LSAT Flashcards PDF

WHAT ARE THESE LOGICAL REASONING
PROMPTS ASKING YOU TO DO?
Q:
The statements
above, if true, most
strongly support
which one of the
following?
A:
Find the answer choice
that is almost certainly
true if the information in
the passage is true.
We call this a
Soft Must Be True Question
Q:
Which one of the
following, if true,
most strongly
supports the
information above?
A:
Find the answer
choice that would
make the argument
in the passage more
convincing.
We call this a
Strengthen Question
Q:
Which one of the
following conforms
most closely to the
principle stated
above?
A:
that presents a valid
argument, based on
the rule in the passage.
We call this a
Soft Must Be True (Principle)
Question
Q:
Which one of the
following best
illustrates the
principle illustrated
by the argument
above?
A:
that presents a valid
argument, based
on the implicit rule
the argument in the
passage is using.
We call this a
Parallel (Principle) Question
Q:
Each of the following
could be true
EXCEPT:
A:
that must be false if
the information in the
passage is true.
We call this a
Must Be False Question
Q:
The answer to which
one of the following
questions would
be most helpful
in evaluating the
argument?
A:
Find the answer
choice that presents
a question that’s
relevant to determining
how convincing the
argument in the
passage is.
We call this a
Crux Question
Q:
Which one of
the following
most accurately
characterizes
the technique of
reasoning employed
in the argument?
A:
that describes how
the argument in the
passage uses the
evidence to reach the
conclusion.
We call this a
Describe Question
Q:
The last sentence
figures in the
argument in which of
the following ways?
A:
that describes what
role (e.g., premise,
conclusion, subsidiary
conclusion, etc.) the
last sentence plays in
the argument in the
passage.
We call this a
Role Question
LOGICAL REASONING FAMILIES
Q:
What are the three
families of logical
reasoning questions?
A:
Implication,
Characterization,
Operation
Q:
In which family are
the statements in
the stimulus always
accepted as true?
A:
Implication
(Must Be True, Soft
Must Be True, Must Be
False).
Q:
In which family are
the answer choices
always accepted as
true?
A:
Operation
• True
• False
• Sometimes
• Never
ARGUMENT STRUCTURE
Q:
What are indicator
words for premises?
A:
• Since
• Because
• For
• As
• After all
• Given that
• Moreover
ARGUMENT STRUCTURE
Q:
What are indicator
words for
conclusions?
A:
• Therefore
• Thus
• Hence
• So
• As a result`
• Clearly
• Consequently
• It follows
Q:
What is a subsidiary
or intermediate
conclusion?
A:
A conclusion that is
supported by at least
one premise and that
itself supports another
conclusion.
ARGUMENT STRUCTURE
Q:
What is an
assumption?
A:
A claim that is not
explicitly stated but that
must be true in order
for a conclusion to
follow logically from the
premises.
ARGUMENT STRUCTURE
Q:
What is a valid
argument?
A:
An argument in which
the conclusion must be
true if the premises are
true.
ARGUMENT STRUCTURE
Q:
What is an invalid
argument?
A:
An argument in which
assumptions are
required because the
conclusion does not
necessarily follow,
even if the premises
are true.
ARGUMENT STRUCTURE
Q:
What is the
correct process
for evaluating an
argument?
A:
1. Identify (underline)
the conclusion.
2. Identify the premises.
3. Evaluate the
validity by identifying
any assumptions that
are made.
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
Q:
What is a sufficient
condition?
A:
A condition that is
enough to guarantee
that another conditions
or conditions are met.
Q:
What are words that
indicate sufficiency?
A:
• If
• All
• Any
• When
• Whenever
• Every
• Each
• In the event that
• As long as
• Provided
• In order to
• People who
• Those who
Q:
What is a necessary
condition?
A:
A condition that is
required or must
be true for another
condition to be met.
Q:
What are words that
indicate necessity?
A:
• Then
• Only
• If
• Only when
• Needs
• Requires
• Must
• Depends
• Relies
• Demands
• Always
• Is/Are
• Will
Q:
Does the word
“only” introduce
a sufficient or
necessary condition?
A:
Necessary.
Q:
To diagram an
“unless” statement,
replace “unless” with
what term?
A:
If not.
Q:
What is the fallacy of
the converse?
A:
Taking a necessary
condition to be enough
to meet a sufficient
condition.
i.e., assuming that

A > B implies B > A
Q:
What is the fallacy of
the inverse?
A:
Taking the fact that a
sufficient condition is not
met to guarantee that
a necessary condition
cannot be met.
i.e., assuming that

A > B implies No A > B
Q:
What is the
contrapositive?
A:
A valid inference in
which the fact that a
necessary condition is
not met guarantees that
a sufficient condition
cannot be met
i.e.,
A > B implies
No B > No A
DIAGRAM THE STATEMENT AND THE
CONTRAPOSITIVE
Q:
It will B if A.
A:
A > B (No B > No A)
CONTRAPOSITIVE
Q:
All X are Y.
A:
X > Y (No Y > No X)
CONTRAPOSITIVE
Q:
H only if G.
A:
H > G (No G > No H)
CONTRAPOSITIVE
Q:
Only when M
does it N.
A:
N > M (No M > No N)
CONTRAPOSITIVE
Q:
The only C are D.
A:
C > D (No D > No C)
CONTRAPOSITIVE
Q:
P if and only if R.
A:
P<>R
CONTRAPOSITIVE
Q:
If it is not V, then X
only if Y.
A:
No V > (X > Y)
can also
diagrammed as
X>V
or
Y (No V and
No Y > No X)
CONTRAPOSITIVE
Q:
If E, then F or G but
not both.
A:
E > (F or G) and (No F or
No G)
(F and G) or (No F and

No G) > No E
CONTRAPOSITIVE
Q:
Must be S for
both T and U.
A:
T and U >
S (No S > No T or No U)
CONTRAPOSITIVE
Q:
No H unless I.
A:
No I > No H (H > I)
CONTRAPOSITIVE
Q:
W is required without X.
A:
No X > W (No W > X)
LOGICAL FORCE
Q:
What key words
that indicate weak
modality?
A:
• May
• Might
• Can
• Could
• Possibly
• Often
LOGICAL FORCE
Q:
What key words
indicate moderate
modality?
A:
• Probably
• Likely
• Usually
• Most of the time
• Majority of the time
LOGICAL FORCE
Q:
What key words
indicate strong
modality?
A:
• Must
• Is
• Are
• Needs
• Will
• Does
• Do
• Always
LOGICAL FORCE
Q:
What key words
indicate weak
quantification?
A:
• Some
• Few
• Several
• A significant
number
• Many
LOGICAL FORCE
Q:
What key words
indicate moderate
quantification?
A:
• Most
• Majority
• More than half
LOGICAL FORCE
Q:
What key words
indicate strong
quantification?
A:
• All
• Any
• Every
• Nearly all
QUESTION TYPE STRATEGIES
Q:
On a “Must Be True”
question without
conditional statements
in the stimulus, is the
correct answer choice
likely to be strong or
weak?
A:
Weak
Q:
On a “Soft Must Be
True” question, is the
weak?
A:
Weak
Q:
Is it common to diagram
a “Must Be True”
question?
A:
Yes
Q:
a “Soft Must Be True”
question?
A:
No
Q:
a “Must Be False”
question?
A:
Yes
Q:
What should you look
for on a “Main Point”
question?
A:
Main conclusion;
indications of the
author’s attitude.
Q:
What are the nine
common answers to
“Describe” questions?
A:
• Rejecting alternatives
• General principle
• Appealing to an
authority
• Counterexample
• Analogy
• Alternative explanation
• Disagreeing with a line
of reasoning
• Directly undermining a
premise or conclusion
• Offering a new
consideration
• Challenging an
assumption
Q:
a “Parallel” question?
A:
Yes
Q:
On a “Parallel” question
that is not diagrammed,
what is the best
strategy?
A:
Make a motto
(summarize the
reasoning separate
from the subject
matter).
Q:
What is the first thing
to check in an answer
choice to a “Parallel”
question?
A:
If the conclusion
matches the conclusion
in the stimulus in scope
and modality.
Q:
a “Parallel Flaw”
question?
A:
Yes
Q:
On a “Parallel Flaw”
question that is not
diagrammed, what
aspect(s) of the answer
choice must be the
same as the stimulus?
A:
Only the flaw and
nothing else about the
argument.
Q:
What are the four
common answers to a
“Role” question?
A:
• Premise
• Subsidiary or
itermediate conclusion
• Main conclusion
• Introduction or
background
Q:
What type of answer is
almost never correct on
a “Role” question?
A:
Assumption (takes for
granted, presumes).
Q:
What is the most
common way to dismiss
an answer choice on a
“Disagree” question?
A:
There is not enough
information presented
to say whether at least
one speaker would
agree.
Q:
What are the four most
prevalent types Logical
Reasoning questions?
A:
• Strengthen
• Flaw
• Necessary
• Soft Must Be True
Q:
How often is a causal
conclusion on the LSAT
valid? Why?
A:
Never. There always
could be an alternate
cause.
Q:
What are the three
most common ways
to weaken a causal
conclusion?
A:
• Alternate cause
• Cause without effect
• Effect without cause
Q:
What are the three
most common ways
to strengthen a causal
conclusion?
A:
• Eliminate an alternate
cause
• Cause and effect in a
similar situation
• No cause and no
effect in a similar
situation
Q:
On “Strengthen” and
“Weaken” questions,
are the correct answer
choices likely to be
strong or weak?
A:
Strong
Q:
What is a sufficient
assumption?
A:
A claim that is not
stated but that
guarantees that an
argument is valid (that
the conclusion follows
logically from the
premises).
Q:
What is a necessary
assumption?
A:
A claim that is not
stated but that must be
true for an argument
to be valid (for the
argument to follow
logically from the
premises).
Q:
What happens to an
argument if a necessary
assumption is negated?
A:
The argument is totally
invalid (the conclusion
does not follow from
the premises).
Q:
On “Necessary”
questions, are the
correct answer choices
weak?
A:
Weak
Q:
On “Sufficient”
questions, are the
correct answer choices
weak?
A:
Strong
Q:
What is the easiest
way to distinguish a
Sufficient question from
a Necessary question?
A:
The prompt on a
Sufficient question will
make it clear that the
argument will be valid
with the addition of the
(enables the conclusion
to be “properly drawn”
or to “follow logically”)
Q:
What are the two
requirements for
a correct answer
choice to a “Resolve”
question?
A:
1. Resolves the
paradox
2. Does not invalidate
either part of the
paradox
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
What is the most
common combination
of quantifiers on the
LSAT?
A:
“All” and “Some.”
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
To combine an “all”
statement and a “some”
statement, where does
the shared term have to
be?
A:
The sufficient condition
of the “all” statement.
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
A> B
A –s– C
A:
B –s– C
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
D>E
E –s– F
A:
No valid conclusion.
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
G > H
No I > No H
A:
G > I
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
J > No K
L –s– K
A:
L –s– No J
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
M > O
M > N
A:
O –s– N
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
P –m–> Q
Q –m–> R
A:
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
S –m–> T
S –m–> U
A:
T –s– U
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
V –m– Z
Z > W
A:
V –m–> W
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
A > B
B –m–> C
A:
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
D –s– E
E –s– F
A:
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
G –m–> H
G > I
A:
H –s– I
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
J –s– K
K –m–> L
A:
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
What quantity is implied
by the word ‘some’?
A:
At least one (not none).
QUANTIFIERS
Q:
If some X are Y, can it
be inferred that some X
are not Y?
A:
No, some X are Y is
consistent with all X are
Y.
FLAWS
Q:
For an argument to
avoid a committing a
fallacy of exclusivity,
what three
requirements must be
met?
A:
1. The options are
exhaustive (no other
option is available)
2. The options are
exclusive (cannot be
both)
3. All but one option is
eliminated
FLAWS
Q:
To validly base a
conclusion on a poll
or sample, what
requirements must be
met?
A:
1. The sample group
must be
representative
2. Those surveyed
must understand
the survey and
have no motive
to misrepresent
themselves
3. The conclusions
must match the
questions in the
survey
FLAWS
Q:
What are the two
common fallacies of
composition?
A:
1. Applying a
characteristic of
a whole to its
constituent parts
2. Applying a
characteristic of a
part or parts to a
whole
FLAWS
Q:
When is it a fallacy to
use an analogy?
A:
When the things being
compared differed in
at least one crucial
respect.
FLAWS
Q:
What is a fallacy of
equivocation?
A:
Using a key word or
concept in two different
senses.
FLAWS
Q:
What are the three
common cause and
effect fallacies?
A:
1. Taking a correlation
to imply causation
2. Ignoring an alternate
cause
3. Reversing cause and
effect
FLAWS
Q:
If an argument’s
conclusion is identical
its premise, which
fallacy has been
committed?
A:
Circular reasoning.
FLAWS
Q:
What is an ad hominem
fallacy?
A:
Attacking the
proponent of an
argument rather than
the argument itself.
FLAWS
Q:
What is an absence of
evidence fallacy?
A:
Taking the failure of
evidence to prove
a claim as evidence
against the claim.
FLAWS
Q:
What are the two
common fallacies
involving percentages
and amounts?
A:
1. Taking premises
about percentages
to justify a conclusion
about an absolute
amount
2. Taking premises
about absolute
amounts to justify
a conclusion about
percentages
FLAWS
Q:
What are the five
common category
mistakes?
A:
1. Perception vs Reality
2. Temporal (Past vs.
Present vs. Future)
3. Modality
4. Quantifiers
5. Descriptive vs.
Normative
FLAWS
Q:
When is it a fallacy to
rely on the opinion of
an authority?
A:
When the subject falls
outside of the expertise
of the authority.
LOGIC GAMES
Q:
On which type of
games should a student
look for the opportunity
to break a game into
scenarios?
A:
All types
LOGIC GAMES
Q:
What are the three
types of games in
which it may be
necessary to “Play the
Numbers”?
A:
1. Underbooked or
overbooked ordering
games
2. In and Out games
with subgroups
3. Underbooked stable
grouping games
4. Unstable grouping
games
LOGIC GAMES
Q:
Once a student
identifies a game
in which it may be
necessary to “Play the
Numbers,” how can it
be determined whether
or not to do so?
A:
The presence of at
least one “principle of
distribution” signifies
that it is necessary to
“Play the Numbers.”
LOGIC GAMES
Q:
What is the proper way
to “Play the Numbers”?
A:
Identify all distributions
by working from the
most extreme to the
most equal distribution.
READING COMPREHENSION
Q:
Which kinds of
details in a Reading
Comprehension
passage do the
questions typically ask
about?
A:
Cause and effect
relationships, examples,
questions and answers,
and lists.
Q:
Which kinds of
details in a Reading
Comprehension
passage do the
questions rarely ask
about?
A:
Analogies, definitions.
Q:
Which are the three
most common
topics on Reading
Comprehension
passages?
A:
Science, the law,
arts/culture.
Q:
True or False: It is
advisable to read
the questions before
reading the passage.
A:
False. Most questions
are vaguely written and
will provide you little
direction as you read
the passage. Plus, a
well-prepared test taker
can often predict what
the questions will ask
about after reading a
passage.
Q:
True or False: The first
question usually asks
you to identify the main
point of the passage.
A:
True.
Q:
True or False: The main
point of the passage is
the author’s conclusion,
if one is provided.
A:
True.
Q:
True or False: It’s
better to rely only
on underlining and
highlighting the
passage, and not write
notes describing the
role of each paragraph.
A:
False. Underlining and
highlighting can be
effective tools, provided
you don’t overuse
them. However, writing
notes forces you to
comprehend what
you’ve read, and can
help you answer many
difficult questions about
the organization of the
passage.
Q:
True or False: Most
questions on a
comparative Reading
Comprehension
passage ask about how
the two passages relate
to each other.
A:
True.
Q:
True or False: Some
comparative Reading
Comprehension
passages present two
passages that have no
relationship to each
other.
A:
False. Every set of
comparative passages
have some shared
topic, theme, or point of
view.
Q:
True or False:
The relationship
between the two
comparative Reading
Comprehension
passages will always
be a shared topic.
A:
False. Sometimes
the passages discuss
different topics, but
the authors express
similar points of view.
Sometimes one
passage discusses a
very general principle
or idea, and the other
topic applies it to
another context.

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WHAT ARE THESE LOGICAL REASONING

PROMPTS ASKING YOU TO DO?

i.e., assuming that

i.e., assuming that

(F and G) or (No F and

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