Indian Journal of History of Science, 53.3 (2018) 279-295 DOI: 10.

16943/ijhs/2018/v53i3/49460

Metals and Metallurgy in the Harappan Civilization

Vibha Tripathi*
(Received 27 February 2018)

Abstract
The Indus Valley also referred to as Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization excelled in variety of
technologies, including metallurgy. Over the span of centuries, evolving from Pre/ Early Harappan to the
Late Harappan cultural phases, the civilization evolved as an urban civilization. By the mature Harappan
period (circa 2700 to 18/1700 BCE) metal technology attained great perfection. Several metallurgical
innovations like the intricate ciré perdue or lost wax technique, true saw and the eye needle go to the
credit of the metal smiths of that period. Exclusive objects of copper, gold, and silver came to be used.
For special affects, minor metals like tin, arsenic, lead, antimony etc. came to be used for alloying.
Although about 70% of the copper objects of the Harappan period are unalloyed, a judicious alloying
pattern as per requirements may be discerned in the metal repertoire. Arsenic was found to be present in
several statues probably with a specific reason. The sharp-edged cutting tools like razors, knives or
daggers, arrowheads, spearheads, drills etc show a distinct alloying pattern with alloying of tin up to 12-
13%. The Harappan bronze tool repertoire comprised typical leaf-shaped arrowheads, spears with bent
end, shaft-hole axe, double edged axes, the sword with amid-rib or the bronze female figurines like that
of the ‘dancing girl’. In fashioning of pots and pans, technique of raising- sinking and drawing was
employed. Exquisite gold jewellery and silver ware, though rare, has been found from Harappan sites.
We propose to address here issue related to typology, pattern of metal utilization, and the metallurgical
processes as well as raw material exploited in the Indus-Saraswati Civilization.
Key words: Alloying, Casting, Ciré perdue, Copper-bronze, Gold, Metallurgy, Raw material,
Silver, Tin

1. INTRODUCTION also demonstrate evolutionary stages through

which the civilization grew. There appears to be a
Metallurgy was one of the most important
gradual transition from a regional– rural set up to
and complex technologies invented by humankind. an urban Harappan civilization. The Mature
The Harappa or Indus Valley Civilization – now- Harappan Civilization in its urban phase continued
a-days frequently referred to as Sindhu-Saraswati to flourish for several centuries (from BCE 2600
Civilization in India, has an extensive distribution to 2000-1900 BCE, approximately). It declined
area extending from Sutkagendor in Makaran and slowly. The Late -Harappan cultural stage lasted
Bhagatrav in south Gujarat in the west, to up to circa 17/1600 BCE. The Harappa
Alamgirpur in western Uttar Pradesh (in the east) Civilization had a long span both in time and
and Gumla and Ropar in the North to Daimabad space. The material remains reflect the changes
in Maharastra in the south. There are at least three which took place over the centuries. Any
well defined cultural sub-phases recognized as discussions on aspects of the Harappan
Pre-and Early-Harappa, Mature Harappa and Late- Civilization must take place with this phenomenon
Harappa. These phases of civilizational growth in mind.

* Emeritus Professor, Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005,
E-mail [email protected]
280 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

The Mature Harappan Civilization is prolific use of copper–bronze artifacts and good
defined by certain characteristic features which understanding of alloying technique, the Harappan
are uniformly spread across the extensive area in Civilization is the only one among the Proto-
time and space. However, there were several historic cultures of India which may be designated
regional features noticed in different geographical a Bronze Age Civilization. Over the centuries,
zones, such as Sind-Baluchistan, Rajasthan, during the Mature Harappan period, the metal
Punjab, Haryana, Kachchh and other adjacent workers perfected the metallurgical skill. Several
parts of Gujarat. Nevertheless, there were certain metallurgical innovations like the true saw and the
common features characteristic of the urban eye needle are attributed to the Harappan metal
Harappan civilization as noted by Sir Mortimer smiths. Variety of metals such as copper, gold,
Wheeler (1968). These were the typical Indus silver was extensively used by the Harappan metal
seals, Indus script, and ceramic forms like workers. Minor metals like tin, arsenic, lead,
cylindrical perforated jars, s-profile jars, dish-on- antimony etc. were used for alloying. They had
stand and goblets with pointed base. The also perfected the intricate ciré perdue or lost wax
decoration of intersecting circles, peepul leaf, fish technique of metal casting as early as the third
scale etc. on the pot-forms is typically Harappan. millennium BCE. Even a cursory look at the
Other features are triangular terracotta cakes, Harappan tool repertoire speaks legions of the
kidney-shaped shell or faience beads with inlay mastery achieved by artisans of the Harappan
work, discoid beads with tubular holes across Civilization in metal craft. The commonly
them. The town planning of Harappan settlements occurring metal objects of this civilization include
with standard bricks size having a proportion of the leaf-shaped arrowheads, spears with bent end,
1:2:4 was another noteworthy feature shaft-hole axe, double edged axes, the sword with
characteristic of Mature Harappan Civilization. In amid-rib or the bronze female figurines like that
addition to these features, there were copper of the ‘dancing girl’ or the exquisite gold jewelry,
artifacts like knives and daggers with bent back, some of them with intricate inlay work and silver
the double-edged razors, barbed arrowheads with ware.
holes which were typical of the Mature Harappan
It may be noted that most minerals and raw
period. Some of these features had an earlier
materials like ores were not to be found within
beginning during the Pre-Harappan phase attesting
the proximity of major Harappan settlements.
to continuity between the stages of cultural growth.
Needless to underline that mechanism had to be
The present discussion is focused on the metal
evolved to procure the raw material in the form of
technology during the Sindhu-Saraswati
ores, ingots or half-finished objects from more
Civilization.
distant parts of the Indian subcontinent or even
The Sindhu - Sarasvati civilization is from other contemporary civilizations of the world
known for its technological acumen in variety of through long distance overland or marine trade.
fields. The field of metal and metallurgy is among We propose to address here the issue of pattern of
the key technologies mastered by the civilization. metal utilization in the Harappan civilization as
The earliest evidence of metallurgy in the Indian well as the metallurgical processes involved in
subcontinent comes forth from the site of manufacturing of metal objects. An effort will be
Mehrgarh in Baluchistan dated to circa 6500 BCE. made to look at metals and the specific tool-
It is recovered in the form of a tiny copper bead typologies in use. Since copper-bronze was
from grave of a child. Subsequently, other Pre- extensively used metal, it will receive greater
Early Harappan sites yielded copper objects. With attention in the discussion here. The subject of
 METALS AND METALLURGY IN THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 281

resource zone exploited by the Harappans may call Hegde (1991, pp.15-16) had examined six
for an independent subject of inquiry. However, a copper working sites in the Aravalli copper belt.
passing reference to this issue may be necessary Evidence of ancient mining was noted there. He
here. observed superficial gouging as well as deep mines
in the region. All the deep mines opened into
2. MINING-METALLURGY AND RAW MATERIAL galleries and narrow tunnels following the natural
The Copper-Bronze Age civilization under configuration of chalcopyrite ore veins at different
scanner was a riverine one which flourished in levels. These deep galleries were provided with
the fertile plains along the navigable rivers. one to one-and-a-half-meter diameter ventilation
Apparently, the river plains are devoid of minerals, holes at regular intervals. Hegde (Op.cit.) further
especially ores needed for metal extraction. Most states,
of the raw materials had to be procured from We consider the superficial shallow gouging pits
neighbouring hilly ranges bordering the plains. as the earliest complete attempt at mining copper
The main sources of copper exploited by the ore in the Aravalli Hills. Deep shafts complete with
galleries, steps, adits and ventilators may represent
Harappans are believed to be Baluchistan and
later mining activity.
Afghanistan, in the region west of Indus. The area
extends from highlands of Badakshan to coastal Some of the deep mines must have been
Makaran. Interestingly, this area has also yielded used during earlier times too. It is confirmed by
the earliest evidence of copper processing. The the radiocarbon dates recovered from a gallery at
other potential region is the mountain range of a depth of 120 meters at Rajpur Dariba mine in
Oman with which the Harappan civilization, District Udaipur. The date is 3120 ± 160 BP, which
especially the coastal region had close trade is the last quarter of the second millennium BCE.
relations. The region around Oman has been Large heaps of broken stones were found strewn
identified with ancient Magan which was known near the mining site. Ore-bearing rock pieces seem
for rich copper deposits. Presumably, it was a to have been carried down to the valley floor where
source of copper tapped by the Harappan they were roasted, crushed, concentrated and
civilization. The third resource zone was the region smelted. Regarding their metallurgical skills, it
east of Indus is the Aravalli range. There are may be pointed out that the Harappans would
deposits of copper, lead, zinc and silver ores in smelt even sulphide ores, though oxide ores were
the Aravalli hills. The copper of this belt is rich in commonly used. Large quantities of oxide ore
arsenic containing about 4% to 8% in the ore were find from a house at Mohenjodaro from a
(Hegde, 1969 p. 227). Many copper objects of brick lined pit. The similarity in the trace impurity
Harappa and Mohenjodaro have high level of patterns of the Harappan artifacts and the copper
arsenic. This suggests that the region was one of minerals of Khetri mines may indicate its
the important sources of copper ore that was exploitation. But so far, the actual copper working
tapped by the metal workers of the Harappan in the Khetri belt has not been dated beyond c.
Civilization. Stray pieces of copper ore have been 1000 BC. Only future researches may through
recovered from some of the Harappan sites
more light on this subject.
indicating local working, albeit sparingly as there
is little evidence to suggest on-site smelting at Hegde (1991, pp. 15-25), who has studied
Harappan sites. Ingots recovered from Lothal and copper working sites in the Rajpur Dariba area of
Dholavira hint at the fact that they were brought Rajasthan, further suggested that ore was roasted
in from some outside sources to be further refined to render the smelting process greater efficiency.
and fabricated locally. He feels a high yield would not have been possible
282 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

if the ore was not well-roasted to convert all copper 3.1 Furnaces and Metal working
minerals in the ore into copper oxide and thus Vats considered about the possibility of
render the ore porous and fragile so as to make it metalworking being done in several furnaces
easy for crushing. Many grooves of ore-crushing which were discovered in Mound F at Harappa.
pits were found near the foot of the hills in the These furnaces or kilns may be classified under
Aravalli copper belt. The chalcopyrite ore with three types. Two cylindrical pits dug in the ground,
its iron content is more complex and difficult to have been found with evidence of fairly intense
work with due to presence of high percentage of firing. One of them is a furnace which is 3 ft. 4
sulphur. For an efficient reduction, a temperature inches in diameter, with a depth of 3 feet 8 inches.
higher than 850°C may be necessary. During this There is an evidence of slanting flue, which may
process iron acts as sulphur scavenger helping in have served as an air channel for the furnace. A
conversion of CuS into Cu2O and CuO. During part of the vaulted roof of the furnace was also
reduction, FeO reacts with SiO2 to form 2FeO, found lying inside it, and there were flues in this
SiCO2 (Fayalite) slag with a lower melting point vaulted roof probably as outlets for smoke of as
of 1177 ° C. For an efficient extraction a gaps to be covered when the heat had to be conser-
temperature above 1250°C is required. Therefore, ved. Thirdly, there are 13 pear shaped pits dug in
from the cultural stage when the pyro-technology the ground, often with a column. According to
showed sufficient advancement, we come across Vats, these were used for metal crafting. Kenoyer
larger use of copper. The site of Ganneshwar- and Miller prefer to classify these fire- pits as kilns
Jodhpura in Rajasthan is understood to be an as there is absence of clear-cut case of smelting at
important source of copper tools or ingots to the the Harappan sites. Smelting was presumably done
Harappans. Some evidence of copper metallurgy closer to the mines as has been suggested by Hegde
has come forth in course of excavations. Evidence while discussing evidence recovered from the
of ‘kilns’ serving as forging hearth of metal smiths Aravallis. Miller (1994; 1999) analyzed the
have been reported as will be seen in some detail pyrotechnological evidence recovered from
below. Harappa. She commented, ‘the only claimed metal
processing area from the early excavations in Vats’
furnace from Mound F, trench 4 the area of work-
3. EVIDENCE OF PYROTECHNOLOGY
men’s’ quarters, stratum II. It was split lengthwise
Evidence of copper smelting/ forging is and only half of the kiln was found by the excav-
rarely found in excavations. Major sites like ators. This kiln was very heavily vitrified, to the
Mohenjodaro and Harappa, or Rakhigarhi or point where parts of the surface ran in pencil like
Dholavira have not yielded evidence of metal formation. The sole item of evidence that this kiln
working. Kenoyer and Miller (1999) who have was used for metal processing, however, is a foot
made extensive studies on the subject have note that a crucible fragment with traces indicating
expressed surprise at the absence of evidence of that it had been used for bronze casting was found
smelting of metal at the Indus sites. It could be 20 feet south of the kiln. The several pieces and
because the excavations are conducted on bits of slag found at Harappa are in general
habitational sites while metal extraction was done contextually associated with post-cremation urns
near ore deposits located in the more remote areas. and not with metalworking or furnace remains.
Though the habitation sites have occasionally
yielded remains suggesting local casting or 3.1.1 Crucibles
fabrication of metals as revealed by of kilns or A shallow earthenware crucible, oval at the
forges. base with straight sides and a fragmentary
 METALS AND METALLURGY IN THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 283

earthenware crucible found in Mound F, near a polishing it. For smelting of copper, shallow
furnace “whose contents show that it was used furnaces as noted in excavations of some early
for melting bronze.” Chakrabarti & Lahiri (1996, cultures attaining temperature up to 400°C or a
p.50), state “Only the presence of arsenic / arsenic- little higher could be used. These furnaces were
rich minerals is attested to and includes a piece of capable of producing regulus that could be further
yellow arsenic (hartal) in Sq K 12/14, Mound F worked in clay crucibles to procure the metal for
(Vats, 1940, p. 80) and a small lump of lollingite shaping into desirable objects.
found in ‘jar 277’. This attests to some activity
The melting point of copper is 1080°C. A
related to metallurgy of copper or bronze. little later, the furnaces provided with bellows
Unfinished and unworked objects have been
could generate temperature capable of producing
mentioned. The most important examples are from adequate heat to bring the ore to a melting point.
‘jar 277’, with contents suggesting metal related
The molten metal was procured as ingots by
activity. In addition, attention may be drawn to pouring into stone, clay or sand moulds. This can
the numerous pieces weighing 2 pounds
be achieved by using cuprous ores like malachite
approximately 1 kg.
[CuCO3.Cu (OH)2] cuprites or (Cu2O) azurite
Ingots have been reported from several 2CuCO3Cu (OH)2. By adding flux, the melting
Harappan sites. Mackay refers to occurrence of temperature could be reduced further. However,
‘quite a number of ingots and castings’ which in India the most frequently found ore is
throw considerable light on the methods adopted chalcopyrite. It occurs at Khetri (Rajasthan),
by the metallurgists of Mohenjodaro. The plano- Surda, Mosabani and Rakha in Singhbhum region
convex shape ingots with uneven looking top had (Jharkhand), at several places in Madhya Pradesh,
characteristic puckering due to the contraction of such as Balaghat, Bhind, Jabalpur, Gwalior, Sagar
metal when cooling. It is reported from Lothal and etc. Copper also occurs in Kumaon- Garhwal at
several other sites. This suggests that ‘the ore was places like Almora (Uttarakhand), and in Sikkim
smelted in an open hearth’. But we cannot say at and Nepal in the neighborhood. Other deposits
present state of our knowledge that it was produced closely accessible to the Harappan metal workers
locally. Dholavira has also yielded similar copper were in parts of Baluchistan and Afghanistan and
ingots. regions further west to it.
In the Indian subcontinent, as noted above,
4. COPPER -BRONZE METALLURGY IN THE
we find the earliest use of copper in the form of a
INDUS-SARASWATI CIVILIZATION small bead in a child burial from period I
Historically speaking, copper is one of the (Neolithic) at Mehrgarh dated to 6500 BCE.
earliest utilitarian metals exploited by man. Even Objects like beads and rings also occur in the next
in its natural or native form some copper ores like period that is, Period II. These objects could be of
pyrite shine like gold (therefore, also called ‘fools’ native copper. But from the succeeding
gold’). It is only too natural that man was drawn Chalcolithic period, terracotta crucibles have been
towards the shining metallic material. Being a found indicating smelting of copper in Baluchistan
ductile and soft material, the shining ore pieces region by 5th - 4th millennium BCE. Among the
could be beaten to desirable shapes by the early metals used during the Sindhu-Saraswati
metal workers. Even in its native form copper can civilization, copper was most common playing an
be worked on low temperature. Technically it is important role in economy. The fact is fully borne
possible to hammer or ‘cold work’ copper to shape out by large number of copper objects found at
small objects out of it by bending, grinding or Harappan settlements. The Harappans had
284 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

mastered the most complicated metal forging was required. The alloying percentage of minor
techniques in copper as will be discussed below. metals was adjusted suitably. For shaping objects,
a variety of moulds – single or double–had been
The tool typology may be classified under
utilized by the Harappan metal smiths. The moulds
the broad category of hunting tools or war
were made of clay or sand and occasionally of
weapons’; implements utilized in various sectors
stone. For welding together different metal pieces,
like agriculture, masonry, carpentry and
technique of riveting or pouring or running of
craftsmen’s implements were found. A fairly large molten metal over the desired part was in vogue.
number of house-hold objects like pots –pans and The fabrication of artifacts had to pass through
domestic appliances, toys, figurines or ritualistic several stages as shown below.
objects are common. Besides copper or bronzes,
gold and silver have generally been used for 4.1 Techniques in Metal Craft
fashioning objects like jewelry, including a tiara
(found at Kunal in Haryana), other ornamental Without entering into further discussion on
objects or decorative pieces, containers etc. It is the metallurgical traits, we now proceed to narrate
the key stages seemingly prevalent in copper
worth underlining here that each category of metal
metallurgy in the past. The copper smelting
object manufactured by metal smiths was distinct
process consists of several stages that may be
in its own way so far as the technique and
summarized as under (Agrawal 1971, pp. 156-57;
composition of the metal was concerned. Almost
2000, pp. 33-53; 2009)
70% of the copper objects of the Harappan
civilization are seemingly unalloyed. Others have Stage I: The first step in shaping native copper
been alloyed judiciously to suit the purpose for involves hammering, cutting, bending, grinding,
which they were fabricated or for adding to the and polishing.
design and finish of the object concerned. For Stage II: Annealing native copper by heating and
instance, the sharp-edged cutting tools like razors, hammering is the next step.
knives or daggers, arrowheads, spearheads; drills
Stage III: It is a stage of smelting oxide and
etc. show a distinct alloying pattern with up to
carbonate ores; smelting ore in wood or charcoal
12-13% tin in the matrix of finished metal object. fire over a clay lined pit with air. It gave away (1)
For instance, for casting of mirrors the regulus and (2) slag to be discarded.
composition of tin had to be much higher. On the
other hand, the pots and pans required different Stage IV: Melting and casting copper: melting
kind of composition for convenience of forging native copper or regulus over furnace or fire in a
and hammering into desirable form. Therefore, crucible and casting into stone, clay or sand
higher malleability and ductility was required for moulds. This is the stage of fashioning objects by
hammering the pots into shape. Percentage of tin cold work, annealing, finishing by grinding and
polishing.
in pots or pans is generally found to be smaller.
The technique of raising- sinking and drawing was Stage V: Smelting of sulphide ores requires special
employed there. Arsenic was found to be present care. The following process is observed:
in several statues probable with a specific reason (i) Roasting the ore to remove bulk of sulphur.
of adding special effect and hue to the finished
product. Thus, different fabrication techniques (ii) Smelting roasted ore (with charcoal in low
appeared to be employed for fashioning different shaft furnace)
types of metal artifacts. For casting and moulding (iii)Roasted ore yields copper matte (copper and
of objects, a more suitable composition of metal iron sulphide) and slag
 METALS AND METALLURGY IN THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 285

(iv)Smelting of roasted matte with charcoal and model is prepared over a clay core. The wax layer
silica flux in low shaft furnace yields: (a) Blue is of the thickness of the desired object. An outer
metal which is rich in copper, and (b) slag that mould of clay is built over this “incorporating the
is rich in copper and iron, spruce cup, runner, riser and vents.” Two holes-
were left as the inlet and outlet for the molten
(v) The above process leads to roasting blue metal.
metal. The wax was heated to melting point. It
(vi)Blue metal smelted with charcoal yields (a) was followed by pouring of molten metal into the
black copper, (b) rich copper matte (c) slag inlet and the wax could run off through the other
rich in copper. hole. Along with the wax, surplus metal also
(vii) Melting black copper (with blast air in flowed out. It was then allowed to cool. The mould
charcoal fire or with charcoal in crucible) had to be broken to retrieve the object. Obviously,
leads to (a) refined copper, (b) slag rich in it could not be reused. This also explains near
absence of occurrence of moulds at ancient metal
copper.
working sites.
(viii) Finally, refined copper is fashioned by
It can be done by pouring liquified metal
casting, etc; copper thus produced is 99.5%
into moulds as ingots after smelting of copper or
pure.
for fabrication of artifacts. Though Rao reported
stone mould from Lothal (Rao 1979, p. 557, 568;
5. CASTING AND FABRICATION
Fig. 121 nos.3,4) for casting pins or rods but
The smelting of ores yields ingots or semi- Agrawal expresses doubts over the identification
refined lump of copper which requires further (Agrawal 2000, p. 46). Open cast terracotta
refining. These are easy to transport. Incidentally, moulds or sand moulds were also said to have been
several ingots have been reported from sites of in use during the Harappan times. It is possible
the Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization. For fashioning that perishable material like wood or sandy clay
copper artifacts two basic techniques are in vogue. might have been in use. This also explains the
(1) Casting and (2) fabrication are two major steps absence of moulds at the sites (Agrawal 2000, p.
perceptible in ancient copper metallurgy. 47).
Open moulds consist of hollow shapes
5.1. Casting
carved out to receive the molten metal. Such
This involves pouring of molten metal in moulds are generally made with stone. A flat piece
moulds to achieve desired shapes. Different types of wood or some other material is used to cover
of practices of copper casting have been described it. Flat moulds are reported from Chanhudaro
by metallurgists studying ancient copper (Mackay 1943, pp.40-41). Closed moulds are
technology. Mention may be made here of Forbes fashioned out of two or, at times, more fitting
(1964), Tylecote (1962; 1992), Agrawal (2000) pieces of stone, clay or bronze. Small holes into
who have described different aspects of ancient the opposite pieces of moulds helped ensure a
copper metallurgy, especially the casting technique straight line (by thrusting dowels into these holes).
in the ancient cultures. Copper casting is Ridges are formed on the sides of copper objects
categorize into three broad classes: (i)open casts, produced with this method. Agrawal (1971, p. 181)
(ii)part moulds or closed moulds, (iii) lost wax reports to have examined and found such ridges
process (ciré perdue). The lost-wax process or on harpoons found in the Copper Hoards. Ridges
“ciré perdue” is a developed technique. It is are found on objects, such as on two barbs in the
generally used for casting complex shapes. A wax Shahjahanpur specimen and three in the Shahabad
286 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

specimen. Gungeria axe too had ridges of this type VI. Joining: Two separate pieces could be joined
due to the use of double mould. to complete the shape of an object. This was
commonly practiced in joining handles or rims on
5.2. Fabrication pots or pans. A specimen from Harappa testifies
At this stage copper must be alloyed to to pouring of molten metal to join a handle on
the body of the pot, (Mackay1931, p. 489). It was
improve its hardness and tensile strength. During
also common method used in gold and silver
smelting, copper absorbs gases and thus becomes
objects.
porous. This necessitates alloying with tin or
arsenic, without which complex castings are VII. Hot Work: This refines the coarse grain
impossible. found in cast copper. It increases the density of
the metal by closing up small pores and gas holes.
The metal forging techniques popular in
The highest tempera-ture required is 1050°C and
the antiquity may be described as under:
the lowest 400°C.
I. Hammering: Ingots were beaten to the desired
VIII. Annealing: It is a process of heating cold
shape to produce vessels, wires and other artifacts.
worked brittle metal to regain its malleability. It
II. Spinning and Turning: It was done by turning has been a popular method during antiquity
a pot on a lathe. Lathe, according to Mackay
(1931) was not a common method used in the 5.3 Alloying
Indus Valley Civilization as it has not been The Harappan specimens, on the other
supported by evidence from excavations. hand, display a high percentage of alloying, though
However, sinking and turning must have been used unalloyed specimens have also been found.
in shaping utensils–pots or pans. According to the following table given by -
III. Drawing: Copper wire and silver wire has Agrawal (1971, p. 168) the percentage of alloys
been found in excavations from Proto-historic in Harappan objects greatly varies.The
sites, including from the Harappan sites. Such Chalcolithic copper objects analyzed by Hegde
wires must have been made by a technique known were found to be made of either more than 98 per
as drawing used for ornaments etc. is not clear cent pure copper or a small percentage could be
whether the wires were drawn or forged (Agrawal, classified as low tin bronze (Hegde 1965). In post-
op.cit.) Harappan Chalcolithic objects percentage of tin
varied from 3.12 to 12.82. Bronze tools have
IV. Cutting: The metal smiths of the Harappan keener and more enduring cutting edges than
civilization could use this technique rather copper tools. Alloying copper with tin facilitated
efficiently. Mackay (1938, pp. 368, 452, 475) casting and hot forging operations.
reports finding of several double edged chisels
which might have been used for cutting metal Percentage of tools 70% 10% 14% 6%
sheets. On analysis these are graded as tin bronze Tin content 1% 8% 8-12% 12%
or arsenical bronze. Thus they had higher level of
hardness. Therefore these could be aptly utilized 6. COPPER- BRONZE OBJECTS FROM
for cutting purposes. HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
V. Cold Work/Hammering: This is done on cold Discussing the nature of Harappan tools
metal. Pure copper is, as a rule, soft but by repertoire, Wheeler (1968, p.73) observed, “In
hammering it can be made much harder. However, considering the possible elements of war, we may
too much hammering makes it brittle. reject the simple chert blades which occur
 METALS AND METALLURGY IN THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 287

abundantly on all Harappan sites, as on many In-depth study of metals and metallurgy
others of the same general period. But alongside during the Indus Sarasvati Civiliaztion has been
these are found metal implements of which a made by Agrawal (1071; 2000; Kenoyer and
majority may have been used equally by the Miller, 1999). The discussion here borrows heavily
soldier, the huntsman, the craftsman, or even by from these works. The important tool typology of
the ordinary householder and are included in the this civilization may be classified as under.
section without prejudice. They are of copper or
bronze generally poor in tin and include spears 6.1. Ornaments and Mirrors
knives, short swords, arrowheads and axes. Spears The use of copper as a form of ornament
are invariably tanged and cannot clearly be has a long history in the greater Indus region and
distinguished by knives (see figs. 6, 7). Most of can be traced back to the early levels at the site of
them are thin, flat, leaf-shaped blades which will Mehrgah, where there is evidence for a single
buckle on impact and must have been stiffened copper bead from Neolithic levels (Period 1B) at
by being set back between the split ends of the c. 6000 BCE (Jarrige, 1979). Several Copper
shaft, which would thus serve as a mid-ribbed. ornaments have been reported from subsequent
Sometimes two small holes near the base of the layers (Jarrige 1983), but these objects have not
blade suggest a former binding for such a device been analyzed, so details of composition and
rarely the blade has a slight median thickening, manufacture are still unknown.
the section being diamond-shaped. Such
The presence of mirrors, remarks Agrawal
reinforced blades are upto 18.5 inches in length
(2000, p. 73) in the burials is intriguing, as they
and may rather represent short swords or dirks, a
were made of a considerable amount of metal that
type of weapon for which there is no other
could have been recycled. Metal mirrors are a new
evidence. They are from late levels, and have
object during the Harappan phase, as mirrors were
parallels of c.2200-1750 BCE in Syria and
not previously made in any material, either
Palestine. The lead shaped spearhead is universal;
polished stone or metal. Bronze mirrors have been
no barbed blade has been found, although there is recovered from sites like Rakhigarhi, Lothal,
a clear illustration of a barbed spear on a Dholavira and Mohenjodaro (Figs. 3 and 5)
Mohanjodaro seal, and a barbed spear head from illustrated here have more or less similar design.
Ur has been sighted in this connection……leaf The composition of the same is not known due to
shaped knives may sometimes be differentiated lack of analytical study of the same.
from spears by having a slightly sinuous recurved
point, a Harappan peculiarity hardly ever found Talking of Harappan Jewelry, the human
outside the Indus civilization. figurines – terracotta or metal– demonstrates a
love for ornaments. Copper beads and spacers are
Arrow-heads are fairly numerous and are almost
also included in some of the hoards (for example
invariably of copper or bronze. They are thin and
flat, with long, narrow barbs and no tang, at Allahdino; Agrawal 2000), but copper
resembling the swallow-tailed flint arrow-heads of ornaments have primarily been recovered in non-
Egypt and northern Iran. Copper or bronze axes hoard contexts, such as in the debris accumulating
are flat without the shaft-hole, which had early in the streets or habitation areas, or in some of the
developed elsewhere in western Asia. Some of the
burials. Out of total 168 copper / bronze ornaments
axe blades are long narrow, with nearly parallel
sides and may sometimes have been used in reported, 130 were found in non-hoard context and
prolongation of the haft: others are short and only 38 were found in hoards, generally in
relatively wide, with boldly expanded edge. association with gold and silver or gold foil
288 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

About the Harappan ornaments, Lal (1997,

pp. 167-68) notes “Of gold, no vessels, even tiny
ones, were made, evidently because of its rarity
and cost, however, ornaments were frequent.
These included a variety of beads – micro beads,
barrel shaped ones, some flat and discular with
axial holes, amulets, pendants, rings, broaches, etc.
(Fig.1 & 2).One of the spacers found at Lothal
Fig. 1. Carnelian belt and gold jewelry from Mohanjodaro has ten holes, indicating the same number of
strings in the necklace concerned. Thin, elongated,
conical pieces with a hole near the thinner end
may have been ear pendant of the type used even
now in India, However, no less interesting is a
hollow conical ornament which is even today worn
by rural womenfolk in Rajasthan and Haryana, in
the middle of the upper part of the forehead, where
the hair parts sideways. It is known as chauk.
Fig. 2. A. Gold jewelry from Lothal, B. Jewelry from Mandi, Attention may also be drawn to the circumstantial
Bagpat
evidence regarding the occurrence of a small, thin,
discular plate with two perforations on a margin.
It was found at Lothal, on an altar where an animal
had been sacrificed and may thus have had some
ritualistic significance. In this context, the
excavator (Rao 1985, p. 634) reminds us of the
ornament wore on the forehead by “priest” from
Mohenjodaro. Bangles (seen in Fig.1) were
Fig. 3. Copper mirror from Dholaveria, Rakhigarhi & fashioned by bending rods into slightly open
Mohenjo-Daro Photo by D.P. Sharma circles while some were made with silver or from
hammered gold. Rings of silver and copper were
equally popular during the mature Harappan
fragments that were probably lost in the muddy
period. Variety of copper objects was recovered
streets or courtyards. Although very little metal
from the sites of the Indus Valley; it is being
was buried with the dead, burials, like hoards,
described briefly here:
provide a context in which metal ornaments were
intentionally placed by the Indus peoples. Metal There is close similarity among artifacts
objects found in burials are almost all of copper / recovered from different sites including from
bronze. This includes mirrors, finger rings, Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Therefore, these
bangles, and occasional beads. In one instance objects are being discussed together (see Figs. 7
three gold beads were found, strung together with and 9).Vessels, adze (one socketed), dagger knife,
three stone beads. While the mirrors are invariably spear head, chisel, scrapper, razor, nail pearer
placed with female burials, the other metal (surgical or toilet set), cobbles awl needle, pin,
ornaments have been found with both male and antimony rod, mirror, fish hook, arrow head, hasp
female individuals. It should be noted that no or a typical Indian Kundi made with rounded
utilitarian copper/bronze tools have been found copper bar; latches and hooks have been reported
in the burials. from Harappa.
 METALS AND METALLURGY IN THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 289

6.2 Vessels
Many copper vessels were made from
single sheets of metal by hammering. In some
cases, as testified at Mohenjodaro they were made
in two parts and joined together. As seen in
projection the bases were “lapped on” to the upper
parts. In other cases, knobbed handles of lids were
secured by rivets with the help of molten metal.
The heavy bronze vessels appear to be cast. In
some cases, the final finish seems to be given by
hammering aided by frequent annealing and carful Fig. 5. Pots, pans, mirror etc from Mohenjo- Daro after
Mackay
rubbing or by turning them on a lathe.
A special shape reported from Harappa by
6.3. War and Hunting tools
Vats is a carinated jar from Mound AB. It is 7.8
inches in height and 7.7 inches in diameter (at the It has generally been stated that there is a
mouth) and 11.5 inches (across the body). It has relative scarcity of weapon grade tools in the
been made in two parts which are joined together Harappan civilization. Only exception to this is
by hammering. Such vessels have been found from the evidence coming forth from Ganeshwar-
other sites as well (Fig.4, 5). Jodhpura site. Though it is labeled as a
Chalcolithic site, but it has a unique position of
Among the other shapes mention may be being almost contemporaneous to the Mature
made of jar covers, scale pan and beams Harappan sites and is located in the copper ore
(Chanhudaro).Chanhudaro has yielded copper rich area of Khetri in Rajasthan. Occurrence of
canister shaped container which is fitted with wire- hundreds of inverted v-shaped arrowheads from
loop handle. (Mackay 1943, pl. LXXIII, 37) this site is noteworthy. Similar shapes along with
Another remarkable finding is a fluted copper celts have been found at Kalibangan in
cosmetic jar (Mackay 1943: pl. LXXIII, 39) with Rajasthan suggesting its supply from the
a very narrow (0.22 inches diameter) mouth and Ganeshwar - Jodhpura complex. Similar
long neck. It might have been used for keeping arrowheads have been reported from sites like
kohl. This is a unique example among Harappan Lothal, Dholavira, (Figs. 8, 9), Harappa,
vessels. Mohenjodaro and Chanhudaro (Marshall 1939,
Pl.CXLII No.13; Mackay1938, Pls CXXI,
CXXVII etc.). The subject needs a detailed and
independent treatment which may not be taken up
at this juncture.Nevertheless, the evidence is
significant from the point of view of metal
technology of the Harappan period. The important
war and hunting tool-types (Figs.6-8) may be
enumerated as under:
6.3.1 Blade Axe: Mackay points out that there is
‘no skimping’ of metal in the manufacture of blade
Fig. 4. Pots and pans Mohenjo-Daro, after J Marshall axe, which was first cast in open moulds and then
290 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

hammered for requisite hardness. There are traces Mohenjodaro (1930-31) is heavy for its size and
of polishing or rubbing after they were hammered. is well made and thick.
Long and Narrow Axes are found in long and short
6.3.4 Razor: Razors were classified into double
types as revealed by Mahenjodaro excavations.
blade which is the most common type. The blades
Lothal has yielded several types of axes. Flat axe
are very thin. Their tangs are oval in section. They
with a long narrow blade or a broad blade is most
seem to be roughly cut out of metal sheets and
common type. There is thick rectangular type axe.
hammered into shape. Generally, razors are not
Shaft-hole axes are reported though rarely. One
very large in size (Mackay 1937-38, p. 468)
specimen has been reported from Chanhudaro
from a relatively late phase (Agrawal 2000, pp. 6.4. Fish Hooks: Which are found frequently at
71). More noteworthy is the shaft-hole axe (Rao Harappan sites including Mohenjodaro
1985, Fig.107).
6.5. Chisel: Chisels have either rectangular or
Leaf shaped blades are typically Harappan square sections;there are ones with tangs having
tool. They are provided with tang with pointed flattened section orrounded sections. Some
end. Theseare reported from Lothal (Rao op.cit.). specimens are illustrated in the Fig.7 here. The
6.3.2 Spear or Lance: These types have thinner size is rather small. According to Marshall (1931,
and longer blades. They could have been mounted p. 502) these were used for wood work or may be
on a bamboo Shaft. Possibly they were made from for some soft stones such as steatite which are
rods of metals, which were ‘little thicker than the common at Indus sites.
tangs’. Their edges were possibly sharpened by
honing and hammering (Figs. 6,7). 7. MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS

6.3.3 Knives and Dagger, Arrow head, Spear Variety of implements used for different
lance-heads and Sword or Dirk: The latter has functions have been found during at Harappan
double edge.A specimen recovered from the sites. Fig. 9 shows miscellaneous objects
recovered from Dholavira. True saw with teeth
like the modern ones was a Harappan invention.
Sickle, plumb bob (lead), chisel, awl, reamer, drill,
bolt etc. have been reported from Mohenjodaro
(Mackay, 1937-38, p. 476). Eye needle, as pointed
earlier was another Harappan contribution.

Fig. 6. Copper & Bronze arrow heads and spear heads from 8. INSCRIBED METAL OBJECTS SEALS/TABLETS
Mohenjo-daro, after J. Marshall
Kenoyer and Miller (1999) have made
exhaustive study of metal objects with inscription.
At Mohenjodaro hundreds of inscribed tablets
have been recovered (Marshall, 1931; Mackey,
1937-38; Yule, 1985). A rare variety of copper
tablet with raised script was found at Harappa
(Vats, 1940). Lothal and Dholavira also yielded a
good number of copper tablets (Fig. 10). These
Fig. 7. Copper & Bronze Leaf shaped spear heads and rectangular or square tablets have inscriptions in
arrowheads, Mohenjo-daro, after J. Marshall Indus characters as well as motifs on both the
 METALS AND METALLURGY IN THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 291

Fig. 8. Copper & Bronze arrow head’s, from Dholavira, after R.S. Bisht

Fig. 9. Copper & Bronze objects from Dholavira, after R.S.

Bisht

faces. Kenoyer and Miller (1999:134) assume that

the inscription might have been carved with stone
burins or bronze graver.

8.1. Figurines
Fig. 10. Rectangular Copper bifacial tablets, Mohenjo-daro,
Among the most talked about metal after Marshall
objects from the Indus Valley Civilization is the
bronze image of the ‘dancing girl’(Fig.11. A,B). 8.2 Daimabad Bronzes
It is an excellent example of lost wax technique
or ciré perdue. It is also remarkable for its The site of Daimabad is located in
execution and artistic expression. Noteworthy is Ahmadnagar district of Maharashstra. It has been
the fact that it is richly adorned with ornaments. placed in the relatively later phase of the Harappan
There is a prominent necklace with a pendant Civilization and also long distance away from the
hanging almost up to her chest; nearly 20-25 main Harappan zone. Excavations at Daimabad
bangles are worn on the wrist and fore-arms of (Sali, 1986) yielded a variety of copper objects
the left hand; the right hand which rests on the along with evidence of copper working. Mention
waist has a wrist band or bangles and an armlet. of kind of copper smelting furnace and a ‘lump of
In addition to this female figure, there are animal copper’ ore at the site may suggest smelting at the
figurines of dog, swan, elephant; bull and goat site. Chalcopyrite ore is available in the locality
were also cast in miniature in copper-bronze(Fig. therefore there is a possibility that it was used for
12-15). Large sized animal figures are reported copper extraction at the site. A hoard containing
from a relatively later phase of the Harappan four large sized animal figurines, viz, elephant,
Civilization from Daimabad as discussed below rhinoceros, bison or a buffalo and a chariot with a
in some detail. rider is the most significant finding of the
292 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

Fig. 15. Model of bronze chariot, Mohenjo-Daro

excavation. Dhavalikar (1993, pp.421-426)

Figs. 11(A & B). Bronze Dancing Girl, Mohenjo-daro, discusses the contents of this hoard in detail. There
National Museum New Delhi & Karachi Museums
is a chariot with a man which is driven by two
bulls. Its total length is 45 cm and a width is 16
cms. The other figure is that of an elephant which
is standing on a platform (27 cm. long and 14cm.
broad). The trunk is curved upwards. The rhino
figure is standing on two horizontal bars resting
over two sets of solid wheels. The buffalo is quite
naturalistic in execution. Its height including the
wheels is 31 cm and length is 25 cm. It resembles
a bison. It stands on a platform similar to the
elephant figure. The front wheels are smaller than
Fig. 12. Miniature rabbit bronze, Dholavira, after R S Bisht the rear ones (8 and 10, cm respectively). Chemical
analysis reveals varying percentage of alloying in
these objects. Tin alloying ranging from 0.85
percent to 6.51 percent has been reported in these
objects (Shinde et al., 2016, p. 114).
Summing up the discussion on copper
technology, we can say that the Harappans had
mastered the technology and had made a judicious
use of metal alloying to suit the nature of the
Fig. 13. Unhumped Bronze bull from Kalibanga object. For instance, the bronze mirrors had much
higher percentage of tin content than other
artifacts. Of the 177 copper objects analysed from
Harappa and Mohenjodaro only 30% were alloyed
(Agrawal, 2000, p.72). Tin alloying ranges from1-
12%; arsenic alloying, 1-7%; nickel alloying, 1-
9%; and lead alloying are 1-32%. Tin bronze is
most frequent compared to other alloys. As
discussed earlier different techniques of
fabrication were known to the Harappan metal
Fig. 14. Miniature Dog, Lothal, after Rao smiths.
 METALS AND METALLURGY IN THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 293

9. GOLD AND SILVER

Precious metal objects from the Harappan
phase sites have been recovered from hoards rather
than from burials. Gold and silver ornaments and
silver vessels have been found almost exclusively
in hoards. It is interesting that copper / bronze
vessels have been found almost equally in hoard
and non-hoards contexts. Gold and Silver Fig. 16. Pedestalled Gold cup with Lion decoration, Quetta
ornaments have been found stored in ceramic,
copper, or silver vessels that appear to have been
stone beads made from agate carnelian, jasper,
turquoise, and other varieties of coloured stones,
deliberately hidden away. Some of these hoards
include broken ornaments and melted lumps of
gold and silver that would undoubtedly have been
re-melted and made into new ornaments. The
hoards often contain numerous gold objects like
beads, leaf perhaps fragments of ornaments. The
metallurgy of gold and silver was fairly evolved
as is fully manifest in the exquisite jewelry found
in excavations. Gold and silver have generally
been used for fashioning objects like jewelry,
including a tiara (found at Kunal in Haryana),
other ornamental objects or decorative pieces and
even containers. Amulets, pendants, armlets, Fig. 17. Silver Jar with knobbed lid, Mohenjo-Daro
beads, brooches, pendants and earrings of precious
metals were found from Harappan sites. The gold
ornaments a mastery of metal craftsmanship he concludes that it is electrum rather than an
(Fig.1,2).The gold smithy was highly evolved as artificial mixture of silver (derived from galena)
evident from the jewelry from the Harappan sites. and gold (Lal, 1985, pp. 664-665). Special mention
Silver was rather scarce in this part of the world. may be made here of a gold pedestalled cup from
Therefore, the number of silver objects is rather Chanhudaro. It has a lion motif on it (Fig.16).
small. It comprised beads, bangles, buckles and Harappans seem to have accessed silver from
other ornamental pieces. Though few household different sources. One of the likely sources of gold
objects like cups or containers are not altogether according to Kenoyer and Miller (1999, p. 120)
missing (Fig. 16, 17). could be streams and rivers in Afghanistan as well
as upper reaches of the Indus Valley.
The neckpieces recovered from
Mohenjodaro and kept in the National Museum Silver objects in the Harappan Civilization
bear testimony to the art of gold smithy. Lal, the are relatively numerous. According to Marshall
archaeological chemist of Archaeological Survey (1931) silver was more common compared to gold.
of India had analyzed two gold objects from Besides ornaments like beads, bangles, rings,
Lothal. They contain 33.45% and 41.48% silver fillets brooches, seals etc. there are a few vessels
but no copper, nickel, lead or zinc. On this basis of silver as well. Special mention may be made of
294 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

a silver jar with pointed base;it also has a knobbed sharpened edge; chisels; spear heads; thin barbed
lid (Fig 17). These objects also contain some arrow-heads; straight and circular saws; blade-
copper as revealed by analysis (Sana Ullah in axes; mid-ribbed daggers; drills; eyed needles. It
Mackay 1938, p. 599). There are silver deposits may be pointed out that needles with eyes on the
in Baluchistan, Afghanistan and Aravalli hills in pointed ends, true saws, circular saws, and drills
Rajasthan. Correlation studies, however, have not are Harappan contribution to the world of
yet been sufficiently conducted to suggest the instruments. Shaft-holed axes are rather a rarity
exact source of silver. As observed by Sana Ullah and must depict imports. One of the razors from
(1938, p. 589) argentiferous galena was probable Mohenjodaro was found wrapped in cloth.
source of silver. Mohenjo-Daro yielded a hoard below 4.8 feet with
40 objects including a goat figurine. The Hoards
10. CONCLUSION numbered 2 and 3 came from the same room in
DK area containing utensils, tools, celts, figurines
In this brief survey of metals and
etc. This indicates that the metal objects were
metallurgy during in the Sindhu- Sarasvati
valuable and special care was taken towards
Civilization, we observe mastery in metal crafts
maintenance and safety of objects.
and a systematic utilization of resources by a well–
organized socio-political system. The affluence of There is a judicious use of metals and the
the Harappan civilization is reflected in the metal metallurgical skill which is in keeping with the
repertoire. The impression that the people of this general temper of the Harappan civilization. While
civilization were peace loving is reflected in the fabricating artifacts, different techniques were
tool-typology of the civilization. There is a relative employed by artisans for different types of objects.
scarcity of weapons or tools of offence. Large Vessels, for instance were shaped with technique
numbers of stone tools were utilized. of raising, sinking and forging together two pieces
with an exemplary expertise. Lost wax technique
It is particularly sophisticated due to its
was known though used for moulding figurines.
simplicity. As observed by Agrawal (op. cit.) ‘The
Wires have been drawn using another technique.
metal craft of this civilization has neither the
Alloying was done suitably in accordance with
complicated mouldings of Mesopotamia nor the
the nature and function of artifacts. As noted
ornate design of Chinese metal ware’. The
earlier, mirrors for instance, have higher tin
Harappan smiths had achieved a sophistication
content than other objects. Tools with sharp edges
which is manifest in its simplicity. Most of the
like saw and chisels seem to have been hardened
artifacts appear utilitarian. Except for two
by alloying with arsenic. A small percentage of
specimens of the dancing girls no human images
tin alloying may add golden hue to the finished
are available in metal. But the animal figure
artifacts. Unfortunately, the number of metal
examples do show their competence in the lost
samples which have been analyzed so far is rather
wax method of casting. The Harappan sites have
small. The compositions and techniques could be
been rich in copper-bronze compared to the
better understood had greater attention was paid
Chalcolithic and the Copper Hoard-OCP culture
to study this aspect of Harappan Civilization.
which were partially contemporary with the
former. However, unlike the other Chalcolithic Since copper-bronze artifacts played a key
culture of India, one comes across plenty of pots role in shaping the techno-cultural personality of
and pans in metal here. The main tool types may this civilization, greater attention should be paid
be classified as razors; leaf shaped knives with to study of metals and metallurgy and raw material
incurved end; sickle blades with externally procurement mechanism of Harappans.
 METALS AND METALLURGY IN THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 295

For procurement of raw material, not only Kenoyer and Heather M. - L. Miller. Metal Technologies of
the Indus Valley Tradition in Pakistan and Western
the smallest deposits were tapped, even pacer
India, The Archaeometallurgy of Asian Old World;
deposits seem to have been exploited, especially Vincent Pigott (ed.) University of Pennsylvania
for gold. The sites closer to the mineral deposits Museum Monograph 89, University Museum
appear to have gained special status. The palatial Publications Philadelphia, 1999.
structure at Mundigak in Afghanistan may be an Lal, B B. Report on the chemical analysis and examination
example in the case. Likewise, the expansion of of metallic and other objects from Lothal, in Lothal:
A Harappan Port Town, (1955-62) vol.1 & 2, Memoirs
Harappan ‘empire’ up to Daimabad in Maharashtra of Archaeological Survey of India, Delhi No.78
could be consequence of some such mechanism. (1985): 651-666.
The marine trade with contemporary civilization Lal, B B. The Earliest Civilization of South Asia, Aryan
in Persian Gulf might have been major asset in Books International, Delhi 1997
procurement of precious commodities including Mackay, E J H. Technique and Description of Metal Vessels,
metals. Despite these facts, it may be pointed out Tools, Implements and Other Objects, in John Marshall
(ed.), Mohenjodaro and Indus Civilization, A.
in the end that much work needs to be done in the Probesthain, London 1931, pp. 488-508
field of metals and metallurgy of the Harappan
Mackay, E J H. Chanhudaro Excavation 1935-36, American
times. Further analytical researches from different Oriental Society, New Haven CN, 1943
archaeo-metallurgical is needed. Our knowledge Mackay, E J H. Further Excavations at Mohenjodaro; Vol.
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shed more light on aspects of metals and vol. II, A. Probesthain, London, 1931
metallurgy of the Harappan civilization. Miller, Heather M.L. Metal Processing at Harappa and
Mohenjodaro: Information from Non-Metal Remains,
South Asian Archaeology, 1993, Asko Parpola, and P.
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