Brolly.

Journal of Social Sciences 1 (2) 2018

NIGERIA’S SECURITY CHALLENGES AND THE CRISIS OF POLITICAL

DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH AFRICA

Mustapha Ayodele Haruna

Department of Social Sciences
Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Ondo State, Nigeria
[email protected]

Abstract. This study examines the various challenges associated with Nigerian
security and the crisis of political development in the North African region. It
interrogates the efficacy of such involvements, as they have deteriorated rapidly
due to different factors such as armed conflicts, terrorism, migration,
unconstitutional changes in power, transnational crime, refugees, civil wars,
drought, famine, drugs, and human trafficking. Conflicts and insecurity are not
only formidable barriers to development but can undermine nations and their
values. Instead, we recommend bilateral and multilateral agreements based on
intelligence and military cooperation, freezing of financial assets for terrorists and
their sponsors, democratic consolidation, and eradication of sight-tight syndrome,
among others. This study adopts the security governance theory as a theoretical
framework to address security problems related to the management of threats,
defence policies through the state, political and civic organization.

Keywords: coercive diplomacy, national development, security, state fragility

INTRODUCTION

Many African countries are either embroiled in conflicts or have just

emerged from them. There is scarcely any part of Africa without its
share of major conflicts either ongoing or recently resolved. It is
possible to identify conflicts of succession, of ethnic sub-
nationalism, self-determination, military intervention, and land
ownership agitations. The dominant perspective in the literature is
of armed conflicts characterizing the political process in African
states. (Adetula 2014, 13). Also, until recently, very little attention
has been paid to regional and global dynamics in terms of the way

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they interact with the causes, conducts and resolutions of armed

conflicts. African conflicts and the resultant security challenges
continue to be of utmost concern to the international community
and the continent. The perspective that African conflicts are often
related to the crisis of African states is fast gaining prominence (Ibid,
14).
The Horn of Africa experiences conflicts that set states against
states, communities against communities, resulting in political
turbulence and human tragedy. This situation resides in the inability
of states to pursue rational policies that call for social reforms
(Wasara 2002, 39). Since the 1990s, the states of North Africa have
experienced radical changes, which seems to be the harbinger of an
uncertain future both domestically and in terms of their relationship
with the wider world (Joffe 2014, 9)
During the past few years, security challenges have undoubtedly
increased. They are highly concentrated in countries such as Sudan,
South Sudan, Algeria, Egypt, Libya Tunisia, Western Sahara,
Morocco - in the North Africa, and Nigeria in the west. These
challenges have taken the shape of conflicts between sectarian,
ethnic insurgent groups and state governments, civil wars among
various coalitions of warring groups fighting for the control of the
state itself, as well as challenges on political and economic issues,
crisis on the distribution and consumption of scarcest resources
allocation with intra- and inter- societies (Strauss 2016, 5)
Many African conflicts have their roots in domestic politics.
However, these conflicts have affected more than just the countries
where they occurred. Insecurity in Africa has not only made the
pursuit of economic and political development difficult. It has
hindered the development of regional integration. Peace and
security promote regional integration just as the process of security
integration can serve to consolidate peace and development
(Adetula 2005, 395).
The newly unstable regional environment has created an array of
challenges for Nigeria policymakers. Most prominent, jihadist

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groups have flourished in post-revolutionary North Africa,

capitalizing on state weakness to carry out several spheres of
influence. Libya’s descent into civil war has provided a further boost
to regional jihadist groups and the proliferation of jihadist actors.
The political instability that has beset North Africa in the years
following the Arab Spring also undermines Nigerian strategic and
economic interests in broader ways. North Africa has quickly
descended from being a bastion of continuity and consistency into
disorder and fragility. It’s economic and political potentials have
harmed Nigerian trade with its northern neighbours. Parts of North
Africa have become strongholds for criminal networks, including
drug traffickers and smugglers, who have used this region as a base
from which gain entry into Europe (Gartenstein-Rosseds 2015, 7).
Nigeria’s approaches to the sub-regional and continental security
of Africa have been largely influenced by the national role conceived
in terms of international relations by its leaders. This role
conception has become the defining paradigm for foreign policy
engagements. Accordingly, Nigeria is the natural leader of Africa
with a manifest destiny and the responsibility to promote and
protect the interests of Africa and black people everywhere. It is also
believed that the country’s security is tied to that of the other
African states because of cultural and historical experiences and
transnational security issues, which are defined by the way in which
the security of a nation is affected by what happens in its
neighbouring countries (Alli 2012, 5).
Nigeria’s perceptions on security are framed in the West African
view and have been historically characterized by three
interconnected elements: the sense of vulnerability; a strong
representation of the connection between national and (sub)
regional security, and the necessity to be the guarantor of West
Africa’s stability and its leader. There is evidence of an established
nexus between national and regional security. Conversely, (sub)
regional security is deemed as having a potential effect on national
security and stability (Haastrup and Lucia 2014, 1).

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Mustapha Ayodele Haruna – Nigeria’s Security Challenges

According to Bello (2012) and Obad (2013), cited in Haastrap

and Lucia (2014):
Nigerian national defence policy objectives as including the security and
stability in the West African sub-region through collective security, regional
security by way of combative terrorism and other trans-national crimes being
of strategic interests to Nigeria, internal fragilities, illegal trafficking piracy,
unreported and unregulated fishing, oil theft and pipeline vandalism, as well
as insurgency often transnational in nature (Ibid, 2)

Security policies are dealing with the broad issues of the

management of the multiple threats to the core specific values in the
international system. It is in this context that the national security
policy of Nigeria provides the framework with which the calculation
of instrumental responses (military, economic, health. etc.) to these
multiple threats must proceed and resolve. Nigeria could find
justification not only to contribute but also to provide leadership,
including the use of its military to control any instability in the sub-
region as a way of protecting her interests (Alli 2012). According to
Gambari (2010), cited in Alli (2012):
In Africa, the lack of sustainable development has been linked directly to the
proliferation and intensity of conflict situations and war, which, in turn, have
hampered development efforts (…). The threats to peace in a neighbouring
country, if not carefully managed and resolved, could lead to a massive exodus
of refugees, weapons proliferation crimes, and a general insecurity that could
threaten other stable polities and compromise national economies (Ibid, 10).

CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS

Coercive Diplomacy
It seeks to resolve crises and armed conflicts without resorting to
full-scale war (Jakobsen 2017, 277). Coercive diplomacy is the
exercise of a threat when it is imperative, the limited use of force
designed to make an opponent comply with the coercive wishes. It
uses short of brutal force in the attempt to achieve a political

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objective as cheaply as possible. It has been used to respond to acts

of aggression, halt weapons of mass destruction programmes
(WMD) and stop terrorism. It involves the use of threat and/or
limited force in order to convince an actor to stop or undo the
actions already undertaken (Ibid, 278).
It is a rather diplomacy of the threat than relying on negotiation
(Conflict Research Consortium 2005, 3). It puts pressure in a manner and
magnitude to persuade an opponent to cease the aggression rather
than force it into stopping its ambition (Jentleson 2006, 2).

Development
A process by which people participate in defining and achieving
higher levels of civilization. It is a self-propelled growth or
improvement in people’s welfare. Development is not just an
economic process, it is also a political and social one (Asobie 2012,
7). It implies the systematic use of scientific and technical knowledge
to meet specific objectives or requirements.
Moreover, it is a process of economic and social transformation,
which is based on complex cultural and environmental factors and
their interactions. It connects research, experience, activism and
alternative thinking in the purpose to provide a unique resource and
point of reference for the dialogue between activists and
intellectuals committed to the search for an alternative path of social
transformations towards a more sustainable and just world (Grasa
and Mateos, 2010, 27).

Nationalism
The belief that a particular group of people is a natural community,
which should live under a single political system. Nationalism is
often linked to the struggle for independence and political self-
determination. It can also be a convenient tool for political leaders
to mobilize support and overcome opposition by stressing internal
or external threats to national unity, as it has been a common

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ingredient in numerous international and civil conflicts (Chaturvedi

2016, 205).

Security
This concept implies freedom, no fear, anxiety or danger. The
government should have as a primary objective to assure favourable
national and international political conditions for the protection or
extension of vital national values against existing and potential
adversaries. It implies the capability of a nation to contain and ward
off such threats and vulnerabilities that are acute enough to cripple
or weaken its national values boundaries and institutions, as well as
the overall well-being of its inhabitants (Okereke and Arres 2009,
37). A threat to national security is an action or sequence of events
that is passible to degrade the quality of life of the inhabitants of the
state or significantly restraint the range of policy choices available to
the government or to private non-governmental.
National security is concerned with the ability of a legitimate
national government to protect both the collective interests and the
interests of individual citizens and groups. This implies having a
national government strong and effective enough to deter and
defend itself and its people against external aggressions (Omoweh
and Okanya 2005, 299). Security means protection from hidden and
harmful disruptions (Otto and Ukpere 2012, 676).

State Fragility
A state becomes fragile when its structures lack the political will
and/or the capacity to provide the basic functions needed for
poverty reduction, development and to safeguard the security and
human rights for the population. A state in a situation of fragility is
a state with limited capabilities to govern or rule, and to develop
mutually constructive relations (Grenoble 2010, 2).
Such states have weak institutions of governance, with precarious
capabilities to deliver good services to their citizens, and lacking
resilience when they are facing conflicts or political instability. We

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are dealing, thus, with a complex phenomenon having multiple

layers of causality and which, therefore, requires multiple layers of
engagement (Uzoechina 2008, 7). It implies authority, services and
legitimacy failures (Stewart and Brown 2009, 3).

Theoretical Framework
This study adopts the security governance theory at its theoretical
framework. It provides and takes full account of the changing
security challenges and the rapid rise of a trans-organizational
network. It also addresses the security problems from global to
regional aspects, and from traditional military security to the newly
rising non-military security management. Security governance
theory is the application of this theory and a process aiming at
strengthening the security capability by the means of governance
mechanisms (Liao 2011, 2).
Security governance provides a framework for analysing policy-
making and policy implementation in the security field, clarifying
and capturing group challenges. It allows understanding of the
concept of security beyond the issue of defence and, above all, it
encompasses the more diverse, less visible and less predictable
nature of security in the 21st century. The framework of security
governance facilitates understanding of interactions between states
and regional institutions and how they individually and/or
collectively manage not only international and regional crises but
also a variety of threats to national and regional security (Kirchner
2014, 3). It covers threats that have to do with potential or actual
violence, terrorism, war and counterinsurgency, ethnic cleansing,
the spread of weapons of mass destruction, massive human right
violence, and organized crime, as well as issues related to natural
disasters, famines, pandemics, cyber warfare and even financial
crimes and crises.
Security governance is a post-cold war phenomenon. It breaks
the link with the realist and liberal ways of managing security in
international polities. It is predicated on the belief that the new

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security threats of the post-cold war era cannot be effectively

addressed by inherited realist and liberal practices. It shifts the
management of security from state-centric approaches and formal
institutions towards more diverse actors and more flexible ways of
working. It involves individual actors working in new ways and
using new techniques to gather and analyse information and to
communicate, negotiate, implement and evaluate policy responses
to security threat (Bevir and Hall 2014, 31) Proponents, writers,
theorists and authors on security governance theory include the
following: Blike Krahmann (2003), Webber (2004), Hooghe and
Marks (2001), Kirchner and Sperling (2007), Dorussen (2009),
Dominguez (2011), Bossong (2008), Erikson (2011), Friesendorf
(2007) Hollis (2010), Christou Croft Ceccorulli and Lucarelli (2010),
Rhodes (1997) Slaughter and Hale (2011), Hohenstein (2007),
Duffield (2001), Berir (2010), Osita Eze and Hehmann (2005). All
of them insist on the following (Krahmann 2003:18):
(i.) the geographical dimension, which suggests a movement
from government to governance and the enlargement process
that has contributed to the creation of a variety of new
geographical arrangements that differentiate between
members;
(ii.) the functional dimension which, due to the broadening of
the concept of security from military to human security issues,
changes the scope of the functions and institutions associated
with security policy;
(iii.) the distribution of resources;
(iv.) interest dimensions;
(v.) normative dimensions;
(vi.) the process of decision-making; and
(vii.) policy implementation.
The connexion and relevance of security governance theory to this
study is to provide solutions to the challenges confronting Nigeria’s
security with respect to North Africa, which is beclouded with series

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of internal political social and economic crises. Equally, it is relevant

in the areas of integrating security governance into general
democratic principles and the strengthening of regional cooperation
in conflict prevention. Moreover, it provides a framework for
analysing policy-making and policy formulation in a multi-actor and
multi-level setting. It facilitates understanding of the interactions
between states and regional organizations and how they individually
and/or collectively manage the regional crises, as well as a variety of
threats against Nigeria and its regional security.
Like any other theory, security governance has its own
shortcomings, as proved by many scholars:
(i.) the overemphasis on non-state functions might weaken the
role of the state, which needs to be strengthened in the process
of modernization;
(ii.) the potential and practical absence of accountability and the
cooperation with those non-state actors in the process of security
governance;
(iii.) its utility lies not only in directing the forces of security
studies towards these theoretical and practical issues but also in
suggesting future research on possible solutions by encouraging
companions with the development of governance in the other
areas.
(iv.) it also suffers from logic scepticism as an alternative
paradigm
(v.) it is not an all-compassing framework capable of better
dealing with all tricky problems. It largely depends on the
regulations and orders designed by the security governance
structure.

ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH NIGERIA’S SECURITY CHALLENGES FROM THE

CRISIS OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE NORTH AFRICAN REGION

The political instability that has beset North Africa in the years
following the Arab Spring swept through the Middle East and

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North Africa and radically reshaped the region’s political and

security environment. North Africa has quickly descended from
being a bastion of continuity and consistency into a basket case,
forming the Nigerian government to carefully monitor threats so as
to limit spill over into West African Sub-region. Indicators for
Nigeria’s vulnerabilities to security include terrorism, insurgency,
civil wars, refugees, drought, porous borders, drug, human (slave
trade) and arms trafficking (Gardenstein-Ross et al. 2015, 17).

Terrorism/Insurgency
At present, the most pressing security challenge, according to
Nigerian officials and as presented in the official documents, is
terrorism and insurgency. It refers to the national dimension of
terrorism and insurgency citing the activities of the Islamic sect
Boko Haram in the North East of the country. The local
transnational dimension is especially evident in Nigeria, where there
is a close connection with Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb
operating in the Sahel and, lately, ISIS in the Middle East (Haastrap
and Lucia op. cit.). Force fighter returnees represent the greatest
threat to Nigeria as they came back from North Africa to launch
attacks and train local terrorists. As the returnees are likely to be
better trained in weapons and explosion than their home group
counterparts. They have featured in actual attacks or foiled plots in
Nigeria, which have destabilizing effects on the country’s security
(Gartenstein-Ross et al., op.cit.)
Nigeria’s Chief of Army Staff stated during the 2017 Annual
Conference:

The scourges of cross-border crimes like human and small arms trafficking,
drugs peddling, smuggling, banditry, cyber threats, money laundering
espionage, terrorism and many others have created an interest for non-state
actors that must be decimated by combined international efforts. The
Nigerian Army Leadership in concert with the grand strategic focus of Mr
President has continued to devise means of engaging our neighbouring
countries towards tackling common threats in order to meet considerable

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international obligations for the overall promotion of global peace and

security (TY. Buratai 2017)

Human Trafficking (Slave Trades)

Human trafficking is a form of modern-day slavery that involves the
movement of thousands of Nigerians women, men and children
mainly through land routes to some North African countries, with
the ultimate aim of taking them to Europe for slave labour and
prostitution. According to UNGA (1999), cited in Adoba (2004):

Human trafficking is the illicit and clandestine movement of persons across

national, international borders, largely from development countries in
transition with the end goal of forcing with the end goal of forcing women,
children into sexually or economically oppressive and economically
oppressive and exploitative situations for the profit of recruiters, traffickers,
crime syndicates as well as all other illegal activities related to trafficking such
as forced domestic labour (Adoba, 2004:38)

The resistant effect of political instability in North Africa has given

rise to poverty, which is systematically linked to human trafficking.
Recently, slave trade resurfaced in Libya with Nigerians rational as
victims of such practices. The Libya government has deported
hundreds of Nigerians back to the country. More than 6000 persons
have been deported last year and another 400000 are still held up in
the North African countries, where the slave trade flourished
(Momoh, 2017). According to Eze and Ezeobi (2017) cited in This
Day News Paper:

More Nigerians have been saved from slavery and trafficking in war-tone
Libya, as another 275 citizens were airlifted to the country a few hours after a
batch of 144 Nigerians were returned Tuesday night on 7th December 2017
while no fewer than 1, 295 Nigerians were rescued in Nigerians were rescued
in November 2017 alone (This Day December 7, 2017, 4)

It portrays Nigeria in a bad light as it creates the erroneous

impression that the country is incapable of providing employment

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and social welfare for its citizens, which makes them end in North
Africa where are forced to face persecutions and humiliations.

Illegal Arms Trafficking

The proliferation of small and light weapons is another major
security challenge which Nigeria is facing. Illegal trafficking and
wide availability of these weapons fuel communal conflicts, political
instability and pose a threat not only to national security but also to
sustainable development. 640 million small and light weapons are in
circulation worldwide, of which 100 million are estimated to be in
Africa, about 30 million in sub-Saharan Africa, 8 million in West
Africa and about 10 million in Nigeria. Proliferations came from
North Africa, as a result of being a militarized region before, during
and after the Arab spring revolution (Uwa and Anthony 2015, 8).
The pervasiveness of small arms all over Africa is viewed by many
as being linked to the intensity of various types of conflicts within
and between the African states (North Africa), of which Nigeria is
not exempted. The Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW)
trafficking nourishes the conflict in the Niger Delta, where most of
Nigeria’s oil is located. All the crimes concerning oil (smuggling,
theft pipelines vandalism) committed by militant groups have their
source of illegal weapons from North Africa’s political instability
(Haastrup and Lucia op. cit.)

Instability in North Africa and Oil Price

North Africa has the largest oil reserves and, in normal time, they
provide 95% of the export revenues of entire regions, thus keeping
the economy afloat. But the Arab spring revolution has shattered
the economy, leaving the population almost wholly dependent on
revenue generated overseas. The fragile political situation in North
Africa continues to have an impact on production levels (which saw
another year-to-year decline in oil production in the region - 22%.
Libya; in the throes of civil war, saw production declined by 50%)
(Steyn 2015, 5).

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The effect on the political development in Nigeria is that oil is

also shifting with a fall in price, the naira has fallen dramatically
eroding foreign reserves, cut government spending high rise in
inflation and the highly popular subsidy on public consumption of
fuel (Campbell 2014, 6). Cross-referencing specific export and
import of goods with their market share for West Africa (Nigeria)
provide a more comprehensible understanding of the West African
sub-region.

Porous Borders and Drug Trade

Nigeria continues to face serious security challenges due to the
cross-border or trans-border criminal activities. There is hardly any
criminal act or violence in Nigeria that could not be traced to North
Africa, by which armed gangs enter and exit through the 149
national borders. People from North Africa have infiltrated these
areas on account of inter-marriage, spillover of the crisis in North
Africa, share similar cultures, practice and worship together
(Asiwaju 1992, 33). The porosity of Nigeria’s borders has given rise
to illegalities, which have the resulted in drugs trade, refugees issues,
importation of contraband goods, transmission of diseases, cyber
and organized crimes, including smuggling. All these have created
fertile land (Nigeria) for transnational criminal networks
(Gartenstein-Ross et al., op. cit.)

RECOMMENDATIONS
Intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance are necessary for
understanding, tracking and targeting terrorist networks and should
be the main component of North African countries counter-
terrorism strategy. Deployment of Nigerian troops to other
countries to combat terrorism and insecurity. Freezing of financial
assets of terrorists and so-called sponsors. Bilateral and multilateral
agreements based on military cooperation. Security Sector Reform
(SSR) will help counterterrorism efforts while addressing continuing

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organizational and accountability deficits. It is a term for a number

of policies to improve security practices and outcomes in developing
and democratizing countries.
The establishment of the National Agency for the prohibition of
human trafficking (NAPTIP) by the federal government and in
collaboration with some organizations to stern the tide. In 2005, the
NAPTIP Act which criminalized the keeping of brothels and the
use of children as domestic house helps was amended. The
properties of the offenders of this amended have become targets for
seizure by the government. The Federal Government has
encouraged NAPTIP to establish a national investigation task force
(NITF), and the victims of human trafficking are to be portaged
during the rescue and rehabilitation period. National campaigns for
awareness should be organized across the country. The anti-human
trafficking campaign should be strengthened in a wider scope.
The government should reinforce the country’s borders through
surveillance and patrols. It should exist a close and effective
coordination among intelligence and security agencies. The national
government should impose tighter borders control to prevent illegal
immigration.
A paradigm shift that calls for an integrated and sub-regional
approach to conflict prevention, x-raying the challenges
opportunities and benefits of the early warning and early response
system established under the ECOWAS protocol should be
undertaken. Nigeria’s current foreign policy should assume
transformations, in order to put its people in the centre. Also, a
change in the policies of dominant global powers toward Africa
would enhance human emancipation and eliminate the numerous
insecurities confronting the people.

CONCLUSION

It is imperiously necessaire that the security of Nigeria to be

systematically sustained. This aims the approach whereby the

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security of the individuals, the state and the international system are
fully integrated and pursued collectively. It demands that all sub-
systems of the national security be inseparable. Nigeria needs to
promote democracy, political and social integration in the various
independent states of the sub-region. Moreover, it should intensify
the application of diplomacy and related non-coercive approaches
towards conflict resolution to avoid catastrophes such us mass
exodus, famine or bloodshed.

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