GLS456 Geodesy: Ppsug, Fspu, Uitm, Shah Alam Assoc. Prof. Sr. Dr. Azman Bin Mohd. Suldi (Mrics, Mrism)

LECTURE 4
GLS456
GEODESY
PPSUG, FSPU, ASSOC. PROF. Sr. DR. AZMAN BIN MOHD. SULDI (MRICS, MRISM)
UiTM, SHAH ALAM
ASSOC. PROF. Sr. DR. AZMAN BIN MOHD. SULDI PPSUG, FSPU, UiTM, SHAH ALAM GLS456 GEODESY : ELLIPSOID COMPUTATIONS
CALCULATION OF GEODETIC COORDINATES

(SOLUTION OF THE ELLIPSOIDAL POLAR TRIANGLE)
The geodetic coordinates of points on the ellipsoid are usually specified as Latitude and
Longitude. If we assume that we are given the coordinates of a starting point, the
distance and azimuth to the 2nd point, we desire to compute the coordinates of the 2nd
point as well as the azimuth from the 2nd point to the 1st. Such problem is defined as the
direct geodetic problem or simply the direct problem. (i.e. given φ1, λ1, s12, α12 :
calculate φ2, λ2, α21)
The inverse geodetic problem is defined as the case where the coordinates of the end
point of the line are given and we desire to find the azimuth from point one to point two,
the azimuth from point two to point one, and the distance between the two points.
(i.e. given φ1, λ1, φ2, λ2, : calculate, α12 , α21, s12)
The solution of either of these problems is basically the solution of the ellipsoidal
polar triangle shown in Fig 7.1

Pole We can expressed the defined problems

in the following functional forms
Δλ
Direct problem : φ2 = f1 (φ1, λ1,α12 , s)
λ2 = f 2 (φ1, λ1,α12 , s ) (7.1)
α21 = f3 (φ1, λ1,α12 , s )
P1 P2
α s
(φ1, λ1) 12 12 (φ2, λ2) Inverse problem : s = f 4 (φ1, λ1,φ2 , λ2 )
α21
a12 = f5 (φ1, λ1,φ2 , λ2 ) (7.2)
Fig 7.1 The Polar Ellipsoidal Triangle α 21 = f 6 (φ1, λ1,φ2 , λ2 )
A minimum of 3 independent formula are Δφ = φ2 − φ1 = .......

required and often given in the following form; Δλ = λ2 − λ1 = .......
Δα = α21 − α12 −180o = .......

Pole
There are many solutions for these problems.
Δλ Such solutions are generally classified by the
distance for which they are valid and by the type
(i.e. normal section or geodesic) of the line
being considered. Solution for long lines require
more extensive formulas.
P1 α12 P2 Some authors group these formula under one
(φ1, λ1) (φ2, λ2) generic name – Long Line Formulae.
s12 α21
Others differentiate between Short Line,
Medium Line and Long Line Formulae
Fig 7.1 The Polar Ellipsoidal Triangle depending on their applicability.
Also, due to many formulae available, they are usually categorized into two categories
depending on their mode of derivations. i.e.
Normal Section Formulae – those formulae where their derivation is dependent on an
osculating sphere.
Geodesic Formulae – Those which utilizes the differential equations of the ellipsoidal geodesic.

(Normal Section Formulae)
These are usually derived by taking a sphere which touches the ellipsoid at some
convenient point, such as the stand point or mid-point of the line or at the equator.
Among the best known of these are the Clarke-Robbins formulae and Puissant’s formula.
The simplest, conceptually, are the Gauss Mid-Latitude formulae (GML).
In deriving these formulae, Gauss mapped the ellipsoid conformally on to a sphere of

radius R imposing the conditions that
(i) the scale at a particular latitude φo should be true.
(ii) the variation in scale away from this latitude should be as little as possible.
He found that if R = M o .No , then for points within 1o (100km) of φo , the ellipsoidal
angles and distances were mapped on to the sphere without distortion.
Gauss therefore conformally mapped the ellipsoidal φ1, λ1, α12 and s on to the sphere,
solved by spherical trigonometry for φ2, λ2 and α21, and then transferred these back to the
ellipsoidal surface.

(Normal Section Formulae) - GML
As a result, he obtained the following formula for Δφ, Δλ, Δα, neglecting the 5th order
terms;
s. cosα m ⎛ Δλ2 Δλ2 .sin2 φm ⎞
Δφ" = ⎜⎜1 + + ⎟⎟
M m .sin1" ⎝ 12 24 ⎠
s.sinα m .secφm ⎛ Δλ2 .sin2 φm Δφ 2 ⎞
Δλ" = ⎜⎜1 + − ⎟⎟ (4.11)
Nm .sin1" ⎝ 24 24 ⎠
⎛ Δλ2 .sin2 φm Δλ2 . cosφm Δφ 2 ⎞

Δα" = Δλ".sinφm ⎜⎜1 + + − ⎟⎟
⎝ 24 12 12 ⎠
Where; Δ φ = φ 2 − φ1 in radian measure, or Δ φ " in seconds of arc
Δλ = λ2 − λ1 in radian measure, or Δλ" in seconds of arc
Δα = α 21 − α12 ± 180o in radian measure, or Δα" in seconds of arc
It is obvious, the solution of the direct problem requires iteration.
But not so for the inverse problem.

Pole
PC A simple derivation of the Gauss formulae may be
achieved if we consider a sphere which touches the
Δλ ellipsoid at the point of the line between 1 and 2
where the latitude
1
= (φ1 + φ2 ) = the mid- latitude
2
Using the standard formula of spherical

trigonometry, one can find the relationship
α12+Δα between the elements of the spherical triangle P12.
(Figure 4.3)
α12 2B
s
(φ2, λ2) It is obviously advantageous to obtain values
1A Δφ = φ2−φ1, Δλ=λ2−λ1 etc. In order to minimize
(φ1, λ1) the number of significant figures needed for a
certain required accuracy. Hence, we shall use the
Fig 4.3 half-angle formulae of Delambre and Napier.

Pole
PC The convergence Δα , is deduced by straight
substitution in one of Napier’s anologies, obtaining
Δλ
1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
tan Δα = tan Δλ.sin⎜φ1 + Δφ ⎟.sec Δφ (4.12)
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
Δα is of course the convergence on the sphere,

but a theorem due to Dalby has shown that
convergence on the conformal sphere is equal to
α12+Δα convergence on the ellipsoid with negligible
inaccuracy for lines as long as 800km.
α12 2B
s Also, since Δα, Δφ, and Δλ are small angles, it is
(φ2, λ2) sufficient to only use the first term of the series
1A
⎛ Δλ2 . sin2 φm Δλ2 . cosφm Δφ 2 ⎞
(φ1, λ1) Δα" = Δλ".sinφm ⎜⎜1 + + − ⎟⎟
⎝ 24 12 12 ⎠
Fig 4.3 Δα" = Δλ".sinφm (4.13)
Sufficient in accuracy for lines up to 30km.

Pole
PC Δφ , is obtained by simple substitution into one of
Delambre’s anologies, obtaining
Δλ
1 s ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
sin Δφ = sin . cos⎜α12 + Δα ⎟.sec Δλ
2 2R ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
Δφ Δλ s
Again, if we assume 2 , 2 and 2R are small
angles, using the first term, we have
s ⎛ 1 ⎞
Δφ = . cos⎜α12 + Δα ⎟
R ⎝ 2 ⎠
α12+Δα
The problem of transferring this spherical Δφ back to
α12 2B the ellipsoid is reduced if we make R equal to Mm, the
s radius of the curvature of the ellipsoid of the meridian
(φ2, λ2)
at the mid-latitude. Then, converting Δφ to seconds of
1A arc by multiplying it by 206265 or (1/sin 1”) we
(φ1, λ1) obtain,
s ⎛ 1 ⎞ s. cosα m
Fig 4.3 Δφ" = . cos ⎜α12 + Δα ⎟ or = (4.14)
M m .sin1" ⎝ 2 ⎠ M m . sin1"

(Normal Section Formulae)- GML
Pole
PC Δλ , is obtained by straight substitution into
Delambre’s formula, giving
Δλ
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ s
sin Δλ = sin⎜α12 + Δα ⎟.sec⎜φ1 + Δφ ⎟.sin
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2R
And, if we use the first term only in the series
of expansion of small angles Δλ and s , we
obtain 2 2R
s ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Δλ = .sin ⎜α12 + Δα ⎟.sec ⎜φ1 + Δφ ⎟
α12+Δα R ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
α12 We can, by the same argument as for Δφ, use Nm for
2B
s R, and converting to seconds of arc, obtain
(φ2, λ2)
1A s ⎛ 1 ⎞
Δλ" = .sin⎜α12 + Δα ⎟.secφm (4.15)
(φ1, λ1) Nm .sin1" ⎝ 2 ⎠
Fig 4.3 Which is the first term in Gauss formula.

USE OF THE GAUSS MID-LATITUDE FORMULAE
Their use can be illustrated by reference to the short formulae, which are collected
here,
s
(i) Δφ" = . cosαm (4.14)
M m .sin1"
s
(ii) Δλ" = .sinαm .secφm (4.15)
Nm .sin1"
(iii) Δα" = Δλ".sinφm (4.13)
A. The Direct problem. Given φ1, λ1, s12, α12 : find φ2, λ2, α21
First iteration,
s
Δφ" = . cosα12
M1.sin1"
s
Δλ" = .sinα12.secφ1
N1.sin1"
Δα " = Δλ".sin φ1
USE OF THE GAUSS MID-LATITUDE FORMULAE
Second iteration : Use correct formulae with values determined from 1st iteration, and
continue iterating until the difference between successive values of Δφ, Δλ and Δα is
within the accuracy requirement. Three iterations usually suffice when using (4.13), (4.14)
and (4.15).
B. The Inverse problem. Given φ1, λ1, φ2, λ2: find s12, α12 and α21
Divide (4.15) by (4.14), we have Δλ M m

= . tanαm .secφm
Δφ Nm
Where everything is known except αm
Then, obtain Δα” from (4.13) and s from (4.14).
Hence, NO ITERATION is necessary.
An accuracy of 1ppm is achievable with formulae (4.13), (4.14) and (4.15) for
distances up to 30km, with (4.11) up to 100km.
7.2 Clarke’s formula for Geodetic Line

Pole Let s = distance between point A and B
P
Az = the azimuth from point A to B
Δλ
In plane Cartesian coordinate system
Δx = s sin Az ; Δy = s cos Az
If we think of s cos Az as distance along the
meridian (i.e. MΔφ) and s sin Az as distance
along parallel of latitude (i.e. pΔλ=N cos φ Δλ )
we can write :
s cos Az
B = Δφrad (change in latitude)
M
s (φ2, λ2)
s sin Az
= Δλrad (change in longitude)
A N cosφ
(φ1, λ1)
Fig 7.2 The geometry of the

development of the Clarke’s Formula

Pole OR, in seconds of arc,
P
s cos Az
ω Δφ =
M sin1"
s sin Az
Δλ =
N cosφ sin1"
K
Where, N = the radius of curvature in the prime vertical
M = the radius of curvature in the meridian
Q
For simplicity, first consider the problem on the sphere
Az B
s (φ2, λ2) Draw a line from B to line AP at right angle and draw arc
BK such that its length = ω (i.e. difference in longitude)
A
(φ1, λ1) AreaΔ
ε = spherical excess in triangle ABQ (AreaΔ) =
R2

Pole That is,
P
1s s 1 s2
ω ε= sin Az cos Az = 2
sin Az cos Az (radian) (7.3)
2R R 2R
since ∠Q = 90o , Therefore ∠B = 90 − Az + ε
o
K In spherical ΔPKB, side BK = ω (i.e. by construction)

Using sine rule for spherical triangle;
sin ∠s = sine of opposite sides
Q
Therefore, Each angle = its opposite side or its supplement
Az B . (180o − ∠)
s (φ2, λ2) Let φ be the latitude of point B, then
A PB = 90o − φ (co - latitude of point B)

(φ1, λ1) ∠PKB = 90o + φ
∠BKQ = 90o − φ

Pole Let η be equal to spherical excess in ΔBQK
P
Therefore,
ω
∠B + ∠Q + ∠K −η = 180o
But ∠Q = 90o
Therefore, ∠B = 180o − 90o − (90o − φ ) +η (7.4)
K
In right angled triangle ΔABQ. QB = s sin Az (7.5)
In right angled triangle ΔBQK.
Q
QB
B tan( 90o − φ ) = (7.5)
A Az QK
s (φ2, λ2)
(φ1, λ1) QB
Thus QK = (7.6)
tan(90 − φ )
o
Fig 7.2 The geometry of

the development of the Substituting 7.5 into 7.6, we have QK = s sin Az tanφ (7.7)
Clarke’s Formula

Pole Recall equation 7.3
P
ω 1 s2
ε= 2
sin Az cos Az (radian)
2R
ε 1 s2
then, = sin Az (7.8)
cos Az 2 R2
K
1
BQ.QK
Area ΔBQK 2
The spherical excess η = = (7.9)
R2 R2
Q
Substituting 7.5 and 7.7, i.e. for QB and QK
Az B
into (7.9) we have
A s (φ2, λ2)
(φ1, λ1) 1
s.sin Az .s.sin Az . tanφ 2
1 s
η= 2 2
= 2
sin 2
Az . tanφ (7.10)
Fig 7.2 The geometry R 2R
of the development of
the Clarke’s Formula

K’ Considering the problem on a plane (Fig 7.3) and applying

Legendre’s theorem
Using sine law in ΔA’B’Q’, we can write

Q’ A' Q' s
= (7.11)
2 ε
sin(90o − Az − ε ) sin(90o - )
3 3
B’
s ⎛ 2 ⎞
s Therefore, A' Q' = cos ⎜ Az − ε ⎟
ε ⎝ 3 ⎠
cos
A’ 3
ε
And, AQ ≡ A' Q' and since ε is small cos is close to 1
3
Fig 7.3 Geometry ⎛ 2 ⎞
Therefore, AQ ≡ s cos ⎜ Az − ε ⎟ (7.12)
on a plane ⎝ 3 ⎠

B' Q' s
K’ Similarly, =
⎛ ε⎞ ⎛ ε⎞
sin ⎜ Az − ⎟ sin ⎜ 90o − ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ ε⎞
Q’ s sin ⎜ Az − ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ ⎛ ε⎞
Therefore, B'Q' = = s sin ⎜ Az − ⎟
⎛ ε⎞ ⎝ 3⎠
sin ⎜ 90o − ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
B’ And, BQ ≡ B' Q'
⎛ ε⎞
s Therefore, BQ ≡ s sin ⎜ Az − ⎟ (7.13)
⎝ 3⎠
A’
Also in triangle B'Q'K' ;
⎛ η⎞
Fig 7.3 Geometry BQsin ⎜ 90o − ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
BK ≡ B' K ' =
on a plane
(
sin 90o − φ −η )

K’ Substitute for BQ from 7.13 and η being small,

i.e. ⎛ η⎞
sin⎜ 90o − ⎟ ≡ 1
⎝ 3⎠
Q’ Therefore,
⎛ η⎞
s sin ⎜ Az − ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
B’ BK =
⎛ η⎞
cos ⎜φ − ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
s
But linear length of BK = ϖ R;
A’ and in triangle BQK
BQ
ϖ=
⎛ η⎞
Fig 7.3 Geometry sin ⎜ 90o − φ − ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
on a plane

K’ Substitute for BQ from 7.13 we have

s ⎛ η⎞
sin ⎜ Az − ⎟
R ⎝ 3⎠
ϖ= radians
⎛ η⎞
Q’ cos ⎜φ − ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
B’ In triangle B’Q’K’ and from sine law, we have

ϖR ⎛ 2 ⎞
QK = .sin⎜φ + η ⎟
s ⎛ η⎞ ⎝ 3 ⎠
sin⎜ 90o − ⎟
A’ ⎝ 3⎠
And again, η being small, i.e. sin(90 −η ) ≡ 1

o
Fig 7.3 Geometry ⎛ 2 ⎞

on a plane Therefore, QK = ϖ R.sin⎜φ + η ⎟ (7.14)
⎝ 3 ⎠
Spherical Triangle using Napier’s Rule

(Normal Section Formulae) - Clarke
Pole
P Considering Spherical Triangle BQK;
ω
90-K
QK
K 90-KB
BQ
90-B
Q
Az B
A s (φ2, λ2) Sinus of an angle = Cosine of Opposites
(φ1, λ1) = Tangent Adjacents.
e.g. sin (QK) = cos (90 − KB).cos (90 − B)
o o
Fig 7.2 The geometry
of the development of = tan (90o − K ). tan ( BQ)
Solving the Spherical Triangle using Napier’s Rule

Pole
P
In triangle BQK : sin φ = cos
QB
R
(
. cos 90o − (φ + η ) )
ω
QB QP
In triangle PBQ : sin φ = cos . cos
R R
K Therefore, QP
= 90o − (φ +η )
R
QP
From fig. 7.1, is the co-latitude of point Q
Q R
B Thus from which latitude of point

Az AQ
A s (φ2, λ2) Q = (φ +η ) = φQ Also φQ = φA +
R
(φ1, λ1)
Substitude for AQ from 7.12, we have;
Fig 7.2 The geometry
s ⎛ 2 ⎞
of the development of φ +η = φA + . cos⎜ Az − ε ⎟
the Clarke’s Formula R ⎝ 3 ⎠

Pole
P Since as stated earlier, ψ = φB
ω Therefore,
s ⎛ 2 ⎞
φB = φA + . cos⎜ Az − ε ⎟ −η
R ⎝ 3 ⎠
K
Where. H is the difference in latitude between
B and Q. In similar manner, using Napier’s
rule, in triangle BQK;
Q
sinψ = tan(90o − ω ). tan
QK
Az B R
A s (φ2, λ2) In triangle PBQ; ( )
sinψ = tan 90o − ω . tan(90o − ∠PBQ)
(φ1, λ1)
Therefore
Fig 7.2 The geometry QK QK
of the development of = 90o − ∠PBQ Thus ∠PBQ = 90o −
R R

Pole
Substitute for QK from 7.14 we have
P
ω ⎛ 2 ⎞
ω.R.sin ⎜φ + η ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠ 2
∠PBQ = 90o − = 90o − ω.sin (ψ + η )
K R 3
In triangle ABQ of fig 7.1; ∠Q = 90o

Q
Therefore ∠ABQ = 90o − Az + ε
Az B
s (φ2, λ2) Thus, bearing BA (Back bearing of AB)
A
(φ1, λ1) = 180o − (∠PBQ + ∠ABQ)
⎛⎛ o ⎛ 2 ⎞⎞ ⎞
Fig 7.2 The = 180 − ⎜ ⎜⎜ 90 − ω sin⎜ψ + η ⎟ ⎟⎟ + 90 − Az − ε ⎟⎟
o
⎜ o
geometry of the ⎝⎝ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎠ ⎠
development of ⎛ 2 ⎞
the Clarke’s = Az + ω sin⎜ψ + η ⎟ + ε (7.15)
⎝ 3 ⎠
Formula
TRANSFORMATION TO THE ELLIPSOID

⎛ 2 ⎞
s. cos⎜ Az − ε ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
ψ = φB = φA + −η
Mφm
⎛ 1 ⎞
sin ⎜ Az − ε ⎟
s ⎝ 3 ⎠
ω : Difference in longitude = N . ⎛ η ⎞
radians
φB
cos ⎜ψ + ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
⎧ o ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎫
B
The azimuth of point B (i.e. azimuth BA) z = Az ± ⎨180 + ω. sin⎜ψ + η ⎟ −ε ⎬
⎩ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎭
Where; Mφm = Radius of curvature in the meridian at mid-point φm
NφB = Radius of curvature in the prime vertical at point φB

SUMMARY
Direct problem using Clarke’s formula
Given φ1 , λ1 ,α12 , s Must be given datum ellipsoid parameters
Calculate φ2 , λ2 ,α 21
Calculation steps: A. Preliminary computations.

a a(1 − e 2 )
N= M=
1. Calculate N and M for point φ1
(1 − e )
1 3
(1 − e sin φ1 ) 2
2 2 2
sin φ1
2 2
1 2
s sin Az . cos Az
ε= 2 Where; Az = α12
2. Calculate the 1st spherical excess Mφ1 .Nφ1 . cosφ1.(sin1")
s. cos Az
3. Calculate approximate change in Latitude; Δφ =
Mφ1 .(sin1" )
4. Calculate approximate Latitude of point 2; ψ ' = φ1 + Δφ
5. Calculate the 2nd spherical excess; η = ε . tan Az . tanψ '

SUMMARY
B. Precise computations.
φ1 + φ2
1. Calculate the mean Latitude; φm =
2
2. Calculate; Nφm and Mφm

1 2
s sin Az . cos Az
ε= 2
3. Calculate 1st spherical excess;
Mφm .Nφm . cosφm .(sin1" )
4. Calculate the 2nd spherical excess; η = ε . tan Az . tanψ '
5. Calculate for ψ which is equal to latitude of point 2; i.e. φ2
⎛ 2 ⎞
s. cos ⎜ Az − ε ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
φ2 = ψ = φ1 + −η
Nφm
SUMMARY
C. Computations of Longitude of Point 2.
1. Calculate; Nφ2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
sin ⎜ Az − ε ⎟
s 3 ⎠
ω= . ⎝
2. Calculate the difference in Longitude; NφB ⎛ 1 ⎞
cos ⎜φ2 + η ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
3. Longitude of point 2 ; λ2 = λ1 + ω
D. Computation of azimuth from Point 2 to 1

⎧ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎫
1. Azimuth at Point 2; Bz = α 21 = α12 ± ⎨180o + ω.sin⎜φ2 + η ⎟ − ε ⎬
⎩ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎭
7.3 CLARKE’S FORMULA FOR GEODETIC LINES

(INVERSE PROBLEM)
Given: φ1, λ1,φ2 , λ2 Calculate; α12,α21, s
From the solution of the direct problem, we have

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
s.cos ⎜ Az − ε ⎟ sin ⎜ Az − ε ⎟
3 ⎠ s ⎝ 3 ⎠
φ2 = φ1 + ⎝ −η (7.16) And, ω= . (7.17)
Mφm Nφm ⎛ 1 ⎞
cos ⎜ψ + η ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
Rearranging 7.16 and 7.17, we have
⎛ 2 ⎞
Mφm (φ2 −φ1 +η) = s.cos⎜ Az − ε ⎟ (7.18)
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
ω.Nφm .cos⎜ψ + η ⎟ = s.sin ⎜ Az − ε ⎟ (7.19)
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
In above equations, all the parameters were known except the two spherical excess
ε and η . Since they are small, we can compute the approximate values using
⎛ 1 ⎞
s. cos Az = M φm Δφ = M φm (φ2 − φ1 ) And, s. sin Az = N φm cos φ m Δλ = s. sin ⎜ Az − ε⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠

(INVERSE PROBLEM)
Thus; Ψ = φ2
1
(s. cos Az )(s. sin Az ) (s. sin Az ) = ε . tan A . tan φ
ε= 2 η = ε . tan φ2 .
M φm .Nφm (s. cos Az ) z 2
Taking (7.19) / (7.18), we have;

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
s. sin ⎜ Az − ε ⎟ Nφm . cos ⎜ψ + η ⎟ .ω
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
=
⎛ 2 ⎞
s. cos⎜ Az - ε ⎟
(φ2 − φ1 + η )M φm
⎝ 3 ⎠
Since ε is small; ⎛ 1 ⎞
Nφm . cos ⎜ψ + η ⎟.ω
⎝ 3 ⎠
tan Az' =
(φ2 − φ1 + η )M φm

(INVERSE PROBLEM)
Therefore, the azimuth;

1
(
Az = α12 = Az' + ε. 1+ sin2 Az'
3
) (7.20)
⎛ 2 ⎞
And, azimuth; Bz = α21 = α12 ±180o + ω.sin⎜φ2 + η⎟ − ε (7.21)
⎝ 3 ⎠
From equation 7.18 we have;
(φ2 −φ1 +η).Mφ

The distance s= m
(7.22)
⎛ 2 ⎞
cos⎜ Az − ε ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠

(Geodesic Formulae)
Utilize the differential equations of the geodesic and are therefore intrinsically rigorous.
The integration involves an elliptic integral. Such an integral can only be integrated in
terms of elementary functions by expansion in series, after which integration is achieved
term by term. Similarly, integration of any other differential equation of the geodesic of the
ellipsoid will result in an infinite series. The series may be in terms of e2 or higher order
terms, or it may be in f and higher order terms. In both these cases, the accuracy of the
formula will depend on the value of the truncated terms.
7.3 GAUSS MID LATITUDE DIRECT PROBLEM

(EXAMPLE.)
Given the following information.
φ1 = 45o 20’ 30.2124”
λ1 = 8o 10’ 14.1247”
α12 = 300o 33’ 10.38”

s12 = 5321.732m.
Calculate the value of φ2, λ2, α2 with reference to WGS84 reference

ellipsoid using the GML method.
Solution:
For WGS84 ellipsoid. a = 6378137m.
1/f = 298.257223563
ASSOC. PROF. Sr. DR. AZMAN BIN MOHD. SULDI PPSUG, FSPU, UiTM, SHAH ALAM GLS456 GEODESY : GEODETIC COORDINATES

(EXAMPLE.)
Δλ
The solution to this
φ2 = ?
Δφ 2 α = ? Direct Problem is
21
φ1 φ2 = φ1 + Δφ
1 = 45o 20’ 30.2124”
λ2 = λ1 + Δλ
α12 φ = 0ο α21 = α12 −180o − Δα
300o 33’ 10.38”
λ2 = ? λ1 = 8o 10’ 14.1247” Note that in GML

formula, the mean
elements are
Δφ
φm = φ1 +
2
Δα
αm = α12 +
2

(EXAMPLE.)
First Iteration:
We have s.cosαm s.sinαm
Δφ = & Δλ =
Mm.sin1" Nm.cosφm.sin1"
And. e2 = 2 f − f 2
Now, 1
= 298.257223563
f
1
f =
298.257223563
f 2 = 1.124133936 × 10 −5
e2 = 0.00669438

(EXAMPLE.)
Calculate Mm and Nm using the related formula;
Mm =
(
a 1 − e2 )
(1 − e .sin φm )
3
2 2 2
Where, we set φm as 45o 20’ 30.2124”

6378137(1 − 0.00669438) Nm =
a
Mm =
(1 − e .sin φm )
1
(1 − 0.00669438 × sin )
3 2 2
2 2
45o 20' 30.2124" 2
6335439.327 6378137.000
= =
(1 − 0.00669438 × sin )
1
3
(0.9966128841) 2
2 o
45 20' 30.2124" 2
6335439.327 6378137.000
= = 1
0.9949236308 (0.9983050055)2
= 6,367,764.450m. = 6,388,966.263m.

(EXAMPLE.)
Now, s.cosαm
Δφ =
Mm.sin1"
Where, we set αm as 300o 33’ 10.38”

5321 .732 × cos 300 o 33 ' 10 .38"
Δφ =
6367764 .450 × sin 1"
5321 .732 × cos 300 o 33 ' 10 .38" × 206265
=
6367764 .450
= 87 .6275 ".
s. sin α m
Δλ =
N m . cos φ m . sin 1"
5321 .732 × sin 300 o 33 ' 10 .38" × 206265
=
6388966 .263 × cos 45 o 20 ' 30 .2124 "
= − 210 .5003 " Δ α = Δ λ . sin φ m
= (− 210 .5003 ")× sin 45 o 20 ' 30 .2124 "
= − 149 .7313 "

(EXAMPLE.)
Then, Δφ 87.6275 "

= = 43.8137 "
2 2
Δλ (− 210.5003 ")
= = −105.2501"
2 2
Δα (−149.7313 ")
= = −74.8656 "
2 2
Hence,
Δφ
φ m = φ1 + = 45 o 20 ' 30 .2124 " + 43 .8137 "
2
= 45 o 21' 14 .0261"
Δα
α m = α 12 + = 300 o 33' 10.38 " + (− 74 .8656 ")
2
= 300 o 3 1' 55.5144 "

(EXAMPLE.)
Second Iteration:
φ m = 45 o 21' 14 .03" and α m = 300 o 3 1' 55.51 "
We have new values
Mm =
(
a 1 − e2 )
(1 − e .sin φm )
3
2 2 2
6378137(1 − 0.00669438)
Mm =
(1 − 0.00669438 × sin )
3
2 o
45 21' 14.03" 2
= 6,367,778.080m.
a
Nm =
(1 − e .sin φm )
1
2 2 2
6378137.000
=
(1 − 0.00669438 × sin )
1
2 o
45 21' 14.03" 2
= 6,388,970.820m.

(EXAMPLE.)
Then, s. cos α m
Δφ =
M m . sin 1"
Δφ 87.5733"
5321.732 × cos 300o 31' 55.51" = = 43.7867"
Δφ = 2 2
6367778.080 × sin 1"
= 87.5733".
s. sin α m
Δλ =
N m . cos φm . sin 1"
Δλ (− 210.5903")
5321.732 × sin 300 31' 55.51" × 206265
o = = −105.2952"
= 2 2
6388970.820 × cos 45o 21' 14.03"
= −210.5903"
Δα = Δλ . sin φm Δα (− 149.8267")
= = −74.9134"
= (− 210.5903")× sin 45 21' 14.03"
o
2 2
= −149.8267"

(EXAMPLE.)
Thus,
Δφ
φ m = φ1 + = 45 o 20 ' 30 .2124 " + 43 .7867 "
2
= 45 o 21' 13 .9991"
Δα
α m = α 12 + = 300 o 33' 10.38 " + (− 74 .9134 ")
2
= 300 o 3 1' 55.47 "

(EXAMPLE.)
Third Iteration:
Now, we have new values φ m = 45 o 21' 14 .00 "
α m = 300 o 3 1' 55.47 "
Mm =
(
a 1 − e2 )
(1 − e .sin φm )
3
2 2 2
6378137 (1 − 0.00669438 )
Mm =
(1 − 0.00669438 × sin )
3
2 o
45 21' 14.00" 2
= 6,367,778.070m.
a
Nm =
(1 − e .sin φm )
1
2 2 2
6378137.000
=
(1 − 0.00669438 × sin )
1
2 o
45 21' 14.00" 2
= 6,388,970.817 m.

(EXAMPLE.)
Then, s. cos α m
Δφ =
M m . sin 1"
5321.732 × cos 300 o 31' 55.47" Δφ 87.5734"

Δφ = = = 43.7867"
6367778.070 × sin 1" 2 2
= 87.5734".
s. sin α m
Δλ =
N m . cos φm . sin 1"
5321.732 × sin 300 o 31' 55.47" × 206265 Δλ (− 210.5905")
= = = −105.2953"
6388970.817 × cos 45o 21' 14.00" 2 2
= −210.5905"
Δα = Δλ . sin φm
= (− 210.5905")× sin 45o 21' 14.00" Δα (− 149.8269")
= = −74.9135"
= −149.8269" 2 2
Note: Iteration stopped when the difference in coordinates (Δφ, Δλ, Δα)
to previous iteration < 0.0001”.

(EXAMPLE.)
Therefore, the values of φ2, λ2, α2 with reference to WGS84 reference ellipsoid using
the GML method;
φ2 = φ1 + Δφ = 45o 20’ 30.2124” + 87.5734”

= 45o 20’ 30.2124” + 0o 01’ 27.5734” = 45o 21’ 57.7858”
λ2 = λ1 + Δλ = 8o 10’ 14.1247” + (- 210.5905”)

= 8o 10’ 14.1247” - 0o 3’ 30.5905” = 8o 06’ 43.5342”
α21 = α12 + 180o + Δα = 300o 33’ 10.38” - 180o + (-149.8269”)

= 300o 33’ 10.38” - 180o - 0o 02’ 29.8269”
= 120o 30’ 40.55”
7.3 GAUSS MID LATITUDE INVERSE

PROBLEM (EXAMPLE.)
Inverse Problem.
Given, the geodetic coordinates of two points, namely 1 and 2.

i.e. φ1, λ1, φ2, λ2 with reference to a reference ellipsoid.
To find, azimuths α12, α21 and distance s12. a
Nm =
(1 − e .sin φm )
1
2 2 2
Δα
To find azimuth α12 ; α12 = α m −
2
Δα = Δλ . sin φm
Δλ.N m . cos φm
tan α m =
Δφ .M m α 21 = α12 + Δα ± 180 o
Where; Δφ = φ2 − φ1 Δφ .M m . sin 1"

s12 =
cos α m
Δλ = λ2 − λ1
φ1 + φ2 No iteration is needed for the above
φm =
2 problem where mean value of latitude can
Mm =
(
a 1 − e2 ) be directly determined with the
coordinates of point 1 and 2 known.
(1 − e .sin φm )
3
2 2 2
Assignment 3

GLS456 Geodesy: Ppsug, Fspu, Uitm, Shah Alam Assoc. Prof. Sr. Dr. Azman Bin Mohd. Suldi (Mrics, Mrism)

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LECTURE 4

CALCULATION OF GEODETIC COORDINATES

CALCULATION OF GEODETIC COORDINATES

Pole We can expressed the defined problems

A minimum of 3 independent formula are Δφ = φ2 − φ1 = .......

CALCULATION OF GEODETIC COORDINATES

CALCULATION OF GEODETIC COORDINATES

The simplest, conceptually, are the Gauss Mid-Latitude formulae (GML).

In deriving these formulae, Gauss mapped the ellipsoid conformally on to a sphere of

CALCULATION OF GEODETIC COORDINATES

⎛ Δλ2 .sin2 φm Δλ2 . cosφm Δφ 2 ⎞

CALCULATION OF GEODETIC COORDINATES

Using the standard formula of spherical

CALCULATION OF GEODETIC COORDINATES

Δα is of course the convergence on the sphere,

CALCULATION OF GEODETIC COORDINATES

CALCULATION OF GEODETIC COORDINATES

Fig 4.3 Which is the first term in Gauss formula.

USE OF THE GAUSS MID-LATITUDE FORMULAE

USE OF THE GAUSS MID-LATITUDE FORMULAE

Divide (4.15) by (4.14), we have Δλ M m

7.2 Clarke’s formula for Geodetic Line

Fig 7.2 The geometry of the

7.2 Clarke’s formula for Geodetic Line

7.2 Clarke’s formula for Geodetic Line

K In spherical ΔPKB, side BK = ω (i.e. by construction)

A PB = 90o − φ (co - latitude of point B)

7.2 Clarke’s formula for Geodetic Line

Fig 7.2 The geometry of

7.2 Clarke’s formula for Geodetic Line

7.2 Clarke’s formula for Geodetic Line

K’ Considering the problem on a plane (Fig 7.3) and applying

Using sine law in ΔA’B’Q’, we can write

7.2 Clarke’s formula for Geodetic Line

7.2 Clarke’s formula for Geodetic Line

K’ Substitute for BQ from 7.13 and η being small,

7.2 Clarke’s formula for Geodetic Line

K’ Substitute for BQ from 7.13 we have

B’ In triangle B’Q’K’ and from sine law, we have

And again, η being small, i.e. sin(90 −η ) ≡ 1

Fig 7.3 Geometry ⎛ 2 ⎞

Spherical Triangle using Napier’s Rule

Solving the Spherical Triangle using Napier’s Rule

B Thus from which latitude of point

Solving the Spherical Triangle using Napier’s Rule

Solving the Spherical Triangle using Napier’s Rule

In triangle ABQ of fig 7.1; ∠Q = 90o

TRANSFORMATION TO THE ELLIPSOID

Where; Mφm = Radius of curvature in the meridian at mid-point φm

NφB = Radius of curvature in the prime vertical at point φB

Given φ1 , λ1 ,α12 , s Must be given datum ellipsoid parameters

Calculation steps: A. Preliminary computations.

4. Calculate approximate Latitude of point 2; ψ ' = φ1 + Δφ

5. Calculate the 2nd spherical excess; η = ε . tan Az . tanψ '

2. Calculate; Nφm and Mφm

4. Calculate the 2nd spherical excess; η = ε . tan Az . tanψ '

5. Calculate for ψ which is equal to latitude of point 2; i.e. φ2

D. Computation of azimuth from Point 2 to 1

7.3 CLARKE’S FORMULA FOR GEODETIC LINES