UNIT III: LONG-DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS

Long Duration Voltage variations, principles of regulating voltage, Devices for voltage
regulation, flickers, flicker sources and mitigation, quantifying flicker.
LONG DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS:
 Long-duration variations encompass root-mean-square (rms) deviations at power
frequencies for longer than 1 min.
 Long-duration variations can be either over voltages or under voltages.
 Over voltages and under voltages generally is not the result of system faults, but are
caused by load variations on the system and system switching operations.
 Such variations are typically displayed as plots of rms voltage versus time.

Over voltage:
 An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110 percent at the
power frequency for duration longer than 1 min.
 Over voltage is usually the result of load switching (e.g., switching off a large load or
energizing a capacitor bank). The over voltages result because either the system is too
weak for the desired voltage regulation or voltage controls are inadequate.
 Incorrect tap settings on transformers can also result in system over voltages.

Under voltage:
 An under voltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90 percent at the
power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min.
 Under voltages are the result of switching events that are the opposite of the events
that cause over voltages.
 A load switching on or a capacitor bank switching off can cause an under voltage until
voltage regulation equipment on the system can bring the voltage back to within
tolerances.
 Overloaded circuits can result in under voltages also.

Sustained Interruptions:
 When the supply voltage has been zero for a period of time in excess of 1 min, the long-
duration voltage variation is considered a sustained interruption.
 Voltage interruptions longer than 1 min are often permanent and require human
intervention to repair the system for restoration.
 The term sustained interruption refers to specific power system phenomena and, in
general, has no relation to the usage of the term outage.
 In power quality monitoring, the term interruption has no relation to reliability or
service continuity.
 Thus interruption is only referred to the absence of voltage for long periods.
SOURCES OF POWER QUALITY DISTURBANCES:

PRINCIPLES OF REGULATING VOLTAGE

Fig: Voltage drop across the system impedance is the root cause of voltage
Regulation problems.
 Some common options for improving power system voltage regulation
 Add shunt capacitors to reduce the current I and shift it to be more in phase with the
voltage.
 Add voltage regulators, which boost the apparent V1.
 Re conductor lines to a larger size to reduce the impedance Z.
 Change substation or service transformers to larger sizes to reduce impedance Z.
 Add some kind of dynamic reactive power (var) compensation, which serves the same
purpose as capacitors for rapidly changing loads.
 Add series capacitors to cancel the inductive impedance drop IX.
CONVENTIONAL DEVICES FOR VOLTAGE REGULATION:
There are a variety of voltage regulation devices in use on utility and industrial power systems.
These are divided into three major classes:
1. Tap-changing transformers
2. Isolation devices with separate voltage regulators
3. Impedance compensation devices, such as capacitors
There are both mechanical and electronic tap-changing transformers.
The mechanical devices are for the slower-changing loads, while the electronic ones can
respond very quickly to voltage changes.

Isolation devices include UPS systems, ferroresonant (constant-voltage)transformers, and

motor-generator sets. These are devices that essentially isolate the load from the power source
by performing some sort of energy conversion. Therefore, the load side of the device can be
separately regulated and can maintain constant voltage regardless of what is occurring at the
power supply.

Impedance compensation devices include series and shunt capacitors.

Shunt capacitors help to maintain the voltage by reducing the current in the lines.
Series capacitors compensate for the inductance in the system. This will significantly reduce the
impedance in the system.

OTHER DEVICE S FOR VOLTAGE REGULATION INCLUDE:

Utility step voltage regulator:

Fig : Schematic diagram of one type of utility voltage regulator commonly applied on distribution lines.

 The typical utility tap-changing regulator can regulate from -10 to +10 percent of the
incoming line voltage.
 Distribution substation transformers commonly have three-phase load tap changers
(LTCs).
 The concept of a tap-changing autotransformer is simple, but a utility voltage regulator
has a complicated operation.
 Utility line voltage regulators and substation LTCs are relatively slow.
 The time delay when the voltage goes out of band is at least 15 sec and is commonly 30
or 45 sec.
  Their main application is boosting voltage on long feeders where the load is changing
slowly over several minutes or hours. The voltage band typically ranges from 1.5 to 3.0 V
on a 120-V base system.
 The control can be set to maintain voltage at some point on the feeder by using the line
drop compensator.
 This results in a more level average voltage response and helps prevent overvoltages on
customers near the regulator

Ferro Resonant Transformer:

Fig : Ferro resonant transformer steady-state characteristics.

 On the end-user side, ferro resonant transformers are not only useful in protecting
equipment from voltage sags but they can also be used to attain very good voltage
regulation (±1 percent output).
 As shown in Fig as the input voltage is reduced down to 30 V, the output voltage stays
constant.
 If the input voltage is reduced further, the output voltage begins to collapse.
 In addition, as the input voltage is reduced, the current drawn by the ferroresonant
transformer increases substantially from 0.4 to 2 A.
 Thus, ferroresonant transformers tend to be lossy and inefficient

Electronic tap-switching regulators:

Fig :Electronic tap-switching regulator.

 Electronic tap-switching regulators can also be used to regulate voltage.
  They are more efficient than ferroresonant transformers and use SCRs or triacs to
quickly change taps, and hence voltage.
 Tap switching regulators have a very fast response time of a half cycle and are popular
for medium-power applications.

Magnetic synthesizers:
 Magnetic synthesizers, although intended for short-duration voltage sags, can also be
used for steady-state voltage regulation.
 One manufacturer, for example, states that for input voltages of ±40 percent, the
output voltage will remain within ±5 percent at full load.

On-line UPS systems:

 On-line UPS systems intended for protection against sags and brief interruptions can
also be used for voltage regulation provided the source voltage stays sufficiently high to
keep the batteries charged.
 This is a common solution for small, critical computer or electronic control loads in an
industrial environment that has large, fluctuating loads causing the voltage to vary.

Motor-generator sets:

Fig : Motor-generator set.

 Motor-generator sets (as shown in Fig above) are also used for voltage regulation.
 They completely decouple the load from the electric power system, shielding the load
from electrical transients. Voltage regulation is provided by the generator control.
 The major drawback of motor-generator sets is their response time to large load
changes.
 Motor-generator sets can take several seconds to bring the voltage back up to the
required level, making this device too slow for voltage regulation of certain loads,
especially rapidly varying loads.
 Motor-generator sets can also be used to provide “ride through” from input voltage
variations, especially voltage sags, by storing energy in a flywheel.

Static var compensators:

  There are two main types of static var compensators in common usage, as shown in Fig
above.
 The thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) scheme is probably the most common.
 It employs a fixed capacitor bank to provide leading reactive power and a thyristor-
controlled inductance that is gated on in various amounts to cancel all or part of the
capacitance.
 The capacitors are frequently configured as filters to clean up the harmonic distortion
caused by the thyristors.

Fig :Common static var compensator configurations.

 The thyristor-switched capacitor operates by switching multiple steps of capacitors
quickly to match the load requirements as closely as possible.
 This is a more coarse regulation than a TCR but is often adequate.
 The capacitors are generally gated fully on so there are no harmonics in the currents.
The switching point is controlled so that there are no switching transients.

Flicker
Flicker is a power quality problem that arises as a result of voltage fluctuations caused by
random variations in active and reactive power drawn by the loads such as electric arc furnaces, stone
crushing machines, heat pump etc
defines flicker as ‘the impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light stimulus whose
illuminance or spectral distribution fluctuates with time’.
 Thus flicker can be considered as a physiological quantity rather than physical quantity since the
impression of visual sensation may vary from person to person.
Cause and Effect of Flicker
 An important source of voltage fluctuation is arc furnace-a large electric oven in which
metal is melted. The current taken by an arc furnace vary at many different time scales
 An example of a low-voltage load that leads to voltage fluctuation is the copy machine
 A domestic example of a load that leads to voltage fluctuations is the refrigerator.
 Cycloconverter, PWM Power Electronic Systems, Power Line Carrier Communication
systems components are the source of interharmonics, due to which the flickers are
generated
 The voltage fluctuations are due to rapid load variations.
 There are two types of load that lead to light flicker, the load that provoke separate
voltage changes and another loads that provoke voltage fluctuations.
o includes many heating and cooling loads
 comprises those loads for which the current changes continuously
 The major source of voltage fluctuations is the arc furnace− a large electric oven in
which metal is melted. The currents taken by an arc furnace vary at many different time
scales
 The following is the list of sources of voltage fluctuations taken from different
publications
 Resistance welding machines
 Rolling mills
 Large industrial motors with variable loads
 Arc furnaces
 Arc welders
 Saw mills
 Railways traction

EFFECTS
Flicker is considered the most significant effect of voltage fluctuation because it can affect the
production environment by causing personnel fatigue and lower work concentration levels. In
addition, voltage fluctuations may subject electrical and electronic equipment to detrimental
effects that may disrupt production processes with considerable financial costs.

Other effects of voltage fluctuation include the following:

 Nuisance tripping due to misoperation of relays and contactors.
 Unwanted triggering of UPS units to switch to battery mode.
 Problems with some sensitive electronic equipment, which require a constant voltage
(i.e. medical laboratories).

MITIGATION OF FLICKER AND VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS

There are several techniques available for Flicker Mitigation. However, since flicker is caused by
voltage fluctuations, these methods should be based on reducing such power
quality phenomenon. It must be noted that the effects of voltage fluctuations are dependent on
both its amplitude and the rate of their occurrence. Generally, mitigation measures are focused
on limiting the amplitude of the voltage fluctuations. 
Consequently, two approaches can be implemented for this purpose:
1. Reducing load power variations, particularly the reactive component
Flicker compensation devices such as dynamic voltage stabilizers and/or synchronous machines
are installed at the point of common coupling (PCC) to meet this objective.

Synchronous Machines
They are conventional sources of continuous fundamental reactive power, which can either be
leading or lagging. Also, they can be the source of mechanical energy when operated as a
motor and a compensator.
Synchronous machines are required to be operated in a closed-loop voltage control system
with fast excitation current control. This is to enable a fast rise time of the machine’s reactive
current.

Dynamic Voltage Stabilizers

This is a general term use to describe devices that can control the amount of reactive power
absorbed from or injected into the power system. Subsequently, the RMS voltage at the PCC
can be increased or reduced.
These flicker-mitigating power quality devices include the following:
 Static Var Compensators (SVC)
 Thyristor-switched Capacitors (TSC)
 Thyristor-controlled Reactors (TSR) w/ Fixed (FC) or Switched Capacitor (TSC)
 STATCOM
 Saturable Reactors
 Dynamic Voltage Regulator (DVR)
Dynamic voltage stabilizers are a practical solution for the reduction or elimination of voltage
fluctuations. The effectiveness of these power quality devices depends primarily on their rated
power and speed of reaction.

2. Increasing the short-circuit power level (with respect to the load power)

Often, this approach can be applied only at the design stage and are generally expensive. In
addition, these solutions can force the reconsideration of the electrical power system, basically
adding to costs.
Common measures implemented to increase the short-circuit power are:
 Connecting the load at a higher nominal voltage level
 Constructing additional line to reinforce existing distribution line.
 Supplying flicker-producing loads through dedicated lines.
 Installing series capacitors.
 Separating fluctuating loads from steady loads (i.e. light or lamps) using separate
winding of a 3-winding transformer.
 Increasing the rated power of the transformer serving the fluctuating load.

Other Flicker Mitigation Techniques

In some cases, the strategies stated below can reduce flicker problems:
a. Use isolating transformers to separate the supply terminal that feeds the fluctuating loads,
especially from the lighting power supply.
b. Connect the loads to a phase and feed the lighting systems from the non-disturbed phases.
This solution is applicable for single-phase loads connected at the low voltage or medium
voltage systems.

c. Operate flicker-producing loads at a time when they cannot disturb people. For example,
operating the load at night since most people are not working at this time.
d. Implement changes in the operating practice and/or equipment design to minimize voltage
fluctuations. An example is limiting arc furnace transformer taps during the initial meltdown
period, when flicker is more perceptible. This reduces the operating voltage and decrease
PST during these intervals.
e. Lower the motor starting or inrush current to reduce voltage variations (e.g. softstart
devices).
f. Supplying the fluctuating loads from a decoupled source of the utility system (e.g. diesel–
electric group).

Illustrative Examples

Adjustable Speed Drives (ASD)

 Apply soft starter devices.
Welding Plant
 Connect single-phase welding machines to different phases from lighting circuits
 Connect single-phase welders to three-phase system for balanced load distribution
between phases.
 Supply the plant from a dedicated transformer.

Electric Arc Furnaces (EAF)

 Segregation and preliminary heating of charge
 Proper functioning of the electrode control system
 Install series or saturable reactors
To sum up, it can be said that voltage fluctuation and flicker mitigation methods are readily
available for implementation. However, the best solution is usually not provided by a single
method. This means that a proper combination of the abovementioned approaches should be
considered.