come at high and
growing costs in terms of trade-offs with other ecosystem services, both through the direct
impact of land cover change and as a result of release of nutrients into rivers and water
withdrawals for irrigation (globally, roughly 15–35% of such irrigation withdrawals are
estimated to be unsustainable (low to medium certainty). Habitat loss also occurs in
coastal and marine systems, though these transformations are less well documented.
Trawling of the seabed, for instance, can significantly reduce the diversity of benthic
habitats, while destructive fishing and coastal development can lead to losses of coral
reefs (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).
 Habitats can be destroyed by people for settlement, agriculture, mining,
construction, etc. This forces species to adapt to the changes or move elswhere. Species
can also fall into starvation and sooner or late die (Global Issues, “Global Issues : Loss Of
Biodiversity”).
Some anthropogenic activities responsible for habitat destruction include the
construction of coastal protection, land reclamation, aggregate (sand and gravel)
extraction, recreation and developments including ports, harbours and industries.
Additionally, the growing number of tourists presents a significant threat to many coastal
habitats in Europe, which can disturb by trampling or direct harvesting. In offshore
waters, exploration and development of oil and gas activities threaten marine habitats,
mainly with discharges of oil and other pollutants. Physical damage to marine habitats can
result from fishing activities such as bottom trawling. Deep-water trawlers use heavy
rock-hopping equipment, which has been reported to cause long-term to seabed habitats
such as cold-water coral reefs in Norwegian, Scottish and Irish waters (Coastal wiki,
2019).
3. Change in land use (e.g. deforestation, intensive monoculture, urbanization)
According to the UN's Global Biodiversity Outlook 2014 estimates that 70 percent of
the projected loss of terrestrial biodiversity are caused by agriculture use. Moreover, more
than 1/3 of the planet's land surface is utilised for crops and grazing of livestock.
Agriculture destroys biodiversity by converting natural habitats to intensely managed
systems and by releasing pollutants, including greenhouses gases. Food value chains
further amplify impacts including through energy use, transport and waste. The direct
effects of urban growth on habitat loss are well understood:Building construction often
results in habitat destruction and fragmentation. The rise of urbanization greatly reduced
biodiversity when large areas of natural habitat are fragmented. Small habitat patches are
unable to support the same level of genetic or taxanomic diversity as they formerly could
while some of the more sensitive species may become locally extinct (Wikipedia, 2020 ).
Perhaps the most obvious repercussions of land use change are loss, fragmentation,
and
degradation of habitat. Conversion of natural habitats to agriculture or other intensive
human land uses causes these areas to become inhospitable for many native species.
 This conversion also reduces the area of natural habitats. Established theories in island
biogeography (Rosenzweig 1995) and empirical evidence (Pimm
and Askins 1995) indicate that community diversity declines as habitat area is reduced
as a function of the well-known species area relationship. Smaller habitats can support
fewer individuals within a population, hence rates of extinction increase with habitat
loss (Pimm et al. 1988). The spatial pattern of habitat also influences biodiversity
potential. Habitats with small patch sizes, increased edge to area ratios, and increased
distance among patches fail to support habitat interior specialists and species with poor
dispersal abilities (Laurance et al. 2002). Within forest stands, simplification of the
number of canopy layers and other measures of forest structure reduces the microhabitats
available to organisms and again, reduces biodiversity (Hunter 1999).
4. Biotic exchange.
The spread of invasive alien species and disease organisms has increased because of
increased trade and travel, including tourism. Increased risk of biotic exchange is an
inevitable effect of globalization. While increasingly there are measures to control some
of the pathways of invasive species for example, through quarantine measures and new
rules on the disposal of ballast water in shipping several pathways are not adequately
regulated, particularly with regard to introductions into freshwater systems (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005)
5. Nutrient loading.
Since 1950, nutrient loading anthropogenic increases in nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur,
and other nutrient-associated pollutants has emerged as one of the most important drivers
of ecosystem change in terrestrial, freshwater, and coastal ecosystems, and this driver is
projected to increase substantially in the future (high certainty). For example, synthetic
production of nitrogen fertilizer has been a key driver for the remarkable increase in food
production during the last 50 years. Humans now produce more reactive (biologically
available) nitrogen than is produced by all natural pathways combined (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005)
 6. Introduction of exotic species

Species that arent a natural inhabitant of the enviroment that are intentionally or accidentally
introduced are known as exotic species. This forces native species to competefor food and space
(Global Issues, “Global Issues : Loss Of Biodiversity”).

Human activities play a robust responsibility in contrast with other natural process in changing
the biodiversity and invasions of species (Dwivedi et al. 2004). The loss of biological diversity is
one of the most profound effects of humans on the global environment. Non-native species

threaten biodiversity from local to global (Cardinale et al. 2012) and also treated the

function of ecosystem globally. For the example, invasion of non-native species in freshwater
ecosystem (e.g. rivers, reservoirs, wetlands) are first of all threatened commercial fishes with
alteration of ecosystem function. As a consequence to the failure of the natural functions of the
ecosystem. Non-native species may become invasive and are capable of spreading

exotic diseases, decreasing biodiversity through competition, predation and habitat degradation,
genetic deterioration of wild populations through hybridization and gene introgression in short or
long course of time (Daga et al. 2015).

7. Polution

Pollution from burning fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas can remain in the air as particle
pollutants or fall to the ground as acid rain. Acid rain, which is primarily composed of sulfuric
and nitric acid, causes acidification of lakes, streams and sensitive forest soils, and contributes to
slower forest growth and tree damage at high elevations. Moreover, Carbon dioxide released
from burning fossil fuels and biomass, deforestation, and agricultural practices contributes to
greenhouse gases, which prevent heat from escaping the earth’s surface. With the increase in
temperature expected from increasing greenhouse gases, there will be higher levels of air
pollution, greater variability in weather patterns, and changes in the distribution of vegetation in
the landscape. These two factors play a huge role towards biodiversity loss and entirely depended
on human-driven factors (Wikipedia, 2020 ).

Atmospheric and hydrologic pollution have far-reaching negative effects on biodiversity.

Pollution from burning fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas can remain in the air as particle
pollutants or fall to the ground as acid rain. Acid rain, which is primarily composed of sulfuric
and nitric acid, causes acidification of lakes, streams and sensitive forest soils, and contributes to
slower forest growth and tree damage at high elevations. In addition, chemical pollutants such as
pesticides and herbicides leach into soils and watersheds. Some fish species, such as salmonids,
require small freshwater streams to spawn. Polluted streams result in the abandonment of
traditional spawning areas and ultimately in the loss of salmon populations. Species’ sensitivity
to pollution is variable. However, many species are vulnerable to the indirect effects of pollution
through the concentration of toxic chemicals in top predators of food chains and disruption of
predator-prey interactions (The Nature Trust of British Columbia, 2020).

For example, degradation of local habitats through human activities that caused
downstream affects things like the leaching of harmful chemicals from mines into the
water table. Waterborne pollutans can pop out in very unusual places and have really
big downstream effects. the pun on the reprodictive viability of oraganism that happen
to be in those places, there also dead zones in the ocean caused by nitrogen fertilizers
that wash into rives where the rivers floe into the sea, the nitrogen causes blooms of
bacteria which in turn up the oxygen (California Academy of Sciences, “Human
activities that threaten biodiversity”)
There are lots of strange molecules that humans are producing and dumping. one of
the is hormone mimics, simple compounds derived from prescription drugs and other
man made chemicals that get flushed into waterways. Hormone mimics act like
naturally occuring hormones that control normal development of wild organisms,
particularly water-living ones. Hormone mimics can also adversely affect on
reproductive organ causes Abnormalities in Reproductive Functions of organisms
(California Academy of Sciences, “Human activities that threaten biodiversity”).
 According to California Academy of Science in “Human activities that threaten
biodiversity”, it states that noise pollution and light pollution also affect organisms. Noise
pollution greatly affects birds, birds are very sensitive to noise levels. noise pollution will
cause changes in behavior and the reproductive pattern in birds. Noise can also be a major
factor in marine mammal survival. Evidence suggest that sonor pollution interferes with
the health of marine mammals.
Patterns of reproduction can also be upset by inroduction of light pollution to place where
there wasnt light before. Sea turtle hatchlings can be impacted by artificial light heading
toward it instead of the ocean when they hatch out of their nests on the beach.
8. Global Climate Change
Climate change is already having an impact on biodiversity, and is projected to become a
progressively more significant threat in the coming decades. Loss of Arctic sea ice threatens
biodiversity across an entire biome and beyond. The related pressure of ocean acidification,
resulting from higher concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, is also already being
observed (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity ,2010).

Carbon dioxide released from burning fossil fuels and biomass, deforestation, and agricultural
practices contributes to greenhouse gases, which prevent heat from escaping the earth’s surface.
With the increase in temperature expected from increasing greenhouse gases, there will be higher
levels of air pollution, greater variability in weather patterns, and changes in the distribution of
vegetation in the landscape. Some species will not be able to adapt to these changes in the
environment and will become extinct. However, it is expected that many plant and animal species
will attempt to disperse to higher latitudes and altitudes as the temperature increases. Therefore,
any barriers in the landscape, such as highways and urban areas that prevent movement to more
hospitable environments, will result in loss of biodiversity (The Nature Trust of British
Columbia, 2020).

Climate change is projected to exacerbate the loss of biodiversity and increase the risk of
extinction for many species, especially those already at risk due to factors such as low
population numbers, restricted or patchy habitats, and limited climatic ranges (medium to
high certainty) (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).
A number of species will be affected physiologically by climate change. There is evidence that
some species are physiologically vulnerable to temperature spikes. For example, the green
ringtail possum, an endemic species of Queensland’s tropical rainforests, cannot control its body
temperature when the ambient temperature rises above 30°C. An extended heatwave in north
Queensland could kill off a large part of its population (Australian Academy of Science, 2015).

Land degradation is also a significant contributor to climate change, the report warns.
Deforestation, the destruction of wetlands and other forms of land conversion can release massive
amounts of carbon into the atmosphere, which may worsen global warming. Climate change can
continue the cycle by thawing out frozen ecosystems, creating harsher conditions for vegetation
to survive, and increasing the severity of storms and other natural disasters, which can also
damage natural landscapes (Scientific American, 2018).
 CHAPTER III
CLOSING
Conclution

Thus, it can be seen that there are several factors that influence the decline (loss) of
biodiversity both due to natural factors and human factors. Natural factors are caused by natural
disasters such as tsunami, wildfire, and volcanic eruptions. whereas human factors that affect
biodiversity are overexploitation, habitat transformation, change in land-use, biotic exchange,
nutrient loading, introduction of exotic species, pollution and climate change.
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