Chapter 3

Navigation
Introduction
This chapter introduces the topic of navigation in the advanced
cockpit. You will learn about flight management systems
(FMS) and area navigation (RNAV) systems, an increasingly
popular method of navigating that allows pilots to make more
efficient use of the national airspace system. The increasing
number of users is attributable to more economical and
accurate satellite signal receivers and computer chips. RNAV
systems may use VHF omnidirectional range (VOR); distance
measuring equipment (DME) (VOR/DME, DME/DME)
signals; inertial navigation systems (INS); Doppler radar;
the current version of LOng RAnge Navigation (LORAN),
LORAN-C (and eLORAN, as it becomes operational);
and the global positioning system (GPS), to name a few.
Ground-based LORAN-C is a reliable complement to spacebased GPS systems (United States Department of Defense
(DOD) GPS, Russian Global Navigation Satellite System
(GLONASS), and European Galileo in the future).

3-1

Wide area augmentation system (WAAS) of the standard GPS

furnishes additional error correction information, allowing
Category I precision approaches (similar to basic instrument
landing system (ILS) minimums) to units equipped to receive
and integrate the data. Most general aviation pilots learn
to work with an FMS unit primarily using GPS signals,
possibly with WAAS and LORAN-C options. Older RNAV
units made use of VOR and DME information to compute
positions within range of the navaids. Newer units contain
databases that allow route programming with automatic
sequencing through the selected navigation points. Therefore,
flight management system (FMS) is the best descriptor of the
current GPS units integrating VOR (and DME, optionally)
to allow point-to-point navigation outside established flight
routes. You will learn to use the FMS data entry controls to
program a flight route, review the planned route, track and
make modifications to the planned route while en route, plan
and execute a descent, and fly an approach procedure that is
based solely on RNAV signals. You should remember that
FMS/RNAV units requiring external signals for navigation
are usually restricted to line-of-sight reception (LORAN-C
being somewhat of an exception). Therefore, navigation
information in valleys and canyons that could block satellite
signals may be severely restricted. Users in those areas
should pay particular attention to the altitude or elevations
of the satellites when depending on space-based signals and
plan flight altitudes to ensure line-of-sight signal reception.
Review the GPS units documentation sufficiently to
determine if WAAS is installed and how WAAS corrections
are indicated.
You will learn how the FMS can automatically perform many
of the flight planning calculations that were traditionally
performed by hand, and the importance of keeping flight
planning skills fresh. You will also discover how the FMS can
help you detect and correct errors made in the flight planning
process, how the complexities of the FMS make some new
kinds of errors possible, and techniques to help avoid them.
Last, you will see how advanced cockpit systems can be used
to navigate using ground-based navigation facilities such as
VOR and DME. Maintaining pilot skills using ground-based
navigation facilities is a simple matter of occasionally using
them as the primary means of navigation, and as a backup to
verify position and progress when RNAV is used.

Area Navigation (RNAV) Basics

RNAV Concept
Area Navigation (RNAV) is a navigation technique that
allows pilots to navigate directly between any two points
on the globe. Using RNAV, any location on the map can be
defined in terms of latitude and longitude and characterized
as a waypoint. Onboard RNAV equipment can determine
3-2

the present position of the aircraft. Using this positional

information, the equipment can calculate the bearing and
distance to or from any waypoint and permit navigation
directly between any two waypoints. In this way, RNAV
overcomes a fundamental limitation of conventional
navaid point-to-point navigation techniques, which require
navigating between electronic navigation transmitters on the
ground. The following examples illustrate this limitation.
An aircraft equipped with conventional VOR receivers is
positioned at Point A as shown in the diagram at the top
of Figure 3-1, and the pilot wishes to navigate directly to
Point B. Although there appear to be a few VOR stations in
the vicinity of the aircraft, it is not clear whether reception
is possible from the aircrafts present position. If the VOR
stations are within reception range, the pilot has two choices:
(1) fly to intercept the closest airway, then track it to the
intersection; or (2) fly to intercept an extension of the radial
that defines Point B (assuming reception is possible). Neither
alternative provides the pilot with a means of flying directly
to the intersection.
Suppose the same aircraft is positioned at Point A as shown
at the bottom of Figure 3-1 and the pilot wishes to navigate
directly to Point C, which is neither a VOR station nor airway
intersection. This pilot has an even more difficult situation.
Assuming the VOR stations are within reception range, the
pilot needs to create two makeshift airways using a navigation
plotter and chart, fly to intercept one of them, then track
to Point C (which the pilot has defined as the intersection
between the two courses). Flying a direct course to Point C
with any degree of accuracy is not possible. Since RNAV
systems are not bound by these limitations, the entire airspace
is available for navigational use. The national airspace system
can thus accommodate more aircraft. However, when the
pilot leaves the established airways, he or she also leaves the
guaranteed obstruction clearances designed into the airway
system. Always plan flights above the maximum elevation
figure (MEF) displayed on sectional charts when flying
off airways, and be aware that manmade obstructions such
as towers may not be added to charts for some time after
construction. If flying a new routing, allow for construction,
which may not be published yet.
FMS/RNAV Computer
RNAV is possible through use of a variety of navigation
facilities and installed aircraft equipment operated in the
U.S. National Airspace System. This handbook focuses
on the more common GPS RNAV, a satellite-based radio
navigation system available to aircraft equipped with a GPS
receiver. In addition to its ability to receive signals from
GPS satellites, a GPS receiver also contains a computer
processor and a navigation database that includes much of the

2. The aircraft can intercept

the closest airway and
track it to Point B...
B

A
3. ...or attempt to intercept
an extension of the
radial that defines
Point B.

1. The aircraft positioned at

Point A wishes to navigate
directly to Point B.

A
1. The aircraft positioned at
Point A wishes to navigate
directly to Point C.

C
The pilot must define Point C as the intersection
between two radials, fly to intercept one of them,
then track the radial to Point C.

Figure 3-1. Limitations of conventional navigation.

information found on en route and terminal procedure charts.

The newer, more capable units provide map displays, traffic
and weather overlays of data, contain VOR/DME/localizer/
glideslope receivers, and can compute fuel usage in addition
to the navigation route information. For this reason, the more
descriptive term FMS is used in this handbook to refer to
these GPS receivers.

allow the pilot to enter information and program the avionics

to accomplish the desired operations or tasks. The display and
controls for a typical FMS are shown in Figure 3-2.
The display allows you to view information stored in the FMS.

PROC

An FMS allows you to enter a series of waypoints and

instrument procedures that define a flight route. If these
waypoints and procedures are included in the navigation
database, the computer calculates the distances and courses
between all waypoints in the route. During flight, the FMS
provides precise guidance between each pair of waypoints
in the route, along with real-time information about aircraft
course, groundspeed, distance, estimated time between
waypoints, fuel consumed, and fuel/flight time remaining
(when equipped with fuel sensor(s)).
FMS/RNAV/Autopilot Interface: Display and
Controls
Every avionics device has a display and a collection of
buttons, keys, and knobs used to operate the unit. The display
allows the device(s) to present information. The controls

PUSH ON
BRT

nm

RNG

DTK
TK

CRSR

MENU

LEG
APT 1 VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV FPL SET AUX
MSG

OBS

ALT

NRST

CLR

ENT

PULL SCAN

Controls such as buttons and knobs

allow you to make entries into the FMS.

Figure 3-2. FMS display and controls.

Accessing Information in the FMS

FMS units contain much more information than they can
present on the display at any one time. Information pertaining
to some topics often extends beyond what can be presented on
a single page. Page groups, or chapters, solve this problem by
collecting all of the pages pertaining to the same topic. Each
3-3

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

Pages appear on the display and organize

information by topic. Some topics span
several pagers to form chapters.

nm

RNG

DTK
TK

CRSR

MENU

LEG
APT 1 VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV FPL SET AUX
MSG

OBS

An annunciation is provided to show

the page that is currently displayed.
The first page of the Airport chapter
is indicated here.

ALT

NRST

CLR

ENT

Individual pages are accessed

by rotating the inner knob.
PULL SCAN

Some chapters are accessed

by pressing buttons on the front
of the computer.

Some chapters are accessed

by rotating the outer knob.

Figure 3-3. Pages and page groups (chapters).

page presents information about a particular topic, and bears

a page title reflecting its content. For example, the airport
chapter may be divided into several airport pages, each page
displaying different information about that airport. One page
might be navaids. Another page might be the airport taxiway
diagram. Yet another airport page might indicate available
services and fixed-base operators. Review the documentation
for that specific unit and installation to determine what
information and levels of data are available and require
updates. Usually, only one page can be displayed at a time.
The airport page is displayed on the FMS in Figure 3-3.
Figure 3-3 shows how to access pages and chapters on one
manufacturers FMS. Different FMS units have different
ways of allowing the pilot to switch between chapters and
pages, and different ways of informing the pilot which chapter
and page is currently displayed.

FMS/
NAV-COM

RANGE
PFD

MENU

FPL

PROC

PUSH CRSR/PUSH 1-2

PFD

PUSH

MFD
EMERG

NAV

COM

PAN

SPC

BKSP

Y
DFLT MAP

SOFTKEY SELECT

SEL

CLR

ENT

Making Entries in the FMS

To enter data, you use the FMS buttons (keyboard or
individual) and knob controls, or a data source, such as disk
media or keypad, as shown in Figure 3-4.
FMS units that do not feature keypads typically require the
pilot to make entries using the same knobs to move among
chapters and pages. In this case, the knobs have multiple
purposes and, thus, have different modes of operation. To
use the knobs for data entry, you must first activate what
some manufacturers call the cursor (or data entry)
mode. Activating the cursor mode allows you to enter data
by turning the knob. In other units, after activating the data
entry mode, entries are made by pushing buttons.
Figure 3-5 illustrates the use of cursor mode to enter the
name of an airport using one FMS. Pressing the inner knob
engages cursor mode. A flashing cursor appears over one of
3-4

Figure 3-4. An FMS keypad.

the items on the page, indicating that it is ready for editing.

Then, the inner knob is used to dial letters and numbers;
the outer knob is used to move the flashing cursor between
items on the page.

Integrated Avionics Systems

Some systems integrate FMS/RNAV display and controls
into existing cockpit displays usually called PFDs and MFDs.
In this case, there is no separate display to point to and call the
RNAV display. Figure 3-6 shows a system that uses the PFD
to provide controls and a display for the FMS. This type of
system utilizes the same concepts and procedures described
above to access and enter into the navigation computer.

pushing and knob-twisting procedures needed to access and

enter data. One very important function that every pilot of
programmable avionics should learn and remember is how
to cancel entries and functions. Turbulent flight conditions
make data entry errors very easy to make. Every pilot should
know how to revert quickly to the basic aircraft controls and
functions to effect recovery in times of extreme stress. These
programs are extremely useful not only for initial learning,
but also for maintaining proficiency. For more sophisticated
training, many manufacturers of flight simulators and flight
training devices are now developing devices with advanced
cockpit systems. These training platforms allow the pilot to
work through realistic flying scenarios that teach not only
the operating procedures required for each system, but also
how to use the systems most effectively.

2 Use the inner knob to dial letters and numbers.

Flashing cursor
C

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

119.000
121.600

APT

RING
R
ING

114.10

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

GPS

COM
WPT

NRST

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

Press the inner knob to engage cursor mode.

A flashing cursor then appears over one of the
1 items on the page, indicating that it is ready
for editing.
Use the outer knob to move the flashing
3 cursor between items on the page.

Flight Planning
Preflight Preparation
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part91,
section 91.103 requires you to become familiar with all
available information before beginning a flight. In addition
to the required checks of weather, fuel, alternate airports,
runway lengths, and aircraft performance, there are a number
of requirements unique to the use of avionics equipment.
Many of these considerations apply specifically to the use of
FMS/RNAV under instrument flight rules (IFR). However,

Figure 3-5. Making entries using cursor mode.

Learning: Simulators for Learning and Practice

Avionics simulators can assist the pilot in developing
proficiency in the advanced cockpit. Some manufacturers
offer computer-based simulators that run on a personal
computer and let the pilot learn how the unit organizes
and presents information, as well as practice the buttonNAV1
NAV2

113.90
112.90

115.60 GAG
112.30

130

WPT

KBFK

DIS

23.5NM

DTK

274

TRK 274

122.900
118.425

122.800
121.600

COM1
COM2

4000
4300

TRAFFIC

120

4200

110

4100

1
100
9

TAS

60

44000
000

90

3900

80

3800

274

20
1

70
100KT

4300

PFD pages appear here.

GPS

ENR

FLIGHT PLAN
KAVK / KBFK
DTK

DIS

274

23.9NM

KAVK
KBFK

ALERTS

PFD controls

Figure 3-6. An integrated avionics system.

3-5

a check of these same requirements before operating under

visual flight rules (VFR) enhances safety and enforces good
habit patterns, which have been proven to greatly enhance
aviation safety.
FMS/RNAV Approval for IFR Operations
Only some FMS/RNAV units are approved for IFR navigation,
and it is important to make this determination before flying
with any particular unit. Sometimes, this limitation is based
on the installation (i.e., method of installation, qualifications
of installer), aircraft approval, availability of approved
maintenance, and geographic location. No hand-held GPS
unit is approved for IFR navigation, and many panel-mounted
units are restricted to VFR use only.
Even when an FMS is approved for IFR, the installation of
the system in that specific aircraft must also be approved.
Even if you have an IFR-approved FMS unit, you may not
use it for IFR navigation unless the installation is approved
as well. This approval process usually requires a test flight
to ensure that there are no interfering inputs, signals or
static emanating from the aircraft in flight. RNAV units that
do not meet all of these requirements may still be used as
situation enhancing navigation resources when operating
under instrument flight rules.
The first place to check when determining IFR certification
for an FMS is the Pilots Operating Handbook (POH) or
Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM). For every aircraft with an
IFR approved FMS/RNAV unit, the AFM explicitly states
that the unit has been approved for IFR navigation and what
IFR operations are specifically authorized for that installation.

Navigation Database Currency

The navigation database contained in the FMS must be
current if the system is to be used for IFR navigation and
approaches. Some units allow en route IFR operations if the
navigation waypoints are manually verified by the pilot and
accepted. The effective dates for the navigation database
are shown on a start-up screen that is displayed as the FMS
cycles through its startup self-test. Check these dates to ensure
that the navigation database is current. Figure 3-7 shows the
start-up screen and effective dates for one popular FMS.
Alternative Means of Navigation
To use some GPS-based RNAV units (those certified under
Technical Standard Order (TSO) 129) for IFR flight, an
aircraft must also be equipped with an approved and alternate
means of IFR navigation (e.g., VOR receiver) appropriate
to the flight. Ensure that this equipment is onboard and
operational, and that all required checks have been performed
(e.g., 30-day VOR check).

3-6

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

AMERICAS
AERO Database
Expires 15 FEB 2006
AMERICAS
LAND Database
Created 06 OCT 2004
Acknowledge?
MSG

OBS

ALT

NRST

CLR

RNG

CRSR

MENU

ENT

PULL SCAN

Check the expiration data for the navigation

database when the RNAV powers up.

Figure 3-7. Checking the navigation database.

The avionics operations manual/handbook should state the

certification status of the installed system. The supplements
to the AFM should state the status of the installed equipment,
including the installed avionics. Most systems require that the
advanced avionics manuals be on board as a limitation of use.
NOTAMs Relevant to GPS
There are numerous notices to airmen (NOTAMs) that
apply specifically to users of navigation aids. For example,
when anomalies are observed in the behavior of the global
positioning system, or when tests are performed, a GPS
UNRELIABLE NOTAM is issued. Similarly, published
instrument procedures that rely on RNAV equipment
sometimes become Not Available when safety concerns
arise, such as ground-based interference. It is important to
check all NOTAMs prior to IFR flights and, especially,
GPS and WAAS NOTAMs before flying. Remember, when
talking to a flight service station (FSS)/automated flight
service station (AFSS) briefer, you must specifically request
GPS/WAAS NOTAMs.
GPS Signal Availability
GPS-based RNAV equipment that uses the DOD GPS relies
on adequate signal reception throughout the course of a
flight. Signal reception becomes especially critical during
instrument approaches when signal reception criteria become
more stringent. Signal reception is generally predictable, and
you can request information on likely signal reception for
the destination airport in the preflight briefing from Flight
Service. Many GPS RNAV units include a feature called
receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) that
allows you to view predictions about future signal reception
at specific locations. WAAS-enabled receivers do not have
this restriction or limitation due to the error corrections
available from the WAAS. WAAS is a form of differential
GPS (DGPS) providing enhanced position accuracy. Each
Wide Area Reference Station (WRS) provides correction
data to a Wide Area Master Station (WMS), which computes
a grid of correction data to be uplinked to a geostationary
satellite (GEO) from a Ground Earth Station (GES). The
geostationary satellite transmits the correction data (and
also navigation data) to the user on the L1 GPS navigation

frequency (1575.42 MHz). The user GPS receiver uses the

downlink WAAS data to correct received navigation data.
The goal of WAAS is to obtain at least a 7-meter horizontal
and vertical accuracy.
Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS), when it becomes
available, is another DGPS mode which is designed to
provide 1-meter accuracy for precision approaches. It uses
a local error VHF transmitter near the runway providing a
direct link from the sensor to the aircraft GPS receiver.
Alternate Airports
It is very important to know what equipment is installed
in the aircraft. GPS-based FMS/RNAV units certified to
TSO-C145A or TSO-146A may be used when an alternate
airport is required in the flight plan for the approaches at the
destination and alternate airport if the WAAS is operational.
No other navigation avionics would be required. Units
certified under TSO-C129 are not authorized for alternate
approach requirements. The aircraft must have stand-alone
navigation equipment, such as VOR, and there must be an
approved instrument approach at the alternate airport based
on that equipment. (However, once diverted to the alternate
airport, the pilot could fly a GPS-based approach there, as
long as there is an operational, ground-based navaid and
airborne receiver in the aircraft for use as a backup.)
Aircraft Equipment Suffixes
Since air traffic control (ATC) issues clearances based
on aircraft equipment suffixes, consult the Aeronautical
Information Manual (AIM) Table 5-1-2, Aircraft Suffixes,
to ensure that the flight plan includes the correct equipment
suffix for a particular aircraft. Use the suffix that corresponds
to the services and/or routing that is needed. For example, if
the desired route or procedure requires GPS, file the suffix as
/G or /L, as appropriate to that aircraft, and operational
equipment installed. (Remember that minimum equipment list
(MEL) deferred items can change the status of the aircraft.)
Suitability of an RNAV Unit for VFR Flight
Even when an RNAV receiver is to be used only for
supplemental (supplemental meaning a situation enhancing
source of navigation information, but not the primary or sole
source of navigation information) navigation information
during VFR flight, you should consider these suitability
factors in the interest of safety. The use of an expired
navigation database might cause you to stray into airspace
that was not yet designated at the time the expired navigation
database was published. Some VFR-only GPS units do not
alert you when signal reception has faded, which could
lead to reliance on erroneous position information. Lack of
attention to the see and avoid basic principle of every visual
meteorological conditions (VMC) flight means too much

time spent focused inside the cockpit on advanced avionics

versus staying synchronized with the flight events, possibly
creating a life-threatening total flight situation.
Programming the Flight Route
The procedures used to program an FMS with your intended
route of flight are fundamentally the same in all types of
systems, yet many differences are evident. The primary
difference between systems lies mainly in the knob or
switchologythe specific design features, operational
requirements, and layout of the controls and displays used
to operate the avionics. Be thoroughly familiar with the
procedures required for each FMS or RNAV unit to be used.
Suppose you have planned a flight from San Carlos Airport
(KSQL) to Oakdale Airport (O27), as shown in the flight
plan appearing in Figure 3-8. The planned route proceeds
directly to SUNOL intersection, then follows V195 until
reaching ECA, the initial approach fix for the GPS Runway
10 approach into Oakdale. The distances, bearings, estimated
times en route, and fuel requirements for the flight have
all been calculated. The next step is to enter some of these
details into the FMS.
NAVIGATION LOG
Aircraft Number:

N1361M

Clearance:

Dep:

KSQL

C 027

Dest:

Dest:

027

11/06/06

R Direct SUNOL, V195 ECA, Direct 027

A CLB 5000
F 12L3
T 0356
Estimated Time En Route = 0.49
Check Points
(Fixes)

KSQL
TWR 119.0
SUNCL
TRACY
ECA (IAF)
MOTER
ZOSON (FAF)
RW 10 (MAP)
WRAPS (HOLD)

Ident.

Fuel

Dist.

Freq.

Leg

Leg

DEP

Course Attitude
Route

Mag
Crs.

12L3
SJC
1141
ECA
116.0
ECA
116.0
ECA
116.0
ECA
116.0
ECA
116.0
LIN
114.8

060 5000
049 5000
049 3000
084 2000
084 2000
096

MDA
720

352 3000

GS

Time Off

Est.
ETE ETA

Rem. Rem.

48

78.6. Act. ATE ATA

21

21.5

81

016

45.9 57.1
1.2

18

120 0.09

44.7 39.1
1.1

15

120 0.08

43.6 24.1
0.7

1000 0.05

42.9 16.1
0.6

55

90

0.04

90

0.03

90

0.04

42.3 10.6
0.4

4.5

41.9

61

0.6

61

41.3

Figure 3-8. A conventional flight plan.

3-7

The Flight Planning Page

Every FMS unit includes a page dedicated to entering a flight
plan. Typically, entering a flight plan is a simple matter of
filling in the blanksentering the en route waypoints and
instrument procedures that make up the planned route.

En Route Waypoints and Procedural Waypoints

Entering a flight route into the FMS unit requires you to
enter the waypoints that define your route. FMS distinguish
between two kinds of waypoints: (1) waypoints that are
published, such as departure, arrival, or approach procedure
points; and (2) user defined waypoints. The approved system
software (the internal programming) allows the pilot to
manually enter airport and en route waypoints. However,
you are prohibited by the software from entering (or deleting)
individual waypoints that define a published instrument
procedure, since misspelling a procedural waypoint name or
deleting a procedural waypoint (e.g., final approach fix) could
have disastrous consequences. Any changes to the selected
database approach procedure will cancel the approach mode.
Changing to go direct to a waypoint will not, in most units,
cancel the approach mode (such as receiving radar vectors
to final and bypassing an intermediate fix).

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

119 000
119.
121.600

WAYPOINT

GPS

COM
FPL

NRST

OBS

REANS
073

FPL

PROC

ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

119.000
121.600
VLOC

114.10
116.00

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

WAYPOINT INFORMATION

KSQL
L_
WAYPOINT

SWDTK
USA
SAN CARLOS
SAN CARLOS CA

RING

DIS

PRESS ENT
TO ACCEPT

W122

COM

GPS

FPL

NRST

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

The waypoint now appears in your flight route

and the FMS is ready to accept more waypoints.

119.000
121.600
VLOC

114.10
116.00

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN

RING

KSQL
WAYPOINT

DTK

DIS

KSQL
GPS

COM
FPL

NRST

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

Figure 3-9. Entering en route waypoints in the flight plan.

Pomona 073-degree radial and the Twentynine Palms

254-degree radial. For this airway segment, you could
enter POM, REANS, and TNP, keeping in mind that the
remaining waypoints do not appear in the programmed route.

Entering Airways
More sophisticated FMSs allow you to enter entire airways
with a single action into the unit. When an airway and

YUCCA

RAVON CAJON

254
TWENTYNINE
PALMS

NOT FOR USE IN NAVIGATION

Figure 3-10. Entering waypoints along an airway.

MSG

Use the inner and outer knobs to enter the name

of the waypoint, then press the ENT button.

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

In this case, it is only necessary to enter waypoints along

the airway that represent course changes. In Figure 3-10,
REANS intersection is a changeover point that joins the

RING

DIS

114.10
116.00

VOL/ PUSH
ID

PWR

The remaining waypoints in Figure 3-8, starting with the

initial approach fix at ECA, are part of the Oakdale GPS
approach procedure. Waypoints that are part of a published
instrument procedure are entered by a different technique
that will be introduced later. In some cases, you navigate
along an airway that contains a string of waypoints, such as
the one shown in Figure 3-10.

DTK

VLOC

Looking at the planned route in Figure 3-8, it is apparent

that San Carlos airport (KSQL), and SUNOL and TRACY
intersections are not part of any instrument procedure that
pertains to the planned flight. These waypoints can be entered
into the unit, as shown in Figure 3-9.

3-8

ACTIVE FLIGHT
ACTIVE
FLIGHT PLAN
PLAN

COM

C
PWR

COM

Entering En Route Waypoints

POMONA

Engage cursor mode when the flight plan page is selected.

Reviewing the Flight Route

endpoint for that airway are selected, all waypoints that

occur along the airway are automatically inserted into the
flight plan. Figure 3-11 shows a navigation unit that allows
airways to be selected.

Once a route has been entered into the FMS, the next step
is to review the route to ensure it is the desired route. It is
particularly important to ensure that the programmed route
agrees with the pilots clearance, the en route and terminal
area charts, and any bearing, distance, time, and fuel
calculations that have been performed on paper.

Entering Procedures
Every IFR-capable FMS offers a menu of published
instrument procedures, such as departures, arrivals, and
approaches. When you choose one of these procedures, the
FMS automatically inserts all waypoints included in that
procedure into the flight plan. Figure 3-12 illustrates how you
might choose an approach procedure using one popular FMS.

Catching Errors: Using the FMS Flight Planning

Function To Cross-Check Calculations
Using the FMSs flight planning function to check your
own flight planning calculations is one example of how
advanced cockpit systems can decrease the likelihood
of an error. Alternatively, cross-check the computers
calculations against your own. (Remember the old computer
programmers adage, Garbage in, garbage out (GIGO).)

Risk: Taking Off Without Entering a Flight Plan

The convenience of the FMS, especially the direct to
feature common to all units, creates the temptation to program
only the first en route waypoint prior to takeoff and then enter
additional waypoints once airborne. Keep in mind, however,
that no matter how skilled you become with the avionics,
programming requires heads down time, which reduces
your ability to scan for traffic, monitor engine instruments,
etc. A better strategy is to enter all of the flight data before
you take off.

A
C
T
S
B
Y
A
C
T

S
B
Y
S
B
Y

The flight planning page can also be used to review the route
that you entered into the FMS, as illustrated in Figure 3-13.
Be sure to check at least four things when reviewing your
route.

119.000 Modified
121.600 KSQL 027
114.10 KSQL
BRG 060
21.7
--.- vor

SUNOL

Modify

21.7 mn

discontinuity
116.00
BRG --1200
027

FLAGGED
GPS ENR

DIST

This FMS allows you to insert

an entire airway into your route.

Wpt

---

Arwy

21.7 mn

FPL

No Active Leg

BACK EXEC XPND

A
C
T
S
B
Y
A
C
T

119.000
121.600
114.10

S
B
Y
S
B
Y

116.00
1200

SUNOL
V195
ECA

--.- vor

ECA

50nm

V301

V334

SUNOL

FLAGGED
GPS ENR

FPL

BACK

The navigation database looks up

all of the airways that connect to
the previous waypoint in the route.

V195

A
C
T
S
B
Y
A
C
T

S
B
Y
S
B
Y

Modified
Mod
difi
dif
di
fied
d
11
119.000
19.00
000
0 Mo
KSQL
121.600 BRG 060
114.10 SUNOL
--.- vor

V195 ECA:
BRG 060

116.00 TRACY
BRG 060
SHARR
1200
BRG 049

FLAGGED
GPS ENR

ECA

DIST

21.7

21.7

Modify

n
m

The software performs a

database search for all of the
airways, causing all waypoints
along the airway to be inserted
into the route.

18.3

40.0 mn
9.6

49.6 mn
5.4

55.0mn

No Active Leg

FPL

BACK EXEC XPND

Figure 3-11. Inserting an airway into a flight route.

3-9

PROCEDURES

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

123.850 Activate Vector-To-Final?

125.100
Activate Approach?
VLOC
116.00 Select Approach?
114.10 Select Arrival?
Select Departure?

RING

Press the PROC button and choose the type of procedure you wish to add.
GPS
GPS

PROC

NRST

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

123.850
125.100

OBS

MSG

APT O27
7

FPL

Public

116.00
114.10

RING

APR

Dial your destination airport and press

RNAV
G
10 PS

VLOC

VOL/ PUSH
ID

PROC

TRANS
VECTORS

GPS

Load?
Activate?

COM
35nm

WPT

NRST

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

123.850
125.100

OBS

MSG

APT O27

PROC

RING

APR

RNAV
G
RNAV 10 GPS10 PS

116.00
114.10

VOL/ PUSH
ID

Public
APR

VLOC

FPL

RNAV 28
VOR-A

COM

TRANS
VECTORS
Load?
Activate?

35nm

Choose your approach from the approach menu.

GPS

WPT

NRST

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

123.850
125.100

OBS

MSG

APT O27

PROC

RING

APR

VECTORSS RNAV
G
10 PS
ECA IA
MOTER IA TRANS

116.00
114.10

VOL/ PUSH
ID

Public

TRANS
LOADING . . .

VLOC

FPL

VECTORS

COM

Choose your transition from the transition menu.

GPS

Load?
Activate?

35nm

WPT

NRST

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

123.850
125.100
VLOC

OBS

MSG

APT O27

VOL/ PUSH
ID

Public
WRAPS

ECA

116.00
114.10

FPL

RING

APR

RNAV
G
10 PS

TRANS
ECA IA

ZOSON
RW10

COM

PROC

Load?
Activate?

MOD
35nm

WPT

NRST

OBS

MSG

FPL

GPS

Press

to load the approach into your flight plan.

PROC

Figure 3-12. Inserting published instrument procedures into a flight route.

Check the Waypoints

Check the Distances

On the flight planning page, compare the sequence of

waypoints with that prescribed by his or her clearance. Are
any waypoints missing? Did you mistakenly include any extra
waypoints in the route? Did you misspell any waypoints?
Did the computer mistakenly include any extra waypoints
in the route?

On the flight planning page, you can see that the computer
has calculated the distances between the waypoints in the
route. These distances can be checked against the en route
charts. A common error is to misspell the name of a waypoint
and, thus, mistakenly enter a waypoint not appropriate to
the planned route (e.g., KHEE versus KHEF). Checking the
waypoint distances for unusual numbers is a good way to
spot these errors.

3-10

route that connects two points, imagine a geometric plane

cutting through the earth that passes through the two points
and the center of the earth.

Check the sequence of waypoints.

FLIGHT
FLI
GHT PL
PLAN
AN

KSQL / O27
KSQL

DTK

On the great circle route from SFO to LGA in

Figure 3-14, departing SFO, the desired track is a little less
than 90 degrees. Upon arrival at LGA, it appears to be greater
than 90 degrees. The desired track heading is constantly
changing since it is a circle, not a line. If, however, the
difference exceeds several degrees, you need to investigate
further to determine the cause.

DIS

SUNOL

060

1.8 NM

TRACY

051

18.0 NM

Approach - RNAV 10

ALERTS

Check for Route Discontinuities

Check the distances and desired

tracks between the waypoints.
Engage cursor mode on the flight plan
page. Use the outer knob to scroll
between the waypoints in the route.

Figure 3-13. Reviewing the flight route.

Check the Desired Tracks

On the flight planning page, you can also see the course that
the computer has calculated between waypoints along the
route. A desired track between two waypoints represents the
shortest path between them. The desired track between two
waypoints may differ from the course seen on the aeronautical
charts. In fact, there may be a difference of several degrees
between the desired track and the airway course. Some of
this difference may be due to the method in which the FMS
accounts for magnetic variation. Some units use an internal
database and interpolate, while others compute all values
from tables.
Unlike the world as printed on paper charts, the earth is round,
not flat. The shortest distance between two points on the earth
is not a straight line; it is an arc, as shown in Figure 3-14.
The shortest route between two points on the surface of the
earth is called a great circle route. To find the great circle

LGA

SFO

Figure 3-14. A great circle route.

Some FMS units do not automatically assume that you wish

to fly between each of the waypoints that have been entered
into the flight plan. When there is a question about how to
proceed from one waypoint or instrument procedure to the
next, some units insert a discontinuity in the programmed
route. A route discontinuity indicates that the FMS needs
further input from you about how two route segments should
be connected. A route discontinuity is shown in Figure 3-15.
If you wish to proceed directly from the waypoint that appears
before the route discontinuity to the waypoint that appears
after, you can simply delete the discontinuity, as shown in
Figure 3-15.
If the route discontinuity is left in the flight plan, the unit
computer will not provide guidance beyond the waypoint
that occurs before the discontinuity.

Maintaining Proficiency: Aeronautical Knowledge

It is easy to use an FMS without performing your own
calculations for courses, headings, times, distances, and fuel
used, but studies have demonstrated that aeronautical skills
that are not practiced regularly quickly fade, regardless of
experience level or certificates and ratings held. Abnormal
and emergency situations (e.g., electrical failure) do occur,
so it is important to maintain proficiency in at least making
rule of thumb calculations on your own.
Coupling the FMS to the Navigation Indicator(s)
Every advanced avionics cockpit features one or more
navigation instruments used for course guidance. The
navigation indicator (e.g., a horizontal situation indicator
(HSI) or electronic HSI) may include one or more course
deviation indicators (CDIs), as well as one or more radio
magnetic indicators (RMIs). When automatic course/ en
route/ approach tracking is desired, you must couple (or
connect) the FMS to the autopilot and select navigation
as the source for the autopilot versus heading source, for
example. With VOR navigation, that was sufficient. Now,
with multiple sources of navigation data available, you must
also ensure that the proper navigation information source
3-11

A
C
T
S
B
Y
A
C
T

S
B
Y
S
B
Y

119.000 Library
121.600 KSQL
BRG 060
114.10 SUNOL
V195
--.- vor

ECA

discontinuity
BRG ---

116.00
027
1200

DIST

Modify

21.7

21.7 mn
33.3
55.0 mn
---

21.7 mn

FLAGGED
GPS ENR

Wpt
Arwy

FPL

BACK EXEC XPND

A
C
T
S
B
Y
A
C
T

When a route discontinuity is deleted,

the FMS proceeds directly to the next
waypoint in the programmed route.

S
B
Y
S
B
Y

119.000 Active
KSQL 027
121.600 KSQL
BRG 060
114.10
--.- vor

SUNOL
V195

116.00 ECA
BRG 049
1200
027

FLAGGED
GPS ENR

A route discontinuity appears when the

FMS cannot proceed from one waypoint
to the next. A route discontinuity can
simply be deleted.

DIST

ETE

21.7

21.7 mn

33.3

55.0mn

18.3

73.3mn

No Active Leg

FPL

BACK EXEC XPND

Figure 3-15. A route discontinuity and deletion.

was selected in the FMS. Every advanced cockpit offers

buttons or switches that allow you to choose which navigation
indications will be shown on which display or instrument.
This situation becomes complicated in aircraft that contain
dual FMS/RNAV installations and redundant selectable
displays or instruments. The pilot must learn how to configure
each navigation instrument to show indications from each
possible navigation source.
Figure 3-16 shows an example of a primary flight display
(PFD) navigation indicator that combines a course deviation
indicator (CDI) and a radio magnetic indicator (RMI), and
allows the pilot to display indications from one of two FMS
on either indicator.

Common Error: Displaying the Wrong Navigation

Source
The annunciations showing which navigation sources are
displayed on which navigation instruments are often small, so
there is significant potential for displaying a navigation source
other than the one you intended to select. The consequences
of losing track of which navigation signals you are following

3-12

can be significant: you may think you are steering along one
course when in fact you are steering along a different one.
Be sure to verify these settings prior to departure, and again
each time you make changes to any navigation instrument.
Some installations compound this potential with automatic
source switching. The most common switching mode is a
GPS source to be automatically deselected when the VOR
is set to an ILS localizer frequency and a signal is present.
Typically, that is not a problem since the pilot intends to
switch to the ILS anyway. However, the error arises upon
missed approach, when the pilot selects another frequency
to follow a VOR missed approach routing. At that point,
some units revert back to the previous GPS or other RNAV
routing selected instead of the VOR frequency that the
pilot just picked. This can result in gross navigation errors
and loss of obstruction clearances. In some units, this is a
shop programmable or jumper selected option. Check your
units features. Always check for correct navigation source
selection and cross-check against the published procedure.
Be ready and able to fly and navigate manually.

RING

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

122.700
133.000

1.0

1.0

COVAR

VLOC

117.30
113.90

160
150
4

VOL/ PUSH
ID

20

20

10

COM

130

10

20

20

GPS1

Bearing
GPS2

FOGON
BRG 270
2.8 NM
00:26:18
COVAR
BRG 051
2.2 NM
0:01:06

ILS

1:24

TRK

GPS

ETE

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

Indications from this FMS are shown on the horizontal

situation indicator (green needle).

ILS

268

Aux

RING

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

122.700
133.000
VLOC

117.30
113.90

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

OFF

1.0

1.0

HAGRO IA
DIS

COVAR

DTK

2.2nm
120kt

BRG
m
m

GS

TRK

1:06

GPS

ETE

NAV

Range
View
Range

BRG
m

NAV

NRST

TAS 157 KTS

GS 140 KTS
Nav

2.8nm
120kt

10

10

FOGON FA

DTK

GS

14 3
1402

DIS

NRST

View

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

Indications from this FMS are shown on the bearing

pointer (blue needle).
Navigation sources can be coupled to navigation indicators using
the key to the left. Selections are indicated in the boxes to the right.

Figure 3-16. Coupling the FMS to navigation instruments.

Awareness: Mode Awareness

Mode awareness refers to the pilots ability to keep track of
how an advanced avionics cockpit system is configured. As
shown in Figure 3-16, every advanced avionics system offers
an annunciation of which mode is currently setsomewhere
in the cockpit! There is no guarantee that you will notice these
annunciations in a timely manner. The configuration of these
systems must remain part of your mode situational awareness
at all times. One strategy is to include mode checks as part
of your checklist or callout procedures. For example, after
programming a route into the FMS, verify that the navigation
indicator shows course guidance from the desired source, and
that the indication agrees with your estimate of the correct
direction and distance of flight.
Essential Skills
1. Determine whether the FMS is approved for the
planned flight operation.
2. Determine if your FMS can be used as a primary
navigation system for alternate requirements.
3. Understand how entries are made and how the entries
can be canceled.

5. Determine which navigation sources are installed and

functional.
6. Determine the status of the databases.
7. Program the FMS/RNAV with a flight plan, including
en route waypoints, user waypoints, and published
instrument procedures.
8. Review the programmed flight route to ensure it is
free from error.
9. Find the necessary pages for flight information in the
databases.
10. Determine which sources drive which displays or
instruments, and where the selection controls are
located.
11. Determine and understand how to use and program
optional functions and equipment installed with FMS/
RNAV basic unit.

En Route Navigation
The FMS provides guidance toward each waypoint in the
programmed flight route, and provides information to help
you track your progress.

4. Understand how that unit(s) is installed, and how it is

programmed or jumpered for optional functions.
3-13

The Active Waypoint

In normal navigation, at any given time, the aircraft is
progressing to the next waypoint in the programmed flight
route. This next waypoint is called the active waypoint. FMSs
typically display the active waypoint on a page dedicated
to showing flight progress. While going to is the normal
function for navigation, nearly all FMSs have the provision
to select a point, waypoint, or navaid to navigate from that
point or position. This can be useful for holding, tracking
NDB bearing, grids, etc., and allows the tracking of a bearing
with the autopilot engaged and coupled to a navigation
source. However, if you are doing an ADF approach, the
primary navigation source must be available to support that
approach. The page shown in Figure 3-17 indicates that
TRACY is the active waypoint. The primary flight display
in Figure 2-5 shows the active waypoint (ECA) at the top
of the display.

If the aircraft is flying a heading of 090 degrees and the track

is 080 degrees, the winds are coming from the south. Notice
that having a track indication makes it easy to maintain the
desired track. To follow the 049-degree desired track to
TRACY upon leaving SUNOL, simply fly the heading that
results in a track of 049 degrees. The track display eliminates
the traditional method of bracketing to find a heading that
lets you fly the desired track.

Groundspeed and ETA

The display in Figure 3-17 also shows groundspeed. Again,
the navigation display eliminates the need to calculate
groundspeed using distance and time. Based on groundspeed
and distance from the active waypoint, the navigation page
also provides an estimated time of arrival at the active
waypoint.

Fuel Used and Time Remaining

Active waypoint
Distance to the active waypoint

Estimated time of
arrival at the active
waypoint

Groundspeed

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

1.8nm

RNG

108 kt

DTK049
TK 049

CRSR

MENU

LEG
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX

MSG

OBS

ALT

NRST

CLR

ENT

PULL SCAN

Track of the aircraft over the ground

Desired
ed track to the active waypoint

Figure 3-17. Active waypoint, desired track, track, and ETA at

active waypoint.

Desired Track
The FMS/PFD/MFD navigation display also shows the
desired track to the active waypoint. The desired track is
the intended course for the active leg in the programmed
flight plan. It is the track that connects the waypoint the
aircraft just passed to the active waypoint. On the display
in Figure 3-17, the current desired track is the 049-degree
course between the SUNOL and TRACY waypoints.

Track
The navigation display shows the aircrafts track over the
ground. The track, which is the result of aircraft heading
and winds, tells you which direction the aircraft is actually
flying. Winds make it likely that the track and heading will
be different. You can get a very good sense of what the winds
are doing by comparing the track and heading of the aircraft.
3-14

Many advanced avionics navigation units offer fuel

calculations and fuel state monitoring. Some units
automatically load the initial fuel load, while many require the
pilot to correctly enter the amount of fuel into the unit as the
beginning fuel on board. Some can have installed transducers
(sensors) to measure the fuel used, and display fuel used
and time remaining at the current consumption rate. Some
lower cost units indicate computed fuel consumption values
based on fuel burn rates entered by the pilot. This produces
an estimate of fuel used and fuel remaining. This estimate
is only as accurate as the values entered by the pilot for fuel
on board and the consumption rate. Since the pilot is often
using the AFM chart data, there is potential for interpretation
error. Then, there is the variation error from the factory charts
to the specific aircraft being flown. These factors all tend to
degrade the accuracy of the fuel calculation based solely on
pilot entered data. Other factors such as a fuel burn that is
higher than normal, leaks, or other problems are not displayed
unless the system actually registers and senses fuel tank realtime status. These errors can affect both types of systems. The
pilot must determine what equipment is installed.
Arriving at the Active Waypoint
As the aircraft reaches the active waypoint, there are four new
tasks for the pilot: (1) recognizing imminent arrival at the
active waypoint; (2) leading the turn to avoid overshooting
the course to the next waypoint; (3) making the next waypoint
the new active waypoint; and (4) selecting the desired course
to the new active waypoint.
All FMS/RNAV computers offer a sequencing mode that
greatly simplifies the performance of the first three of these
tasks. Sequencing mode provides three services: waypoint
alerting, turn anticipation, and waypoint sequencing.

Waypoint Alerting
The first service performed by the sequencing mode
is waypoint alerting. Just prior to reaching each active
waypoint, waypoint alerting advises the pilot of imminent
arrival at the active waypoint. Waypoint alerting is illustrated
in Figure 3-18.
Fly-by

Waypoint alerting provides a flashing message when

you approach the vicinity of the active waypoint.

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

WPT

0.3
0
3nm

RNG

108 kt

DTK060
TK 060

0.01nm

CRSR

:5.0nm

00:10

MENU

LEG
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX

MSG

OBS

ALT

NRST

CLR

Fly-over
ENT

PULL SCAN

Turn anticipation advises you to begin your turn to

the desired track to the next waypoint in the flight
route. Turn anticipation is indicated on this computer
when the WPT message stops flashing.

Figure 3-18. Waypoint alerting and turn anticipation.

Turn Anticipation
The second service performed by the sequencing mode is
turn anticipation. During waypoint alerting and prior to
reaching the active waypoint, the FMS indicates that it is
time to begin the turn to fly the desired track to the new
active waypoint. The timing of turn anticipation is based on
the aircrafts observed groundspeed and the angle of the turn
required to track to the next waypoint. If a standard rate turn
is begun when the waypoint alerting indication is presented,
the pilot should roll out on course when the aircraft reaches
the center of the desired track to the new active waypoint.
Turn anticipation is also illustrated in Figure 3-18.
When turn anticipation is used, the aircraft does not fly
directly over the active waypoint. Rather, the computer
commands a turn that rounds the corner to some degree,
giving priority to having the aircraft roll out on the new
desired track to the new active waypoint. This function is
illustrated in the upper illustration in Figure 3-19.
Turn anticipation occurs only when the active waypoint is
designated as a fly-by waypoint. A fly-by waypoint is one
for which the computer uses a less stringent standard for
determining when the aircraft has reached it. By contrast,
some waypoints are designated as flyover waypoints. The
FMS will not use turn anticipation for a fly-over waypoint;
instead, the navigation will lead the aircraft directly over the
waypoint (hence the name). A missed approach waypoint is a
typical example of a fly-over waypoint. A fly-over waypoint
is illustrated in Figure 3-19.

Figure 3-19. Fly-by and fly-over waypoints.

Waypoint Sequencing
The third service performed by sequencing mode is waypoint
sequencing. Once the aircraft reaches the active waypoint,
the FMS automatically makes the next waypoint in the flight
plan sequence the new active waypoint. Waypoint sequencing
is illustrated in Figure 3-20.
The waypoint sequencing function makes the next
waypoint in the flight plan sequence the new active
waypoint.

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

WPT

18
2 nm
18.2
110 kt

DTK051
TK 049

RNG

0.01nm

CRSR

:5.0nm
MENU

LEG
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX

MSG

OBS

ALT

NRST

CLR

ENT

PULL SCAN

Figure 3-20. Waypoint sequencing.

Awareness: Making Waypoint Callouts

To help you stay in touch with the progress of the flight while
the FMS automatically performs the navigation task, it is
a good practice to announce your arrival (mentally, single
pilot; or orally, to the flight crew) at each waypoint in the
programmed route. For example, when arriving at SUNOL
intersection, you might announce, Arriving at SUNOL.

3-15

TRACY is next. The course is 051 degrees, and the ETE is

10 minutes.

Setting the Course to New Active Waypoint

The last step required when arriving at the active waypoint is
to set the course to the next waypoint in the planned route. A
PFD such as the one shown in Figure 3-16 automatically sets
the new course on the navigation indicator when the RNAV
computer is engaged in sequencing mode. When an FMS is
combined with a traditional course deviation indicator, the
pilot must manually set the new course using the OBS knob,
unless it is an EHSI, or is slaved. Slaved means that there
is a servo mechanism in the instrument that will respond to
the navigation unit.
En Route Sensitivity
When operating en route, the FMS maintains a sensitivity
of 5 nautical miles (NM); that is, a CDI displaying course
indications from the FMS deflects full-scale when the aircraft
drifts 5 NM to either side of the desired track to the active
waypoint. An aircraft is considered to be en route when it is
more than 30 NM from the origin and destination airports
programmed into the flight plan. There are and have been
some units that use different values. Consult your specific
units documentation.

GPS Signal Status

The FMS/RNAV provides position, track, and groundspeed
information using signals received from a collection of
satellites that are in constant orbit around the Earth when
using the GPS navigation source. Although the GPS is
highly reliable, satellite reception is sometimes interrupted.
Consequently, the pilot must ensure at all times that the
system is operational and that it is receiving adequate GPS
signals. To simplify this process, all GPS receivers approved
for IFR navigation have an automated feature that continually
checks the status of the GPS signals. This function is called
receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM). RAIM,
which requires adequate simultaneous reception of at least
five GPS satellites for IFR navigation reliability, works
independently and notifies the pilot when there is a problem
with GPS signal reception. When reception problems arise,
the FMS/RNAV provides an alert message that notifies the
pilot of a GPS reception problem and states that the aircraft
position information can no longer be considered reliable.
For this reason, regulations require aircraft that are equipped
with an RNAV unit using GPS to have an alternate (non-GPS)
means of IFR navigation on board (e.g., a VOR receiver)
unless the GPS receiver complies with the requirements of
WAAS TSO-146B.
For all of the previously mentioned reasons, many
manufacturers have coupled inertial navigation units with the
3-16

FMS to deliver unequalled reliability in navigation. Many

more complex FMS units also search or scan for distance
measuring equipment (DME) signals and VOR signals as
additional navigational sources to compute a blended
position, which is the best calculation from all of the sources
and how the FMS is programmed to consider the signals
for accuracy. GPS RNAV units usually use only GPS signal
sources, but may be able to receive VOR and DME signals
as well. In the future, many GPS units will probably receive
eLORAN as well, since it is a long range navigation system
with greatly improved accuracy as compared to the older
LORAN-C. One advantage of the LORAN (e or C)
system is that it is ground based and can be easily maintained,
as compared to space-based navigation sources.

Accessing Navigational Information En Route

One of the most useful features of an FMS database is its
ability to provide quick access to navigational information.
Most units allow the pilot to access information about
airports, navigation facilities, airway intersections, and other
kinds of waypoints. Figure 3-21 illustrates how one FMS is
used to access radio frequencies for an airport.
2 Enter the name of the desired airport.

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

119.000
121.600
114.10

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

APT

KLVK
L

Public Done?

119. 650
121. 600
118. 100
122. 950

ATIS
Ground
Tower
Unicom

COM

RING

GPS

WPT

NRST

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

Select the third subpage of the waypoint

1 page, which shows radio fequencies for
any airport in the navigation datebase.

Figure 3-21. Accessing communications frequencies in the FMS.

Essential Skills
1. Select and monitor the en route portion of the
programmed flight route, determining waypoint
arrival, approving turn anticipation, and waypoint
sequencing.
2. Approve or select the correct course automatically
displayed or manually tuned.
3. Determine if FMS makes fuel calculations and what
sensors and data entries are required to be made by
the pilot.
4. Ensure that the track flown is that cleared by air traffic
control (ATC).

Adding a Waypoint
PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

15.8nm
TRACY

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

TRACY

DTK051
TK

LEG

*CRSR*
MSG

RNG

OBS

FPL 0
ALT

NRST

CLR

ENT

RNG

REIG

DTK051
TK

PULL SCAN

Use the inner and outer knobs to enter the

new waypoint identifier. Then press ENT to
confirm your choice.

CRSR

MENU

LEG

*CRSR*
MSG

MENU

*CRSR*

14.7nm
TRACY

Use cursor mode to select the waypoint you

want to insert the new waypoint before.

CRSR

OBS

FPL 0
ALT

NRST

*CRSR*

CLR

ENT

PULL SCAN

D l ti a W
Deleting
Waypoint
i t
PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

5.2nm

PUSH ON
BRT

REIGA

DTK050
TK

MENU

OBS

FPL 0
ALT

NRST

*CRSR*

CLR

ENT

PULL SCAN

Press

4.8nm
REIGA

DTK050
TK

OBS

RNG

Del REIGA ?

ENT

to confirm your modification.

CRSR

ENT
MENU

LEG

*CRSR*
MSG

Use cursor mode to highlight the

waypoint you want to delete.
Then press CLR .

CRSR

LEG

*CRSR*
MSG

PROC

RNG

REIGA

FPL 0
ALT

NRST

*CRSR*

CLR

ENT

PULL SCAN

Figure 3-22. Adding and deleting waypoints.

5. Determine that the display CDI sensitivity is

satisfactory for the segment being flown.

En Route Modifications
Part of the challenge of using FMS en route is dealing
with modifications to the planned flight route. This section
describes five en route modifications.
Adding and Deleting Waypoints From the
Programmed Route
All FMS/RNAV units allow en route (not published
departure, arrival or approach) waypoints to be added and
deleted to the programmed route. These techniques are
illustrated in Figure 3-22.
ATC may issue instructions to a point defined by a VOR
radial and DME value. The pilot must know how to enter
such a waypoint as a user waypoint, name it, and recall it. If
the units memory is very limited, the pilot should also be
adept at removing the waypoint.

Direct To
Another simple modification is one that requires the pilot to
proceed directly to a waypoint. In some cases, the waypoint
to fly directly toward is one that already appears in the
programmed flight plan. In this case, the pilot simply selects
that waypoint in the flight plan and activates the direct-to
function, as illustrated in Figure 3-23.
The direct-to waypoint now becomes the active waypoint.
After reaching this waypoint, the system proceeds to the next
waypoint in the programmed route.
In other cases, you may be asked to fly directly to a waypoint
that does not already appear in the programmed flight
route. In this case, one strategy is to add the waypoint to
the programmed route using the technique illustrated in
Figure 3-22, and then proceed directly to the waypoint using
the technique illustrated in Figure 3-23. Another option is
to use the direct-to function to get the flight started toward
the assigned waypoint, and then add the new waypoint to the
appropriate place in the programmed flight plan.

3-17

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

125.400
123.850
VLOC

114.10
116.00

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

Press the direct-to button (

ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN

WAYPOINT

DTK

).

RING

00 KSJC / O27
DIS

M
9.6 mn
SUNOL
n
M 18.3 m
TRACY
Approach RNAV 10
n
ECA IA
M 15.0 m

GPS

On the flight plan page, use cursor mode

to select the waypoint to which you would
like to proceed direct.

FPL

NRST

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

125.400
123.850
VLOC

114.10
116.00

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

SELECT D WAYPOINT
ECA
SW USA
MANTECA
STOCKTON USA
FPL ECA IA

NRST

RING

KLVK

049 m
Activate?

CRS

W121

GPS

Press

twice to confirm your choice.

DRCT

NRST

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

125.400
123.850
VLOC

114.10
116.00

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN

WAYPOINT

DTK

ECA is now the active waypoint. The RNAV has

built a desired track from the present position
of the airplane to ECA.

RING

00 KSJC / O27
DIS

Approach RNAV 10
n
IA
M 41.1 m
ECA
8.0 mn
MOTER
M
5.6 mn
ZOSONFA
M

GPS

FPL

NRST

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

Figure 3-23. Direct-to operation.

Press
, then
direct-to feature.

Risk: What Lies Ahead on a Direct-To Route?

The direct-to function offers a convenient way to shorten your
time and distance en route if ATC authorizes that track. When
you perform a direct-to operation, though, remember that the
system builds a new track from your present position to the
new waypoint. This track does not necessarily correspond
to any previously planned airway or route, so it is critical to
ensure that your new direct route is clear of all significant
obstructions, terrain, weather, and airspace.

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

125.400
123.850
VLOC

114.10
116.00

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

to access the cancel

SELECT D WAYPOINT
ECA
SW USA
MANTECA
STOCKTONPAGE
USA
MENU
FPL

RING

Cancel Direct-To
NAV?
NRST

ECA IA

KLVK

053 m
Activate?

CRS

W121

GPS

DRCT

NRST

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

Cancel Direct To
ATC may sometimes cancel a previously issued direct-to
clearance and ask you to resume the previously cleared
route. Most FMSs offer a simple way of canceling a direct-to
operation. Figure 3-24 illustrates the procedure for one FMS.
Selecting a Different Instrument Procedure or
Transition
ATC will sometimes issue an instrument procedure or
transition that is different from what you would expect.
Entering a new procedure or transition is usually a simple
matter of making new menu choices, as illustrated in
Figure 3-25. In most units, if you are training or wish to fly
the approach again, you must learn how to set the selector or
cursor back to the initial fix, which will restart the approach
sequence.
3-18

Figure 3-24. Canceling a direct-to operation.

Proceeding Directly to the Nearest Airport

One of the most useful features of an FMS is its ability to
provide you with immediate access to a large navigation
database. This feature is particularly useful when a suitable
nearby airport or navigation facility must be located quickly.
Figure 3-26 shows how to locate and proceed directly to the
nearest suitable airport using one manufacturers system.
Essential Skills
1. Proceed directly to a waypoint in the programmed
route.

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

9.8 nm
ECAi
DTK050
TK 050

PUSH ON
BRT

PUSH ON
BRT

9.7 nm
ECAi
DTK050
TK 050

PUSH ON
BRT

PUSH ON
BRT

NRST

ALT

CLR

CLR

10

RNG

ENT

ENT

A menu of destination airports appears. Press

to choose one.

CRSR

ENT

PULL SCAN

RNG

A menu of approaches then appears for the

airport you selected. Choose one and press

CRSR

ENT

MENU

APT 8
ALT

*CRSR*

NRST

CLR

9.3nm

ENT

ECAi

DTK050
TK 050

MOTER

ENT

PULL SCAN

RNG

Finally, a list of transitions appears for the selected

approach. Choose one and press ENT .

CRSR

MENU

LEG

*CRSR*

APT 8
ALT

*CRSR*

NRST

CLR

9.1nm

ENT

ECAi

ADD

*CRSR*
OBS

PULL SCAN

LEG

*CRSR*

MSG

MENU

ENT

ENT

DTK050
TK 050

DTK050
TK 050

and choose Select Approach.

*CRSR*

NRST

RNAV

ECAi

OBS

PROC

CRSR

MENU

PROC 2

9.5nm

OBS

Press
RNG

*CRSR*

Select Appr APT

1: KSQL
2: O27

OBS

MSG

PROC

ALT

*CRSR*

MSG

PROC

PROC 2

OBS

MSG

PROC

LEG

*CRSR*
MSG

PROC

ENT

Select Approach?

TO

FPL

APT 8
ALT

NRST

ENT

PULL SCAN

RNG

Press ENT to add your

approach to the flight plan.

CRSR

MENU

0?

LEG

*CRSR*

CLR

ENT

PULL SCAN

Figure 3-25. Selecting a different instrument procedure or transition.

2. Cancel a programmed or selected waypoint or fix.

3. Select a different instrument procedure or transition.
4. Restart an approach sequence.
5. Immediately find the nearest airport or facility.
6. Edit a flight plan.
7. Enter a user waypoint.

Descent
Making the transition from cruise flight to the beginning
of an instrument approach procedure sometimes requires
arriving at a given waypoint at an assigned altitude. When this
requirement is prescribed by a published arrival procedure or
issued by ATC, it is called a crossing restriction. Even when
ATC allows a descent at the pilots discretion, you need to
choose a waypoint and altitude for positioning convenient

Highlight any airport in cursor mode and press

receive guidance directly to that airport.

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

VOL/ PUSH
ID

NEAREST AIRPORT
BRG
DIS

APR

123.850
125.100

KTCY
5.7nm GPS
uni 122.800
rwy 4000ft

116.00
114.10

1Q4
6.7nm VFR
mul 122.900
rwy 4000ft

VLOC

APT

COM

C83
uni

123.050

to

12.1nm GPS
rwy 4500ft

RING

GPS

NRST

NRST

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

Use the outer knob to select the nearest page

The first subpage shows the nearest airports.

Figure 3-26. Proceeding directly to the nearest airport.

3-19

Cruising speed 2 7 0 knots

Top-of-descent point
To
Wind

Cruising altitude 1 1 0 0 0 ft
Descent speed
eed and rate

Bottom-of-descent point

1 8 0 knots @ 1,000 fpm

Assigned altitude

3 0 0 0 ft

ECA VOR

Figure 3-27. The descent planning task.

to start the approach. In either case, descending from a

cruising altitude to a given waypoint and altitude requires
both planning and precise flying.
Elements of Descent Planning Calculations
Figure 3-27 illustrates the basic descent planning task. The
task begins with an aircraft flying at an assigned cruising
altitude. The aircraft must descend to an assigned altitude
and reach that assigned altitude at a designated bottom-ofdescent point. The next step is to choose a descent rate and
a descent speed. The ultimate goal is to calculate a top-ofdescent point, which is the point at which, if you begin the
descent and maintain the planned descent rate and airspeed,
you will reach the assigned altitude at the designated bottomof-descent point.
In a basic aircraft, you must rely on manual calculations to
perform the descent planning task. In an advanced avionics
aircraft, there are two descent planning methods available:
(1) manual calculations, and (2) the vertical navigation
features of the FMS unit. Skillful pilots use both methods
and cross-check them against one another in order to reduce
the possibility of error and help keep the pilot in the loop.

Manual Descent Calculations

The simplest technique for calculating the distance required
to descend uses a descent ratio. The table in Figure 3-28 lists
a descent ratio for many combinations of planned descent
speeds and descent rates. Calculating a descent is a simple
matter of looking up the descent ratio for your target descent
rate and groundspeed, and multiplying the descent ratio by
the number of thousands of feet in altitude that you must
descend. For example, suppose you are asked to descend from
11,000 feet to meet a crossing restriction at 3,000 feet. Since
there is a 200-knot speed restriction while approaching the
destination airport, you choose a descent speed of 190 knots
3-20

and a descent rate of 1,000 feet per minute (fpm). Assuming a

10-knot headwind component, groundspeed in the descent is
180 knots. Referring to the table in Figure 3-28, the planned
descent speed and rate indicate a ratio of 3.0. This means that
you will need 3 NM for every 1,000 feet of descent. You
must descend a total of 8,000 feet (11,000 feet 3,000 feet).
A total of 24 NM is needed to descend 8,000 feet (3 NM
8 = 24 NM), and must, therefore, begin the descent 24 NM
away from the end-of-descent point.
Another technique for calculating descents is to use the
formula shown in Figure 3-29. A descent table can be found
in the front of each set of U.S. Terminal Procedures on
page D-1. Working through the formula for the ECA VOR
crossing restriction example, 8 minutes is needed to descend
8,000 feet at the planned descent rate of 1,000 fpm. At your
planned descent speed of 180 knots, you will cover 3 NM
per minute. Thus, in 8 minutes, you will cover 24 NM. Once
again, you must start the descent 24 NM prior to ECA to meet
the crossing restriction.

Coordinating Calculations with Aeronautical

Charts
Regardless of which method is used, it is always a good idea
to locate the top-of-descent point chosen on the aeronautical
chart. Figure 3-30 shows a chart that covers the area
surrounding the ECA VOR. A top-of-descent point 24 NM
prior to ECA is located 3 NM before PATYY intersection.

Alternate Navigation Planning

Using the aeronautical chart to locate the top-of-descent point
has a second advantage. Since regulations require you to have
an alternate means of navigation onboard if the computer
does not comply with TSO 146B, the aeronautical chart
allows you to check minimum altitudes for VOR reception

DESCENT RATIO TABLE

A descent ratio table is provided for use in planning and executing descent procedures under known or approximate ground speed
conditions and rates of descent. The ratio expresses the number of nautical miles needed to descend 1,000 ft.

DESCENT
GRADIENT
RATE
(ft./min)

GROUND SPEED (knots)

500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000

90

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

300

3.0
2.5
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7

3.3
2.8
2.4
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.9
0.9
0.8

3.7
3.1
2.6
2.3
2.0
1.8
1.7
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.9

4.6
3.9
3.3
2.9
2.6
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.2

5.3
4.4
3.8
3.3
3.0
2.7
2.4
2.2
2.1
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3

6.0
5.0
4.3
3.8
3.3
3.0
2.7
2.5
2.3
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5

6.7
5.6
4.8
4.2
3.7
3.3
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7

7.3
6.1
5.3
4.6
4.1
3.7
3.3
3.1
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.0
1.9
1.8

8.0
6.7
5.7
5.0
4.4
4.0
3.6
3.3
3.1
2.9
2.7
2.5
2.4
2.2
2.1
2.0

8.7
7.2
6.2
5.4
4.8
4.3
3.9
3.6
3.3
3.1
2.9
2.7
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2

9.3
7.8
6.7
5.8
5.2
4.7
4.2
3.9
3.6
3.3
3.1
2.9
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.3

10.0
8.3
7.1
6.3
5.6
5.0
4.5
4.2
3.8
3.6
3.3
3.1
2.9
2.8
2.6
2.5

Figure 3-28. Descent ratio table.

Cruising Altitude (ft) Descent Altitude (ft)

11,000 ft 3,000 ft
1,000 ft/min

180 NM/hr
60 (min/hr)

Groundspeed (NM/hr)
X

Descent Rate (ft/min)

8,000 ft
1,000 ft/min

60 (min/hr)

= NM required

3 NM/min = 8 X 3 NM = 24 NM

Figure 3-29. Descent formula.

along the route of flight in case VOR navigation is required

at any time. The airway that leads to the ECA VOR lists a
minimum en route altitude (MEA) of 3,000 feet, which is
the clearance altitude.

Calculating Descents with the FMS

Building a descent with an FMS follows the familiar process
of entering the basics of the descent into the system, letting
the system do the math, and then reviewing what the system
has produced. Most FMS units offer a descent planning or
vertical navigation (VNAV) page that allows you to enter
the details of your descent. Figure 3-31 shows the VNAV
page for one manufacturers system. Note that there is an
entry for each of the descent planning concepts discussed
above. Computers perform the calculations using the same
formulas and data.

Figure 3-30. Top-of-descent point on an en route chart.

3-21

The VNAV function then calculates a top-of-descent

2 point and displays the time remaining to reach it.

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

12
5 nm V n v i n 2 : 1 5
12.5
11000 to :
3000
:
-00 nm
DTK050 ECA
-1000fpm
TK 050 GS : 180

RNG

ECAi

*CRSR*
MSG

OBS

ALT 2
ALT

NRST

CRSR

MENU

LEG

*CRSR*

CLR

ENT

PULL SCAN

VNAV allows you to enter a descent waypoint and

1 altitude, descent speed, and descent rate.

Figure 3-31. Planning a descent with an advanced avionics unit.

It is a good idea to cross-check the results of your manual

descent calculations with the results produced by the
computer. Many RNAV units do not display a waypoint for
the planned top-of-descent point. However, there may be an
approaching VNAV profile message that anticipates the
descent point and cues the pilot to begin descending. Caution
is advised that some systems calculate the vertical flight
path dependent on the current airspeed/groundspeed values.
Lowering the nose and gaining airspeed in the descent may
confuse you into perceiving a false vertical goal or vertical
rate, resulting in failure to meet the crossing restriction
with some systems. Determine if the system recomputes
the airspeed/groundspeed, or if you must enter the descent
airspeed during the VNAV programming.

Managing Speed
Up to this point the focus has been on the task of losing
excess altitude. For example, in the situation shown in
Figure 3-27, you are faced with the requirement to reduce
altitude from 11,000 feet to 3,000 feet. Most descent scenarios
also present the challenge of losing excess speed. In piston
aircraft of modest performance, losing excess speed seldom

requires much forethought. Slowing from a cruising speed

of 120 knots to an approach speed of 100 knots requires little
planning and can be accomplished quickly at almost any
point during a descent. Flying higher performance aircraft
requires a closer look at concepts of excess altitude and
excess speed. Higher performance piston engines usually
require descent scheduling to prevent engine shock cooling.
Either the engines must be cooled gradually before descent,
or power must be constant and considerable in the descent to
prevent excessive cooling. In such instances, a much longer
deceleration and gradual engine cooling must be planned to
prevent powerplant damage. Additionally, the turbulence
penetration or VA speeds should be considered with respect
to weather conditions to avoid high speeds in turbulent
conditions, which could result in overstressing the airframe.
Drag devices such as spoilers can be of great advantage for
such maneuvers. In the scenario in Figure 3-27, a cruising
speed of 270 knots is inappropriate as the aircraft descends
below 10,000 feet, and even more so as it enters Class C
airspace. Therefore, descent planning must include provisions
for losing excess airspeed to meet these speed restrictions.
Some sophisticated FMSs are able to build in a deceleration
segment that can allow the aircraft to slow from the cruise
speed to the desired end-of-descent speed during the descent.
This type of navigation system allows you to maintain the
cruise speed up until the top-of-descent point and calculates
the deceleration simultaneously with the descent. A
deceleration segment is illustrated in Figure 3-32.
Simple FMS units such as GPS RNAV receivers assume
that you will slow the aircraft to the planned descent speed
before reaching the top-of-descent point. ATC timing may
preclude this plan.

1 1 0 0 0 ft
2 7 0 knots
1 0 0 0 0 ft
Deceleration segment
The aircraft must slow from 270 knots
to 180 knots to obey speed restrictions.

1 8 0 knots
3 0 0 0 ft

ECA

Figure 3-32. A deceleration segment planned by a more sophisticated FMS.

3-22

Top-of-descent point

1 1 0 0 0 ft

9 0 0 0 ft
7 0 0 0 ft
5 0 0 0 ft

3 0 0 0 ft
2 4 NM

1 8 NM

1 2 NM

6 NM
ECA

Figure 3-33. Planned descent path as a wire in the sky.

Descent Flying Concepts

Probably the most important descent flying concept to
understand is that a planned descent is basically a pathway
in the sky, similar to the glideslope associated with an ILS
procedure. If you start down at the planned top-of-descent
point, fly a groundspeed of 180 knots, and descend at 1,000
feet per minute (fpm), you will be flying on a fixed path
between the top-of-descent point and the bottom-of-descent
point. If you maintain the 180-knot and 1,000-foot-perminute descent, you will cross a point 18 NM from ECA at
exactly 9,000 feet, a point 12 NM from ECA at 7,000 feet,
and a point 6 NM from ECA at exactly 5,000 feet, as shown
in Figure 3-33.
If you are at a different altitude at any of these points, you
will not cross ECA at the required 3,000 feet unless corrective
action is taken. Four things can cause you to drift from a
planned descent path:
1. Not following the planned descent rate
2. Not following the planned descent speed
3. Unexpected winds
4. Navigation system not recalculating for airspeed
change of descent
Figure 3-34 shows the effect of each situation on the position
of the aircraft with respect to the planned descent path.

Flying the Descent

The key to flying a descent is to know your position relative
to the pathway-in-the-sky at all times. If you drift off the
path, you need to modify the descent speed and/or descent
rate in order to rejoin the descent path. Many FMSs do not
give a direct indication of progress during a descent. You
must be very familiar with the indirect indications of the
VNAV descent. In this case, follow the planned descent rate

and speed as closely as possible and be mindful of altitude

and position while approaching the crossing restriction fix.

Determining Arrival at the Top-of-Descent Point

All navigation systems provide some type of alert informing
the pilot of arrival at the planned top of descent point, and that
it is time to begin the descent at the speed and rate entered
into the FMS.
If air traffic control is able to accommodate your request,
the ideal point to begin the descent is at the planned top-ofdescent point. If air traffic control is unable to accommodate
such a request, one of two scenarios will ensue: an early
descent or a late descent.

Early Descents
Beginning descent before reaching the planned top-ofdescent point means you must set aside descent planning and
proceed without the benefit of vertical guidance offered by
the navigation system. If, during the descent, the navigation
computer does not display position with respect to the
planned descent path, you must simply do the best possible
to arrive at the crossing restriction at the assigned altitude.
If the navigation system does display position with respect
to the planned descent path, you can usually recapture
the planned descent path and resume flying with vertical
guidance from the computer. The basic technique is to
initiate descent at a reasonable descent rate that is less than
the planned descent rate. If you follow this initial descent
rate, you will eventually intercept the planned descent path,
as shown in Figure 3-35.

3-23

Flying a greater than planned descent rate

causes you to descend too quickly and
end up below the planned descent path.
ath.

Flying a greater than planned descent rate

causes you to descend too quickly and
end up below the planned descent path.
ath.

1 1 0 0 0 ft

1 1 0 0 0 ft

180 knots @ 1 0 0 0 fpm

180 knots @ 1 0 0 0 fpm

3 0 0 0 ft
180 knots @ 1 5 0 0 fpm

3 0 0 0 ft
180 knots @ 1 5 0 0 fpm

ECA

Flying a greater than planned descent speed causes

you to cover more ground during the descent and
end up above the planned descent path.

ECA

Flying a greater than planned descent speed causes

you to cover more ground during the descent and
end up above the planned descent path.

1 1 0 0 0 ft

1 1 0 0 0 ft

2 0 0 knots @ 1,000 fpm

3 0 0 0 ft

2 0 0 knots @ 1,000 fpm

3 0 0 0 ft

1 8 0 knots @ 1,000 fpm

ECA

2 0 0 knots @ 1,000 fpm

An unanticipated tailwind causes you to speed
up, cover more ground during the descent,
and drift up above the descent path.

1 8 0 knots @ 1,000 fpm

ECA

1 1 0 0 0 ft
1 8 0 knots @ 1,000 fpm

1 1 0 0 0 ft

20-knot headwind

3 0 0 0 ft
20-knot
20-k
knot tailwind

3 0 0 0 ft
1 8 0 knots @ 1,000 fpm

ECA

1 6 0 knots @ 1,000 fpm

An unanticipated headwind
causes you to slow down
and cover less ground
during the descent and end
up below the descent path.

ECA

Figure 3-34. Drifting off the planned descent path.

Figure 3-35. Early descent scenario.

Late Descents

Since flying beyond the planned top-of-descent point leaves

less time to lose excess altitude, your goal is to minimize the
overrun distance by slowing the aircraft as soon as a late
descent scenario is suspected. A lower speed means you will

Beginning the descent beyond the planned top-of-descent

point means that you will have the same amount of excess
altitude, but a shorter distance and time to lose it, as shown
in Figure 3-36.
3-24

Actual descent point

Planned top-of-descent point

1 1 0 0 0 ft

180 knots @

5 0 0 fpm
3 0 0 0 ft

180 knots @ 1 0 0 0 fpm

ECA VOR

Figure 3-36. Late descent scenario.

cover less distance in the same amount of time, and thus be

left with more time to lose altitude.

SUNOL

Common Error: Not Considering Winds During

Descent Planning
A common error in planning a descent is failing to consider
winds and their effect on groundspeed. As illustrated in
Figure 3-34, if you fail to take into account a 20-knot
tailwind, your groundspeed will be faster than you planned,
and you will reach the target waypoint before reaching the
assigned altitude.
Essential Skills
1. Determine the descent airspeed to be used with
attention to turbulence, aircraft descent profile, and
powerplant cooling restrictions.
2. Program, observe, and monitor the top of descent,
descent rate, and level-off altitude.
3. Plan and fly a descent to a crossing restriction.
4. Recognize and correct deviations from a planned
descent path, and determine which factor changed.

Intercept And Track Course

Intercepting and Tracking a Different Course to
the Active Waypoint
Figure 3-37 illustrates a common situation. Air traffic control
instructs you to fly to a waypoint via an inbound course
different from the desired track calculated by the FMS. In
the example in Figure 3-37, you are en route to SUNOL
intersection. The FMS has calculated a desired track of 060
degrees, but ATC has instructed you to fly a heading of 080
degrees to intercept a 009-degree course to SUNOL.

TRACY

060

080

009

DO NOT USE FOR

NAVIGATION

Figure 3-37. A simple course intercept scenario.

The FMS is set to take the aircraft to SUNOL intersection,

but via an inbound course different from the one ATC has
cleared you to follow. Therefore, you need to be a means
of programming the FMS to follow your choice of course
instead of the desired track that it has identified.
The Nonsequencing Mode
Every IFR-capable FMS/RNAV unit offers an alternative
mode of operation, the nonsequencing mode, which allows
you to perform this particular task. Like the OBS knob which
allows you to select VOR radials, the nonsequencing mode
allows you to select courses to or from an active waypoint.
The nonsequencing mode differs from the sequencing mode
in two important ways:
1. Nonsequencing mode allows you to select a different
inbound course to the active waypoint. For this reason,
some manufacturers refer to the nonsequencing mode
as OBS (hold or suspend) mode, which suggests
similarity to the OBS knob found on traditional VOR
indicators. As the OBS knob allows you to select
inbound VOR radials, the nonsequencing mode allows
you to select inbound courses to an active waypoint.

3-25

12

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

TO

15

N
A
V

18

33

21

24

27

30

OBS
OB

121.300
135.400
VLOC

114.10
116.00

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

Once in the nonsequencing mode,

use the OBS knob
to dial the inbound
course of 009.

RING

COM

C
PWR

COM

5.0

5.0

CRS009
DIS

6.9nm
85kt
GS

NRST

OBS

SUNOL
DTK

BRG
m

04:52

TRK

NAV

MSG

FPL

GPS

ETE

PROC

To switch to the nonsequencing mode, press OBS .

OBS displays above the button to indicate that the
nonsequencing mode is in use.

Figure 3-38. Setting a different course to the active waypoint.

2. Nonsequencing mode stops the waypoint sequencing

feature of the FMS/RNAV unit. If engaged in
nonsequencing mode, the FMS/RNAV program does
not automatically sequence to the next waypoint in
the flight plan when the aircraft arrives at the active
waypoint.
Every FMS/RNAV offers a way to switch to the nonsequencing
mode. There is typically a button marked OBS (or Hold), and
an OBS or course selection knob to select an inbound course
to the active waypoint. Figure 3-38 illustrates the procedure
for one particular FMS.
Once you switch to nonsequencing mode and select the
inbound course of 009, the navigation indicator reflects
aircraft position with respect to the 009 course. The
navigation indicator in Figure 3-38 shows that you are
west of course. The assigned heading of 080 provides an
acceptable intercept angle. As you fly the 080 heading, the
needle centers as you reach the 009 course. Once the 009
course is reached and the needle has centered, you can turn
to track the 009 course inbound to SUNOL.
It is important to remember that the nonsequencing
mode suspends the FMS/RNAVs waypoint sequencing
function. If you reach SUNOL and the unit is still set in the
nonsequencing mode, it will not sequence on to the next
waypoint. Generally, once established on a direct course to
waypoint or navaid, switching back to sequencing (releasing
the Hold or Suspend function) mode allows the FMS/RNAV
to continue to the programmed point and thence onward
according to the programmed routing. Setting the computer
back to the sequencing mode is usually accomplished by
pressing the OBS (Hold or Suspend) button again.

Common Error: Forgetting To Re-Engage

Sequencing Mode After Course Intercept
By far the most common error made with the nonsequencing
mode is forgetting to re-engage the sequencing mode once
3-26

the course has been intercepted. The result is that the FMS
will not sequence to the next waypoint in the flight route
upon reaching the active waypoint. The best indicator of this
event is the To/From navigation display showing From.
Normally all FMS fly To the waypoint, unless that unit
does holding patterns. Flying From a waypoint can only
be done in the OBS/Hold/Suspend mode.

Awareness: Remembering To Make Needed Mode

Changes
The use of the sequencing and nonsequencing modes
illustrates another aspect of maintaining good mode
awarenessremembering to make required mode changes
at future times during the flight. Remembering to do tasks
planned for the future is a particularly error-prone process
for human beings. Aviations first line of defense against
such errors is the checklist. Creating your own checklist or
callout procedures for maneuvers such as course intercepts
is a good way to minimize this error. For example, a simple
callout procedure for the course intercept maneuver might
commence when the aircraft nears the point of interception.
Course is alive. Course is captured. Changing back to
sequencing mode.
Intercepting and Tracking a Course to a Different
Waypoint
Figure 3-39 illustrates a slightly more complicated request
often made by air traffic control. While en route to SUNOL,
ATC instructs you to fly a heading of 060 to intercept and
track the 049 course to TRACY. This situation requires two
separate tasks: changing not only the inbound course, but
also the active waypoint.
The first step is to change the active waypoint using the
direct-to function, as illustrated in Figure 3-40. Remember,
though, that if you use the direct-to function to make TRACY
the active waypoint, the FMS calculates a desired track that
takes you from the present position to TRACY intersection.

SUNOL is the currently the active waypoint,

1 which must be changed.
055

TRACY

RING
R

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

119.000
119
121.600

1.
1

KSQL

VLOC

SUNOL

116.00
114.10

DO NOT USE FOR

NAVIGATION

VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

The second step, illustrated in Figure 3-40, is to change

the desired track to TRACY by setting the computer in the
nonsequencing mode and selecting the inbound course. You
now continue on the assigned heading until the needle centers,
then set the FMS back to the sequencing mode, and continue
inbound on the assigned course to TRACY intersection.

SUNOL

DIS

DTK

8.05 nm
120 kt

060
060

GS

NRST

Figure 3-39. A more complicated course intercept scenario.

.0
0

OBS

BRG

060 m
04:00

m
m

TRK

MSG

GPS

ETE

NAV
FPL

PROC

On the flight plan, use the direct-to

2 function to proceed directly to TRACY.
ACTIVE FLIGHT
ACTIVE
FLIGHT PLAN
PLAN

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

119 000
119.
121.600

00

WAYPOINT

KSQL
SUNOL
TRACY
ECA

VLOC

116.00
114.10

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

RING

KSQL / KO27
DTK

___

DIS
M
M
M
M

___

n
m

7.6 nm
18.3 nm
15.0 nm

GPS

FPL

Common Error: Setting the Wrong Inbound Course

During a Course Intercept

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

PROC

RING
R

1.
1

COM

DIS

18.2 nm
121 kt

DTK

070
060

GS

OBS

BRG

070 m
09:06

m
m

TRK

NAV

MSG

GPS

ETE

F
FPL

12

PROC

N
A
V

TO

18

NRST

TRACY

VLOC

VOL/ PUSH
ID

.0
0

33

21

30

5 Dial the inbound course.

COM

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

1.0
1
.0
0
125.100 66.00
122.800 CRS049
TRACY
VLOC
DIS
DTK
BRG
116.00
114.10 21.5 nm 049 m 051 m
120 kt
055 m 10:45

GS

NRST

OBS

27

OBS

Switch the FMS to the

4 nonsequencing mode.

15

Question #1: Where am I going?

Point to the active waypoint on the navigation page and make
sure it shows the waypoint that you wish to fly toward.

123 850
123.
125.100
116.00
114.10

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

The following is a useful technique for avoiding two errors

commonly made during course intercept maneuvers. Ask
yourself the following two questions when working your
way through any course intercept maneuver:

FPL

COM

C
PWR

PWR

Catching Errors: A Helpful Callout Procedure for

Course Intercepts

MSG

The FMS now plans to take you directly to

3 TRACY, which is not quite what you want.

Common Error: Setting the Wrong Active Waypoint

During a Course Intercept
Another common error is failing to realize that ATC has
instructed you to intercept a course to a different waypoint.
Figure 3-42 shows the outcome when the pilot neglects to
set TRACY as the active waypoint in the previous example.
The FMS offers guidance along the correct course, but to
the wrong waypoint.

OBS

24

One common error made during course intercepts is to

select the wrong course to the active waypoint. Some FMSs
automatically set the course indicator (slew the needle)
to the inbound course. Where this capability does not exist,
pilots occasionally select the heading that they have been
assigned to fly to intercept the course instead of the inbound
course. The outcome of this error is illustrated in Figure 3-41.

NRST

TRK

NAV

MSG

FPL

RING

GPS

ETE

PROC

The course you dialed in becomes the

6 new desired track to the active waypoint.

Figure 3-40. Intercepting a course to a different waypoint.

Question #2: How am I getting there?

Point out the desired track to the active waypoint on the
navigation page. If it is not the one you want, engage the
nonsequencing mode and select the course you want.
3-27

RING

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

121.300 5.0
135.400 CRS080
VLOC

114.10
116.00

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

5.0

SUNOL

DIS

DTK

6.9 nm
85 kt

080
040

GS

NRST

OBS

3. Reactivate the sequencing function for route

navigation.

Holding

BRG

028 m
04:52

m
m

TRK

NAV

MSG

GPS

ETE

FPL

PROC

The assigned heading is mistakenly entered in place

of the course to be intercepted.
The FMS provides guidance along the wrong course.
049

TRACY
SUNOL
DO NOT USE FOR
NAVIGATION
Figure 3-41. Selecting the wrong course to the active waypoint.

RING

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

121.300 5.0
135.400 CRS049
VLOC

114.10
116.00

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

5.0

SUNOL

DIS

6.9 nm
85 kt

DTK

080
040

GS

NRST

OBS

TRK

GPS

ETE

NAV

MSG

Preprogrammed Holding Patterns

BRG

028 m
04:52

FPL

PROC

Some FMS/GPS units insert preprogrammed holding patterns

into published instrument procedures. The purpose of a
preprogrammed holding pattern is to relieve you of many of
the tasks described above for flying a holding pattern.
Figure 3-44 illustrates a preprogrammed holding pattern that
appears at the end of a missed approach procedure.

The course to be intercepted is entered correctly,

but the waypoint is not.
The FMS provides guidance along the wrong course.
049

TRACY
SUNOL
DO NOT USE FOR
NAVIGATION
Figure 3-42. Setting the wrong active waypoint.

Essential Skills
1. Program and select a different course to the active
waypoint.
2. Select the nonsequencing waypoint function (OBS,
Hold, or Suspend) to select a specified navigation
point.

3-28

The FMS/GPS units nonsequencing mode provides an easy

way to accomplish holding procedures. When instructed to
hold at a waypoint that appears in the route programmed in
the FMS/GPS unit, simply engage the nonsequencing mode
prior to reaching the waypoint. With waypoint sequencing
suspended, you can determine and fly the appropriate holding
pattern entry, select the inbound holding course using the
course selector (OBS in some) knob or buttons, and fly the
holding pattern while timing the outbound leg. Some FMSs
can automatically enter the holding pattern, and continue to
hold if programmed. As the aircraft repeatedly crosses the
holding waypoint with each turn in the hold, the holding
waypoint remains the active waypoint. When you are cleared
out of the holding pattern for the approach or to another
point, you should select the sequencing mode or cancel the
suspension before reaching the holding waypoint for the last
time. When you pass the holding waypoint in sequencing
mode, the FMS/GPS unit will then sequence to the next
waypoint in the route. This procedure is demonstrated in
Figure 3-43.

As the FMS/GPS unit shown in Figure 3-44 sequences to

a preprogrammed holding pattern, the navigation displays a
message indicating the type of holding entry required based
on the aircrafts current track. The system then automatically
switches to a special nonsequencing mode that not only stops
waypoint sequencing, but also sets the inbound course to
the holding waypoint. This special nonsequencing mode
is different from the nonsequencing mode you engage
manually. In Figure 3-44, this system uses the term suspend
mode (SUSP) to signify the nonsequencing mode that is
automatically engaged during a preprogrammed holding
procedure. Depending on the type of holding procedure,
the unit may or may not automatically switch back to the
sequencing mode after the aircraft crosses the holding fix.
As always, you must be careful to maintain constant mode
awareness.

SANTY

115
122

SNS VOR

21

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

27

NRST

33

30

TO

SNS VOR

21

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

27

33

30

NRST

5
C

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

SNS VOR

21

133.000
127.150

MSG

GPS

ETE

NAV
FPL

PROC

RING

5.0

5.0

CRS115
DIS

2.49 nm
120 kt

OBS

SNS
DTK

115
295

BRG

071 m
01:18

m
m

TRK

MSG

GPS

ETE

NAV
FPL

PROC

RING

5.0

24

COM

5.0

CRS115

VLOC

117.30
114.30

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

DIS

2.05 nm
120 kt

27

NRST

OBS

SNS
DTK

115
115

BRG

115 m
01:01

m
m

TRK

NAV

MSG

GPS

ETE

FPL

PROC

SANTY
V2

33

30

15

18

TO

21

SNS VOR

133.000
127.150
VLOC

117.30
114.30

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

24

RING

COM

C
PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

TRK

GS

126

COM

5.0

5.0

PRB

SNS
DIS

74.5 nm
120 kt

DTK

126
126

GS

30

33

NRST

PRB becomes the active

4 waypoint, and the flight continues.

OBS

BRG

126 m
37:15

m
m

TRK

NAV

27

OBS
S

BRG

115 m
02:23

COM

C
PWR

18

TO

V2

15

N
A
V

OBS

VLOC

Switch back to sequencing

3 mode before reaching SNS.

115
115

SANTY

122

1122

133.000
127.150
117.30
114.30

24

OBS

4.79 nm
120 kt

SNS
DTK

GS

115
N
A
V

DIS

COM

C
PWR

V2

15

Fly the hold. SNS remains the active

2 waypoint, even after passing it.

CRS115

SANTY

122

18

OBS

.0

GS

115
N
A
V

5.

VLOC

Switch to nonsequencing
1 mode prior to reaching SNS.

133.000
127.150
117.30
114.30

24

OBS

RING

COM

C
PWR

TO

18

N
A
V

V2

15

MSG

FPL

GPS

ETE

PROC

PRB VOR

Figure 3-43. Using the nonsequencing mode to fly a hold.

3-29

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

125.400
123.850

ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN

00

114.10
116.00

DTK

ZOSONFA
RW10 MA
WRAPSMH
hold

VLOC

VOL/ PUSH
ID

KSJC / O27

WAYPOINT

COM

on its length, an arc requires you to follow a gradually

changing heading toward the active waypoint. The example
in Figure 3-45 illustrates how an FMS is used to fly a DME
arc procedure.

RING

DIS

_ _ _M
_ _ _M
_ _ _M
M

n
_ _ _m
n
_ _ _m

n
_ _ _m
_ _:_ _

GPS

HOLD PARALLER

NRST

OBS

MSG

FPL

1. Select an approach procedure with an arc.

PROC

2. Select the course, or determine that automatic course

CDI setting will occur.

A preprogrammed hold is indicated

by a special waypoint in the flight plan.
The FMS displays the appropriate type of hold entry.
The FMS automatically starts a timer for the outbound leg.
RING

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

125 100
125.
123.850

1.
1

VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

.0
0

00:05

VLOC

116.00
114.10

DIS

0.6 nm
160 kt

124
304

GS

NRST

OBS

WRAPS
DTK

BRG

130

TRK

NAV

MSG

_ _:_ _

FPL

GPS

GPS and RNAV (GPS) Approaches

An IFR-capable GPS RNAV/FMS with qualified GPS
receiver(s) can be used as the sole means of navigation
for several kinds of instrument approach procedures, but
you need to know which approaches can be used with your
particular GPS RNAV unit. The following paragraphs review
the approaches available today.

ETE

PROC

The FMS automatically switches to the nonsequencing

mode and sets the inbound course to the hold waypoint.

Figure 3-44. A preprogrammed holding procedure.

Common Error: Mismanaging the Sequencing/

Nonsequencing Modes During a Hold
Mismanagement of the sequencing and nonsequencing
modes during a holding procedure is another common error.
Failing to switch the FMS/GPS RNAV to the nonsequencing
mode prior to reaching the holding waypoint, or prematurely
switching the unit back to the sequencing mode once
established in the hold, can prompt the FMS/GPS to sequence
past the holding waypoint. In this case, you are left without
guidance along the inbound holding course.
Essential Skills
1. Select a preprogrammed holding pattern, or
nonsequencing mode.
2. Select and setup a non-preprogrammed holding pattern
inbound course.
3. Determine the proper sequence of software commands
for the holding pattern, transition to approach,
approach, and MAP navigation.

ARCS
FMS and some GPS units simplify the problem of tracking
arcs, which are curved courses between waypoints. The
key feature of an arc is that there is no one bearing that
takes you from one waypoint to the next. Rather, depending

3-30

Essential Skills

A GPS overlay approach is illustrated in Figure 3-46. The

basic benefit of the GPS overlay approach is that it allows
use of an IFR approved GPS receiver to navigate and fly a
conventional nonprecision approach. From the previous text,
you must know how to hold the specific sequences and how
the unit can be stopped from sequencing through the flight
plan. Many approaches require holding or a procedure turn
to orient the aircraft correctly for the approach course. If
you cannot control the sequencing of the FMS, you will lose
course guidance upon the turn for outbound holding, as the
FMS/GPS receiver sequences for the course beyond the
holding fix.
GPS overlay approaches are named for the conventional
system upon which the approach is based, but include the
word GPS. The approach in Figure 3-46 is based on an
existing NDB approach. If the aircraft has an IFR-approved
FMS/GPS RNAV, you may use that guidance to fly the GPS
overlay approach. It is not necessary for the aircraft to have
the conventional navigational equipment on board for that
approach, but conventional navigational avionics will be
required for any required alternate, if equipped with a TSO129 GPS receiver. If conventional avionics are installed in
the aircraft, there is no requirement to use the equipment in
any way, although monitoring is always a good practice. If
the installed FMS/GPS receiver is TSO-145A/146A WAAS
certified, no other navigation equipment is required.
One common pitfall of all advanced avionics approaches is
the sometimes limited notification of the position along the
approach path. In many instances, you must read the name
of the waypoint to confirm where the aircraft is headed. It is
easy for you to be preoccupied with cross-check and flying

DYNER
The FMS/RNAV automatically adjusts the desired
track as you make your way along the arc.

APR
ARM
LEG
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX

CLR

150 kt

DTK 040
TK 040

0.01nm

ENT

RNG

:1.0nm

APR
048 To
00:24 ARM
LEG
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
OBS

ALT

NRST

CLR

PULL SCAN

KENIW

CRSR

MENU

048
3

ENT

PULL SCAN

150 kt

DTK 035
TK 035

0.01nm

RNG

:1.0nm

APR
ARM
LEG
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
OBS

ALT

NRST

CLR

CRSR

TO

15

N
A
V

12

1.3 nm

MSG

MENU

PUSH ON
BRT

NRST

1.0 nm

MSG

PROC

ALT

00:17

27

PUSH ON
BRT

OBS

053 To

CRSR

OBS

24

MSG

PROC

RNG

:1.0nm

33

DTK 048
TK 048

0.01nm

30

150 kt

21

PUSH ON
BRT

0.7 nm

18

PROC

DO NOT USE FOR

NAVIGATION

MENU

ENT

PULL SCAN

JEZJE

If you are using a conventional course

deviation indicator, you must use the
OBS knob to adjust the course manually.

Figure 3-45. Flying an approach with an arc.

duties to miss a waypoint change and be of the mindset that

you have one more waypoint to go before descent, or even
worse, before a missed approach. Two main values always
to include in the cross-check are:
1. Verification of the waypoint flying to.
2. Verification that the distance to the waypoint is
decreasing. Upon reaching the missed approach point
(MAP), the system will automatically go to Suspend,
Hold, or OBS at the MAP, and the distance to go
will begin counting up or increasing as the distance
from the MAP behind increases. Acknowledge the
MAP and the beginning of the MAP segment by an
action (button, knob, etc.) to allow sequencing to the
holding point or procedure.
Not all units delay commanding a turn prior to reaching
the specified turn altitude. You must know the required
navigation courses and altitudes. The FMS/GPS unit may not
be 100 percent correct, especially if an ADC is not installed.

Since the FMS/GPS automatically switches to the approach

sensitivity, you must not attempt to use the approach
mode of the autopilot at that time, unless the autopilot
documentation specifically directs the use of that mode
at that time. Using that mode would make the autopilot
hypersensitive and too responsive to navigation signals.
GPS stand-alone approaches are nonprecision approaches
based solely on the use of the GPS and an IFR-capable FMS
with GPS navigation receiver or GPS RNAV. A GPS standalone approach is shown in Figure 3-47.
RNAV (GPS) approaches are designed to accommodate
aircraft equipped with a wide variety of GPS receivers. An
RNAV (GPS) approach procedure is shown in Figure 3-48.
A GPS approach typically offers different approach
minimums (and sometimes different missed approach
points) depending on the type of GPS receiver, aircraft, and
installation being used to complete the approach.

3-31

Figure 3-46. A GPS overlay approach.

3-32

Figure 3-47. GPS stand-alone approach.

3-33

Figure 3-48. RNAV (GPS) approach.

3-34

LNAV

LPV

LNAV (lateral navigation), like a conventional localizer,

provides lateral approach course guidance. LNAV minimums
permit descent to a prescribed minimum descent altitude
(MDA). The LNAV procedure shown on the chart in
Figure 3-48 offers an MDA of 1,620 feet.

LPV can be thought of as localizer performance with

vertical guidance. Procedures with LPV minimums use GPS
information to generate lateral guidance, and IFR-approved
GPS/WAAS receivers to generate vertical guidance similar
to an ILS glideslope. Several manufacturers now offer FMS/
GPS RNAV units capable of flying approaches to LPV
minimums.

LNAV/VNAV
LNAV/VNAV (lateral navigation/vertical navigation)
equipment is similar to ILS in that it provides both lateral
and vertical approach course guidance. Since precise vertical
position information is beyond the current capabilities of
the global positioning system, approaches with LNAV/
VNAV minimums make use of certified barometric VNAV
(baro-VNAV) systems for vertical guidance and/or the
wide area augmentation system (WAAS) to improve GPS
accuracy for this purpose. (Note: WAAS makes use of a
collection of ground stations that are used to detect and
correct inaccuracies in the position information derived from
the global positioning system. Using WAAS, the accuracy
of vertical position information is increased to within 3
meters.) To make use of WAAS, however, the aircraft must
be equipped with an IFR approved GPS receiver with WAAS
signal reception that integrates WAAS error correction
signals into its position determining processing. The WAAS
enabled GPS receiver shown in Figure 3-49 allows the pilot
to load an RNAV approach and receive guidance along the
lateral and vertical profile shown on the approach chart in
Figure 3-48.
This FMS/RNAV provides lateral and vertical
guidance during an RNAV approach.
A
C
T
S
B
Y
A
C
T

S
B
Y
S
B
Y

n TRK 332 332

119.000 9.74 m
BRG
121.600 DIST
DTK
114.10
346
--.- vor

116.00
1200

GS

FLAGGED
GPS ENR

C345

ETE

120kt Lnav/Vnav 04:52

SUNOL

MSG PROC FPL

RW34Lm

NAV

Figure 3-49. WAAS data provides lateral and vertical guidance.

It is very important to know what kind of equipment is

installed in an aircraft, and what it is approved to do. It is
also important to understand that the VNAV function of
non-WAAS-capable or non-WAAS-equipped IFR approved
GPS receivers does not make the aircraft capable of flying
approaches to LNAV/VNAV minimums.

GPS or RNAV (GPS) Approach Waypoints

Figure 3-50 shows a GPS approach loaded into an FMS/GPS
RNAV. As previously noted, approaches must be selected
from a specific approach menu in the FMS. The software
then loads all of the waypoints associated with that procedure
from the database into the flight route. It is not possible for
you to enter or delete, separately or individually, waypoints
associated with the approach procedure.
Initial approach waypoint

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

Final approach waypoint

0.1nm

RNG

QUADSi

OBS285
TK 285

CRSR

MENU

LEG

APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
MSG

OBS

ALT

NRST

Missed approach waypoint

CLR

ENT

PULL SCAN

Missed hold waypoint

Figure 3-50. Approach waypoints.

Once loaded, a GPS or RNAV (GPS) approach is shown in

the FMS display as a collection of waypoints with a title that
identifies the approach. Four waypoints in every approach
procedure have special designations: (1) initial approach
waypoint; (2) final approach waypoint; (3) missed approach
waypoint; and (4) missed holding waypoint.
Flying a GPS or RNAV (GPS) Approach
Most FMS require the pilot to choose whether to simply
load, or load and activate, instrument approach procedures.
When ATC tells you to expect a certain approach, select
that approach from the menu and load it into the flight plan.
Loading an approach adds its component waypoints to the
end of the flight plan, but does not make them active. Once
ATC clears you for the approach (or, alternatively, begins
providing radar vectors to intercept the final approach
course), you must remember to activate the approach to
receive course guidance and auto-sequencing. You must be
careful not to activate the approach until cleared to fly it,
however, since activating the approach will cause the FMS
to immediately give course guidance to the initial approach

3-35

fix or closest fix outside the final fix, depending on the units
programming. In the case of a vectors-to-final approach,
activating the vector-to-final causes the FMS to draw a course
line along the final approach course.
Once you have loaded and activated the GPS or RNAV
(GPS) approach procedure, flying it is similar to flying
between any other waypoints in a programmed flight route.
However, you must be prepared for two important changes
during the approach.

Terminal Mode
The first important change occurs when the aircraft reaches
a point within 30 NM of the destination airport. At this
point, regulations require that every GPS-based FMS/
RNAV unit increase its sensitivity and integrity monitoring
(receiver autonomous integrity monitoring, or RAIM, which
continuously checks GPS signal reliability and alerts you if
RAIM requirements are not met). If the system determines
that RAIM requirements are met, the FMS/GPS RNAV unit
automatically switches from en route sensitivity to terminal
sensitivity within 30 NM of the destination airport. Terminal
mode increases the sensitivity of the course deviation
indicator (CDI) from 5 NM to 1 NM. The FMS/GPS RNAV
displays an annunciation to let you know that it has switched
from en route sensitivity to terminal mode.

Approach Mode
The second important change occurs 2 NM prior to reaching
the final approach waypoint. At this point, the FMS/GPS
ECA VOR

MOTER

049 Course

RNAV unit automatically switches to approach sensitivity.

At this stage, the FMS/GPS RNAV further increases RAIM
requirements, and increases the CDI sensitivity from 1 NM
to 0.3 NM (i.e., a full-scale CDI deflection occurs if you are
0.3 NM or more from the desired course).
As long as the annunciation for approach mode is displayed,
you may continue the approach. If, however, the computer
fails to switch to approach mode, or the approach mode
annunciation disappears, you must fly the published missed
approach procedure. You are not authorized to descend
further or to the MDA. Making changes to the FMS/
GPS RNAV after reaching the 2 NM point could result in
automatic cancellation of the approach mode.

Approach Not Active

If you arrive at the final approach waypoint and the approach
mode is not active, you must fly the missed approach
procedure. There should be no attempt to activate or
reactivate the approach after reaching the final approach fix
using any meanssimply fly the missed approach procedure.
Vectored Approaches
As in conventional approaches, it is common for air traffic
control to issue vectors to a GPS or RNAV (GPS) final
approach course. Flying a vectored GPS or RNAV (GPS)
approach is a simple matter of using the course intercept
technique described in the previous section. The technique
is illustrated again in Figure 3-51.

DO NOT USE FOR

NAVIGATION

ELTRO

160

RW 10

089 Course
08
060 Heading
ATC gives you a vector tto the final approach course.
1 Set the final approach fix as the active waypoint.

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

125 100
125.
122.800
VLOC

116.00
114.10

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

6.0
6
0

DIS

22.1 nm 089
99.5 kt 067
GS

NRST

ELTRO FA
DTK

OBS

069

NAV

MSG

FPL

ETE

3-36

ELTRO
DTK 089
22.1 NM
00:13:18

GPS

Range
View
Range

View

PROC

2 Set the FMS to the nonsequencing mode.

Figure 3-51. A vectored RNAV approach.

20

10

OFF

13:18

TRK

130

Aux

BRG
m

10

OFF

1.0
10

CRS089

150
4
14 3
1402

Bearing

RING

COM

C
PWR

Nav
GPS1

20

3 Select the approach course on the CDI.

Many FMS/GPS RNAV units offer an automated solution to

the problem of flying an approach in which the pilot receives
vectors to the final approach course. Once ATC begins
providing vectors to intercept the final approach course, you
should activate the computers vectors-to-final feature,
which draws a course line along the final approach course.
This feature helps you maintain situational awareness while
being vectored because the assigned heading is clearly seen
in relation to the final approach course. As already noted,
you should monitor carefully to ensure that the FMS/GPS
RNAV unit switches to approach mode within 2 NM of the
final approach fix (FAF).
Figure 3-51 shows the vectors-to-final feature. The procedure
required to use the vectors-to-final feature is illustrated in
Figure 3-52.
Press

PROC

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

and choose this option.

9.2nm

ENT

ECAi

DTK 049
TK 060

Ac t i v t e V e c t o r s ?
ELTROf DTK 089 ?

*CRSR*
MSG

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

OBS

PROC 1
ALT

NRST

RNG

CRSR

MENU

LEG

*CRSR*

CLR

ENT

21.5 nm

RNG

ELTROf

OBS089
TK 060

OBS

CRSR

OBS

NRST

CLR

ENT

PULL SCAN

The GPS/RNAV/FMS automatically sets the final

approach fix as the active waypoint, and automatically
sets the approach course as the desired track.
No mode switching by the pilot is necessary.

Figure 3-52. The vectors-to-final feature.

When set to use the vectors-to-final feature, many FMS/

GPS RNAV units automatically set the FAF as the active
waypoint; and set the final approach course as the desired
track to the active waypoint.

Awareness: Briefing the Approach

As with any instrument approach, you should develop and
consistently use a briefing technique to ensure that you
think through all the steps necessary to set up the approach
correctly. One technique uses the mnemonic ICE-ATM:
I Identify primary navigation frequency

M Missed approach procedure

Another briefing technique uses the mnemonic FARS:
F Frequencies set and identified
A Altitudes for transition, initial, final, and missed
approach segments
R Radial (inbound course) noted and set
S Special notes (including missed approach procedure)

Common Error: Forgetting To Verify the Approach

Mode
The most common error made during a GPS/RNAV approach
is to forget to ensure that the approach mode has indeed
engaged prior to beginning a descent to minimums. Routinely
checking for the approach indication 2 NM before the final
approach waypoint not only prevents this type of error, but
also gives you a minute or so to remedy some situations in
which the approach mode has not engaged.

Common Error: Using the Wrong Approach

Minimums

MENU

ALT

T Timing/Distance(s)

PULL SCAN

APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
MSG

A Altitudes for transition, initial, final, and missed

approach segments

Listing several different approach minimums on a single

instrument approach chart introduces the possibility of
another simple type of error: using the wrong approach
minimums. One way to avoid mix-ups is to verbalize the
equipment being used and type of procedure being flown,
and then search for the approach minimums with these details
in mind. You must be absolutely certain of the certification,
approval, and installed options of the advanced avionics
equipment prior to flight planning.

Common Error: Forgetting To Reengage

Sequencing Mode Prior to Final Approach
Waypoint
A common mistake made by pilots when they are learning
to fly vectored approaches without a vectors-to-final feature
is forgetting to set the FMS/GPS RNAV back to sequencing
mode once established on the approach course. This error
prevents the FMS/ GPS RNAV unit from switching to the
approach mode 2 NM prior to the FAF. If you pass the final
approach fix and the computer is still in nonsequencing
mode, the approach mode will be disabled and you must fly
the missed approach, report the missed approach and request
another approach.

C Course (inbound) set

E Entry (direct, teardrop, parallel)

3-37

Essential Skills
1. Load and activate a vectored GPS or RNAV (GPS)
approach.
2. Select a vectored initial approach segment.
3. Determine the correct approach minimums and
identify all pertinent mode transitions.
4. Determine the published missed approach point
(MAP), courses, altitudes, and waypoints to fly.
5. Determine how missed approach guidance is selected.

Course Reversals
Figure 3-53 shows three common course reversals:
(1) 45-degree procedure turn, (2) holding pattern, and
(3)teardrop procedure.
Course reversals are handled in the same way as holding
procedures, by using the FMS/GPSs nonsequencing mode.
As you arrive at the initial approach waypoint, the units
nonsequencing mode should be engaged to prevent it from
immediately sequencing to the next waypoint in the approach.
After completing the course reversal, be sure to re-engage
the systems sequencing mode to continue the approach.

The FMS/GPS unit in Figure 3-55 includes a preprogrammed

course reversal. This unit automatically sets the outbound
course for the outbound portion of the course reversal. Once
the turn inbound has been made, the unit automatically sets
the inbound course back to the final approach waypoint.
This FMS/GPS unit does not switch between sequencing
and nonsequencing modes for a 45-degree course reversal
(although it does for a holding-type course reversal). Whether
it is done manually, automatically, or not at all, you must be
sure that the system is engaged in sequencing mode before
reaching the final approach waypoint after the course reversal
is completed. The FMS/GPS will switch to the approach
mode only if the system is engaged in the sequencing mode.

Common Error: Mismanaging the Sequencing/

Nonsequencing Modes During a Course Reversal
Neglecting to switch the FMS/GPS from the nonsequencing
mode prior to reaching the initial approach waypoint and
neglecting to switch the system back to the sequencing mode
prior to passing the final approach waypoint are common
errors made during course reversals.
Essential Skills

The navigation unit in Figure 3-54 requires that you manually

switch between the sequencing and nonsequencing modes.

1. Select a type of course reversal procedure.

2. Determine the correct sequence of mode control
actions to be accomplished by the pilot.

Preprogrammed Course Reversals

Some FMS/GPS units insert preprogrammed course reversals
into published instrument approach procedures. The purpose
of a preprogrammed course reversal is to relieve you from
the mode switching and course selection tasks associated
with course reversals.
1

236

LODI (1O3)

056

285

RW26

191

131

QUADS

285
CCR
105

292

171

DO NOT USE FOR

NAVIGATION

Figure 3-53. Three types of course reversals.

3-38

DO NOT USE FOR

NAVIGATION

LIN

DO NOT USE FOR

NAVIGATION

CIC

*
PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

RNAV 30
KHAF
5: GIRUCi
6: WOHLIf
7: PUXXKOm
6
8: GIRUCh
12

5.6nm

GIRUCi

DTK 292
TK 292

RNG

CRSR

MENU

RUXKO

318
WOHLI

DO NOT USE FOR

NAVIGATION

LEG

APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
MSG

OBS

ALT

NRST

CLR

ENT

PULL SCAN

GIRUC

As you approach the initial approach fix in the sequencing mode ...

333
153

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

GIRUCi

1.8nm
108 kt

DTK 333
TK 153

0.1nm

RNG

:5.0nm
VNV Off

333 To

01:50

DO NOT USE FOR

NAVIGATION

MENU

OBS

APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
MSG

OBS

ALT

NRST

CLR

ENT

WOHLI

CRSR

PULL SCAN

333

switch to the nonsequencing mode prior to reaching the initial

approach fix, twist the inbound course, then fly the procedure
turn. The IAF remains the active waypoint.

153

*
PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

WOHLIf

3.8nm
108 kt

DTK 333
TK 153

0.01nm

RNG

:1.0nm
VNV Off

333 To

01:44

OBS

ALT

NRST

CLR

WOHLI

DO NOT USE FOR

NAVIGATION

MENU

LEG

ENT

318

CRSR

APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
MSG

RUXKO

PULL SCAN

When you turn inbound, switch back to sequencing mode.

When you cross the IAF, the system sequences to the final
approach waypoint.

GIRUC
333
153

Figure 3-54. Using the nonsequencing mode to accomplish a course reversal.

3-39

ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

Approach NDB 19R

VLOC

117.00
114.80

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

CC
IA 015m
proc. turn 011m
CC
FA 191m

COM

236

RING

119.900 00 KSJC / KCCR

DTK
119.700 WAYPOINT

DIS

056

3.1 nm
8.0 nm
8.0 nm

GPS

191

FPL

NRST

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

CC

DO NOT USE FOR

NAVIGATION

A preprogrammed course reversal.

171
RING

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

119 900
119.
119.700

1.

DIS

117.00
114.80

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

.0

CC IA

VLOC

DTK

0.49 nm 011
120 kt 001

COM

GS

NRST

OBS

BRG

181

TRK

GPS

ETE

NAV

MSG

00:29

FPL

236

PROC

056

The unit automatically sets the outbound course.

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

119 700
119.
119.900

1.

.0

CCf

VLOC

DIS

117.00
114.80

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

DTK

2.05 nm 191
120 kt 191

COM

GS

NRST

191

RING

COM

C
PWR

OBS

CC

BRG

191

01:01

TRK

NAV

MSG

FPL

GPS

171

ETE

DO NOT USE FOR

NAVIGATION

PROC

The unit automatically sets the inbound course after the turn is made.

Figure 3-55. Using the nonsequencing mode to accomplish a course reversal.

Missed Approaches
The FMS/GPS units nonsequencing mode provides an easy
way to fly missed approach procedures, such as the one
illustrated in Figure 3-56.

6,000 feet
SNS VOR (hold fix)

CORYN (MAP)
1,900 feet

KMRY

DO NOT USE FOR

NAVIGATION
Figure 3-56. A missed approach procedure.

3-40

The missed approach procedure shown in Figure 3-56

requires you to climb to 1,900 feet, turn right and climb to
6,000 feet, then proceed direct to the SNS VOR.
The FMS/GPS helps you navigate between waypoints,
which are geographically fixed locations. But where will the
aircraft reach 1,900 feet on the missed approach procedure at
Monterey? This depends on what aircraft you are flying and
the chosen rate of climb. A single-engine airplane might be
four miles away by the time it reaches 1,900 feet. A small
jet might reach 1,900 feet by the end of the runway. The
problem is that, given the way the FMS/GPS system uses
waypoints, there is no one way to represent the climbs and
turns required on a missed approach procedure.
To address this issue, all FMS/GPS RNAV units automatically
suspend waypoint sequencing when you reach the missed
approach point. The unit waits until you acknowledge the
passing of the MAP before it continues the sequencing. When
the aircraft has gained the published altitudes and complied

with the initial MAP procedures, you can safely proceed

to the missed approach holding waypoint, being mindful
of any altitude requirements. A waypoint for the missed
approach holding point is included as part of the missed
approach procedure. In the example above, you can make
the missed approach holding waypoint the active waypoint,
and re-engage the sequencing mode upon reaching 6,000
feet. You now have sequencing mode guidance to the missed
approach holding waypoint. The procedure for one FMS/GPS
is illustrated in Figure 3-57.
Since the hold at SNS is part of the published missed
approach procedure, it can be carried out using the same
technique used to perform a holding pattern. Some FMS/GPS
units will automatically switch to the nonsequencing mode
when you reach the hold fix. Other units may advise you to
switch manually to the nonsequencing mode.
Recognizing the Missed Approach Point
With any type of navigation equipment, it is important to
be able to determine when you have reached the missed
approach point. The missed approach point indications given
by FMS/GPS units are sometimes subtle. Consider the two
navigation displays shown in Figure 3-58. The display in the
After reaching the missed approach point, the missed
approach point remains the active waypoint, and the
system automatically switches to the nonsequencing
mode (SUSP).

ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

118.400 00 KSJC / KMRY

DTK
DIS
133.000 WAYPOINT
VLOC
RANIE FA _ _ _ m _ _._ mn
110.70
CORYNMA 264m _ _._ mn
117.30
SNS MH
APR
hold
084m 01:00

RING

GPS

FPL

CDI

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

After executing the climbs and turns, you must switch

back to the sequencing mode to proceed to the missed
approach hold waypoint.

ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN

COM

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

COM

118.400 00 KSJC / KMRY

DTK
DIS
133.000 WAYPOINT
VLOC
RANIE FA _ _ _ m _ _._ mn
110.70
CORYNMA _ _ _ m _ _._ mn
117.30
SNS MH _ _ _ m _ _._ mn
TERM
hold
084m 01:00

RING

FPL

CDI

OBS

MSG

FPL

PROC

When you reach the missed approach hold waypoint,

the system will switch back to the nonsequencing mode
and allow you to fly the hold.

Figure 3-57. Flying a missed approach procedure.

GPS

The aircraft is 1.4 NM short of the missed approach point.

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

1.4nm

QUADSf
QUA
DSff

DTK 285
TK 285

0.01nm

90 kt

MAPYN
MAP
MAPYNm
YNm

RNG

:0.3nm
VNV Off

APR
ARM
OBS
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
MSG

285 To

OBS

ALT

00:42

NRST

CLR

CRSR

MENU

ENT

PULL SCAN

Arrow pointing TO
The aircraft is 0.9 NM past the missed approach point.

PROC

PUSH ON
BRT

0.9nm

QUADSf
QUA
DSff

DTK 285
TK 285

0.01nm

90 kt

MAPYN
MAP
MAPYNm
YNm

:0.3nm
VNV Off

RNG

APR
ARM
OBS
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
MSG

285 To

OBS

ALT

00:27

NRST

CLR

CRSR

MENU

ENT

PULL SCAN

Arrow pointing FROM

Figure 3-58. Recognizing the missed approach waypoint.

top graphic of Figure 3-58 shows the aircraft approaching

the missed approach point, 1.4 NM away.
Now consider the display in the bottom graphic of
Figure 3-58. The distance from the missed approach point
might suggest that the aircraft is now even closer to the
missed approach point. However, the TO/FROM flag on the
course deviation indicator shows that the aircraft has in fact
passed the missed approach point. It is tempting to monitor
the distance from the missed approach point as it decreases
to 0.0 NM. The problem is that, depending on how accurately
the pilot flies, the distance may never reach 0.0 NM. Rather,
it may simply begin to increase once you have passed abeam
the missed approach point. It is, thus, important to check not
only the distance from the missed approach point, but also the
TO/FROM flag or arrow. In the rush of a missed approach,
this small clue (arrow direction change) can be difficult to
read and very easy to misinterpret.
Complying With ATC-Issued Missed Approach
Instructions
ATC sometimes issues missed approach instructions that
are different from those published on the approach chart. In
this case, use the techniques described earlier to insert new
waypoints into the route, and/or to intercept and track courses
to those waypoints.

Setting Up Next Procedure in Hold

Once in the missed approach holding pattern, the next task is
deciding where to go next and programming the new flight
plan into the FMS/GPS unit. In this high workload situation,

3-41

it is especially important to be very proficient with the menus,

functions, and switchology of a particular unit. If the
aircraft is equipped with an autopilot, it is also essential to
have a thorough understanding of how the autopilot interacts
and interfaces with the FMS/GPS navigation equipment.

Common Error: Noncompliance With Initial

Missed Approach Instructions
The immense capability of the FMS/GPS may tempt you
to follow its directions rather than fly a missed approach
procedure exactly as published on the instrument approach
procedure chart. Always fly procedures as published,
especially with respect to the initial climb and turn
instructions. GPS as a line-of-sight navigation aid can display
courses and distances to a ground-based navaid even though
the navaid is on the other side of a mountain range and itself
cannot be received, because GPS signals are spaced based.
Essential Skills
1. Acknowledge a missed approach procedure.
2. Set the FMS/GPS for a return to the same approach
to fly it again.
3. Select a different approach while holding at a missed
approach holding waypoint.
4. Program an ATC specified hold (user waypoint) point
for selection after the published MAP/hold procedure.

Ground-Based Radio Navigation

Configuring FMS To Receive Ground-Based
Radio Navigation Signals
Most advanced avionics systems include receivers for
conventional radio navigation signals from VOR, localizer,
and glideslope transmitters. To display these signals on the
navigation display indicator(s), you need two fundamental
skills.
Tuning and Identifying Radio Navigation Facilities
The first fundamental skill in ground-based radio navigation
is tuning and identifying a ground-based radio navigation
facility. Figure 3-59 illustrates how a VOR station can be
tuned using two different systems.
Some systems automatically attempt to identify ground-based
radio navigation facilities that are selected by the pilot. Note
the identifier that appears beside the selected frequency in the
upper left corner of the PFD in Figure 3-59 (116.00 = ECA).

3-42

Displaying Radio Navigation Signals on the

Navigation Indicator
The second fundamental skill is displaying indications from
a ground-based radio navigation facility on the navigation
display indicator in the aircraft. In addition to setting the
navigation indicator to display indications from different
navigation sources, you must also know where to look
to double-check which indications are currently being
displayed. It is crucial to remain constantly aware of the
navigation source for each indicator. Many systems use color
coding to make a visual distinction between different RNAV
navigation sources (GPS, INS, etc.) and ground-based radio
navigation sources.
Awareness: Using All Available Navigation
Resources
Looking at the two systems shown in Figure 3-59, you can
see that two VOR frequencies appear in the active windows
at all times, regardless of whether VOR or GPS is being used
as the primary navigation source. To maximize situational
awareness and make best use of this resource, it is a good
practice to keep them tuned to VOR stations along your route
of flight. If you have two navigation indicators, you can have
one indicator set to show GPS course indications, with the
other to show VOR indications. Used in this way, VOR and
GPS can serve as backups for each another.
Flying a Precision Approach Using Ground-based
Navigation Facilities
Flying a precision approach requires tuning the required
frequencies, configuring the navigation indicator to display
localizer course indications, and flying the approach. For
aircraft equipped with multiple navigation radios, the
localizer frequency can go into one receiver, while a second
navigational facility used as a cross-radial can be set in the
other receiver. As you come within range of the localizer and
glideslope, the course deviation and glideslope indicators will
show position with respect to the localizer and glideslope.
Flying a Nonprecision Approach Using GroundBased Navigation Facilities
Nonprecision approaches such as VOR, localizer, and LDA
approaches are flown using the same procedures used to
fly a precision approach. If the aircraft is equipped with an
autopilot, be sure to develop a thorough understanding of
how the autopilot works with the FMS. While these systems
automate some tasks, others (e.g., flying the procedure turn
course reversal) maybe left to the pilot.

1 Dial the VOR frequency using the knobs to the left.

1.0

OBS

CDI

3 Press

CDI

TRK

FPL

114.10
113.90

116.00ECA
114.80

24
OBS

PROC

4 Dial the VOR radial.

O receiver on the navigation

g
to show indications from the VOR
indicator.

1 Dial the VOR frequency.

NAV1
NAV2

GPS

ETE

NAV

MSG

05:48

TO

21

049

18

GS

BRG

15

12.0 nm 049
124 kt 350

C
COM

N
A
V

116.00
114.10

V
VOL/
VOL/ PUSH
ID

DTK

33

12

DIS

ECA

30

TRACY

VLOC

27

1.0

125.100
123.850

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

2 Identify the VOR.

RING

COM

C
PWR

WPT

ECA

3 Dial the desired radial.

DIS

12.0NM

DTK

049
9

TRK

090

123.850
125.900

130

5000
4200

120

4100

110

4000

125.100
125
12
5.1
100
121.600

CO
COM1
COM2

1
100
9

TAS

60

33900
900

90

3800

80

3700

70
100KT

HDG

080

350

CRS

316

20
1

3600

VOR 1

XPDR 0365 IDNT LCL23:00:34

OAT15C

ALERTS

2 Set the CDI to reflect indications from the VOR receiver.

Figure 3-59. Tuning navigation radio frequencies.

Maintaining Proficiency: Practicing All Navigation

Skills
Advanced avionics systems offer you several ways to
navigate. Numerous studies have demonstrated the potential
for deterioration of navigational skills that are not regularly
practiced. It is important to get regular practice using groundbased navigation facilities as well as RNAV sources. One way
to maintain proficiency is to consistently use ground-based
navigational facilities as a backup to RNAV systems.

Essential Skills
1. Select any type of ground-based radio navigation
approach.
2. Correctly tune and set up the conventional navigation
receiver for that procedure.
3. Correctly monitor the navaid for properly identification
and validity.
4. Correctly select and be able to use the desired
navigation source for the autopilot.
3-43

Chapter Summary
Navigation has been freed from the constraints of channeling
all flight traffic along one path. The area navigation
capabilities found in advanced avionics receiving signals
from other than conventional line-of-sight ground-based
aviation navaids and the compact size and reliability of
microchips now allow efficient, accurate air travel. Integrated
databases facilitated by large reliable memory modules
help you to select routes, approaches, and avoid special use
airspace.
With this freedom of movement, you must expend more
time learning the system and how to do the preflight entries
or programming. In addition to current charts, you must now
verify the currency of the advanced avionics databases. The
aircraft owner must also allocate the funding to maintain the
currency of the databases.

3-44

You now have access to a tremendous amount of data. The

methods of data selection and display must be learned and
then decisions made about which display formats to use at
which times. VOR/DMEs are simple receivers to tune and
use. To use current flight management systems and area
navigation units, you may need to study books that are
larger than the actual units themselves. You must know the
quality of maintenance for advanced avionics units and the
qualifications of the systems to determine appropriate uses
of the equipment.
Since advanced avionics have different displays, navigation
sources, functions, and features, the pilot must always be
aware of the mode selected, the data source(s), and the
function selected. Pilot lack of attention to navigation can
have dire consequences, including notification of the next
of kin.