42 Aircraft electrical and electronic systems

Figure 2.15 Triggering a silicon-controlled

rectifier

2.2.3 Silicon-controlled rectifiers

Silicon-controlled rectifiers (or thyristors) are three-
terminal devices which can be used for switching and
AC power control. Silicon-controlled rectifiers can
switch very rapidly from a conducting to a non-con-
Figure 2.13 Typical Zener diode characteristic
ducting state. In the off state, the silicon-controlled
rectifier exhibits negligible leakage current, while in
the on state the device exhibits very low resistance.
This results in very little power loss within the silicon-
controlled rectifier even when appreciable power levels
are being controlled.
Once switched into the conducting state, the silicon-
controlled rectifier will remain conducting (i.e. it
is latched in the on state) until the forward current
is removed from the device. In DC applications this
necessitates the interruption (or disconnection) of the
supply before the device can be reset into its non-con-
Figure 2.14 A simple Zener diode voltage ducting state. Where the device is used with an alter-
regulator nating supply, the device will automatically become
reset whenever the main supply reverses. The device
can then be triggered on the next half-cycle having
output voltage will remain at the Zener voltage (VZ) correct polarity to permit conduction.
until regulation fails at the point at which the poten- Like their conventional silicon diode counterparts,
tial divider formed by RS and RL produces a lower silicon-controlled rectifiers have anode and cathode
output voltage that is less than VZ. The ratio of RS to connections; control is applied by means of a gate
RL is thus important. terminal. The symbol for a silicon-controlled rectifier
was shown earlier in Fig. 2.12.
In normal use, a silicon-controlled rectifier is trig-
gered into the conducting (on) state by means of the
Key point application of a current pulse to the gate terminal
(see Fig. 2.15). The effective triggering of a silicon-
Zener diodes begin to conduct heavily when the
applied voltage reaches a particular threshold value
controlled rectifier requires a gate trigger pulse having
(known as the Zener voltage). Zener diodes can a fast rise time derived from a low-resistance source.
thus be used to maintain a constant voltage which Triggering can become erratic when insufficient gate
is often used as a voltage reference. current is available or when the gate current changes
slowly.
Electronic fundamentals 43

Key point
Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR) are diodes that
can be triggered into conduction by applying a
small current to their gate input. SCRs are able to
control large voltages and currents from a relatively
small (low-current, low-voltage) signal.

2.2.4 Light-emitting diodes Figure 2.16 A simple half-wave rectifier

circuit
Light-emitting diodes (LED) can be used as general-
purpose indicators and, compared with conventional
filament lamps, operate from significantly smaller
voltages and currents. LEDs are also very much more
reliable than filament lamps. Most LEDs will provide
a reasonable level of light output when a forward cur-
rent of between 5 mA and 20 mA is applied.
Light-emitting diodes are available in various for-
mats with the round types being most popular. Round
LEDs are commonly available in the 3 mm and 5 mm
(0.2 inch) diameter plastic packages and also in a
5 mm ⫻ 2 mm rectangular format. The viewing angle
for round LEDs tends to be in the region of 20° to
40°, whereas for rectangular types this is increased to
around 100°. The symbol for an LED was shown ear-
lier in Fig. 2.12.

Key point
Light-emitting diodes produce light when a small
current is applied to them. They are generally
smaller and more reliable than conventional fila-
Figure 2.17 Switching action of the diode in
ment lamps and can be used to form larger and
more complex displays. the half-wave rectifier: (a) D1 forward biased,
(b) D1 reverse biased

of a step-down transformer (T1). The secondary of T1

2.2.5 Rectifiers
steps down the 115 V 400 Hz supply to 28.75 V RMS
Semiconductor diodes are commonly used to con- (the turns ratio of T1 will thus be 115/28.75 or 4:1).
vert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), Diode D1 will only allow the current to flow in the
in which case they are referred to as rectifiers. The direction shown (i.e. from anode to cathode). D1 will
simplest form of rectifier circuit makes use of a sin- be forward biased during each positive half-cycle and
gle diode and, since it operates on only either positive will effectively behave like a closed switch, as shown
or negative half-cycles of the supply, it is known as a in Fig. 2.17(a). When the circuit current tries to flow
half-wave rectifier. in the opposite direction, the voltage bias across the
Figure 2.16 shows a simple half-wave rectifier cir- diode will be reversed, causing the diode to act like
cuit. The AC supply at 115 V is applied to the primary an open switch, as shown in Fig. 2.17(b).
44 Aircraft electrical and electronic systems

Figure 2.18 Waveforms of voltages in the simple half-wave power supply

The switching action of D1 results in a pulsat-

ing output voltage, which is developed across the
load resistor (RL). Since the supply is at 400 Hz, the
pulses of voltage developed across RL will also be
at 400 Hz even if only half the AC cycle is present.
During the positive half-cycle, the diode will drop
the 0.6 V forward threshold voltage normally asso-
ciated with silicon diodes. However, during the
Figure 2.19 Adding a reservoir capacitor
negative half-cycle the peak AC voltage will be
to a half-wave rectifier to make a simple DC
dropped across D1 when it is reverse biased. This is power supply
an important consideration when selecting a diode for
a particular application. Assuming that the secondary
of T1 provides 28.75 V RMS, the peak voltage out-
put from the transformer’s secondary winding will be threshold voltage dropped by D1. In other words,
given by: positive half-cycle pulses having a peak amplitude of
almost exactly 40 V will appear across RL.
Vpk ⫽ 1.414 ⫻ VRMS ⫽ 1.414 ⫻ 28.75 V ⫽ 40.65 V Figure 2.19 shows a considerable improvement
to the earlier simple rectifier. The capacitor, C1, has
The peak voltage applied to Dl will thus be a little been added to ensure that the output voltage remains
over 40 V. The negative half-cycles are blocked by D1 at, or near, the peak voltage even when the diode is
and thus only the positive half-cycles appear across not conducting. When the primary voltage is first
RL. Note, however, that the actual peak voltage across applied to T1, the first positive half-cycle output from
RL will be the 40.65 V positive peak being supplied the secondary will charge C1 to the peak value seen
from the secondary on T1, minus the 0.6 V forward across RL. Hence C1 charges to 40 V at the peak of
Electronic fundamentals 45

Figure 2.20 Effect of adding a reservoir capacitor on the output of the half-wave rectifier

the positive half-cycle. Because C1 and RL are in par- so, C1 will discharge by a small amount during the
allel, the voltage across RL will be the same as that negative half-cycle periods from the transformer
developed across C1 (see Fig. 2.19). secondary. The figure below shows the secondary
The time required for C1 to charge to the maximum voltage waveform together with the voltage developed
(peak) level is determined by the charging circuit across RL with and without C1 present. This gives rise
time constant (the series resistance multiplied by the to a small variation in the DC output voltage (known
capacitance value). In this circuit, the series resistance as ripple).
comprises the secondary winding resistance together Since ripple is undesirable we must take addi-
with the forward resistance of the diode and the (min- tional precautions to reduce it. One obvious method
imal) resistance of the wiring and connections. Hence of reducing the amplitude of the ripple is that of sim-
C1 charges to 40 V at the peak of the positive half- ply increasing the discharge time constant. This can
cycle. Because C1 and RL are in parallel, the voltage be achieved either by increasing the value of C1 or
across RL will be the same as that across C1. by increasing the resistance value of RL. In practice,
The time required for C1 to discharge is, in con- however, the latter is not really an option because RL
trast, very much greater. The discharge time constant is the effective resistance of the circuit being supplied
is determined by the capacitance value and the load and we don’t usually have the ability to change it!
resistance, RL. In practice, RL is very much larger Increasing the value of C1 is a more practical alterna-
than the resistance of the secondary circuit and hence tive and very large capacitor values (often in excess
C1 takes an appreciable time to discharge. During of 1000 μF) are typical.
this time, D1 will be reverse biased and will thus be The half-wave rectifier circuit is relatively inefficient
held in its non-conducting state. As a consequence, as conduction takes place only on alternate half-cycles.
the only discharge path for C1 is through RL. A better rectifier arrangement would make use of both
C1 is referred to as a reservoir capacitor. It stores positive and negative half-cycles. These full-wave rec-
charge during the positive half-cycles of secondary tifier circuits offer a considerable improvement over
voltage and releases it during the negative half-cycles. their half-wave counterparts. They are not only more
The circuit shown earlier is thus able to maintain a efficient but are significantly less demanding in terms
reasonably constant output voltage across RL. Even of the reservoir and smoothing components. There are
46 Aircraft electrical and electronic systems

Figure 2.21 A simple bi-phase rectifier circuit

two basic forms of full-wave rectifier: the bi-phase type

and the bridge rectifier type.
Figure 2.21 shows a simple bi-phase rectifier cir-
cuit. The AC supply at 115 V is applied to the primary
of a step-down transformer (T1). This has two identi-
cal secondary windings, each providing 28.75 V RMS
(the turns ratio of T1 will still be 115/28.75 or 4:1 for
each secondary winding).
On positive half-cycles, point A will be posi-
tive with respect to point B. Similarly, point B will
be positive with respect to point C. In this condition
D1 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive
with respect to its cathode) while D2 will not allow
conduction (its anode will be negative with respect
to its cathode). Thus D1 alone conducts on positive Figure 2.22 Switching action of the diodes
half-cycles. in the bi-phase rectifier: (a) D1 forward biased
On negative half-cycles, point C will be posi- and D2 reverse biased, (b) D1 reverse biased
tive with respect to point B. Similarly, point B will and D2 forward biased
be positive with respect to point A. In this condition
D2 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive
with respect to its cathode) while D1 will not allow
conduction (its anode will be negative with respect
to its cathode). Thus D2 alone conducts on negative
half-cycles.
Figure 2.22 shows the bi-phase rectifier circuit with
the diodes replaced by switches. In (a) D1 is shown
conducting on a positive half-cycle whilst in (b) D2
is shown conducting on a negative half-cycle of the
input. The result is that current is routed through the
load in the same direction on successive half-cycles.
Furthermore, this current is derived alternately from
the two secondary windings.
As with the half-wave rectifier, the switching action
of the two diodes results in a pulsating output volt- Figure 2.23 Bi-phase power supply with
age being developed across the load resistor (RL). reservoir capacitor
Electronic fundamentals 47

Figure 2.24 Waveforms in the bi-phase power supply with and without a reservoir capacitor

However, unlike the half-wave circuit the pulses of

voltage developed across RL will occur at a frequency
of 800 Hz (not 400 Hz). This doubling of the ripple
frequency allows us to use smaller values of reservoir
and smoothing capacitor to obtain the same degree of
ripple reduction (recall that the reactance of a capaci-
tor is reduced as frequency increases). As before,
the peak voltage produced by each of the secondary
windings will be approximately 17 V and the peak
voltage across RL will be about 40 V (i.e. 40.65 V less
the 0.6 V forward). Figure 2.25 Full-wave power supply using a
An alternative to the use of the bi-phase circuit is bridge rectifier
that of using a four-diode bridge rectifier in which
opposite pairs of diode conduct on alternate half-
cycles. This arrangement avoids the need to have two
separate secondary windings. A full-wave bridge rec- conduction while D3 and D4 will not allow conduc-
tifier arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.25. The 115 V tion. Conversely, on negative half-cycles, point B will
AC supply at 400 Hz is applied to the primary of a be positive with respect to point A. In this condition
step-down transformer (T1). As before, the second- D3 and D4 will allow conduction while D1 and D2
ary winding provides 28.75 V RMS (approximately will not allow conduction.
40 V peak) and has a turns ratio of 4:1. On positive As with the bi-phase rectifier, the switching action
half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect of the two diodes results in a pulsating output volt-
to point B. In this condition Dl and D2 will allow age being developed across the load resistor (RL).
48 Aircraft electrical and electronic systems

Figure 2.26 Switching action of the diodes in the full-wave bridge: (a) D1 and D2 forward
biased whilst D3 and D4 are reverse biased, (b) D1 and D2 reverse biased whilst D3 and D4 are
reverse biased

Key point
The frequency of the ripple voltage present on the
DC output of a half-wave power supply will be the
same as the frequency of the AC input. The fre-
quency of the ripple voltage present on the DC out-
put of a full-wave power supply will be double that
of the AC input.

Figure 2.27 Full-wave bridge power supply

with reservoir capacitor
Test your understanding 2.2
Once again, the peak output voltage is approximately Explain the following terms when used in relation to
40 V (i.e. 40.65 V less the 2 ⫻ 0.6 V forward threshold a semiconductor diode:
voltage of the two diodes).
Figure 2.27 shows how a reservoir capacitor (C1) (a) forward bias
(b) reverse bias
can be added to the basic bridge rectifier circuit in (c) forward conduction voltage.
order to ensure that the output voltage remains at, or
near, the peak voltage even when the diodes are not
conducting. This component operates in exactly the
same way as for the bi-phase circuit, i.e. it charges to
Test your understanding 2.3
approximately 40 V at the peak of the positive half-
cycle and holds the voltage at this level when the Match the following types of diode to each of the
diodes are in their non-conducting states. These volt- applications listed below:
age waveforms are identical to those that we met ear-
lier for the bi-phase rectifier. Types of diode
(a) Silicon bridge rectifier
(b) Germanium signal diode
(c) Zener diode
Key point (d) Red LED
(e) Thyristor.
The forward voltage for a germanium diode is
approximately 0.2 V whilst that for a silicon diode is Application
approximately 0.6 V. 1. A voltage reference for use in a generator
control unit
Electronic fundamentals 49

Figure 2.28 See Test your understanding 2.4

2. A power-on indicator for use in an emergency

locator transmitter Figure 2.29 Construction of a typical NPN
3. An aircraft battery charger transistor
4. An AC power controller
5. The detector circuit in an HF radio.

Test your understanding 2.4

Identify each of the diode symbols shown in
Fig. 2.28.

2.3 Transistors
Figure 2.30 Construction of a typical PNP
Typical applications for transistors in aircraft elec-
transistor
trical and electronic systems are controlling genera-
tor field current, driving lights and warning displays,
amplifying signals from sensors and transducers and
important to note that the base region (P-type material
for use as amplifying devices in cabin interphone and
in the case of an NPN transistor or N-type material in
aircraft radio and navigation aids.
the case of a PNP transistor) is extremely narrow.
Conventional bipolar junction transistors (BJT)
generally comprise NPN or PNP junctions of either
silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge) material. The junc-
2.3.1 Bias and current flow
tions are produced in a single slice of silicon by dif-
fusing impurities through a photographically reduced In normal operation (i.e. for operation as a linear
mask. Silicon transistors are superior when compared amplifier) the base-emitter junction of a transis-
with germanium transistors in the vast majority of tor is forward biased and the collector base junction
applications (particularly at high temperatures) and is reverse biased. The base region is, however, made
thus germanium devices are very rarely encountered very narrow so that carriers are swept across it from
in modern electronic equipment. emitter to collector so that only a relatively small
The construction of typical NPN and PNP BJT are current flows in the base. To put this into context,
shown in Figs 2.29 and 2.30. In order to conduct the the current flowing in the emitter circuit is typically
heat away from the junction (important in medium 100 times greater than that flowing in the base. The
and high-power applications) the collector is often direction of conventional current flow is from emit-
connected to the metal case of the transistor. ter to collector in the case of a PNP transistor, and
The symbols and simplified junction models for collector to emitter in the case of an NPN device, as
NPN and PNP transistors are shown in Fig. 2.31. It is shown in Fig. 2.32.
50 Aircraft electrical and electronic systems

The equation (based on Kirchhoff’s current law)

that relates current flow in the collector, base, and
emitter of a transistor (see Fig. 2.32) is:
IE ⫽ IB ⫹ IC

where IE is the emitter current, IB is the base current,

and IC is the collector current (all expressed in the
same units)

Example 2.1
A transistor operates with a collector current of 2 A
and an emitter current of 2.1 A. Determine the value
of base current.
Now:

IE ⫽ IB ⫹ IC

thus:

IB ⫽ IE ⫺ IC

In this case, IC ⫽ 2 A and IE ⫽ 2.1 A, thus:

I B ⫽ 2.1 A ⫺ 2 A ⫽ 0.1 A ⫽ 100 mA

Figure 2.31 NPN and PNP BJT symbols

and simplified junction models Test your understanding 2.5
A BJT operates with an emitter current of 1.25 A
and a base current of 50 mA. What will the collector
current be?

Key point
The emitter current of a transistor is the sum of its
base and collector currents.

2.3.2 Transistor characteristics

The characteristics of a bipolar junction transistor
are usually presented in the form of a set of graphs
relating voltage and current present at the transistors
terminals. Figure 2.33 shows a typical input char-
acteristic (IB plotted against VBE) for an NPN bipo-
Figure 2.32 Bias voltages and current flow lar junction transistor operating in common-emitter
in NPN and PNP bipolar junction transistors mode. In this mode, the input current is applied to the
Electronic fundamentals 51

Figure 2.33 Input characteristic (IB/VBE) for an NPN bipolar junction transistor

Figure 2.34 Output characteristic (IC/VCE) for an NPN bipolar junction transistor

base and the output current appears in the collector 0.6 V. Thereafter, the base current increases rapidly (this
(the emitter is effectively common to both the input characteristic bears a close resemblance to the forward
and output circuits). part of the characteristic for a silicon diode).
The input characteristic shows that very little base Figure 2.34 shows a typical set of output (collec-
current flows until the base emitter voltage VBE exceeds tor) characteristics (IC plotted against VCE) for an
52 Aircraft electrical and electronic systems

Figure 2.35 Transfer characteristic (IC/IB) for an NPN bipolar junction transistor

NPN bipolar transistor. Each curve corresponds to

a different value of base current. Note the ‘knee’ in
the characteristic below VCE ⫽ 2 V. Also note that the
curves are quite flat. For this reason (i.e. since the col-
lector current does not change very much as the col-
lector-emitter voltage changes) we often refer to this
as a constant current characteristic.
Figure 2.35 shows a typical transfer character-
istic for an NPN bipolar junction transistor. Here
IC is plotted against IB for a small-signal general
purpose transistor. The slope of this curve (i.e. the Figure 2.36 Various transistors (including
ratio of IC to IB) is the common emitter current low-frequency, high-frequency, high-voltage,
gain of the transistor. We shall explore this further in small-signal and power types)
Section 2.2.6.
the case of bipolar transistors, the configurations are
known as common emitter, common collector (or
emitter follower) and common base. Where field
2.3.3 Transistor operating configurations
effect transistors are used, the corresponding configu-
Three basic circuit arrangements are used for transis- rations are common source, common drain (or source
tor amplifiers and these are based on the three circuit follower) and common gate.
configurations that we met earlier (i.e. they depend These basic circuit configurations depicted in Fig.
upon which one of the three transistor connections is 2.38 exhibit quite different performance characteris-
made common to both the input and the output). In tics, as shown in the table below.
Electronic fundamentals 53

Figure 2.37 Symbols used for various types

of transistor Figure 2.38 BJT circuit configurations
54 Aircraft electrical and electronic systems

Parameter Common emitter Common collector Common base

Voltage gain medium/high (40) unity (1) high (200)

Current gain high (200) high (200) unity (1)
Power gain very high (8000) high (200) high (200)
Input resistance medium (2.5 kΩ) high (100 kΩ) low (200 Ω)
Output resistance medium/high (20 kΩ) low (100 Ω) high (100 kΩ)
Phase shift 180° 0° 0°

A requirement of most amplifiers is that the out- the ratio of collector current, IC, to base current, IB.
put signal should be a faithful copy of the input sig- We use the symbol hFE to represent the static value of
nal or be somewhat larger in amplitude. Other types current gain when a transistor is connected in common
of amplifier are ‘non-linear’, in which case their emitter mode. Thus:
input and output waveforms will not necessarily be
similar. In practice, the degree of linearity provided IC
by an amplifier can be affected by a number of fac- hFE ⫽
IB
tors including the amount of bias applied and the
amplitude of the input signal. It is also worth noting
that a linear amplifier will become non-linear when Typical values of common emitter current gain vary
the applied input signal exceeds a threshold value. from about 40 to 200.
Beyond this value the amplifier is said to be over-
driven and the output will become increasingly dis-
Example 2.2
torted if the input signal is further increased.
The optimum value of bias for linear (Class A) A current of 4 A is to be supplied to a generator field
amplifiers is that value which ensures that the active winding from a BJT. If the device is operated in com-
devices are operated at the mid-point of their char- mon emitter mode with a base current of 20 mA, what
acteristics. In practice, this means that a static value is the minimum value of current gain required?
of collector current will flow even when there is no
Using hFE ⫽ I C / I B where IC ⫽ 4 A and IB ⫽ 20 mA
signal present. Furthermore, the collector current will
gives:
flow throughout the complete cycle of an input sig-
nal (i.e. conduction will take place over an angle of
360 °). At no stage should the transistor be saturated IC 4A 4A
hFE ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 50
(VCE ⬇ 0 V or VDS ⬇ 0 V) nor should it be cut-off IB 80 mA 0.08 A
(VCE ⬇ VCC or VDS ⬇ VDD).
In order to ensure that a static value of collector
current flows in a transistor, a small bias current
must be applied to the base of the transistor. This cur- Example 2.3
rent is usually derived from the same voltage rail that A small-signal BJT has a common emitter current
supplies the collector circuit via one or more resistors gain of 125. If the transistor operates with a collec-
of appropriate value. tor current of 50 mA, determine the value of base
current.
2.3.4 Current gain
Rearranging the formula hFE ⫽ I C / I B to make IB
In general terms, current gain is the ratio of output cur- the subject gives I B ⫽ I C / hFE from which:
rent to input current. When a transistor is operating in
common emitter mode the input current appears at the
base and the output current at the collector. Thus, for 50 ⫻ 10⫺3
IB ⫽ ⫽ 400μA
this mode of operation the current gain will simply be 125
Electronic fundamentals 55

Test your understanding 2.6

A BJT has a common emitter current gain of 75. If a
base current of 40 mA is applied to the device what
will the collector current be?

Test your understanding 2.7

Estimate the common emitter current gain of the Figure 2.39 Digital and analogue signals
BJT whose transfer characteristic is shown in
Fig. 2.35.

Key point
The common emitter current gain of a transistor is
the ratio of collector current to base current and is
typically in the range 40 to 200.

2.4 Integrated circuits Figure 2.40 Symbol for an operational

amplifier
Considerable cost savings can be made by manufac-
turing all of the components required for a particular
circuit function on one small slice of semiconductor
material (usually silicon). The resulting integrated Operational amplifiers are analogue integrated
circuit may contain as few as 10 or more than circuits designed for linear amplification that offer
100,000 active devices (transistors and diodes). With near-ideal characteristics (virtually infinite voltage
the exception of a few specialized applications (such gain and input resistance coupled with low output
as amplification at high power levels) integrated cir- resistance and wide bandwidth).
cuits have largely rendered conventional circuits (i.e. Operational amplifiers can be thought of as univer-
those based on discrete components) obsolete. sal ‘gain blocks’ to which external components are
Integrated circuits can be divided into two general added in order to define their function within a circuit.
classes, digital (logic) and linear (analogue). By adding two resistors, we can produce an amplifier
A number of devices bridge the gap between the having a precisely defined gain. Alternatively, with
analogue and digital world. Such devices include three resistors and two capacitors we can realize a
analogue to digital converters (ADC), digital low-pass filter. From this you might begin to suspect
to analogue converters (DAC), and timers. that operational amplifiers are really easy to use. The
Digital integrated circuits have numerous applica- good news is that they are!
tions quite apart from their obvious use in computing. The symbol for an operational amplifier is shown
Digital signals exist only in discrete steps or levels; in Fig. 2.40. There are a few things to note about
intermediate states are disallowed. Conventional elec- this. The device has two inputs and one output and
tronic logic is based on two binary states, commonly no common connection. Furthermore, we often don’t
referred to as logic 0 (low) and logic 1 (high). A com- show the supply connections – it is often clearer to
parison between digital and analogue signals is shown leave them out of the circuit altogether!
in Fig. 2.39. We shall look at digital logic in much In Fig. 2.40, one of the inputs is marked ‘⫺’ and
greater detail in Chapter 3. the other is marked ‘⫹’. These polarity markings
56 Aircraft electrical and electronic systems

Figure 2.42 See Test your understanding 2.8

Figure 2.41 Various integrated circuits
(including logic gates, operational amplifiers
and memories)

Test your understanding 2.8

have nothing to do with the supply connections –
The circuit of a motor controller is shown in Fig. 2.42.
they indicate the overall phase shift between each
input and the output. The ‘⫹’ sign indicates zero 1. What type of transistor is TR1?
phase shift whilst the ‘⫺’ sign indicates 180° phase 2. What type of diode is D1?
shift. Since 180° phase shift produces an inverted 3. What type of diode is D2?
4. Which resistor sets the brightness of D2?
(i.e., turned upside down) waveform, the ‘⫺’ input 5. What voltage appears across C1?
is often referred to as the ‘inverting input’. Similarly, 6. What voltage appears across R1?
the ‘⫹’ input is known as the ‘non-inverting’ input. 7. What voltage is delivered to M1?
Most (but not all) operational amplifiers require 8. What operating configuration is used for TR1?
a symmetrical power supply (of typically ⫾6 V to 9. What would happen if R1 is open circuit?
⫾15 V). This allows the output voltage to swing both 10. What would happen if C1 is short circuit?
positive (above 0 V) and negative (below 0 V). Others
types of operational amplifier operate from a single
supply voltage of usually between 5 V and 15 V.

2.5 Multiple choice questions

Key point 1. The forward voltage drop of a conducting silicon

diode is approximately:
Integrated circuits contain large numbers of individ- (a) 0.2 V
ual components fabricated on a single slice of sili- (b) 0.6 V
con. Integrated circuits are often classified as either (c) 2 V.
digital (logic) or linear (analogue).
2. The region in a P-N junction diode where no free
charge carriers exist is known as the:
(a) collector
(b) depletion region
Key point (c) enhancement region.

Operational amplifiers are linear integrated circuits 3. The device shown in Fig. 2.43 is:
that can be used as versatile ‘gain blocks’ within a (a) a thyristor
wide variety of linear circuits. (b) a PNP transistor
(c) an NPN transistor.
Electronic fundamentals 57

Figure 2.45 See Question 7

Figure 2.43 See Question 3

7. In the bridge rectifier arrangement shown in Fig.

2.45 the DC output is taken from:
(a) A and B
(b) A and C
(c) B and D.
8. The connections on a thyristor (silicon-controlled
rectifier) are labelled:
(a) anode, cathode, gate
(b) collector, base, emitter
(c) collector, gate, emitter.
9. The anode of a silicon diode is connected to a
⫹5 V DC supply and the cathode is connected to
a ⫹4 V DC supply. The diode is:
Figure 2.44 See Question 6 (a) forward biased and not conducting
(b) reverse biased and not conducting
(c) forward biased and conducting.
10. A thyristor has which of the following?
4. The typical common-emitter current gain for a
(a) high resistance when switched on
bipolar transistor is:
(b) high resistance when switched off
(a) less than 10
(c) a positive temperature coefficient
(b) between 10 and 40
(c) more than 40. 11. A practical operational amplifier has:
(a) very high input impedance and very high
5. When a transistor is used in common-emitter
voltage gain
mode:
(b) very high input impedance and very low
(a) the input is taken to the base and the output is
voltage gain
taken from the collector
(c) very low input impedance and very high
(b) the input is taken to the collector and the
voltage gain.
output is taken from the emitter
(c) the input is taken to the emitter and the output 12. A typical application for a Zener diode is:
is taken from the collector. (a) voltage stabilization
(b) power rectification
6. The device shown in Fig. 2.44 is used for:
(c) signal detection.
(a) power control
(b) acting as a voltage reference 13. A transistor operates with a base current of
(c) producing a visual indication. 45 mA and a collector current of 1.8 A.Which of
58 Aircraft electrical and electronic systems

the following gives the current gain of the device 15. The frequency of the ripple voltage present on
when used in common emitter configuration? the output of a bridge rectifier fed from a 400 Hz
(a) 40 AC supply will be:
(b) 90 (a) 200 Hz
(c) 225. (b) 400 Hz
14. Which one of the following relationships is (c) 800 Hz.
correct for a BJT?
(a) IB ⫽ IC ⫺ IE
(b) IC ⫽ IE ⫺ IB
(c) IE ⫽ IC ⫺ IB
 Chapter Digital fundamentals
3

In this chapter we introduce the basic building blocks

of the digital logic systems found in modern air-
craft. We begin with a review of the different types
of logic gates before moving on to explore their use
in several typical aircraft applications. The chapter
also provides a brief overview of coding systems and
the logic arrangements that are used to generate and
convert the codes that are used to represent numerical
data. The chapter provides an introduction to aircraft
bus systems and concludes with a brief overview of
the architecture and principal constituents of simple
computer systems.

3.1 Logic gates

Aircraft logic systems follow the same conven-

tions and standards as those used in other electronic
applications. In particular, the MIL/ANSI standard
logic symbols are invariably used and the logic ele-
ments that they represent operate in exactly the same
way as those used in non-aircraft applications. MIL/
ANSI standard symbols for the most common logic
gates are shown together with their truth tables in Figure 3.1 MIL/ANSI symbols for standard
Fig. 3.1. logic gates together with truth tables

3.1.1 Buffers logic levels present at the input or output of a

digital system.
Buffers do not affect the logical state of a digital
signal (i.e. a logic 1 input results in a logic 1 output
whereas a logic 0 input results in a logic 0 output). 3.1.2 AND logic
Buffers are normally used to provide extra current AND gates will only produce a logic 1 output when
drive at the output but can also be used to regularize all inputs are simultaneously at logic 1. Any other
the logic levels present at an interface. input combination results in a logic 0 output.
Inverters are used to complement the logical
state (i.e. a logic 1 input results in a logic 0 output
3.1.3 OR logic
and vice versa). Inverters also provide extra current
drive and, like buffers, are used in interfacing appli- OR gates will produce a logic 1 output whenever
cations where they provide a means of regularizing any one, or more, inputs are at logic 1. Putting this
60 Aircraft electrical and electronic systems

another way, an OR gate will only produce a logic 0 As well as inverted outputs, aircraft logic systems
output whenever all of its inputs are simultaneously also tend to show logic gates in which one or more
at logic 0. of the inputs is inverted. In Fig. 3.2(c) an AND gate
is shown with one input inverted. This is equivalent
to an inverter (NOT gate) connected to one input of
3.1.4 NAND logic the AND gate, as shown. In Fig. 3.2(d) an OR gate is
NAND (i.e. NOT-AND) gates will only produce a shown with one input inverted. This is equivalent to
logic 0 output when all inputs are simultaneously at an inverter (NOT gate) connected to one input of the
logic 1. Any other input combination will produce OR gate, as shown.
a logic 1 output. A NAND gate, therefore, is noth- Two further circuits with inverted inputs are shown
ing more than an AND gate with its output inverted. in Fig. 3.2. In Fig. 3.2(e) both inputs of an AND gate
The circle shown at the output of the gate denotes this are shown inverted. This arrangement is equivalent
inversion. to the two-input NOR gate shown. In Fig. 3.2(f),
both inputs of an OR gate are shown inverted. This
arrangement is equivalent to the two-input NAND
3.1.5 NOR logic gate shown.

NOR (i.e. NOT-OR) gates will only produce a logic 1

output when all inputs are simultaneously at logic 0.
Any other input combination will produce a logic 0 Key point
output. A NOR gate, therefore, is simply an OR gate
with its output inverted. A circle is again used to indi- Logic circuits involve signals that can only exist in
cate inversion. one of two mutually exclusive states. These two
states are usually denoted by 1 and 0, ‘on’ or ‘off ’,
‘high’ and ‘low’, ‘closed’ and ‘open’, etc.
3.1.6 Exclusive-OR logic
Exclusive-OR gates will produce a logic 1 output
whenever either one of the two inputs is at logic 1 and
the other is at logic 0. Exclusive-OR gates produce a
logic 0 output whenever both inputs have the same 3.2 Combinational logic systems
logical state (i.e. when both are at logic 0 or both are
at logic 1). By using a standard range of logic levels (i.e. voltage
levels used to represent the logic 1 and logic 0 states)
logic circuits can be combined together in order to
3.1.7 Exclusive-NOR logic solve more complex logic functions. As an exam-
ple, assume that a logic circuit is to be constructed
Exclusive-NOR gates will produce a logic 0 output
that will produce a logic 1 output whenever two or
whenever either one of the two inputs is at logic 1 and
more of its three inputs are at logic 1. This circuit
the other is at logic 0. Exclusive-NOR gates produce
is referred to as a majority vote circuit and its truth
a logic 1 output whenever both inputs have the same
table is shown in Fig. 3.3. Figure 3.4 shows the logic
logical state (i.e. when both are at logic 0 or both are
circuitry required to satisfy the truth table.
at logic 1).

3.1.8 Inverted inputs and outputs 3.2.1 Landing gear warning logic
The NAND and NOR gates that we have just met are Now let’s look at a more practical example of the use
said to have inverted outputs. In other words, they are of logic in the typical aircraft system shown in Fig.
respectively equivalent to AND and OR gates with 3.5. The inputs to this logic system consist of five
their outputs passed through an inverter (or NOT switches that detect whether or not the respective
gate) as shown in Fig. 3.2(a) and (b). landing gear door is open. The output from the logic
Figure 3.2 Logic gates with inverted outputs and inputs