Lsat Lsat Success

2004
Thomas O. White
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COPYRIGHT 2003 Thomas O. White
Previous editions, 1996, 2000, 2002
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
may be reproduced or used in any form or by any meansgraphic, electronic, or
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For permission to use material from this text or product, contact us by
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
White, Thomas O.
LSAT success/complete advice on preparing for the Law School Admission Test/
Thomas O. White
p. cm.
ISBN 0-7689-1219-9
1. Law School Admission Test. 2. Law schoolsUnited StatesEntrance
examinations. I. Title.
KF285.Z9W477 1996
3408.076dc20
96-21949
CIP
Printed in the United States of America
10
05
04 03
Contents
Red Alert. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diagnostic LSAT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diagnostic Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quick-Score Answers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Explanatory Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
39
40
Red Alert: Preparation Anxiety Brings Us Together. . . . . . . 47

Success Session 1: Academic Conditioning May Be
Hazardous to Your LSAT Score. . . . . . . . . . .
Success Session 2: Become Familiar with the LSAT . . . . . . . . . .
Success Session 3: Your Strategy Is Essential to
Your Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
57
67
Red Alert: The 9-12-18 Test-Planning System . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Success Session 4:
Success Session 5:
Success Session 6:
Success Session 7:
Success Session 8:
Success Session 9:
Success Session 10:
Success Session 11:
Success Session 12:
Success Session 13:
Success Session 14:
Success Session 15:
LSAT Question Sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Relationships Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arguments and Passages Problems . . . . . .
Relationships in Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arguments Problems in Detail. . . . . . . . . . .
Passages Problems in Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relationships Problems and the
9-12-18 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arguments Problems and the
9-12-18 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Passages Problems and the
9-12-18 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Writing Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Writing Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Finish with a Flourish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
83
89
99
111
119
129
133
137
141
147
155
CONTENTS
LSAT Practice Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Practice Test 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Practice Test 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
163
191
192
201
229
230
Appendix: Paying for Law School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
www.petersons.com
iv
LSAT Success
R E D A LERT
ABOUT THE LAW SCHOOL
ADMISSION TEST
The vast majority of the failures of LSAT

preparation share two root causes: One is
conceptual, and the other is tactical. The
conceptual flaw is the common perception on
the part of teachers, writers, and advisers that
the LSAT is complicatedenigmatic, tangled, and
formidable. The tactical flaw is in depicting the
test as an adversary of the test-taker. Making an
enemy of the test always succeeds in appealing
to people who are anxious, and this, combined
with efforts at simplification, produces a large
body of vulnerable test-takers who find the
whole process extremely counterproductive.
With proper training, however, the LSAT
can be seen differently, and the vulnerable
test-taker becomes a thing of the past. By
mastering the new insights, perspectives, and
techniques provided here, you can be transformed from a potential victim to an exploiter of
the LSAT. You can experience LSAT success.
Do not misunderstand. The path to LSAT
mastery is no cakewalk, but its far easier and
more rewarding than battling a test adversary
who has written the rules, the questions, and the
answers and, for good measure, keeps the score.
Its a contest that you cannot win. Far better to
have the LSAT working for you, and this guide is
designed to help you achieve that objective.
Admission tests were first developed by law

schools in the 1920s. Over the next three
decades, a variety of tests were tried but
attracted little interest or following in the field of
legal education. But in 1947, the LSAT came
along to change all of that. The first version of
the LSAT did not build upon the previous
experiments in law school admission testing.
Rather, it was based upon the Pepsi-Cola
Scholarship Test and a number of examinations
that were developed for the U.S. Navy!
After two years, changes in the tests
structure were introduced, and change has
become the hallmark of the LSAT. Changes in
content, structure, and timing were made
fourteen times in the next forty-four years. Some
of them were extensive, and others, like those of
1991, were more limited. These frequent
changes alone would serve to make the LSAT
unfamiliar to most test-takers, and the fact that it
is completely different from the well-known
verbal-mathematical standardized tests makes it
that much more obscure.
As Dostoyevsky put it, taking a new step,
uttering a new word, is what people fear most.
People will go to incredible lengths to convert a
new or different experience into something they
can recognize and get a handle on. That is how
most people choose to deal with the LSAT.
Courses, books, and counselors expound all
kinds of theories and strategies for converting
the LSAT into something else, something
comforting and familiar. Test-takers become
disciples of these theories and strategies as they
try to deal with their anxieties and concerns
about the LSAT. Although many of the books,
courses, and counselors are well-intentioned,
virtually all of them fail to generate much more
than the enthusiasm that they present as a
substitute for the test-takers lack of confidence
and anxiety.
RED
CRITICAL FACTORS
PERFORMANCE
IN
TEST
Certain factors have a very high impact on LSAT

performance. There is no practical value in
fooling around with aspects of the test that have
little impact. By learning techniques that put
high-impact factors to work for you, you can
improve your LSAT performance and succeed
with the LSAT.
Anxiety
Anxiety results from the mystique of the LSAT and,
for many, past experience with standardized tests.
By confronting the factors that produce anxiety
ALERT
RED ALERT
TRAINING IN THE FUNDAMENTALS IS
CRUCIAL TO LSAT PERFORMANCE.
about the LSAT, you can have a substantial impact

on your preparation and performance. By learning
that your past experience with standardized tests
is irrelevant to the LSAT and by learning new,
more appropriate techniques to deal with it, you
can remove another layer of anxiety. Anxiety-producing misinformation, contradiction, and exaggeration will be exposed and the apparent complexity of the LSAT shown to be an illusion.
HIGH-IMPACT TRAINING
PLANNING
AND
In the academic, or sponge, method of test

preparation, you soak up as much information as
you can in the hope that you will be able to
squeeze out important drops of knowledge when
test time comes.
If you are proficient at the sponge method,
you may feel that a few hours of your time in
information gathering can result in effective
preparation for the LSAT. Forget it. And forget
the notion that you can achieve a superior
performance by listening to lectures or practicing
test questions and memorizing clever strategies
without first getting a firm grip on the test
basics.
AS YOU GAIN CONTROL OVER YOUR

ANXIETY, YOU TAKE CHARGE OF THE TEST
AND YOUR RELATIONSHIP TO IT.
Academic Conditioning
Your past academic experience has taught you
that a superior test performance results from
attending lectures, taking and reviewing notes,
reading, cramming, and memorizing everything
you can. Naturally you conclude that the path to
a superior LSAT score is the samelistening to
lectures, taking and reviewing notes, reading,
memorizing, and cramming into your head
everything you can about the LSAT.
Wrong! The LSAT is not an academic
exercise and cannot be converted into one.
Working to convert the LSAT into something
familiar is a waste of time. Getting ready for the
LSAT is much more like athletics, business, or
the military, in all of which a superior performance results from superior training and
planning, not learning. The training techniques
you will learn in this book will permit you to
sidestep the negative consequences of your
academic training.
A FOUNDATION OF LSAT-SPECIFIC
TECHNIQUES PRODUCES THE HIGHEST
IMPACT ON YOUR SCORE.
When you acquire a new skill, the gains are
often great. For example, after training in
computer basics for a short time, you find you
can get results you never could before. So it is
with training in LSAT basics: If you use the
techniques you will learn here to train actively
for a short time, you will find you get big results.
Then, and only then, will you be ready for
practice with test questions and other theories of
preparation.
FOR SUPERIOR PERFORMANCE ON THE

LSAT, YOU MUST TRAIN.
Reasoning
The LSAT tests your skill at being able to think
like a lawyerreasoning in the principal ways
law schools and the legal system require. This
way of thinking is generally unfamiliar to people
who are considering a legal education, and the
LSAT attempts to measure their aptitude for it.
By providing you with techniques designed to
respond to the reasoning requirements of the
LSAT, this book will enable you to perform more
successfully on every aspect of the test.
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RED
ALERT
LSAT Success
RED ALERT
LSAT STUDY PLANS
Day Assignment
Day Assignment
Each of the eighteen training sessions (fifteen

Success Sessions and three Red Alerts) is
relatively short and deals with a discrete subject,
guiding you in the training techniques relevant to
that subject. Remember, sessions are not
designed as academic exercises.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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12
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14
15
16
17
18
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31
32
33
34
35
YOU CAN USE EACH SESSION

INDEPENDENTLY.
Using these sessions, you can tailor your training
program to make the best possible use of the
time available to you. Seven programs are
mapped out in the following paragraphs. They
are designed to be completed in as many as
seven weeks or as little as 7 hours.
THE SEVEN-WEEK PROGRAM

The order of the eighteen training sessions is
designed to take you through the training
process in the course of thirty-five days. If you
complete one session or pretest assignment each
day and work five days each week, you will
complete the full program in seven weeks. This
is a healthy but not demanding pace. In this and
the following lists, RA 1 refers to Red Alert 1; RA
2 refers to Red Alert 2; RA 3 refers to Red Alert
3, the 9-12-18 Test-Planning System; Diagnostic
indicates the Diagnostic Test; and Positioning
refers to Before You Begin: Establishing Your
Success Position, which precedes the Diagnostic
Test. S indicates a Success Session of training and
planning; QS refers to a question set that you use
for planning; and WS indicates a writing sample
exercise.
RA 1
Positioning
Diagnostic
RA 2
S1
S2
S3
RA 3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
S 10
QS Relationships
QS Relationships
QS Relationships
QS Relationships
S 11
QS Arguments
QS Arguments
QS Arguments
QS Arguments
S 12
QS Passages
QS Passages
QS Passages
QS Passages
S 13
S 14
WS 1
WS 2
S 15
Simulated LSAT
THE FIVE-WEEK PROGRAM

The five-week program is a variation of the
seven-week program. It assumes that you
complete one session or pretest assignment each
day and work seven days each week. Again, you
complete the training process over the course of
thirty-five days. This program keeps you working
each day at a reasonable pace.
THE FOUR-WEEK PROGRAM

The four-week program picks up the pace a bit.
It assumes that you work six days each week,
completing the program in twenty-four days. This
further assumes that you will usually devote at
least 1 hour of concentrated effort to the training
each daya little extra time in which to think
through the exercise will help.
Day Assignment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
LSAT Success
RED
Day Assignment
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
RA 1
Positioning
RA 2
S1
S 2, S 3
RA 3, S 4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
S 10
ALERT
QS2 Relationships sets

QS2 Relationships sets
S 11
QS2 Arguments sets
QS2 Arguments sets
S 12
QS2 Passages sets
QS2 Passages sets
S 13
S 14, WS 1
S 15
Simulated LSAT
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RED ALERT
THE THREE-WEEK PROGRAM
THE ONE-WEEK PROGRAM
The three-week program requires you to work at

an accelerated pace. It includes all of the
sessions and assumes that you will be able to put
in 112 to 2 hours of concentrated effort each day.
It also assumes that you work six days each
week, so you complete the program in eighteen
days.
This program is cutting it very fine. It includes

sessions that will produce the greatest impact in
seven days of 2-plus hours of concentrated effort
each day.
Day Assignment
1 RA 1,
Positioning
2 RA 2, S 1
3 S 2, S 3
4 RA 3, S 4
5 S 5, S 6
6 S7
7 S8
8 S9
9 S 10
Day Assignment
1
Day
Assignment
Day
RA 1,
Diagnostic
RA 2, S 1
8
9
S 2, S 3
10
RA 3, S 4
11
S 5, S 6
12
S 7, S 8, S 9
S 10, QS4
Relationships sets
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RA 2, S 1, S 2, S 3,
RA 3, S 4
S 5, S 6, S 7,
S 8, S 9
S 10, QS4
Relationships sets
3
S 11
QS4 Arguments sets
S 12
QS4 Passages sets
S 13
S 14, WS 1
S 15
Simulated LSAT
This program goes at warp speed. It assumes that

you will spend seven hours with the sessions in
the order set out. This can make a meaningful
difference in your performance, but dont expect
a miracle.
Assignment
S 11, QS4
Arguments sets
S 12, QS4
Passages sets
S 13, S 14
WS 1, S 15
Simulated LSAT
Assignment
Success
RA 2
S1
S3
RA 3
S4
S5
Assignment
RED
S 11, QS4
Arguments sets
S 12, QS4
Passages sets
S 13, S 14, S 15
THE ONE-DAY PROGRAM
The two-week program sets a demanding pace. It

compresses sessions and exercises. It assumes
that you will be able to put in 2 or more hours
of concentrated effort each day, for six days each
week.
3
4
5
6
7
10 QS4 Relationships sets
THE TWO-WEEK PROGRAM
RA 1, Diagnostic
Day Assignment
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Day Assignment
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
6
7
8
9
13
14
15
GETTING STARTED
First, complete the Diagnostic LSAT to get a feel
for the types of questions you will encounter and
an assessment of your strengths and weaknesses.
The next success sessions deal with two critical
factors in test performance that do not appear
directly on the LSAT: anxiety and academic
conditioning. After this, the sessions concentrate
on elements of the LSAT and the type of
reasoning required by law schools and the legal
system. The final sessions discuss techniques for
handling the LSAT Writing Sample and the test
environment.
ALERT
LSAT Success
RED ALERT
There are two LSAT practice tests included
in this book, as well as two more on the CD,
each of which contains five complete sections of
LSAT questions. You should train with practice
questions. A limited number of practice ques-
LSAT Success
RED
tions are required to develop the techniques

needed to prepare effectively for the LSAT. Once
you develop the requisite skills, you can practice
as much as you wish with questions that you can
get from the Law School Admission Council.
ALERT
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Diagnostic LSAT
BEFORE YOU BEGIN: ESTABLISHING YOUR SUCCESS POSITION
work area. No food, drink, smokes, or similar
digressions are permitted. Pencils with erasers
and a watch, clock, or other precise timing
device are essential. No reference materials,
scratch paper, or outside help may be used.
To reiterate, the LSAT score is determined
only by the number of best answers marked on
the answer sheet. Unlike similar standardized
tests, there is no penalty for guessing when you
dont know the answer. Omitted answers count
as wrong answers. Selecting a wrong answer is
no worse than omitting an answer, which means
that you should never omit an answer, whether
on the actual LSAT or in these introductory
exercises.
The diagnostic test that follows can be used to

develop basic performance information to
position you relative to the demands of the LSAT.
By completing the diagnostic test and recording
your responses as described below, you will
develop data about your reaction to a number of
the critical aspects of the LSAT. The results of
this positioning exercise provide a sense of your
present state of test readiness as well as of those
aspects of test performance that will benefit
most from LSAT training.
WHAT
ARE THESE POSITIONING
EXERCISES?
The test-maker is interested in results only.
Simply put, this means that you get credit for
only the number of best answers the scoring
machine finds on your answer sheet.
ALWAYS GUESS WHEN YOU DONT KNOW

THE ANSWER.
Follow the brief instructions that precede each
set of questions. The time you take to read them
is included in the time allotted for each exercise.
CREDIT IS GIVEN FOR THE NUMBER OF

BEST ANSWERS ONLY.
WHAT IS
SHEET?
(We will refer to best rather than right

answers throughout our work with the LSAT.
The reason will become clear later.) The point to
remember here is that the route you take to the
answer is of no interest to the test-maker: Your
score is the same whether you guess an answer
or spend 20 minutes figuring it out. This is the
first of many occasions where your interests
greatly differ from those of the test-maker. How
you select answers is crucial to your performance and its improvement, so the exercises in
this session are structured to elicit basic information about the way you select answers, as well as
the answers you select.
HOW
THE DIAGNOSTIC ANSWER
A single section answer sheet for use with this

diagnostic appears on page 11. Make copies of the
page for each section of the test. While the
answer sheet provides for a twenty-eight
question section, most LSAT test sections consist
of twenty-four questions. Only the Passages
section has twenty-eight questions. So for the
twenty-four-question sections, be sure to use only
the first twenty-four spaces on the answer sheet.
HOW
DO YOU MARK THE DIAGNOSTIC
ANSWER SHEET?
DO YOU COMPLETE THE
The format of the answer grid used with these

exercises is different from that of typical
standardized tests and of the actual LSAT. As is
typical, there are five bubbles that correspond to
the answer options for each question, but there
are two additional bubbles in our diagnostic.
POSITIONING EXERCISES?
Before beginning, make certain that you will not
be interrupted during the time required to
complete the test or test sections. Turn off the
phone, hang out your Do Not Disturb or Privacy
Please sign, and secure the perimeter of your
DIAGNOSTIC LSAT
plete the Answer and Analysis Sheet by following
the instructions below. Once completed, you will
analyze the data on the form and learn more
about where you stand with respect to the LSAT.
On the Answer and Analysis Sheet, you will
find a series of rows and columns. Record the
data required down each column as you work
your way across the rows. Place the answer
choices you made in each exercise in the spaces
provided.
These bubbles contain the letters G and T

(G for guess and T for time).
1.
A B C D E G T
j jjj j j j
There are three possible situations that apply to

every question you answer in the diagnostic. Be
sure you understand them fully.
Situation 1
Situation 1 involves the certain answer selection
that you make when you are sure of the best
answer to a question. You blacken the space on
the answer sheet that corresponds to your
answer selection for that question.
Recording Best Answers

Recording the best-answer results is straightforward. If your blackened answer matches the Best
Answer found in the answer section of this book,
place a Y in the corresponding space in the Best
Match column. If your blackened answer does
not match the Best Answer, place an N in the
corresponding space in the Best Match column.
Total the number of Ys and Ns, and enter
those numbers in the Totals spaces in the Best
Match column for that exercise.
Situation 2
Situation 2 involves guessing after consideration
of the question and the answer options. When
there are more than two answer options about
which you are uncertain, make an additional
mark on your answer sheet.
For example, suppose you consider
question 1 and determine that answer option B is
wrong, but you cannot narrow the other options.
In fact, you cannot decide among the four
remaining optionsA, C, D, and E.
Recording Guesses
Recording guessing results requires you to
review both your original answers and the Best
Match column. If you Xd a G on your answer
sheet, place a Y in the corresponding space on
the first of the two Guessing columns. Otherwise
enter an N in that column. Only when you enter
a Y in the first column do you refer to the Best
Match column. If there is a matching Y for that
question in the Best Match column, enter a Y in
the second Guessing column.
Total the number of Ys and enter those
numbers in the Totals spaces in the Guessing
columns for that exercise.
1. First, decide which of the four options is

best, and blacken the space that
corresponds to this selection.
2. Next, place an X over the space designated G (for guess) on the answer sheet.
Situation 3
Situation 3 involves insufficient time. When you
have had insufficient time to consider all
questions on the exercise within the 35-minute
period, you indicate this fact by making two
marks on your answer sheet.
For example, suppose that you do not have
time to consider question 1.
Recording Times
Recording those answers where you had
insufficient time requires you to review both
your original answers and the Best Match
column. If you Xd a T on your answer sheet,
place a Y in the corresponding space on the first
of the two Time columns. Otherwise, enter an N
in that column. Only when you enter a Y in the
first Time column do you refer to the Best Match
column. If there is a matching Y for that question in the Best Match column, enter a Y in the
second Time column.
Total the number of Ys and enter those
numbers in the Totals spaces in the Time
columns for that exercise.
1. First, blacken the space that corresponds

to your random selection or guess of an
answer.
2. Next, place an X over the space designated T (for time) on the answer sheet.
RECORDING
YOUR ANSWERS
What is next? In order to determine your present

position with respect to the various demands
made of you by the LSAT, you must first com-
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LSAT Success
BEFORE YOU BEGIN: ESTABLISHING YOUR SUCCESS POSITION
What Is the Next Step?
Guessing Position
Now you have the raw materials. Analyzing the

exercise results comes next. As you will have
gathered from your work on the answer key, we
are looking at four different aspects of your
performanceoverall, question types, time, and
guessing.
As you work through the analysis, remember that the exercises are designed to provide
preliminary information about your performance,
not to develop expectations for your performance. It is only in the course of your training
that performance expectations will be established. And, by training, your performance will
improve on all aspects of the LSAT.
Most people do some guessing on the LSAT. You

were asked to indicate every question for which you
were required to guess. To determine your guessing
factor, enter on the corresponding lines below the
total Ys for each exercise from the first Guessing
column. Then complete the necessary calculations.
OVERALL
Section 1
(Relationships)
Section 2
(Arguments)
Section 3
(Relationships)
Section 4
(Passages)
Section 5
(Arguments)
TEST POSITION
On the corresponding lines below, enter the

total Ys for each exercise from the Best Match
column on the answer key. After you enter this
data, complete the three calculations indicated,
and total the results.
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
Section 1
(Relationships)
Section 3
(Relationships)
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____ 48 100____%
Ys____
Ys____
Ys____
Ys____
Ys____
Section 2
(Arguments)
Section 5
(Arguments)
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____ 48 100____%
Total Ys____ 124 100 ____%
Section 4
(Passages)
The final calculation immediately above expresses your overall position as a percentage of
questions for which you selected the best
answer. Simply speaking, the LSAT is designed so
that in order to get an average score, the
test-taker (you) needs to select slightly more than
60 percent of the best answers. The nature of
the LSAT scoring system is such that getting a
small number of best answers above 60 percent
results in a relatively large increase in the
placement of that score on the LSAT scale. The
higher the percentage of questions for which
you selected the best answer, the stronger your
position.
Total Ys____
Total Ys____ 28 100____%
It is likely that the amount of guessing you have

done varies from one question type to another.
The higher the percentage, the more you were
required to guess. By comparing percentages,
you determine your relative need to guess.
The percentage of guessed answers that are
Best Answers indicates your present position with
respect to guessing. To determine this figure, enter on the corresponding lines the total Gs for
each question type (Relationships, Arguments, and
Passages) from the second Guessing column. Then
enter the total Ys for each exercise from the first
Guessing column. Complete the calculations.
Arguments
Passages
Total Gs
100 = ____%
Total Ys
Relationships
LSAT Success
Total Gs
100 = ____%
Total Ys
Total Gs
100 = ____%
Total Ys
www.petersons.com
DIAGNOSTIC LSAT
Question-Type Position
To the extent that any of these percentages

exceeds 20 percent, your guessing is better than
predicted by statistics. Your training will prepare
you to guess best and to recognize when guessing
will produce your highest possible score.
Finally, your performance is analyzed by the type

of question. This analysis assumes that you have
completed all five sections of the Diagnostic
Test. Enter on the corresponding lines below the
total Ys for each exercise from the Best Match
column on the answer key. After you enter this
data, complete the calculations indicated.
Time Position
On the answer blanks, you marked every question
you did not have time to consider. To determine your
position with respect to the use of available time,
enter on the corresponding lines the total Ys from
the Time column for each exercise. Then complete
the calculations indicated.
Section 1
(Relationships)
Section 2
(Arguments)
Section 3
(Relationships)
Section 4
(Passages)
Section 5
(Arguments)
Section 1
(Relationships)
Section 3
(Relationships)
Section 1
(Relationships)
Section 2
(Arguments)
Section 3
(Relationships)
Section 4
(Passages)
Section 5
(Arguments)
Section 1
(Relationships)
Section 3
(Relationships)
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Section 2
(Arguments)
Section 5
(Arguments)
Total Ys____
Section 4
(Passages)
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____ 28 100____%
Most test-takers perform somewhat differently on

the three question types. This reflects the fact
that most test-takers perform differently when
dealing with the three question types on the
LSAT. Your position is set out in percentages that
represent your question-type proficiency. When
compared, these percentages indicate your
relative strengths and weaknesses in working
with the question types. The higher the percentage, the stronger your position.
This performance information is not
reported to the law schools, but it is useful to
you to determine the question types with which
you are most and least proficient. Your training
will have the greatest impact in those areas
where you are weakest and the largest gains may
be realized.
Total Ys____
Total Ys____ 28 100____%
It is likely that your position regarding the use of

time varies from one question type to another.
The higher the percentage, the more certain you
can be that, for you, time is a major score factor
with respect to that question type. A comparison
of percentages will reveal your relative proficiencies. For most people, time appears to be the
critical score factor on the LSAT. Further work
will clearly identify for you what would be your
optimal use of test time.
www.petersons.com
Total Ys____
Total Ys____ 48 100____%

Total Ys____
Total Ys____ 48 100____%

Section 4
(Passages)
Total Ys____
Total Ys____
Total Ys____ 48 100____%
Total Ys____ 48 100____%

Section 2
(Arguments)
Section 5
(Arguments)
Total Ys____
10
LSAT Success
LSAT DIAGNOSTIC TEST ANSWER AND ANALYSIS SHEET
LSAT DIAGNOSTIC TEST ANSWER

AND ANALYSIS SHEET
Best
Answer
B-Match
(Y or N)
Guessing
(Y or N)
G-Match
(Y or N)
Time
(Y or N)
T-Match
(Y or N)
A B C D E G T
1. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
2. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
3. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
4. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
5. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
6. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
7. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
8. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
9. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
10. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
11. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
12. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
13. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
14. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
15. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
16. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
17. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
18. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
19. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
20. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
21. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
22. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
23. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
24. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
25. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
26. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
27. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
A B C D E G T
28. j j j j j j j
______
______
______
______
______
______
Ys____
Ys____
Ys____
Ys____
Ys____
Ys____
Ns____
Ns____
Ns____
Ns____
Ns____
Ns____
Section ____________
TOTALS
LSAT Success
11
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Diagnostic Test
SECTION 1
TIME35
3. If A locates on the floor directly above C,

which of the following is both a complete
and an accurate list of the floors where C
can locate?
The questions in this section are based on a

set of conditions. A diagram may be helpful
in the answer selection process. Select the
best answer to each question and mark the
corresponding space on the answer sheet.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Questions 16
Eight businesses, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H, are
moving into a new eight-story building. Two
businesses will not locate on the same floor.
Each business will occupy one entire floor. The
floors of the new building are numbered one
through eight from the ground floor to the top
floor. Any plan for locating the businesses in the
building must meet the following requirements:
(A) C locates on a floor

D and above E.
(B) C locates on a floor
below E.
(C) A locates on a floor
E and below D.
(D) C locates on a floor
above D.
(E) A locates on a floor
above D.
1. If F locates on a floor directly below E, F

can locate on floor
somewhere below
somewhere
somewhere above
somewhere
somewhere
5. If F locates on a floor somewhere above G,

and if G locates on a floor directly above H,
which of the following could be true?
two
three
four
five
six
(A) G locates on floor seven.

(B) H locates on a floor somewhere
above D.
(C) H locates on a floor directly above B.
(D) G locates on floor three.
(E) F locates on a floor directly below E.
2. If A locates on a floor exactly three floors

above E, A must be on floor
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
two, seven
two, three
three, seven
one, two, seven
two, three, eight
4. If A locates on a floor somewhere above C,

and if C locates on a floor somewhere above
H, which of the following must be true?
B is to locate on the sixth floor.

D is to locate on the fourth floor.
E is to locate somewhere below Ds floor.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
24 QUESTIONS
MINUTES
four
five
six
seven
eight
6. If A and E can locate only on even-numbered floors, which of the following

CANNOT be true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
13
C locates on floor eight.

G locates on floor seven.
F locates on floor five.
E locates on floor two.
H locates on floor three.
DIAGNOSTIC TEST
11. If Ss line is busy and all of the other lines
are open, which of the following calls
CANNOT be made directly, through a
transfer, or through a series of transfers?
Questions 712
The First National Bank has five branches, S, T,
U, V, and W. The telephone system that connects the branches is not working properly. The
branch managers have determined that they can
place direct calls from their branches only to
certain other branches. They have further
determined that a branch can transfer calls to
any branch to which it can place a direct call
and can transfer calls only to such branches.
Direct calls can be made only from:
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
12. If Ts line is busy and all of the other lines

are open, which of the following calls can
be made directly, through a transfer, or
through a series of transfers?
S to V
T to S and U
U to T
V to T
W to S and U
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
7. Which of the following branches CANNOT

receive calls from any other branch?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Adam, Beth, Cal, Darla, Ed, and Fern are cousins.

No two cousins are the same age, but all have
their birthdays on the same date.
The youngest is 17 years old and the oldest,
Ed, is 22.
Fern is somewhere between Beth and Darla in
age.
Adam is older than Beth.
Cal is older than Darla.
T only
U only
U and V only
T and W only
T and U only
13. Which of the following must be true if

exactly two of the cousins are between Cal
and Fern in age?
9. How can T call V?

(A) T can call V directly.
(B) T can call S, which can transfer the
call to V.
(C) T can call U, which can transfer the
call to V.
(D) T can call W, which can transfer the
call to V.
(E) There is no way that T can call V.
(A) Adam is between Fern and Darla in

age.
(B) Beth is younger than Darla.
(C) Beth is 17 years old.
(D) Fern is 18 years old.
(E) Exactly one of the cousins is between
Beth and Adam in age.
14. Which of the following must be true if Cal
is 19 years old?
10. If all lines are open, which of the following

calls requires the greatest number of
transfers?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
T to V
S to T
V to S
U to V
W to T
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U to V
U to S
V to U
V to S
W to V
Questions 1318
S
T
U
V
W
8. Which of the following offices can call S

with exactly one transfer?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
V to T
U to V
V to U
W to T
W to U
14
Adam is 19 years old and Darla is 21.

Beth is 19 years old and Adam is 20.
Beth is 20 years old and Adam is 21.
Darla is 17 years old and Beth is 21.
Fern is 19 years old and Adam is 20.
LSAT Success
SECTION 1
20. It could be true that Sarah arrived at
rehearsal
15. Which of the following could be the ages of

Darla and Cal, respectively, if Beth is 17
years old?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
18
18
18
19
19
and
and
and
and
and
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
19
20
21
21
22
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Beth is younger than Cal.

Fern is between Cal and Ed in age.
Fern is older than Beth.
Adam is 18 years old.
Darla is 17 years old.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
2
3
4
5
6
0..4
1..4
0..3
1..3
2..3
23. Which of the following is an accurate and

complete list of the people who must have
arrived at rehearsal before Ray?
18. Which of the following is NOT possible?

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Sarah and Wendy arrived together.

Nell and Paul arrived together.
Ray and Ted arrived together.
Nell and Ted arrive together.
Wendy and Nell arrive together.
22. What are the minimum and the maximum

number of people, respectively, who could
have arrived after Sarah and before Ray?
17. If Adam is one year older than Cal, the

number of logically possible orderings of all
six cousins by increasing age is
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Ray and before Paul

Wendy and before Ray
Nell
Ray
Ted
21. Which of the following CANNOT be true?
16. Which of the following must be true if

exactly two of the cousins are between Cal
and Ed in age?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
after
after
with
with
with
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)

Fern is 19 years old.
Nell, Sarah
Sarah, Ted
Sarah, Wendy
Nell, Sarah, Wendy
Nell, Sarah, Ted, Wendy
24. If exactly two people arrived at rehearsal

after Nell and before Ray, they must be
Questions 1924
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Nell, Ray, Paul, Sarah, Ted, and Wendy are all of

the members of a singing group. They meet once
a week to rehearse.
Last week Ray arrived after Wendy but before
Paul.
Ted arrived after Sarah but before Paul.
Nell arrived after Sarah but before Ray.
Ted and Wendy

Sarah and Wendy
Sarah and Ted
Paul and Wendy
Paul and Ted
19. In which order could the group members

have arrived at rehearsal?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Nell, Wendy, Sarah, Ted, Ray, Paul

Sarah, Ted, Nell, Ray, Paul, Wendy
Sarah, Wendy, Ray, Nell, Ted, Paul
Ted, Nell, Wendy, Ray, Paul, Sarah
Wendy, Sarah, Nell, Ray, Ted, Paul
LSAT Success
15
www.petersons.com
DIAGNOSTIC TEST
SECTION 2
TIME35
MINUTES
24 QUESTIONS
3. Everyone who attended all of the seminars

is bound to know enough to pass the
examination.
Evaluate the reasoning contained in the brief

statements, and select the best answer. Do
not make implausible, superfluous, or incompatible assumptions. Select the best answer
to each question, and mark the corresponding space on the answer sheet.
This assertion logically expresses which of

the following?
(A) It was nearly impossible to pass the
exam if a person did not attend the
seminar regularly.
(B) Seminar attendance was low, and the
examination failure rate was high.
(C) Everybody who passed the test
attended the seminar regularly.
(D) Attendees did not have to do work
outside the seminars in order to pass
the examination.
(E) The seminar presentations were
consistently excellent.
1. Austin: Over time, solar energy will replace

the depleting store of fossil fuels. So,
development of solar energy should be a
priority.
Hanna: I disagree. Solar energy systems are
crude and the supply of coal is sufficient for
our needs.
The misunderstanding between Austin and
Hanna is based upon
4. Price and wage controls are the only way to

control inflation. But wage controls limit
worker spending, which, in turn, results in
reduced corporate profits if price controls
are in place.
(A) different assumptions of the size of

available fossil fuel
(B) different beliefs about the environmental benefits of solar energy
(C) different understandings of existing
solar energy technology
(D) different perspectives on time
(E) different views of energy economics
Assume the above statements are true.

Which of the following statements also must
be true if corporate profits are not decreasing?
2. Dictators well appreciate freedom, but for

themselves. In their view, others do not
deserve freedom. The contempt that a
dictator feels for others is in direct proportion to the admiration that person has for
absolute government.
(A) If there is inflation, wage controls are

not in place.
(B) If there is inflation, it is not being
controlled.
(C) Workers have less money to spend.
(D) Price controls are in effect.
(E) Wage controls are in effect.
Given the above statement, people who

respect universal political freedom would
(A) admire the concept that absolute
government be despots
(B) understand political despots
(C) appreciate their personal freedom
(D) respect their fellow citizens
(E) find few people who deserve freedom
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16
LSAT Success
SECTION 2
5. People who do not understand the laws of
probability often explain random happenings as the work of supernatural forces.
Those people would be much less likely to
believe in the supernatural if they had
knowledge of statistical probability.
7. The psychological stress of telling a lie

produces certain physiological changes. By
using appropriate instruments, the physiological symptoms of lying can be measured
and result in reliable lie detection.
Which of the following, if true, most
weakens the above argument?
The author of the above would agree most

with which of the following?
(A) Lie detectors are sensitive machines

that require constant maintenance.
(B) Lying is only moderately stressinducing to some people.
(C) Lie detector operators must be highly
trained and careful.
(D) Numerous kinds of psychological
stress produce similar physiological
symptoms.
(E) Measurement instruments such as lie
detectors can be misused and abused.
(A) Supernatural forces must obey the

laws of probability.
(B) There is a scientific explanation for
every occurrence.
(C) Phenomenology is a valid form of
understanding.
(D) Knowledge of the laws of probability
reduces the likelihood of a person
believing in the supernatural.
(E) Natural causes produce random
happenings.
8. Performing outstanding medical research

requires more than a simple talent and more
than a simple explanation. A drive to solve
problems is clearly a part of it. Also critical
is the ability to identify the right questions
to ask. Thus, if we are to produce successful medical researchers, our universities
must cultivate dedication and creativity
rather than merely convey information.
6. The distinctive yellow-green colors of

Vincent van Goghs paintings may have
resulted from now known side effects of
the drug digitalis. Digitalis was a commonly
prescribed drug during the time van Gogh
lived, and in portraits of the physician who
treated van Gogh, he is holding a branch of
foxglove, the plant from which digitalis is
made.
If true, which of the following would be the

strongest objection to the argument of the
passage above?
The point of the passage is made primarily

by
(A) presenting clear evidence of cause and
effect
(B) presenting circumstantial evidence
(C) connecting digitalis to van Goghs
paintings
(D) citing specific documentary evidence
(E) referring to opinions of established
authorities
LSAT Success
(A) Researchers have a genuine curiosity

about the world.
(B) Scientific talent is only a small facet of
what makes an outstanding researcher.
(C) The proper function of our universities
is not to produce outstanding researchers, but to create well-rounded
graduates.
(D) Developing creativity in students is
less important for the cultivation of
research talent than is instilling a sense
of dedication.
(E) Teachers often cause harm when they
attempt to do more than convey
information.
17
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DIAGNOSTIC TEST
9. If they get customers to believe that earlier
patrons have given large tips, cosmetologists
can get larger tips from them. However, if
cosmetologists give the impression that they
are wealthy, their customers will not tip
them at all.
11. Unlike the more traditional energy sources

of coal, gas, and nuclear energy, energy
from the sun produces no major problems.
It produces no pollution and requires no
transportation from foreign lands. It
threatens no one with radiation dangers and
is not controlled by powerful corporations.
Therefore, we should encourage people to
use solar energy.
Which of the following draws the most

reliable conclusion from the passage?
(A) Wealthy people should not be
cosmetologists.
(B) If a cosmetologist is wealthy, he or
she will not usually receive big tips.
(C) If customers feel that a cosmetologist
is not wealthy, they will tip generously.
(D) Customers often give tips according to
their perceptions of the cosmetologist
and of the actions of other customers.
(E) Patrons are not usually influenced by
the quality of the service provided by
the cosmetologist when they determine the amount of their tips.
Which of the following statements, if true,

most seriously weakens this argument?
(A) There have been very few studies of
solar energy use by households.
(B) The cost of oil and gas could be
regulated to make it less costly for
home consumption.
(C) The cost of the equipment required to
collect enough solar energy for a
family of four equals the amount a
family now pays for oil, gas, or nuclear
produced energy in one year.
(D) Most critics of solar energy are
connected to energy monopolies.
(E) An effective way for families to
capture and store solar energy has not
yet been developed.
10. Nursing-home residents have the right to

refuse treatment. Forcing a resident to take
sedatives, unless that person threatens the
well-being of others, is a clear affront to
human dignity, an illegal invasion of privacy,
and an intolerable violation of the individuals right to think and make decisions about
ones own welfare.
12. Even though art need not have an intellectual appeal, neither is it something that
immediately can be appreciated without
previous experiences that have deepened
ones capacity for appreciation. So it follows
that to get full enjoyment from art, people
must commit considerable time and effort
to developing their ability to observe and
understand art.
A major assumption in this argument is that

(A) residents in nursing homes are no
threat to the well-being of others
(B) treatment in nursing homes is clearly
harmful to residents
(C) sedating drugs should not be used as a
treatment in nursing homes
(D) nursing-home residents are capable of
making decisions about their own
welfare
(E) the privacy rights of most residents of
nursing homes are not protected
www.petersons.com
The point of the argument in the above

paragraph is that
(A) the enjoyment of art has little to do
with the intellect
(B) viewing art does not always result in
an increase of a persons appreciation
(C) art has a universal appeal
(D) the ability to enjoy art often requires
preparation
(E) art that is enjoyed usually deepens a
persons capacity for appreciation
18
LSAT Success
SECTION 2
13. In France, as presidents have worked to
expand their personal power, they have
simultaneously achieved positive goals far
beyond their own and far beyond those of
their political parties. Well-executed
struggles for presidential power contribute
both to governmental effectiveness and
qualitative improvements in public policy.
15. The different types of speech therapy based

on experience produce virtually the same
rates of success. While practitioner proponents of each type of therapy assert that
their procedure is different from the others,
studies of the results achieved by every one
of these treatments show no significant
differences in effectiveness.
This author argues that
It can be best inferred from the statement

above that
(A) French presidents are responsible for

governmental effectiveness
(B) skillful exercises of presidential power
are desirable, regardless of the reasons
(C) presidential effectiveness in public
policy is as important as political
ideology
(D) struggles to gain presidential power
produce far-reaching beneficial results
(E) a presidents efforts to gain power
counterbalance that individuals gains
(A) there are few differences among the

different types of speech therapies
considered
(B) the speech therapies discussed are less
effective than other types of treatment
(C) the differences among the various
speech therapies considered are not
causally relevant to their effectiveness
(D) practitioner proponents differ substantially in their conceptions of therapeutic success
(E) practitioner proponents ignore the
connection between therapeutic
experience and effectiveness
14. The fact that one person is homely and

another is beautiful is not viewed as morally
wrong; yet, a drug dealer retiring on his
millions while a retired clerk is forced to go
on welfare is considered morally reprehensible. These differences in views result from
the arbitrary, illogical, and inconsistent
application of moral standards.
Questions 1617
A sandhog claims that he has a list of thirty
deceased workers who worked as a group on a
tunnel that cut through a radon-intense area. He
started his list after an oncologist reported that
the incidences of cancer among sandhogs were
five times greater than the incidence of cancer
among other construction workers. The tunnel
contractor states that its records show that no
sandhogs working on the tunnel were exposed
to more radiation than was safe.
A critic of the stated position would most

likely point out that
(A) conditions created by nature can be
differentiated from conditions created
by society
(B) beauty is often a burden, and society
should not begrudge beautiful people
their looks
(C) people regularly maintain inconsistent
views
(D) looks are not as admirable as working
(E) arbitrary distinctions and illogical
judgments form the basis of moral
standards
LSAT Success
16. If true, which of the following statements

most damages the contractors claim?
(A) The medical records of the oncologist
were accurate.
(B) All thirty of the deceased sandhogs
died of radiation-related cancer.
(C) The contractor has denied requests to
inspect its radiation records.
(D) Sandhogs contract illness at higherthan-normal rates.
(E) The remaining sandhogs that worked
on the tunnel show no signs of illness.
19
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DIAGNOSTIC TEST
17. Which of the following conclusions can be
drawn most reliably from the passage?
19. The author does NOT address which of the

following?
(A) Radiation did not cause cancer in the

sandhogs.
(B) The contractor is not being truthful
about the radiation.
(C) The records of the contractor are
likely to be inaccurate or incomplete.
(D) The sandhogs were exposed to
radiation elsewhere rather than in the
tunnel.
(E) There is disagreement about the level
of radiation that is safe.
(A) the results from people not participating in the electoral process
(B) consequences of a consumers refusal
to purchase a product
(C) how citizens can effectively express
dissatisfaction with the two major
political parties
(D) why many citizens refuse to vote
(E) differences between the role of the
voter and that of the consumer
20. The author attempts to make her point by
18. The vast majority of people now depend on

the media, both electronic and press, for
information about criminal trials, instead of
personal observation or spectator reports.
Thus, the media serve as representatives of
those private citizen observers and reporters
of trials.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
21. When your office is above the fourth floor,

it has two exits.
Given that the public has the right to know

about trials, the authors position above best
justifies which of the following?
From which of the following can the above

statement be logically deduced?
(A) No offices on the fourth floor have
two exits.
(B) Unless it is above the fourth floor, an
office does not have two exits.
(C) All offices above the fourth floor have
fire escapes.
(D) Some offices on the fourth floor have
two exits.
(E) Two exit offices do not exist below
the fourth floor.
(A) limiting nonmedia access to trials

(B) censoring media reports on criminal
court proceedings
(C) sequestering juries in criminal trials
that are covered by the media
(D) expanding the right of the press to be
present and cover trial proceedings
(E) requiring prosecuting and defense
lawyers to give press briefings in
criminal trials
22. The automation of industry throws people

out of work; therefore, machines are
harmful.
Questions 1920
The excuse for not voting that is most commonly
given by citizens is that the two major political
parties do not offer competent candidates or
meaningful policies and positions. The nonvoting
citizen believes that by expressing dissatisfaction
as a consumer in the political process by not
casting his or her ballot, the parties will put
forward better candidates and positions. But this
misconceives the role of voter as that of consumer. In the marketplace, defection to another
product or failure to purchase a product sends a
powerful message that results in change,
improvement, and innovation. But not voting in
the political process will not produce a smorgasbord, but rather, will result in a menu with a
single entree and two side dishes.
www.petersons.com
constructing a simile
discrediting an analogy
making a circular argument
offering a unique hypothesis
presenting new evidence
The argument above is most like which of

the following?
(A) Hitler was a fascist; therefore, he was
evil.
(B) Fatty foods are harmful; therefore,
eating butter is dangerous.
(C) The senator steals public funds;
therefore, he is dishonest.
(D) Alcoholic beverages are high in
calories; therefore, beer is fattening.
(E) Pigeons spread diseases; therefore,
birds are nuisances.
20
LSAT Success
SECTION 2
24. Scientists have found through experimentation that baby female gorillas who were
nurtured by inanimate mother substitutes
that performed some parenting functions
were unable to function as mothers when
they had offspring. This teaches us that
infants should not be placed in the care of
babysitters and day-care centers but only
should be raised by their natural mothers.
23. Five separate applications of the pesticide

failed to rid the area of the mites. Only the
most resistant of the mites survived each
application. When the surviving mites
reproduced, their offspring resisted the
pesticide more effectively than did the
parents.
Which of the following conclusions can
best be drawn from the statement above?
The conclusion reached by the author

would be strengthened by which of the
following?
(A) Normally, more pesticide-resistant

mites tend to mate with less resistant
mites.
(B) The mites that survived each exposure
grew more pesticide resistant with
each application.
(C) The pesticide applications did not
coincide with the mating season of the
mites.
(D) The pesticide was formulated to kill
the mites in one application.
(E) Resistance to the pesticide is passed
from parent to offspring.
LSAT Success
(A) The scientists found that the baby

gorillas in the experiments were very
dependent on each other.
(B) The gorilla babies in the experiments
would only accept food from the
scientists, not from the surrogate
mothers.
(C) Baby gorillas that had brief but regular
exposure to their natural mothers
were able to function as mothers later.
(D) Baby gorillas raised by females other
than their own mothers were unable
to function as mothers when they had
offspring.
(E) Mature female gorillas that were
raised by the mother substitutes
could be taught many mothering
functions when they had offspring.
21
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DIAGNOSTIC TEST
SECTION 3
TIME35
4. By the addition of exactly one more

ingredient, which of the following could
make an acceptable combination of
ingredients?

best answer to each question and mark the
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Questions 16
A chef is preparing sauces using eight different
ingredientsH, J, K, L, M, N, O, and P. According to the recipes, the following requirements
apply to the use of the ingredients:
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
H, J, K, O
H, L, M, P
L, M, N, P
K, L, M, O
M, N, O, P
Point P is 20 miles along a straight line from

point R.
Point Q is 10 miles along a straight line from
point R.
Point S is 5 miles along a straight line from
point Q.
J
L
N
O
P
7. Which of the following must be true?

(A) If S is 5 miles from R, then S is 25
miles from P.
(B) If R is 15 miles from S, then S is 35
miles from P.
(C) If Q is 15 miles from P, then S is 20
miles from P.
(D) If S is 5 miles from P, then Q is 10
miles from P.
(E) If Q is 10 miles from P, then S is 5
miles from P.
3. In a sauce in which J is used, what is the

smallest number of additional ingredients
that would meet recipe requirements?
1
2
3
5
6
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2
3
4
5
6
Questions 712
2. Which of the following CANNOT be

included in a sauce that contains M?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
H
J
K
L
P
6. Exactly how many ingredients can be used

as the only ingredients of a sauce?
1. Which of the following is an acceptable

combination of ingredients for a sauce?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
H, L, P
J, N, M
K, L, N
K, M, P
L, M, O
5. Which ingredient must be omitted from the

combination H, J, K, L, P to meet the recipe
requirements?
If J is used, both K and P must also be used.

M and N must always be used together.
If K is used, at least two of H, J, and O must
also be used.
K and N cannot be used together.
M, O, and P cannot all be used in the same
dish.
H, L, and P cannot all be used in the same
dish.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
24 QUESTIONS
MINUTES
22
LSAT Success
SECTION 3
8. If R is 5 miles from S, which of the following must be true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
S
S
S
S
S
is
is
is
is
is
closer
closer
closer
closer
closer
to
to
to
to
to
Questions 1318
Seven peopleK, N, O, P, Q, R, and Wown
condominiums in a four-story building.
P than to R.
Q than to R.
Q than to P.
P than to Q.
R than to P.
The floors are numbered one through four,

consecutively, from bottom to top.
Floor one has only one condo.
Each of floors two, three, and four have two
condos.
K lives in a condo on one of the floors
beneath R.
P lives in a condo on one of the floors above
the condos of Q and N.
N and O live in condos on the same floor.
Only one person owns each condo.

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
P is closer to Q than to R.
Q is closer to R than to P.
R is closer to P than to S.
R is closer to S than to Q.
S is closer to P than to R.
10. If Q is due west of R and R is due east of P,

all of the following must be true EXCEPT:
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
13. Which of the following must be true if Ks

condo is on the second floor?
Q is due east of P
Q is 10 miles from P
S is at most 15 miles from P
S is at most 15 miles from R
S is due east of P
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
11. If R is due west of P and S is 5 miles from

P, which of the following must be true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
14. Which of the following must be true if Ks

condo is on the third floor?
S is farther from P than from R.

R is farther from Q than from S.
S is farther from R than from Q.
S is farther from P than from Q.
Q is farther from S than from P.
(A) Ks condo and Qs condo are on the

same floor.
(B) Os condo is two floors below Rs
condo.
(C) Ws condo is on the first floor.
(D) Qs condo is on the fourth floor.
(E) Ks condo is on the first floor.
12. If Q is due south of R and S is due north of

Q, all of the following must be true
EXCEPT:
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Qs condo is on the first floor.

Rs condo is on a floor below O.
Ns condo is two floors above W.
Rs condo is on the fourth floor.
Ws condo is on the third floor.
15. Which is a complete and accurate list of

those owners whose condos could be on
the fourth floor?
S is farther from P than R is from P

R is farther from S than Q is from S
P is farther from Q than P is from R
Q is farther from R than S is from R
P is farther from R than Q is from R
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
R, W
Q, R
P, W
P, Q, R
P, R, W
16. Which of the following is a complete and

accurate list of the floors on which their
condos could be located, if the condos of P
and R are on the same floor?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
LSAT Success
23
two
three
four
two, three
three, four
www.petersons.com
DIAGNOSTIC TEST
20. Who must sit in the chairs on either side of
E if B sits next to D and if C sits next to F?
17. Which of the following provides sufficient

additional information to determine the
floor location of every condo?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Ks condo is on the first floor.

Rs condo is on the second floor.
Ws condo is on the first floor.
Ws condo is on the second floor.
Ws condo is on the fourth floor.
21. Who must sit directly across the table from

F if C sits next to D and if E sits next to F?
18. If Ps condo is on the third floor, all of the

following are true EXCEPT:
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(A) Rs condo is one floor above Ks

condo
(B) Ns condo is one floor below Rs
condo
(C) Ps condo and Ks condo are on the
same floor
(D) Qs condo is on the first floor
(E) Ws condo is on the fourth floor
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
B, C, D, E, F, and G are to be seated at a round

table. Each of exactly six chair faces the center
of the table and is directly opposite a chair
across the table. The following requirements
apply to the seating arrangements.
1
2
3
4
5
23. Who must sit in the chairs on either side of

G if C sits directly across the table from E?
D must sit next to F.

B cannot sit next to F.
C cannot sit next to G.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
19. If D is one of the two people who sit next

to E, which of the following is a complete
and accurate list of the other person who
can sit next to E?
C and D
D and E
E and F
B and E
B and F
24. If B sits directly across the table from F,

each of the following could be true
EXCEPT:
B
C
G
B, C
C, G
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C
B
D
E
G
22. If C sits immediately to the left of F and D

sits immediately to the right of F, which is
the total number of arrangements in which
the others can be seated in relation to one
another?
Questions 1924
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
B and G
B and C
B and F
C and D
C and G
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
24
C sits directly across from E

C sits next to E
D sits next to E
G sits next to E
D sits directly across from G
LSAT Success
SECTION 4
SECTION 4
TIME35
The questions in this section are based on

what is stated or implied in the passage.
Select the best answer to each question, and
mark the corresponding space on the answer
sheet.
MINUTES
45
50
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10
15
20
25
30
35
40
It is not easy to describe the present

position of legal opinion on advertising and
free speech. Only a poet can capture the
essence of chaos. Nor is it easy to foresee
how things will develop. Lacking any
rationale for the First Amendment, with the
courts depending on time-honored slogans
to sustain conclusions, there is no obvious
resting place, from the moment the slogans
cease to work their magic. At the present
time, the courts are tending to bring a
greater proportion of advertising within the
protection of the First Amendment. And
cases now proceeding through the courts,
such as the litigation concerning what egg
producers can say about heart disease and
cholesterol or what can be said about
margarine in advertisements, will undoubtedly continue the process. Where will it
end?
Some legal writers have sought to
treat First Amendment rights as being, in
some sense, absolute and have objected to
what is termed the balancing by the
courts of these rights against others. But
such balancing is inevitable if judges must
direct their attention to the general welfare.
Freedom to speak and write is bound to be
restricted when exercise of these freedoms
prevents the carrying out of other activities
that people value. Thus is it reasonable that
First Amendment freedoms should be
curtailed when they impair the enjoyment
of life (privacy), inflict great damage on
others (slander and libel), are disturbing
(loudness), destroy incentives to carry out
useful work (copyright), create dangers for
society (sedition and national security), or
are offensive and corrupting (obscenity)?
The determination of the boundaries to
which a doctrine can be applied is not
likely to come about in a very conscious or
LSAT Success
55
60
65
70
28 QUESTIONS
even consistent way. But it is through

recognition of the fact that rights should be
assigned to those to whom they are most
valuable that such boundaries come to be
set. It is only in recent years that there has
been any serious consideration of the
relation of advertising to freedom of speech
and of writing. Now that the value of
advertising in providing information has
been accepted, it seems improbable that it
will long be thought that this is true only
for price advertising. And the action of the
Federal Trade Commission in treating
prohibitions by professional associations of
advertising by their members as anticompetitive will bring greater awareness of the
informational role of advertising. Similarly,
the many studies of the failures of government regulatory agencies that have been
made in recent years are bound to make
the courts somewhat reluctant to expand
and more willing to take advantage of
opportunities to contract the regulation of
advertising. Where will it end? It seems
likely that the law will be interpreted to
allow the Federal Trade Commission to
continue to regulate false and deceptive
advertising, but with greater freedom for
what can be said in advertising than now
exists, and with somewhat diminished
powers for the various government
agencies that regulate advertising.
1. Which of the following best describes the

point of the passage?
(A) The First Amendment is primarily a
collection of slogans.
(B) All advertising is protected by the
right of free speech.
(C) Courts must balance the right of free
speech with others.
(D) Advertising regulation has been a
failure of the government.
(E) More advertising will be protected by
the First Amendment.
25
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DIAGNOSTIC TEST
2. According to the passage, which of the
following may NOT be limited by restrictions on the freedom of speech?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
6. According to the passage, limitations on free

speech are permitted in order to protect
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
advertising claims
obscene films
amplified music in a public park
military secrets
political rhetoric
7. According to the passage, all of the following

are factors in the changing relationship of
advertising to freedom of speech EXCEPT:

following is true?
(A) The Federal Trade Commission is
losing its power to regulate false
advertising.
(B) Price advertising is protected by the
First Amendment.
(C) The First Amendment right of freedom
to speak and write is absolute.
(D) Rationales for First Amendment rights
are time-honored.
(E) Boundaries for First Amendment
freedoms are consciously determined
by the courts.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
failures of government agencies

providing information to the public
balancing of various rights
assigning rights to those for whom
they are most valuable
(E) the absolute nature of the freedom of
speech
Line
4. The author refers to chaos in line 4 to

indicate which of the following?
(A) that the passage is written by a poet
(B) that the state of the law of free speech
is disorganized
(C) that advertising and free speech are
intermingled
(D) that it is difficult to describe the
confusion in the law related to
advertising and free speech
(E) that the essence of free speech applies
to advertising
10
15
5. The passage suggests all of the following

EXCEPT:
20
(A) government regulation of advertising is

losing power
(B) advertising is pre-competitive
(C) government regulation of advertising
will continue
(D) advertising is protected by the First
Amendment
(E) government regulation of advertising is
anticompetitive
25
30
35
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the general welfare

individual damages
the national government
sedition
boundaries
26
The black experience in the United States,

including slavery, the fight for full citizenship from the time of the Emancipation,
and the enforced alienation that constantly
cuts into our natural identification with our
country, has obviously been different from
that of white people. And although, as
passionate believers in democracy, black
Americans identify themselves with broad
American ideals, their sense of reality
springs, in part, from experiences with
which some white people are reluctant to
identify themselves even in their imaginations. Thus, when some white people in
the United States declare most twentiethcentury American fiction to be the American reality, black people respond by
pointing out that this and this have been
left out. And most of all, black people point
out that what white people would have the
world accept as the image of black Americans isnt realistic.
Each of the failings that has been
identified by black people is found in both
second-rate works and in novels by some of
Americas most respected white authors.
For example, I recall not more than five
black Americans in the works of Hemingway and Steinbeck. They tend to ignore
black people, or, like the early Faulkner,
who distorted black humanity to fit his
personal versions of the Southern myth,
they oversimplify black characters, seldom
portraying them with the sensitively
balanced oppositesgood and evil,
LSAT Success
SECTION 4
40
45
50
55
60
65
9. Which of the following is the most essential

property of literature according to the
author?
instinctual and intellectual, passionate and

spiritualthat great literary art has projected as the image of human beings. Since
the essence of literature is its ambivalence,
and since fiction is never so effective as
when both potentials are operating
simultaneously, it is unfortunate that these
novels have been so one-sided.
Understandably, the attitude of black
people toward such fiction is one of great
skepticism. This is borne out by a wellknown black novelists remark that some
white Americans seem to disagree with
black Americans over the nature of reality.
Historically, this disagreement is part of a
larger conflict between, on the one hand,
groups of Americans whose ancestors
voluntarily immigrated to the United States
many years ago and, on the other, minority
groups and more recently arrived immigrant
groups, over the firsts attempt to impose
their image of the American upon the
rest. This conflict, however, should not be
misunderstood. For the American has not
yet (fortunately for the United States, its
minorities, and perhaps for the world) been
finally defined. Far from being socially
undesirable, the tension surrounding what
the American is to be is part of that
democratic process through which the
nation works to achieve itself. Out of this
tension the ideal American charactera
type great enough to deserve the greatness
of the land, a delicately poised unity of
divergenciesis slowly being born.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
10. Which of the following does the author of

the passage explicitly criticize Hemingway
for doing in his novels?
(A) distorting the humanity of black
characters
(B) portraying black characters as unidimensional
(C) including few black characters
(D) exaggerating conflicts between black
and white Americans
(E) describing the black experience in an
insensitive manner
11. It can be inferred from the passage that the
author would most probably NOT agree
with which of the following statements
about the larger conflict described in the
last paragraph?
(A) It is good that this conflict has not yet
been resolved.
(B) It is through this conflict that the final
image of the American is being
developed.
(C) This conflict is having a destructive
impact on American society.
(D) This type of conflict is to be expected
in a democratic nation.
(E) Disagreements between black Americans and some white Americans about
twentieth-century American fiction can
be viewed as part of this conflict.

authors tone in characterizing the works by
Hemingway, Steinbeck, and Faulkner in the
passage?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
12. The author of the passage apparently

considers spirituality and passion to be
aggravating
apologetic
indifferent
ironic
disapproving
LSAT Success
obscurity
realism
sensitivity
ambivalence
imagination
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
27
instinctual
antithetical
ambiguous
synonymous
suspect
www.petersons.com
DIAGNOSTIC TEST
13. Which of the following statements about
great novels, if true, would most strengthen
the authors assertions about literature and
fiction in the second paragraph?
30
(A) Great novels usually depict the social

environment accurately.
(B) Great novels usually contain characters
who embody divergent qualities.
(C) Great novels usually portray characters
in a sensitive manner.
(D) Great novels usually deal with themes
of enduring importance.
(E) Great novels usually suggest a resolution for identified conflicts.
35
40
14. According to the passage, black Americans

and some white Americans would NOT tend
to disagree about which of the following?
(A) the nature of the American
(B) the vital importance of the democratic
process in America
(C) the accuracy of Faulkners depiction of
black characters
(D) the representativeness of American
reality as portrayed in most twentiethcentury American fiction
(E) their respective experiences as
Americans
Line
10
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20
25
45
50
55
There is a certain elemental appeal to the

policy. People generally tend to think that
if they pay money to have something made
for them, they own it and should be able
to do with it as they please. Government
people frequently express this kind of
sentiment toward the spending of government money and seem not to understand
why private firms might object to the
policy. They perceive the government
policy to be fair, and any private firm that
doesnt agree is, to put it bluntly, being
greedy. The private firms, of course, tend
to think that the government is trying to
get something for nothing. The truth is that
when it comes to their rights as against
those of their employees, private firms very
well understand this principle of getting all
the rights and benefits when one pays for
something. Within a firm, ownership of
intellectual property and the profits
resulting from the value of the intellectual
property do not belong to the creative
employee but to the shareholders of the
firm.
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60
65
70
75
28
Yet government people do understandeven if they dont much like itthat

private firms seem to lack incentives to
develop and deliver their best products to
the government when the firms have no
reasonable expectation of receiving a
continuing stream of income from the
product, so that, as a result, the government isnt getting a lot of the best technology.
Some government people might think,
But, hey, a private firm has incentive to
deliver the best technology to us (even
though we have unlimited rights) because
its OK with us if they take the thing to the
commercial market. There are a couple of
problems with this theory. One is that since
the government claims an unlimited right to
disclose the technology developed at public
expense to anyone for any purpose, the
government has the power at any time to
pull the rug out from under the commercial
market (for in todays market, it is the
valuable secrets embodied in the technology that seem to determine its commercial
value). Second, the government tends to
want to give away valuable technology in
which it has unlimited rights to other
private firms whom the technologys
developer may see as its primary commercial market. Both of these can undermine
the potential incentives that government
people tend to think the private firm has
retained.
It is worth pointing out that Congress
has exacted a law to encourage small firms
to develop and deliver to the government
the highest quality, most innovative
products, namely the Small Business
Innovation Development Act. This law gives
participating small firms the right to retain
ownership rights in patents developed at
public expense, with a license back to the
government to use the patent for governmental purpose. In trying to decide
whether to retain its broad unlimited rights
policy, the government should think about
whether it really needs unlimited rights in
technology. It should ask itself why it needs
more than government purpose rights. It
also should understand that one of the
costs of the unlimited rights policy is that
the government is likely to get delivery of
less-than-high-quality products.
LSAT Success
SECTION 4
15. The primary purpose of the passage is to
18. Which of the following may be inferred

from the passage?
(A) advocate an expansion of the Small

Business Innovation Development Act
(B) explain the inability of the government
to secure the best available technology
(C) propose a method to ensure business
a continuing stream of income from
technological products
(D) contrast the perspectives of government and industry people concerning
technology
(E) encourage the government to surrender its unlimited rights policy as to
technology
(A) Private firms dislike dealing with the

government.
(B) The government could get better
technology than it does.
(C) The commercial value of technology is
difficult to exploit.
(D) Intellectual property is owned by
those who create it.
(E) People do not own property that they
have paid for.
19. The authors attitude toward the unlimited
rights policy of the federal government is
best described as
16. The passage uses the term greedy in line

13 to
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(A) indicate the attitude of government

workers toward private firms that sell
technology to the government
(B) describe the attitude of private firms
toward government procurement
policy
(C) highlight the conflict between private
and government views of technology
purchased by the public
(D) contrast the sentiment of government
people with that of private firms
(E) express the authors view of government policy toward technology
acquisition
20. Which of the following, if true, would most

strengthen the authors argument?
(A) Technology is a small part of government acquisitions.
(B) The government acquires its most
advanced technology on the open
market.
(C) There is limited competition among
technology companies.
(D) Less that 1 percent of government
technology acquisitions are provided
by small firms.
(E) Private firms seldom exploit the
technology they develop for the
government.
17. Governmental purpose in lines 6970

describes which of the following?
(A) a restriction on the governmental use
of technology
(B) an enlightened policy for private-firm
technology development
(C) a license for the governmental use of
technology
(D) the retention of ownership of technology by private firms
(E) a law to encourage the development
of technology by private firms
LSAT Success
approving
understanding
questioning
hostile
neutral
21. The government policy concerning the

ownership of technology acquired from
private firms is the same as
(A) that of private firms toward their
creative employees
(B) that of shareholders toward the
government
(C) that of employees toward their
employers
(D) that of government employees toward
private firms
(E) that of private firms toward government employees
29
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DIAGNOSTIC TEST
Line
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Many scholars assert that the attempt to

regulate the behavior of business through
legislation is at best futile and at worst
deleterious. In making their argument,
advocates of nonregulation assume a
distinction between the morality of duty
and the morality of aspiration. They argue
that duties, which specify minimum
standards of human conduct, lend themselves to legal enforcement better than do
aspirations, which exhort one to realize
ones full potential. The advocates of
nonregulation also assume, quite justifiably,
that the problems associated with business
are primarily problems of aspiration; that is,
one may feel that a business is not doing all
it could to develop a new product. The
creation of a cumbersome network of
regulations to encourage aspiration, they
conclude, may make those subject to the
regulations abdicate independent, responsible judgment in those areas in which it is
most needed.
However, the lawmaking problem
suggested by the distinction between duty
and aspiration, a distinction that is valid, is
not as insurmountable as the advocates of
nonregulation conclude. The law can and
often does make both individuals and
business aspire. When the law states that
citizens shall not drive recklessly or not
ship in interstate commerce any vehicles
that do not meet minimum EPA standards,
the law is making individuals aspire to drive
carefully and business aspire to produce
relatively pollution-free engines. Yet there is
some merit to the argument for nonregulation. Although the law can raise standards
as long as those standards are applied
generally, the standards are going to be the
result of compromises. Thus the business
that can far exceed the minimum standards
has no more legal obligation to do so than
does the business that can barely meet
those standards.
But it is not inevitable that laws take
this form; in other words, there is nothing
inherent in the laws that encourage
aspiration that leaves those laws unenforceable. Laws could be predicated on what
can reasonably be expected of each
particular business, the more competent
businesses having to face higher standards
than the less competent. It is hard to
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65
70
believe that juries do not already include

such considerations in their deliberations.
Admittedly, there would be difficulties in
enforcing such a system. Witnesses with
relevant expertise, records, evaluation of
the conditions prevailing within a particular
industryall this and morewould be
needed so that a jury could determine what
is feasible and what is not.
Unless we want to make excellence a
legal liability, it is unlikely that the law can
ever be a good mechanism for drawing out
of a business the best of which it is
capable. But we should recognize that it is
our own reluctance, and not any reason as
yet put forth by the advocates of nonregulation, that makes this so.
22. Which of the following is a major point

made in the argument for nonregulation of
business according to the passage?
(A) The concept of aspiration is already
the basis of the self-regulation of
business because aspirations are vital
to business growth.
(B) The concept of aspiration has been shown
to be a less useful basis for designing laws
than has the concept of duty.
(C) Laws that are intended to encourage
aspiration actually discourage aspiration because such laws discourage the
exercise of reflection, discretion, and
initiative.
(D) Because laws that encourage aspiration
are unfair and ambiguous, they have
been opposed by the majority of the
public in the past and are likely to be
opposed in the future.
(E) Because there is at present little
agreement as to which goals business
should strive for, laws that encourage
aspiration are difficult to enforce.
30
LSAT Success
SECTION 4
23. The primary purpose of the passage is best
described as an effort to
25. The author suggests that the most valid

criticism of the enactment of laws that
encourage aspiration that has been raised by
the advocates of nonregulation is which of
the following?
(A) suggest some ways in which laws that

encourage aspiration can be used
effectively to regulate the behavior of
business
(B) argue that the advocates of nonregulation have overemphasized the effect
on business of laws that encourage
aspiration while underestimating the
effect of laws that specify duties
(C) discuss instances in which laws that
encourage aspiration have had a
desirable, although indirect, effect on
both individuals and businesses
(D) rebut the argument that the distinction
between the morality of duty and the
morality of aspiration can and should
be used in lawmaking
(E) contend that the distinction between
the morality of duty and the morality
of aspiration, however valid, should
not be regarded as the basis of a valid
argument against the regulation of
business
(A) In order to do business efficiently and

profitably, a business must be able to
change or modify its aspirations quickly.
(B) Many businesses are necessarily
exempt from laws that encourage
aspiration.
(C) Many of the laws that encourage
aspiration apply to business in one
country but not in another.
(D) The capabilities of different businesses
vary, and such variation is not taken
into account by laws that encourage
aspiration.
(E) Laws that encourage aspiration are
subject to the interpretation of only a
few judges, whose opinions may not
reflect the values of society as a
whole.
26. According to the author, the assumption
that the problems associated with business
are primarily problems of aspiration is
24. According to the author, the advocates of

nonregulation support their position by
making which of the following arguments
about duties and aspirations?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(A) Laws that designate duties are easier to

enforce than are laws that encourage
aspirations.
(B) Laws that designate duties should be
of greater concern to society than
should laws that encourage aspirations.
(C) Duties are easier to define than are
aspirations.
(D) Businesses should be primarily
concerned with duties and only
secondarily concerned with aspirations.
(E) Businesses should be legally obligated
to distinguish between duties and
aspirations.
LSAT Success
31
alarming
verifiable
unprecedented
implausible
sound
www.petersons.com
DIAGNOSTIC TEST
28. The author would most probably agree with
which of the following statements about the
relationship between business and laws that
encourage aspiration?
27. According to the author, the implementation of laws that encourage aspiration
would be difficult because
(A) evidence establishing a particular
businesss liability is not as likely to be
available
(B) information pertinent to each particular industry would have to be collected and analyzed
(C) the liability of a business would have
to be distinguished from the liability of
its employees
(D) businesses that are theoretical entities
can be easily disbanded
(E) the merits of conflicting, equally
worthy aspirations would have to be
considered
www.petersons.com
(A) Laws that encourage aspiration are

noble but essentially unenforceable;
therefore, laws that specify duties are
more likely to regulate business
behavior effectively.
(B) Laws that encourage aspiration can be
used to regulate only a few aspects of
business behavior; therefore, only laws
that specify duties should be applied
to businesses.
(C) Since many juries already consider
aspiration to be an element of the law,
it is unlikely that there would be very
much difficulty in persuading juries to
apply laws of aspiration to business
behavior.
(D) Since laws that specify duties and that
are also effective imply aspirations,
laws that explicitly encourage aspirations are a potentially useful legal
mechanism for regulating business
behavior.
(E) Since many people are reluctant to
make aspiration a legal responsibility,
it is unlikely that the law can be used
to regulate business behavior effectively.
32
LSAT Success
SECTION 5
SECTION 5
TIME35
MINUTES
24 QUESTIONS
2. Within available resources, the noble

objective of greater safety in the office and
factory has been actively pursued by the
vast majority of businesses. By contrast,
federal and state occupational health and
safety regulations limit productivity and
competitivenessthe countrys most critical
economic problems.

If true, which of the following most

weakens the above opinion?
1. Recent research shows that millions of

people in the United States still do not
know that smoking cigarettes places people
at very significant risk of health problems.
This is the case, even though hundreds of
millions of dollars have been spent to warn
people of the hazards and risks of smoking.
The inevitable conclusion is that the
warnings placed on cigarette packs and in
advertising have had no effect.
(A) Safety programs of businesses benefit

from the intimate knowledge those
enterprises have of the primary
hazards in their activities.
(B) Government health and safety regulations require inspection for and
remediation of found hazards.
(C) Governmental health and safety regulations have reduced costly accidents that
previously reduced worker productivity.
(D) Neither business nor government are
aware of many occupational health
and safety hazards.
(E) Governmental health and safety
regulations establish common standards, while individual business
standards vary greatly.
If true, which of the following refutes the

above argument?
(A) Tobacco companies have had to be
forced to warn smokers of the health
dangers of smoking.
(B) The majority of smokers are aware of
the risks and hazards of their smoking.
(C) Some smokers have legitimate reasons
for smoking.
(D) Some people who are aware of the
hazards of smoking learned of them
from mandatory warnings.
(E) Smokers constitute the largest group
of people who suffer from preventable
illnesses in the United States.
3. Although it may seem to be counterintuitive,

a country must reduce poverty and hunger
concurrent with a reduction in the death rate
if it hopes not to suffer a major growth in
population. Poor and hungry people will feel
the need to have many children until infant
mortality decreases as the result of the benefits of economic growth.
This argument would be weakened if it
could be shown that
(A) poverty and hunger do not necessarily
account for a countrys death rate
(B) most large families consist of four
different generations
(C) infant mortality is not the primary
reason for having many children
(D) the rate of infant mortality need not
increase when the death rate increases
(E) in most wealthy countries, the benefits
of economic growth are differentially
distributed across the population
LSAT Success
33
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DIAGNOSTIC TEST
4. Singularity saves politicians from having to
take infinite variations into account when
they establish rules and regulations for
diverse populations. A single set of rules
and regulations fits all.
6. An owner of a large agribusiness explained

to the foreign visitors that productivity
improved significantly when crops were
planted in long rows. Since virtually all
planting, tilling, and harvesting is done by
field machines, long rows reduce the
number of turns that the equipment must
make. Turns are difficult, take time, and
prompt the field-machine operators to take
a break. In short, long rows keep machines
and their operators productive for more
minutes each hour.
The main point of this commentary is that

(A) it is good when people are similar to
one another
(B) the identification of variations among
people is difficult
(C) rules and regulations cannot take
diverse populations into account
(D) it is easier to treat a countrys population as though it is homogeneous
(E) dealing with similar populations
similarly is not just
From the explanation, which of the

following can be inferred about the way
field-machine operators are paid?
(A) Operators are paid by the number of
rows completed.
(B) Operators are paid by the amount of
work done.
(C) Operators who produce more are paid
more.
(D) Operators are paid by the hour.
(E) Operators are paid by the number of
equipment turns made.
5. Teachers provide information to students.

But teachers should promote the use of that
information by developing their students
abilities to create, think, and benefit from
the use of their intellects. If schools are to
educate, then teachers must demonstrate
the development of ideas and the mind as
well as pass along facts and opinions to
students.
7. Contrary to the spin placed on her reelection, representative Anthony did not achieve
a convincing victory. She points out that 60
percent of the voters cast ballots for her,
but a mere 25 percent of eligible people
voted for her. A substantial majority of
registered voters did not vote. Clearly, she
has the support of only a small minority of
the people she represents.
This comment implies which of the

following?
(A) To develop the ability to think, a
student must have a good teacher.
(B) Conveying facts and opinions is not
good teaching.
(C) Education includes the cultivation of
creative mental abilities.
(D) Teachers must be demonstrative if
they expect to communicate effectively.
(E) Developing exercises that stretch the
mind is the key to good teaching.
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This point of view is most weakened by

ambiguous meaning of the word
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
34
spin
convincing
majority
support
victory
LSAT Success
SECTION 5
10. If true, which of the following most weakens
the authors point of view?
8. Compared to a carnivore, an herbivore

needs relatively few pounds of plants as
food to be able to produce a pound of
protein. Since carnivores feed on both
herbivores and other carnivores, the
accumulated consumption of thousands of
pounds of plants is needed for a carnivore
to produce a pound of protein.
(A) A conclusion of a research study is

that small-business owners are against
a minimum wage.
(B) Most employers pay employees much
more than the minimum wage.
(C) Of those who seek employment, virtually all of those over age 35 are employed while only 45 percent of those
ages 20 and under are employed.
(D) Prior to the existence of a minimum
wage law, there were times when
teenage unemployment was as high as
75 percent.
(E) Loss of a job is rarely the result of the
wage rate of the newly unemployed
person.
This argument is best completed by which

of the following?
(A) Herbivores produce protein faster than
carnivores.
(B) A pound of carnivore protein has
more food value than a pound of
herbivore protein.
(C) The impact of people on plant
resources would be much less if they
substituted chicken for tuna in their
diets.
(D) Carnivores diets consist of more
plants than meat.
(E) Chickens are a cheaper source of food
than tuna.
11. Dr. Burns: If the medicine arrives today, the

baby will be saved.
Dr. Mills: No, if the medicine arrives tomorrow, it will be just as good for the baby.
Dr. Mills reaction to Dr. Burns assertion
indicates that she understood Dr. Burns to
mean that
Questions 910
(A) nothing but medicine will save the baby

(B) if medicine arrives today, it will not
arrive tomorrow
(C) today is the only day that medicine
can arrive
(D) medicine arriving tomorrow will be of
no use
(E) medicine will save the baby only if it
comes today
It is argued that the problem of substantial

unemployment of teenagers is due to the fact
that the minimum wage makes it unprofitable to
hire young people. But the fact that the percentage of people who are over 16 and employed is
greater than ever before proves that the teenage
unemployment problem is a myth.
9. The tactic used by the author to state her
view against the minimum wage argument
is to
12. At its annual meeting, the chairman of the

board of Bransom, Inc., responded to a question about the lack of women senior executives by stating that 60 percent of the employees of the corporation are women. He
then added that Bransom was committed to
equal employment opportunities for women.
(A) point out that the data used to

describe the alleged problem is
subjective
(B) show that the alleged cause of the
problem is really an effect
(C) present data to support the conclusion
that the minimum wage has increased
employment
(D) describe that more people than ever
before are employed
(E) demonstrate that the alleged problem
is actually a pseudoproblem
LSAT Success
The basic flaw in the chairmans answer is

that it
(A) confuses opportunity with action
(B) deflects the question by describing the
number of women employees
(C) assumes that commitment meets the
obligations of the corporation
(D) suggests that there are more women
than men employees at Bransom
(E) interprets the question to focus on
women executives
35
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DIAGNOSTIC TEST
13. The Department of Agriculture will stop
inspecting milk processing plants because
no citations have been issued in the past
two years.
15. Mr. Wall teaches six high school classes

each weekday. Professor Wall, his wife,
teaches two courses each semester at the
university. Professor Wall is in class 6 hours
per week, and Mr. Wall is in class 5 hours
each day. Professor Wall is paid 40 percent
more than her husband. These differences
are reasonable when the expectations for
research of the two people are taken into
account.

strengthens the decision?
(A) Processors will cut corners if the
threat of inspection is removed.
(B) Milk processing is very automated.
(C) The source of milk is known, so
compensation can be had for any
problem that occurs.
(D) The Department budget has been cut
by 30 percent.
(E) The industry association has standards
that exceed the legal requirements.
This description and explanation assumes

that
(A) university teaching demands more
research than high school teaching
(B) university teaching requires more
education than does high school
teaching
(C) equal pay for equal work does not
apply in academic environments
(D) student contact hours for the Walls are
similar
(E) university course preparation is more
demanding than high school course
preparation
14. The ethereal state of the Lotophagai of

Greek history was thought to result from
eating the narcotic in the lotus fruit. But
modern research with rats has shown that
the smell of the fruit produces the sleepy,
dreamy condition that identified the
lotus-eaters.
This statement assumes that
16. Producing the fuel ethanol from corn is

feasible but counterproductive and impractical because
(A) eating the narcotic in the lotus fruit

has no effect on people
(B) the fragrance of the lotus enhances
the narcotic effect of the fruit
(C) rats and humans are affected by the
lotus fragrance in the same way
(D) the effect produced by eating the lotus
fruit is greater than that produced by
smelling the fruit
(E) it is the fragrance of the lotus fruit
that is addictive rather than the
narcotic
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(A) it could result in food shortages

(B) it provides a disincentive to oil and
gas exploration
(C) it cannot meet the total world demand
for fuel
(D) it requires more energy to produce
ethanol than the ethanol provides
(E) it cannot substitute for certain fuels in
the marketplace
36
LSAT Success
SECTION 5
17. Federal courts are the sole interpreters of
the federal constitution. The federal
constitution requires that funding of the
federal courts is the responsibility of the
federal legislature. The courts and the
legislature are litigating a dispute over
funding of judges salaries. Judicial ethics
precludes a judge from involvement in
litigation that concerns that judges finances.
19. Foolish behavior in teenagers correlates

highly with conflict, stress, high-performance expectations, and other dynamic
activities that seem senseless or confusing
to them. Therefore, any evaluation of a
teens behavior must take into account the
context in which the behavior occurs.
This analysis concludes that a teenagers
behavior ought to be viewed as
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Based upon this information, which of the

following conclusions is most logical?
(A) The litigation will be determined by
the legislature.
(B) The litigation will be determined by
the federal courts.
(C) The federal legislature must defer to
the federal courts in any salary
dispute.
(D) The litigation will be determined by
the courts and legislature compromising.
(E) No federal judge can participate in
determining the outcome of the
litigation.
20. Nearly continuous campaigning by both

incumbents in and aspirants to national
elected office is more democratic than the
six-week period that many political scientists consider optimal. Little-known aspirants
have time to meet the voters and gather
resources for the campaign.
If true, which of the following most directly
weakens the above position?
(A) Continuous campaigning confuses
potential voters.
(B) Continuous campaigning causes
incumbents to focus on the next
election rather than on the peoples
business.
(C) Continuous campaigning produces
voter disinterest.
(D) Continuous campaigning makes it
more difficult to secure volunteers.
(E) Continuous campaigning eliminates many
potential candidates who cannot afford
to quit their jobs for months or years.
18. Those people who have a hobby live longer

than those who dont.
Those people who have pets live longer
than those people who dont.
To live longer, you should get a pet, take up
a hobby, or both.
If true, which of the following weakens the
conclusion of this argument?
(A) Pet owners and hobbyists are more
active than the general population.
(B) Pet owners and hobbyists, as a group,
are less vulnerable to illness because
they tolerate stress better than the
general population.
(C) There is no difference between having
a pet and having a hobby.
(D) People who have a cat and collect
stamps have the same life expectancy
as do those who have only one or the
other.
(E) People who take up a hobby after
contracting cancer live longer than
those who do not take up a hobby.
LSAT Success
a series of unrelated events

the result of personal confusion
a part of her or his social environment
a reflection of parental expectations
the result of hormonal changes
37
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DIAGNOSTIC TEST
21. For the first time in this century, the most
recent national census shows that towns
with populations under 10,000 are growing
more rapidly than cities of more than 1
million. This confirms that people prefer
human scale environments to rich, highdensity environments.
23. A nationwide study of sibling rivalry shows

that brothers and sisters continue to
compete throughout their lives. The
majority of those who volunteered to be
interviewed for the study convinced the
researchers that many of their daily actions
were caused by sibling rivalry.
The above argument assumes that

weakens the findings stated above?
(A) the populations of large cities is

declining
(B) the environmental quality of cities is
declining
(C) financial opportunities are the primary
reason people live in large cities
(D) people find more financial opportunities in large cities than in small towns
(E) there are more rich people today than
ever before
(A) Short interviews tend to be less

reliable than long interviews.
(B) Rivalry between sisters is more intense
than between brothers.
(C) Causation is an elusive concept.
(D) The siblings who volunteered for the
study are atypical.
(E) Competition is engaged in by many
unrelated people.
22. A recent restaurant review by a famous

critic complained that the food needed
more salt. This criticism is unwarranted at a
time when research shows that salt can
create health problems for many people.
Restaurants should be encouraged to give
their guests the opportunity to put as much
salt as they prefer on their food.
24. It is a widely held belief that anemia in

young women results from dietary iron
deficiency. In truth, it results from the
greater need that young women have for
iron when compared to the total population.
This argument FAILS to
(A) define deficiency in terms of the
need for iron in various populations
(B) state the number of young women
who are anemic
(C) describe the reason that young women
have a greater need for iron than do
others
(D) make the relationship between iron
and anemia clear
(E) identify the difference between dietary
iron and other forms of iron
If true, which of the following LEAST

(A) Salt takes a long time to permeate
many foods.
(B) Most restaurants will accommodate
requests for salt-free food preparation.
(C) Most people eat large amounts of fast
and prepared foods that contain high
levels of salt.
(D) Food flavors are enhanced only when
salt is used during preparation.
(E) Salt is the leading cause of hypertension in people in the age cohort that
most frequents restaurants.
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38
LSAT Success
QUICK-SCORE ANSWERS
QUICK-SCORE ANSWERS
Section 1
1. A
2. B
3. D
4. E
5. D
6. A
7. E
8. C
9. B
10. D
11. B
12. E
13. D
14. C
15. D
16. E
17. A
18. E
19. E
20. B
21. B
22. D
23. D
24. A
LSAT Success
Section 2
1. D
2. D
3. D
4. B
5. D
6. B
7. D
8. C
9. D
10. D
11. E
12. D
13. D
14. A
15. C
16. B
17. E
18. D
19. C
20. B
21. C
22. E
23. E
24. D
Section 3
1. C
2. A
3. C
4. E
5. D
6. C
7. D
8. C
9. C
10. E
11. C
12. B
13. D
14. B
15. E
16. C
17. B
18. B
19. E
20. E
21. B
22. D
23. D
24. C
Section 4
1. E
2. E
3. B
4. D
5. E
6. A
7. E
8. E
9. D
10. C
11. C
12. B
13. B
14. B
15. E
16. A
17. C
18. B
19. C
20. B
21. A
22. C
23. E
24. A
25. D
26. E
27. B
28. D
39
Section 5
1. D
2. C
3. C
4. D
5. C
6. D
7. D
8. C
9. E
10. C
11. E
12. B
13. E
14. C
15. A
16. D
17. E
18. B
19. C
20. E
21. D
22. C
23. D
24. A
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DIAGNOSTIC TEST
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
10. The correct answer is (D). U to V
In the following answer guide, the credited responses appear in bold type, and the visualization
that makes the credited response clear appears
before the question set. Use the visualization to
guide you in determining the credited answer.
11. The correct answer is (B). U to V

12. The correct answer is (E). W to V
Questions 1318
SECTION 1
Age
Questions 16
Youngest - Age 17
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
A, B, C, D, E, F
Age 22
Oldest
F Between
D
13. The correct answer is (D). Fern is 18
years old.
14. The correct answer is (C). Beth is 20

years old and Adam is 21.
1. The correct answer is (A). two
15. The correct answer is (D). 19 and 21
2. The correct answer is (B). five
16. The correct answer is (E). Darla is 17

years old.
3. The correct answer is (D). one, two,

seven
17. The correct answer is (A). 2
4. The correct answer is (E). A locates on a

floor somewhere above D.
18. The correct answer is (E). Fern is 20

years old.
5. The correct answer is (D). G locates on

floor three.
Questions 1924
Arrivals
6. The correct answer is (A). C locates on

floor eight.
N, P, R, S, T, W
Earlier
Later
Questions 712
S, T, U, V, W
19. The correct answer is (E). Wendy, Sarah,

Nell, Ray, Ted, Paul
20. The correct answer is (B). after Wendy

and before Ray
7. The correct answer is (E). W

8. The correct answer is (C). U and V only
21. The correct answer is (B). Nell and Paul

arrived together.
9. The correct answer is (B). T can call S,

which can transfer the call to V.
22. The correct answer is (D). 1..3
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40
LSAT Success
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
7. The correct answer is (D). Numerous
kinds of psychological stress produce similar
physiological symptoms.
PointPeople undergo stress-induced
physiological changes when they lie.
IssueExtension question/weakening
evidence
23. The correct answer is (D). Nell, Sarah,

Wendy
24. The correct answer is (A). Ted and
Wendy
SECTION 2
In the following answer guide, the credited
responses appear in bold type and the guide that
directs you toward the credited response appears
within the answer choice context. The first
reference is to the point of the argument and the
second is to the nature of the issue involved.
8. The correct answer is (C). The proper

function of our universities is not to
produce outstanding researchers, but to
create well-rounded graduates.
PointUniversities can produce successful
researchers.
evidence
1. The correct answer is (D). different

perspectives on time
PointThe need to develop solar energy.
IssueDescription question/characterizing
points of view
9. The correct answer is (D). Customers

often give tips according to their perceptions of the cosmetologist and of the actions
of other customers.
PointPatrons give large tips if they think
that other patrons do and that their
cosmetologists are not wealthy.
2. The correct answer is (D). respect their

fellow citizens
PointDictators disrespect those over
whom they rule.
IssueExtension question/conclusion
3. The correct answer is (D). Attendees did

not have to do work outside the seminars in
order to pass the examination.
PointAttendance results is sufficient
knowledge to pass the exam.
10. The correct answer is (D). nursing home

residents are capable of making decisions
about their own welfare
PointNursing home residents have the
right to determine their treatments.
IssueExtension question/assumption of
capacity and competence
4. The correct answer is (B). If there is

inflation, it is not being controlled.
PointWage and price controls limit
inflation, spending, and profits.
11. The correct answer is (E). An effective

way for families to capture and store solar
energy has not yet been developed.
PointEncourage people to use solar
energy because it is superior to
other forms of energy.
5. The correct answer is (D). Knowledge of

the laws of probability reduces the likelihood of a person believing in the supernatural.
evidence
PointLaws of probability explain many

beliefs in supernatural forces.
12. The correct answer is (D). the ability to

enjoy art often requires preparation
PointThe ability to appreciate art must be
acquired.
6. The correct answer is (B). presenting

circumstantial evidence
PointDigitalis accounts for the colors in
van Gogh paintings.
IssueDescription question/tactic
LSAT Success
41
www.petersons.com
DIAGNOSTIC TEST
Questions 1920
13. The correct answer is (D). struggles to

gain presidential power produce farreaching beneficial results
19. The correct answer is (C). how citizens

can effectively express dissatisfaction with
the two major political parties
PointWorking for power produces greater

results than those sought.
PointNot voting in the political process is

not analogous to not purchasing in
the marketplace.
IssueDescription question/omission
14. The correct answer is (A). conditions

created by nature can be differentiated from
conditions created by society
PointMoral standards are inconsistently
applied.
IssueDescription question/different views
have different causes
20. The correct answer is (B). discrediting an

analogy
PointNot voting in the political process is
not analogous to not purchasing in
the marketplace.
15. The correct answer is (C). the differences

among the various speech therapies
considered are not causally relevant to their
effectiveness
21. The correct answer is (C). All offices

above the fourth floor have fire escapes.
PointAll offices above the fourth floor
have two exits.
PointDifferent therapies produce different

success rates.
22. The correct answer is (E). Pigeons spread

diseases; therefore, birds are nuisances.
PointBirds are nuisances because they are
capable of spreading diseases.
Questions 1617
16. The correct answer is (B). All thirty of
the deceased sandhogs died of radiationrelated cancer.
PointThirty dead sandhogs were exposed
to radiation that the contractor
claims was safe.
evidence
23. The correct answer is (E). Resistance to

the pesticide is passed from parent to
offspring.
PointPesticide resisting mites produce
offspring that are more resistant.
17. The correct answer is (E). There is

disagreement about the level of radiation
that is safe.
PointThirty dead sandhogs were exposed
to radiation that the contractor
claims was safe.
24. The correct answer is (D). Baby gorillas

raised by females other than their own
mothers were unable to function as mothers
when they had offspring.
PointParenting skills are lost if babies are
not raised by their mothers.
IssueExtension question/strengthening
evidence
18. The correct answer is (D). expanding the

right of the press to be present and cover
trial proceedings
PointThe media now serve as citizen
representative observers at criminal
trials.
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42
LSAT Success
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
SECTION 3
Questions 1318

responses appear in bold type, and the visualization that makes the credited response clear
appears before each question set. Use the
visualization to guide you in determining the
credited answer.
Condos
K, N, O, P, Q, R, W
3
2
1
N
K
Q+N
Questions 16
Ingredients
13. The correct answer is (D). Rs condo is

on the fourth floor.
H, J, K, L, M, N, O, P
M must N
If
Then
14. The correct answer is (B). Os condo is

two floors below Rs condo.
no
K and P
15. The correct answer is (E). P, R, W
H
J
O
Cannot be together
16. The correct answer is (C). four

17. The correct answer is (B). Rs condo is
on the second floor.
1. The correct answer is (C). L, M, N, P

2. The correct answer is (A). J
18. The correct answer is (B). Ns condo is

one floor below Rs condo
3. The correct answer is (C). 3

4. The correct answer is (E). L, M, O
Questions 1924
5. The correct answer is (D). L
Seating
B, C, D, E, F, G
Questions 712
P, Q, R, S
B
20
R
R
next to
not next to
P
10
7. The correct answer is (D). If S is 5 miles

from P, then Q is 10 miles from P.
not next to
19. The correct answer is (E). C, G

20. The correct answer is (E). C and G
8. The correct answer is (C). S is closer to

Q than to P.
21. The correct answer is (B). B

22. The correct answer is (D). 4
9. The correct answer is (C). R is closer to P

than to S.
23. The correct answer is (D). B and E
10. The correct answer is (E). S is due east of P.
24. The correct answer is (C). D sits next to E
11. The correct answer is (C). S is farther

from R than from Q.
12. The correct answer is (B). R is farther
from S than Q is from S
LSAT Success
43
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DIAGNOSTIC TEST
SECTION 4
15. The correct answer is (E). encourage the

government to surrender its unlimited rights
policy as to technologyParagraph 3/
Sentences 3, 4, and 5

responses appear in bold type, and the guide that
directs you to the place in the passage that
accounts for the credited response appears
reference is to the paragraph number in the
passage that accounts for the credited response
and the second number refers to the relevant
sentence in the paragraph. The reference will
appear as 2/4 for example. This means paragraph
2 and sentence 4 within paragraph 2.
16. The correct answer is (A). indicate the

attitude of government workers toward
private firms that sell technology to the
governmentParagraph 1/Sentence 3
17. The correct answer is (C). a license for
the governmental use of technology
Paragraph 4/Sentence 2
1. The correct answer is (E). More advertising will be protected by the First Amendment.
19. The correct answer is (C). questioning

2. The correct answer is (E). political

rhetoricnot listed in passage
20. The correct answer is (B). The government

acquires its most advanced technology on the
open market.Paragraph 2/Sentence 1
3. The correct answer is (B). Price advertising is protected by the First Amendment.
21. The correct answer is (A). that of private

firms toward their creative employees
4. The correct answer is (D). that it is

difficult to describe the confusion in the
law related to advertising and free speech
22. The correct answer is (C). Laws that are

intended to encourage aspiration actually
discourage aspiration because such laws
discourage the exercise of reflection,
discretion, and initiative.Paragraph 1/
Sentence 5
5. The correct answer is (E). government

regulation of advertising is anticompetitive
6. The correct answer is (A). the general
welfareParagraph 2/Sentence 2
7. The correct answer is (E). the absolute
nature of the freedom of speech
23. The correct answer is (E). contend that

the distinction between the morality of duty
and the morality of aspiration, however
valid, should not be regarded as the basis of
a valid argument against the regulation of
business Paragraph 1/Sentence 2,
Paragraph 2/Sentence 1, Paragraph 4/
Sentence 2
8. The correct answer is (E). disapproving

9. The correct answer is (D). ambivalence
10. The correct answer is (C). including few
black charactersParagraph 2/Sentence 2
24. The correct answer is (A). Laws that

designate duties are easier to enforce than
are laws that encourage aspirations.
11. The correct answer is (C). This conflict is

having a destructive impact on American
society.Paragraph 3/Sentence 4
25. The correct answer is (D). The capabilities of different business vary and such
variation is not taken into account by laws
that encourage aspiration.Paragraph 2/
Sentence 6
12. The correct answer is (B). antithetical

13. The correct answer is (B). Great novels
usually contain characters who embody divergent qualities.Paragraph 2/Sentence 3
26. The correct answer is (E). sound

14. The correct answer is (B). the vital

importance of the democratic process in
America-Paragraph 3/Sentence 5
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18. The correct answer is (B). The government could get better technology than it
does.Paragraph 2/Sentence 1
44
LSAT Success
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
5. The correct answer is (C). Education
includes the cultivation of creative mental
abilities.
PointEducation should include instruction
in the use of information taught.
27. The correct answer is (B). information

pertinent to each particular industry would
have to be collected and analyzed
28. The correct answer is (D). Since laws that
specify duties and that are also effective
imply aspirations, laws that explicitly
encourage aspirations are a potentially
useful legal mechanism for regulating
business behavior.
6. The correct answer is (D). Operators are

paid by the hour.
PointProductivity depends on the amount
of time spent working each hour.
SECTION 5
7. The correct answer is (D). support

PointAnthony has little support of her
constituents.
evidence

responses appear in bold type, and the guide that
8. The correct answer is (C). The impact of

people on plant resources would be much
less if they substituted chicken for tuna in
their diets.
PointHerbivores produce protein much
more efficiently than carnivores.
1. The correct answer is (D). Some people

who are aware of the hazards of smoking
learned of them from mandatory warnings.
PointWarnings have no effect.
2. The correct answer is (C). Governmental
health and safety regulations have reduced
costly accidents that previously reduced
worker productivity.
Questions 910
9. The correct answer is (E). demonstrate
that the alleged problem is actually a
pseudoproblem
PointEmployment of people who are 16+
is at a record high despite a minimum wage.
PointSafety regulations limit productivity

and competitiveness.
evidence
3. The correct answer is (C). infant mortality is not the primary reason for having
many children
10. The correct answer is (C). Of those who

seek employment, virtually all of those over
age 35 are employed while only 45 percent
of those aged 20 and below are employed.
PointEmployment of people who are 16+
is at a record high despite a minimum wage.
evidence
PointInfant mortality drives having

children.
evidence
4. The correct answer is (D). it is easier to
treat a countrys population as though it is
homogeneous
PointSingle rules simplify matters for
politicians.
LSAT Success
11. The correct answer is (E). Medicine will

save the baby only if it comes today.
PointMedicine will save the baby.
IssueExtension question/NOT conclusion
45
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DIAGNOSTIC TEST
12. The correct answer is (B). deflects the
question by describing the number of
women employees
19. The correct answer is (C). a part of her

or his social environment
PointTeen behavior correlates with the
types of activities and context they
experience.
PointNumber of women senior executives, not the percentage of women

employees.
20. The correct answer is (E). Continuous

campaigning eliminates many potential
candidates who cannot afford to quit their
jobs for months or years.
PointContinuous campaigns for national
office are more democratic than
time-restricted campaigns.
evidence
13. The correct answer is (E). The industry

association has standards that exceed the
legal requirements.
PointInspections identify no violations.
14. The correct answer is (C). rats and
humans are affected by the lotus fragrance
in the same way
PointSmelling, not eating, causes a sleepy,
dreamy condition.
IssueExtension question/assumption
21. The correct answer is (D). people find

more financial opportunities in large cities
than in small towns
PointMore rapid population growth in
small towns rather than big cities
confirms an environmental preference of people.
15. The correct answer is (A). university

teaching demands more research than high
school teaching
PointAn inverse relationship between pay
and time-in-class is justifiable.
research expectations
22. The correct answer is (C). Most people

eat large amounts of fast and prepared foods
that contain high levels of salt.
16. The correct answer is (D). it requires

more energy to produce ethanol than the
ethanol provides
PointProducing ethanol from corn is
counterproductive.
PointSalt levels in restaurant food should

be at patron discretion.
IssueExtension question/NOT weakening
evidence
23. The correct answer is (D). The siblings
who volunteered for the study are atypical.
PointSibling rivalry continues through life
and causes daily actions of siblings.
evidence
17. The correct answer is (E). No federal

judge can participate in determining the
outcome of the litigation.
PointEthics require judges not decide
matters of financial self-interest.
24. The correct answer is (A). define

deficiency in terms of the need for iron in
various populations
PointAnemia in young women is not
caused by a dietary deficiency but a
greater need for iron.
IssueDescription question/ambiguous
terminology
18. The correct answer is (B). Pet owners

and hobbyists, as a group, are less vulnerable to illness because they tolerate stress
better than the general population.
PointPeople who have a pet or hobby live
longer.
evidence
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46
LSAT Success
R E D A LERT
PREPARATION ANXIETY BRINGS US TOGETHER
DO
I ask, Are you ready for the LSAT?

You respond, Sure!
Now that we have established the obligatory positions, we deal with the concerns that
bring us together. You are very interested in
doing well on the LSAT. You want me to tell you
how to do well and to be quick about it. In
short, you will do as well as you are able, when
we successfully tear down the test-related
barriers that threaten your performance.
The first barrier is test anxiety. Test anxiety
is familiar to youby this time in your academic
career, you have undoubtedly experienced
symptoms of anxiety during a test. There is a
question about an unfamiliar subject; you cannot
remember a fact, etc. Test anxiety is unlikely to
be a barrier to your best performance. Research
has shown that anxiety during a test rarely
impairs performance, though occasionally a
person will become so upset that performance
suffers significantly. But, unless you have already
experienced such extreme test anxiety, it is
unlikely the LSAT will provoke a similar reaction.
PREPARATION
YOU HAVE SYMPTOMS OF

PREPARATION ANXIETY?
High achievers and perfectionists are the most
susceptible to preparation anxiety. Although your
past achievements testify to the contrary, you
often feel unsure of your ability to perform well
and, as a consequence, become very anxious
when facing a critical test. You know that
perfection is almost impossible to achieve, and
your efforts are doomed from the start. Mild
symptoms of preparation anxiety include tension,
restlessness, boredom, disorganization, and a
sense of being overwhelmed. Those more
seriously affected experience depression,
physical complaints, insomnia, appetite change,
and shifts in their interpersonal behaviors.
In nearly all instances, preparation anxiety
manifests itself in procrastination: the avoidance
of meaningful preparation. If you have a severe
case of preparation anxiety, you will be committed to the notion of preparationstarting
tomorrow or maybe next week. If the anxiety is
less severe, you are likely to resort to familiar
preparation rituals. You will read books about
the test. You may enroll in a prep course, where
you take notes for future study. Although no
effective preparation actually takes place, you
will try to persuade yourself otherwise, while
your anxiety grows. If any of this sounds familiar,
be assured that you are not alone. The majority
of those facing the LSAT suffer the same symptoms.
BARRIER?
The second barrier is preparation anxiety. It is an

obstacle to best performance for many, if not
most, test-takers. It does impair LSAT performance and we must remove it.
Most people sense that the LSAT is different
from other tests. They feel the test preparation
strategies that have worked for them in the past
may be insufficient when it comes to the LSAT.
However, because they dont know what else to
do, they do nothing, sign up for a test-prep
course, or go through their time-tested preparation rituals. In spite of their efforts, many people
remain uncertain about their readiness. The
preparation barrier remains standing. Something
tells them that their efforts are no preparation at
all, and anxiety grows as their date with the test
draws near.
RED
IS
THE PREPARATION-ANXIETY BARRIER

REAL OR IMAGINED?
Some LSAT anxiety is appropriate. After all, the

test is difficult, and the score is all-important. But
a colossal case of LSAT anxiety makes no sense
at allit is like being home alone on a dark night
when the floor creaks, a door squeaks, shadows
seem to dance, and the wind whistles at the
47
ALERT
RED ALERT
window. The hair stands up on the back of your
neck, and your heart begins to race. You have
haunted-house syndrome. Imagination takes over
and projects horrors of every description onto
the LSAT, and you convince yourself the score
will be a measure of your worth as a person and
reveal your inadequacies to the world.
You are in needless pain. Do not project
your fears onto the LSAT and give the syndrome
a chance to undermine your removal of the
barriers between you and your best performance.
Sure, the LSAT is the most important factor in
law school admission, but it does not measure
your worth or predict your success in life. It
simply does not merit projecting any such
meaning onto it.
example, some time ago, in its information book,

the test-maker stated, The LSAT measures skills
and knowledge that typically develop over a long
period of time, so that you cannot prepare for
the test by making a last-minute effort to master
specific subject areas. Although the types of
questions included on the LSAT have not
changed, the test-maker currently sells a kit
. . . with hints and explanations that help you
improve your skills.
The seeming complexity of the LSAT also
contributes to a feeling of anxiety and loss of control. Five sections, three types of questions, a writing sample, raw scores, scaled scores, cut scores,
percentiles, index numbers, and all the rest create
a barrier that can prevent your best performance.
WHAT
Where does this leave you?
CAUSES PREPARATION
ANXIETY?
Most people find themselves behind the preparation-anxiety barrier. To begin the barrier-removal
process, you recognize its existence. Do not deny
it or try to rationalize it. Accept your feelings.
Acceptance is essential to your removing
your anxiety barrier. You need to use your anxiety
to power your understanding of the LSAT. Understanding the LSAT will give you the control you
need to perform your personal best. And the best
way to begin your understanding is to gain control
over your anxiety through training.
Whatever form your anxiety takes, fear of the

unknown is the barrier that is the root cause of
preparation anxiety. How do you control the
unknown? Most top-notch students prepare for
every possible eventuality. They study everything. Since there is no obvious everything
where the LSAT is concerned, you experience a
loss of control. This feeling of no control over
LSAT performance has four principal factors:
anticipation, mystification, misinformation, and
overcomplication.
What is the key to anxiety

reduction?
MOST PEOPLE ANTICIPATE THAT THE LSAT

WILL BE IMPOSSIBLE.
When you feel that you are in control of a

situation, you have little or no anxiety. Therefore, the key to reducing preparation anxiety is
control, and the key to control is developing
choice, familiarity, and positivity.
When you are told that you must do
something, you feel that you have no control
over the situation, and your anxiety increases.
However, if you choose to do the same thing,
you put yourself in control. Thus, the first key to
control over preparation anxiety is to choose
the LSAT rather than have it imposed upon you.
While it is true that you must take the LSAT
if you intend to go to law school in the United
States or Canada, the choice to attend law school
is yours. Deciding to take the LSAT puts you in
control and consequently reduces preparation
anxiety. You are doing what you want to do, not
what you must.
Familiarity with the test further enhances
your sense of control and further reduces
Most people who take the LSAT believe that they

will not be able to consistently perform the
difficult tasks it requires. They anticipate a poor
performance on the test and are convinced there
is little or nothing they can do about it. They
sense that they have no control over the LSAT,
and a classic case of preparation anxiety follows.
Most people feel mystified about what the
LSAT measures, how the score is determined,
what use is made of the score, and a passel of
similar puzzlements. This lack of certainty feeds
their sense of being unable to control their test
preparation or performance.
Misinformation about the LSAT abounds,
usually taking the form of contradictions,
exaggerations, and everything from gossip to
gospel. It travels by the printed word and by
word of mouth. Nearly everyone who has come
into contact with the test becomes a source, and
even the official word seems contradictory. For
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RED
48
ALERT
LSAT Success
RED ALERT
about the LSAT should motivate you to explore
effective test-taking techniques and to implement
a personal training plan, and it is through these
things that you gain control over the test.
However, how you worry is very important if the worry experience is to be positive and
not produce a barrier to performance or undermine your training program. The essentials of
effective worrying are: identifying the threat,
exploring the options available for dealing with
it, and installing a safety net.
preparation anxiety. Effective training for the

LSAT will show you exactly what to expect of
the test and how to respond to it. This knowledge will give you more of the control you need
to overcome preparation anxiety.
Positive thoughts, feelings, images, and
attitudes also contribute to a sense of control. If,
during training, you keep on thinking about an
exam you failed five years ago, and you imagine
that everyone registered for the LSAT will
outperform you, or you picture questions full of
long Latin phrases, and you are sure you will
blacken the wrong spaces on the answer sheet,
chances are good that you will experience
significant loss of control and suffer a nearterminal case of preparation anxiety.
But if you think that the LSAT is totally
predictable (it is), you are confident that you can
take advantage of its weaknesses (you can), you
can visualize the question types that are always
asked on the LSAT (they always are), and you are
convinced that one of the 12,000 scores in the
top 10 percent is waiting for you (yes, it is), then
you will be in control, the preparation barrier
will be rubble, and your test training will be both
powerful and effective.
When you encounter a negative experience
during training, convert it into a positive
experience. For example, if you miss a question,
recall that no one gets all the so-called right
answers and that it is possible to miss as many as
eighteen questions and still score in the top 10
percent on the LSAT.
By deciding that it is you who wants to
take the LSAT, by becoming fully informed about
the test and the appropriate responses to it, and
by developing a positive attitude toward the test
and your training for it, you will take control and
overcome your preparation anxiety.
How does worry practice work?

When you practice worrying, you gain control of
what threatens you, and you remove it as a
barrier. You determine the worst that can
happen and implement a plan that takes that
outcome into account.
Suppose that studying for a multiple-choice
test has never resulted in good scores for you.
Naturally, you worry about having the same
experience with the LSAT. Factor in the cost of a
prep course and the potential loss of pride of
your family and friends, and you can gauge the
embarrassment that a low score will cause you.
This is a threat.
What options are available to you? One
option is not to prepare for the LSAT at alljust
take the test without telling anyone, since you
dont believe preparation will help your performance anyway. Then when you dont do well,
no one will be the wiser. This may help you deal
with your preparation anxiety, but it wont help
you achieve your goal of your best test score. A
wiser course is to train hard for the LSAT, even if
this training should turn out to have little effect.
Explain to your family and friends that the test is
very tough and the outcome very uncertain, but
you will work as hard as you can to do well.
Then if you dont do well, they will be prepared.
Next you develop and install your safety
net. Even if you do not do well, the worst that
can happen is that you have wasted a large
amount of time and money getting ready and
taking the test and applying to law schools. If,
after all this, you perform no better than you
would have done without preparation, you are
no further behind than you were, and your
family and friends will know that you worked
hard. While this would not be a happy circumstance, it can get no worse than this, and this is
not all that bad. The status quo is your safety net.
Practice worrying!
Worry practice is useful and effective. Throughout
your life, people have encouraged you to overcome barriers with the words dont worry. As
you face the LSAT, your parents, friends, spouse,
and others assure you that Everything will be OK.
Dont worry, you always do well. Accept such
encouragement, but do not mistake it for positive
thinking or a good training practice.
Worry about the LSAT.
Irrespective of how often you are told not to,
you will worry about the LSAT. And, perhaps
ironically, its a good idea. Constructive worrying
LSAT Success
RED
49
ALERT
www.petersons.com
RED ALERT
Do relaxation and
concentration help reduce
anxiety and keep that
preparation barrier down?
breathe deeply, execute step two, which is to

dismiss all thoughts of the past and future.
Put recollections of past performance and
speculation about future performance out of your
mind. Such thoughts are distracting and have no
relevance to the task at hand. Finally, focus
exclusively on the immediate tasknothing
more and nothing less. Try it. You will be
relaxed and your powers of concentration
restored. You will be in control.
As you have learned in this session, control
is the key to managing preparation anxiety, and
training, including constructive worrying, is the
key to control. By following the training regimen
in this book, you will gain control over your
preparation anxiety, tear down the barrier it
poses to your best performance, and improve
your LSAT results.
There is much evidence that people perform best

when they are relaxed and able to concentrate.
Training that facilitates relaxation and concentration will enhance your performance and counter
preparation anxiety.
There is a straightforward training process
that encourages relaxation and concentration. If
it seems hokey, let me assure you it is not. You
can practice its three steps frequently during
your training period. The first step involves
breath controlwhen you begin to feel
anxious or tense, pause in what you are doing
and take three deep breaths. Inhale slowly and
fully, then slowly and fully exhale. As you
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RED
50
ALERT
LSAT Success
Success Session 1
ACADEMIC CONDITIONING MAY BE HAZARDOUS
TO YOUR LSAT SCORE
convinced. And unless I can convince you that
your academic conditioning must be put aside,
your test training and LSAT performance will
suffer, so here we go.
Your academic training and conditioning can

impede LSAT performance. Yes, its true. The
learning and testing techniques that have helped
you in school can be barriers that actually lower
your LSAT score. Even worse, the greater your
academic learning and testing proficiency, the
greater the risk to your test score. The objective
of this success session is to train you to remove
the barriers that arise from your academic
conditioning.
CAN
ISNT
OTHER
LSAT
TEST?
THE
A TEST LIKE ANY
No, it is notat least not the kind of test with

which you are familiar.
Your academic conditioning has provided
you with a clear picture of a test. For example,
you are supposed to have acquired certain
information in Professor Smoots course. To
measure the extent to which you have succeeded in this, Smoot requires you to answer a
series of questions she has prepared. You know
the information, answer the questions, and do
well. Thats a test.
Because it is called Law School Admission
Test, your academic conditioning leads you to
expect it to have the characteristics of the
familiar test. Even the format of the LSAT
confirms this expectationquestions and
answers, paper and pencils, time limits. But
appearances are deceiving. Exactly what information is measured by the LSAT? What are you
expected to know? The meaning of carmagnole?
The formula for determining the surface area of a
basketball? Everything? Nothing?
Aha! Now you know why the LSAT is not a
test like the academic tests with which you are
so familiar. Your knowledge of vocabulary,
grammar, mathematical formulae, computation,
facts, opinions, and other such information is not
measured by the LSAT. In short, precious little
substantive knowledge is required by the LSAT.
To further add to the possible deception,
the LSAT is not designed to measure what it
appears to ask. Rather, it is designed to measure
your ability to select the best answer from the
options provided by the test-maker. Selecting the
best answer from provided choices is very
different in form and content from answering a
question about a subject that you are expected
to know. Avoiding the barrier that associates the
YOU RELY UPON ACADEMIC
PROWESS?
Academic success is probably a major contributor
to your interest in law school and the legal
profession that have, in turn, led you to the
challenge of the LSAT. You probably have some
confidence in your academic ability. You have
learned that a superior academic performance
depends upon superior conditioning and study
and test-taking techniques. Therefore, you reason
that the conditioning and techniques that have
produced good academic results for you in the
past should also produce a superior LSAT score.
For your reasoning to be correct, the LSAT
should be a form of academic performancebut
this is not the case.
THE LSAT IS NOT AN ACADEMIC EXERCISE.
For this reason, relying upon academic conditioning and techniques may actually place barriers
that impair rather than enhance your LSAT
performance. By training to circumvent these
barriers, you can dramatically improve your score
potential.
AVOIDING EFFECTIVE ACADEMIC
TECHNIQUES CAN ACTUALLY IMPROVE
YOUR LSAT SCORE.
SKEPTICAL?
Sure you are. Skepticism is one of those successful academic techniques. You have been conditioned to question, and you insist on being
51
SUCCESS SESSION 1
DONT SUBSTITUTE THE COMFORT OF
APPARENT STUDY FOR EFFECTIVE LSAT
TRAINING.
Law School Admission Test with a familiar

classroom or licensing test is essential to you
scoring as well as you might on the LSAT. At the
risk of oversimplification, do not think of the
LSAT as a test. The LSAT is not a test!
WHAT
BarrierEffort Does Not

Equal Excellence
LEARNING TECHNIQUES ARE
BARRIERS TO YOUR BEST

PERFORMANCE?
Academic lore has it that excellent performance

is a function of effortno pain, no gain. You
believe that if you work hard, you will do well
on academic tests. Hard work generally means
committing information to memory, but since the
information required by the LSAT has virtually
nothing to do with your test performance, the
hard work with which you are familiar has no
value in the context of this test. Studying
hundreds of LSAT questions misses the point.
LSAT excellence depends on consistent execution of a basic reasoning task, not repetitious
grunt work.
LSAT
BarrierConvert the
Unfamiliar into the Familiar
When faced with the unfamiliar, we tend to
respond by doing something familiar and
comfortable. Thus, the majority of those facing
the LSAT enroll in a course that they believe
will teach them the substantive information
required for the testbut, as we have just seen,
the LSAT requires no substantive information.
As a substitute for effective preparation,
weeks are wasted in the familiar classroom context
searching for a way to convert the LSAT into the
familiar (and comfortable?) academic test. The
search is futile. It is a barrier that does little more
than generate more preparation anxiety. Those
who recognize the futility of traditional classroom
preparation often attempt to sharpen their
academic test-taking techniques by slogging
through hundreds of LSAT questions. But this type
of practice reinforces techniques that, when
applied, likely constrain LSAT performance.
DONT SUBSTITUTE HARD WORK FOR

EFFECTIVE LSAT TRAINING.
The Generalization Barrier

Academic rewards come regularly to those who
discover the general concept that explains many
specific observations. Those who are academically proficient anticipate the presence of
consistency in a test and look for answers that
are consistent with ones that have gone before.
The LSAT anticipates this anticipation. Dont
anticipate consistency in LSAT questions and
answersthe opposite is often the case. The
only reward for such anticipation and generalization is a barrier that produces a consistently low
test score.
DONT TRY TO CONVERT THE LSAT INTO

THE FAMILIAR STUDY, STUDY, STUDY
BARRIER.
EACH LSAT QUESTION IS INDEPENDENT OF

EVERY OTHER LSAT QUESTION.
In an academic course, generally, success is

achieved by studying. Your academic conditioning dictates that study is the best way to learn
the information needed to perform well on a
test. Consequently, you have been conditioned to
study. In the LSAT context, study means
answering and reviewing answers to questions
that will not appear on the test. Such study
wastes time and amplifies preparation anxiety
because, if youre honest with yourself, you
know that nothing of consequence is happening.
The study barrier prevents you from productive
training for success on the LSAT.
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BarrierComplex Drives
Out Simple
Your academic conditioning discourages choosing the simple or superficial answer to a test
question and encourages you to search for the
complex and thorough. When this conditioning
is projected onto the LSAT, the test-taker
frequently selects a less-than-appropriate answer
because the best answer seems too simple.
Dont bypass the simple LSAT answer choice just
because it would not be a strong response on an
academic test.
52
LSAT Success
ACADEMIC CONDITIONING MAY BE HAZARDOUS TO YOUR LSAT SCORE

THE SIMPLE ANSWER IS OFTEN THE BEST
ANSWER TO AN LSAT QUESTION.
such a test. LSAT questions are designated by a

number that corresponds to a number on the
answer sheet. There is no other purpose for the
order of questions. Generally, there is no benefit
that results from answering LSAT questions in
the order presented.
BarrierReading for
Information
In an academic context, reading is the primary
way to acquire information. When the LSAT
presents a reading passage, the conditioned
reaction is to read it for the information it
contains. But the passages you will find in the
LSAT are not there to present information that
you must commit to memory for future use. Such
memorization would only detract from the
purpose of LSAT reading passages, which is to
provide a familiar vehicle through which your
reasoning skill might be measured.
CONSIDER QUESTIONS IN THE ORDER THAT

WILL PRODUCE THE HIGHEST SCORE FOR YOU.
The Completion-Delusion
Barrier
Academic conditioning promotes the delusion
that you can enhance your test performance by
considering every question and answering every
question to the extent that time allows. For
virtually everyone who takes the LSAT, the
opposite is true. No points are gained by
simply completing the entire LSAT. Your
score results exclusively from the number of
correct answers you select. In fact, it is by not
completing the test that most people will reach
their top test score.
DO NOT READ THE LSAT FOR THE

INFORMATION IT PRESENTS.
Information acquisition is not among the
purposes of the LSAT. Effective manipulation of
information is an objective of the LSAT. Avoid
erecting a reading-for-information barrier to your
best performance on the test.
RARELY WILL COMPLETING THE LSAT

PRODUCE YOUR BEST PERFORMANCE.
BarrierPersuaded by Logic
The Perfectly Impossible Barrier
Perhaps the most hazardous item of academic

conditioning is the belief that a logical presentation is destined to be the most persuasive one.
Confidence in what you know and understand of
reality can lead to many an incorrect answer on
the LSAT. The logic employed in the LSAT
involves structure rather than reality.
Academic conditioning encourages the held

belief of students that a flawless performance is
the test-takers objective. For the LSAT, this
objective is virtually impossible to achieve.
Instead of striving for impossible perfection, the
well-trained LSAT test-taker will expect to get
certain types of questions wrong and will
concentrate on those questions that are most
likely to produce the highest possible score for
the examinee.
THE BEST ANSWER TO AN LSAT QUESTION

OFTEN DEFIES REALITY AS YOU KNOW IT.
WHAT
TEST-TAKING TECHNIQUES
ERECT BARRIERS TO YOUR BEST

PERFORMANCE?
LSAT
PLAN FOR A GREAT SCORE, NOT AN

IMPOSSIBLE PERFECT PERFORMANCE.
The Question-Is-the-Question
Barrier
The Well-Worn Path Barrier

People who are successful at academic test
taking generally follow a clear path to good
grades. They find a routine or pattern that leads
them to a consistently strong test performance.
For example, they apply the first-to-last strategy,
answering the first question first and proceeding
through the questions in the order presented.
Many standardized tests anticipate this strategy
the SAT, for example, presents questions in the
order of least to most difficult. The LSAT is not
LSAT Success
Academic conditioning suggests that what

appears to be an LSAT question is the real
question; that is, the question is the sentence
that ends with a question mark. This expectation
of most LSAT test-takers is confusing because, on
the LSAT, it is the answer choices that define the
questions, not the questions themselves. Most
LSAT questions are vague. Only by careful
consideration of the answer choices can you
clarify the questions and select the best answer.
53
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SUCCESS SESSION 1
MAKE NO ASSUMPTIONS WHEN TRYING TO
SELECT THE BEST ANSWER TO AN LSAT
QUESTION.
ON THE LSAT, THE ANSWER IS THE QUESTION.
BarrierHard Questions
Count More
The Bingo Barrier
Academic tests often reward correct answers to

difficult questions with more points than are
awarded for less difficult ones. This common
practice does not apply to the LSAT. While LSAT
questions vary considerably in difficulty, the
scoring rule is clear and simpleone question,
one point. Answering the ten least difficult
questions yields exactly the same number of
score points as would answering the ten most
difficult questions.
Avoiding the bingo barrier is one of the most

difficult challenges the LSAT test-taker faces. The
combination of the multiple-choice format of the
LSAT and the BYO strategy of test-takers generates the bingo barrier. Its mechanics are as
follows. The test-taker reads the LSAT question
and proceeds to develop an answer to the
question asked, without regard to the proffered
answer options. This mental answer is then
compared to each of the answer choice options
on the test. A match is sought. If the match is
found, bingo!
But what if there is no match? The testtaker becomes anxious and frustrated. Was the
question misunderstood? Is there a mistake on
the test? What is wrong with the answer the
test-taker developed? Whatever the explanation,
the process is wasteful, unnecessary, and a major
barrier to a top performance on the LSAT.
The bingo barrier develops from the
misconception that the best technique for
selecting an LSAT answer is to match the
answers provided on the test with one the
test-taker develops. For reasons that are accounted for by the types of answer choices
provided on the LSAT, you should use only the
choices provided by the test itself when selecting
the best LSAT answer. Once again it is important to remember that the LSAT is not a test of
knowledge or substance. Your charge does not
involve the development of the best answer you
are capable of producing. Your charge is to
select the best answer from the limited choices
provided. Avoid the bingo barrier and your
performance on the LSAT will improve.
ANSWER THE LEAST DIFFICULT LSAT

QUESTIONS BEFORE ANSWERING THE MOST
DIFFICULT ONES.
The BYO Barrier

Academic conditioning prompts a bring-yourown strategy in most test-takers. In other words,
successful academic test-takers have preconceived
notions about what the questions and answers will
be, and they tend to find what theyre looking for.
This is often referred to as psyching out the test.
This test-taking strategy is of no value with the
LSAT. This is because the LSAT provides all questions and all acceptable answers. Having your own
questions or answers in mind or generating your
own answers can only lead to confusion that produces a barrier to your best performance.
AVOID THE TEMPTATION TO BRING YOUR
OWN QUESTIONS OR ANSWERS TO THE LSAT.
The Assumption Barrier

A superior performance often results from making
the invited assumptions on an academic test. Students know the subject matter, the professor, the
text, and the context in which the test is being
given. It is natural and justifiable to make assumptions about test questions when they are presented in these circumstances. The LSAT exploits
this conditioning by inviting many assumptions.
But the LSAT is differentthere is no course, no
subject matter, no professor, no text, and, thus,
there is no context. Without a meaningful context,
invited assumptions about test questions or answers become barriers to the best possible performance on the LSAT. Making an invited assumption
is not only inappropriate but puts your best test
score at risk. The LSAT is context-free and should
be dealt with accordingly.
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DO NOT USE THE BINGO TECHNIQUE TO

SELECT LSAT ANSWERS.
The Cream-of-the-Crop Barrier

Academic conditioning directs the test-taker to
seek the best possible answer, the cream-of-thecrop answer, to every question on the traditional
test. But the LSAT is not a traditional test. The
LSAT is not burdened with a need to provide the
best possible answer. Since the answer choices
are provided, all of the choices can be seconds
or cream-of-the-crop answers. Indeed, you should
expect that the best answers to questions
54
LSAT Success
ACADEMIC CONDITIONING MAY BE HAZARDOUS TO YOUR LSAT SCORE

tioned to react to the substantive material rather
than to the process that the LSAT is attempting
to assess. If you react to the substantive material
of the question, you face a barrier to your best
performance. Avoid the barrier by avoiding
substantivitis. Deal only with the process
required by the LSAT and you will avoid the
substantivitis barrier.
presented on the LSAT do not appear as an

answer choice.
If the best possible cream-of-the-crop
answers were to appear among the five LSAT
answer choices, they would usually be obvious
and readily selected by the vast majority of
test-takers. This would defeat the purpose of the
LSAT. The purpose of the test is to differentiate
among test-takers according to certain abilities.
This purpose would not be well served by a test
on which most test-takers produced very similar
results. In order to guarantee that its purpose is
achieved, the LSAT tactic is to provide one
answer choice that is not at all the best possible
answer but one that is somewhat better than the
others. This cream-of-the-crop tactic makes the
task of selecting the best answer much more
difficult for the test-taker and advances the
objective of the testto differentiate among very
able test-takers. The cream-of-the-crop answer is
the best one of the five answer options; it is
usually not the best possible answer. Remember,
best, in LSAT parlance, means best among the
five choices. Avoid the best barrier as you avoid
the test barrier. For the LSAT, you can avoid
humbling barriers if you constantly remind
yourself that test is not test and best is not best.
IN SELECTING LSAT ANSWERS,

CONCENTRATE ON FORM, AND AVOID
BECOMING INVOLVED WITH SUBSTANCE.
BarrierFair Means
Unpredictable
Finally, your previous academic conditioning
promotes the notion that a fair test is one that is
unpredictable. If you know and understand the
substantive information presented in the academic course, you can do well in responding to
any question that may appear on a test. If the
questions are any more predictable than this, the
test is not perceived as fair in the sense that a
person can do well by knowing only the
information to which the test is limited. If the
test deals only with the material in one lecture of
a thirty-lecture course, it is very predictable and
not likely to be perceived as fair by most
students. So it should follow that for the LSAT to
be fair, as it must be in order to be effective in
deciding the admissions of students to law
school, it should also be unpredictable.
The idea of its unpredictability is reinforced
by the point made earlier in this session: The
LSAT does not measure the subjects customary to
academic or other standardized tests, such as
facts, vocabulary, grammar, mathematical
formulae, and the like. But, as you have seen
elsewhere in this session, the LSAT reality is
often the opposite of what you might expect,
and the matter of its predictability is no exception. The LSAT is totally predictable. Each of the
subsequent success sessions provides techniques
that can be used to take advantage of this
predictability.
As noted earlier, the LSAT is designed to
differentiate among test-takers. This differentiation cannot be left to chance by the test-maker.
The differentiation must be totally predictable.
Without this predictability, the test would not
serve its purpose. So, the test is designed to
consistently produce the same, predictable
results. If you think or believe otherwise, you
THE BEST ANSWER TO AN LSAT QUESTION

IS THE CREAM OF THE CROP.
The Substantivitis Barrier

Superior performance on most academic tests
results from effectively dealing with a case of
substantivitis. The test-taker effectively demonstrates on the academic test that substantive
information has been acquired and is available
for application to various problems, circumstances, situations, and the like. Superior
performance on the LSAT, on the other hand,
results from effectively demonstrating that the
test-taker can consistently apply the reasoning
process required by law schools to various
problems, circumstances, and situations presented on the test. This process is largely free of
substance. In fact, substance frequently becomes
a barrier to the best possible performance on the
LSAT.
Imagine that there is question material on
the LSAT that deals with substantive matters
about which you know a great deal. It is a great
temptation to believe that your substantive
knowledge is being tested. In fact, it is difficult
to believe otherwise. You are likely well condi-
LSAT Success
55
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SUCCESS SESSION 1
will confront a barrier to your best performance.
To avoid this barrier, treat the LSAT as a ruler. It
remains constant so that the measurement results
are consistent and predictable. Each edition of
the test is the same. Each question set measures
the same things in the same wayover and over.
of achieving your best LSAT performance. Do not

expect such a change of yourself. You will likely
be disappointed. In any event, it is not necessary.
Rather than changing anything, concentrate
on learning something new. Accept and learn the
techniques found in this and subsequent success
sessions. By learning new techniques, you can
avoid the barriers that you will face if you treat
the LSAT as an academic exercise. If you learn
new techniques, your LSAT preparation experience will be interesting and useful, and your test
score will benefit.
THE LSAT IS TOTALLY PREDICTABLE.

You cannot quickly change your academic
conditioning and the attendant learning and
test-taking techniques it has taken you many
years to develop just for the very limited purpose
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56
LSAT Success
Success Session 2
BECOME FAMILIAR WITH THE LSAT
FAMILIARITY
BREEDS SUCCESS!
score in the top 20 percent. Not all test-takers

can achieve a high score; if they could, the LSAT
would fail in its purpose. Consequently, the test
is designed to ensure that scores are distributed
as expected, not concentrated. The LSAT is
designed to succeed. As you will soon learn,
success is built in.
As you become familiar with the LSAT, you

become able to avoid those aspects of the test
that are barriers to your best performance. As
you learned in the first session, the greatest
barriers to your best performance are those
academic test-taking tactics that you have
developed over your years of formal education.
As you will learn in this session, familiarity with
the LSAT provides you with the ability to treat
the test as what it is rather than what it appears
to be.
WHAT
IS SUCCESS FOR THE
WHAT
IS THE JUSTIFICATION
FOR THE
LSAT?
There are two basic justifications offered for the

use of the LSAT. The first involves the claimed
correlation between LSAT scores and law school
performance; that is, students who earn the
highest LSAT scores also will get the highest
first-year examination grades in law school. The
relationship of the average first-year law school
grades of the schools students to their LSAT
scores establishes the association of the test to
grades for the law school as a whole. This
relationship is referred to as the schools
correlation coefficient. The coefficient is
expressed as a number between 0 and 1, with 0
indicating no relationship and 1 a perfect
relationship. Law schools justify their use of the
LSAT on the basis of correlation coefficients as
low as .20 or as high as .65.
The second justification concerns the
correlation of LSAT questions with basic law
school activities. Specifically, the form of
Passages questions reflects the form of the
casebooks that law students must read and
analyze. The forms of Arguments and Relationships questions reflect those found in the
Socratic discussions and the examinations of law
school. (See the comparisons given on the
following pages.)
Whether you are persuaded by these
justifications is of little consequence, since the
law schools are persuaded and they have
accepted the LSAT as the predominant factor in
the admission decision. Accept this reality and
the LSATs use as a ranking device, and you will
be in the best position to take advantage of its
attributes as you train for your LSAT success.
LSAT?
For you, LSAT success means a high score. By

contrast, the LSAT succeeds when it effectively
differentiates among those who aspire to law
school. Through differentiation, the LSAT
provides law schools with a simple way of
ranking applicants for admission.
As noted in the previous session, you have
been conditioned to believe that a test is
designed to measure the extent to which you
have acquired and can use information acquired
in your academic studies. Your conditioning
tempts you to project such a purpose onto the
LSAT, and this temptation is reinforced by much
of the rhetoric and rumor that surrounds the test.
Your conditioning clouds your view of the LSAT.
A clear view of the results expected of the
LSAT will allow you to bypass your academic
conditioning and related temptations. The LSAT
is nothing more or less than a device for
distributing people along the 61 points of its
score scale. Thats right, the LSAT succeeds
when it places you with one of 61 predetermined groups of test-takers and assigns one of 61
scores to you and the others in your group.
THE PURPOSE OF THE LSAT IS TO
DISTRIBUTE TEST-TAKERS.
No matter how great a test-takers abilities and
knowledge, the LSAT will assign all who take it
one of the 61 points of its score scale. For
example, only 20 percent of all test-takers can
57
SUCCESS SESSION 2
HOW
DOES THE
LSAT
WORK?
A section is defined by time and by the

type of questions it contains. Each test section is
35 minutes long. One section consists of
questions about reading passages (sometimes
referred to as reading comprehension questions).
This is the Passages section. It is scored. One
section consists of questions about relationships
(sometimes referred to as analytical or logicgames questions). This is the Relationships
section. It also is scored. Two sections consist of
questions about arguments (sometimes referred
to as logical reasoning questions). These are the
Arguments sections. They, too, are scored.
There is one so-called Experimental
section. This section is not scored. It is used to
test questions for use on future editions of the
LSAT. It consists of the same types of questions
as are included in one of the scored sections.
Last and least, there is a Writing Sample.
The Writing Sample is provided to law schools
along with your test score, but it is not scored.
To succeed, the LSAT must be reliablein the

jargon, it must measure consistently. In fact, to
do its job properly, it should perform consistently in all of its outcomes. If it does not
perform consistently, the scores from one
administrationsay, October of one yearcould
not be compared meaningfully with those from
anothersay, December of the next year. How
can the necessary consistency, and thus LSAT
success, be ensured? There is a straightforward
and effective way to assure consistency: Be sure
that every edition of the LSAT requires that the
same exercises are done in the same way. When
the same activities are measured in the same
way, the outcomes will be consistent. This
requirement for consistencyan LSAT design
requirementassures that the test is predictable.
BECAUSE THE LSAT MUST PERFORM
CONSISTENTLY, IT MUST BE PREDICTABLE.
LSAT predictability is the principal advantage you
have as you train for success and take the LSAT.
Because the LSAT is predictable, it is possible to
know exactly what to train for and exactly what
you will face when you take the test.
Obviously, there is no need for you to
experience anxiety about the unknown characteristics of the LSAT. This is because there are
NO unknown characteristics of the LSAT. By
design and definition, the characteristics of the
LSAT must be known. It is academic conditioning
that tells you the test content cannot be predicted in specific terms. LSAT content is totally
predictable.
Directions
WHAT ARE THE

THE LSAT?
There are approximately 100 scored questions on

the LSAT. These questions generally are distributed across the separate test sections as follows,
though any section may vary by one or two
questions.
Each section comes with directions. The directions tell you what you are expected to do on
that section. Directions are important.
Statements
A statement precedes most question and answerchoice sets. The statement provides certain
information, some of which is relevant to the
questions and answer choices that follow the
statement. It is easy to confuse statements and
questions.
Questions
BASIC ELEMENTS OF
In keeping with its predictability, every LSAT

consists of the same basic elements. There are
six of these basic elements to every LSAT
sections, directions, statements, questions,
answers, and time.
Passages28 questions
Relationships24 questions
Arguments24 questions in each of two
Arguments sections
Sections
While they are commonly referred to as test
sections, these elements are, in fact, separate tests.
It is important to understand that each LSAT
consists of five of these tests, as well as a Writing
Sample. Although there is only one LSAT score,
there are five different tests on every LSAT.
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Answers
Each LSAT question is followed by five answer
choices or options. This means that there are
some 500 answer choices on every LSAT.
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LSAT Success
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SUCCESS SESSION 2
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SUCCESS SESSION 2
WHAT
Time
Most people find that the allotted 35 minutes is

insufficient to consider each question in a test
section carefully. Most respond to this time
pressure by reducing the time they take to
consider individual questions. As we will see in
Red Alert 3, The 9-12-18 Test-Planning System,
reducing the time you take to consider individual
questions may reduce your score. Thus, time
becomes a significant performance factor.
Also important is the fact that each LSAT
section is separately timed, and you cannot
transfer time from one test section to another.
For example, if you complete the Passages
section in 30 minutes, you cannot use the 5
remaining minutes to start another test section,
nor can you return to an earlier section you were
unable to complete in the 35 minutes allotted.
This means that you must treat every LSAT
section as a separately timed test.
WRONG ANSWERS PROVIDE THE KEY TO

YOUR BEST LSAT SCORE.
By training yourself to control the number of
wrong answers you select, you reduce performance anxiety and avoid academic conditioning
that could limit your test score. You will train to
take advantage of what might be called the
wrong-answer weakness of the LSAT.
A review of past tests yields the following
table. (Numbers will vary slightly, depending on the
test form.) You would need to choose the specified
number of wrong answers in order to be grouped
with the percentage of test-takers indicated.
THE LSAT IS ESSENTIALLY FIVE SEPARATE

TESTS AND A WRITING SAMPLE.
DOES THE
LSAT
PERFORM?
The LSAT has difficulty as it strives to successfully meet its stated objective of ranking applicants to law schools so that the very skilled and
superskilled are meaningfully differentiated for
admission selection. In terms of actual performance, the LSAT does not meet its ranking
objectives very well. For example, rather than
distributing test-takers across the score scale, the
LSAT tends to bunch test-takers at various places
on the scale. The test maker explains this
phenomenon variously.
Whatever the explanation, you will design
your LSAT performance strategy to take advantage of this tendency in the test. It is a strategy
that can produce the best test result for you.
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LSAT
Because the LSATs sole purpose is to rank you

in relation to others, it should come as no
surprise to you that the test is only concerned
with your performance in relation to that of
others. And, in contrast to the academic conditioning that focuses on the number of questions
you answer correctly, the LSATs performance is
based upon the number of wrong answers you
and all other test-takers select. Where your
number of wrong answers places you among all
test-takers is the only information of interest to
the test-maker and the law schools.
If all of you fail to select the necessary number of wrong answers, the test-maker concludes
that the test is too easy. Since the LSAT is not an
academic test, this cannot be solved by asking
harder questions, using more obscure information
in statements, or requiring more complex calculations to turn stated information into useful information. What the test-maker must do is construct
better wrong answers, and this is very difficult to
do. What is difficult for the test-maker gives an
advantage to the savvy test-taker, as you will find
in future sessions.
FOR MOST PEOPLE, TIME IS THE PRINCIPAL

FACTOR IN THEIR LSAT SCORE.
HOW
DOES THE WAY THE
PERFORMS MEAN TO YOU?
You are allotted 35 minutes to complete each

LSAT section. Of the many factors that determine
the LSAT score, time is the most important one.
While the test-maker states that time is not a
factor in the design of the LSAT, the truth is that
time accounts for test-takers selection of greater
numbers of wrong answers than any other factor
involved in the test.
Number
of Wrong
Answers
7
18
21
25
29
32
37
62
% of
Test-Takers
with More
Wrong Answers
% of
Test-Takers
with Fewer
Wrong Answers
99.9
95
90
80
70
60
50
0.1
5
10
20
30
40
50
LSAT Success

YOU MUST SELECT AT LEAST TWENTY
WRONG ANSWERS TO SCORE IN THE
BOTTOM 90 PERCENT OF TEST-TAKERS.
As pointed out previously, the correlation

between LSAT performance and first-year law
school grades is offered as a justification for the
use of the LSAT. Law schools routinely interpret
this correlation as a prediction of first-year grades
and of overall performance in the school,
operating on the assumption that the higher the
LSAT score, the higher the law school grades and
the better the law school performance.
To follow up on the significance of wrong

answers, remember that you are not penalized
for guessing on the LSAT. Whether you select a
wrong answer or no answer, the impact on your
score is the same, so there is no advantage to
leaving any blanks on your answer sheet. Also,
you can gain no advantage from knowing that
some LSAT questions are more difficult than
others. LSAT answers are not weighted, so each
answer contributes equally to your score.
Your success strategy is to answer every
question on the LSAT; guessing, if you must.
Your success strategy is to seek out and answer
every easy question before spending time on
difficult questions.
WHAT
DOES THE WAY THE
THE ASPECT OF THE LSAT THAT IS MOST

SIGNIFICANT TO LAW SCHOOLS IS THE FACT
THAT IT MAKES THEIR REJECTION
DECISIONS EASY.
Not only does the LSAT rank every applicant,
but, because its score results are preset, law
schools are able to predict the number and
nature of test scores at any given point, knowing
nothing more than the number of test-takers.
LSAT
HOW
PERFORMS MEAN TO LAW SCHOOLS?
LAW SCHOOL
The least significant aspect of the LSATs

performance is its apparent similarity to the work
law students do. However, the fact that its
various characteristics resemble those of lawschool texts and classroom and examination
activities appears to make some people in the
law schools more comfortable with its use than
would be the case if no similarity existed.
The LSAT is a common comparative factor
among law schools. With minor exceptions,
every law school in the United States and Canada
requires every applicant to present an LSAT
score as part of the application process. This
facilitates the comparison of applicants. Each
applicants test score can be compared with
every other applicants test score. Rankings are
easily determined and lines are easily drawn.
Scores over 3 years old are not routinely
reported to law schools, so the LSAT score is
current. Thus, when comparing applicants, law
schools can minimize their dependence on
evaluations or academic records reflecting work
performed at different times. The LSAT provides
them with a comparison of applicants based
upon a common recent experience.
The LSAT score is easily defensible. If you
get a low score, the score is fully and exclusively
attributable to younot to the law schools, admission officers, professors, counselors, or undergraduate schools. The score is a single objective
number and not very susceptible to interpretation.
LSAT Success
DOES THE
LSAT
INFLUENCE THE
REJECTION
DECISION?
The vast majority of applications for admission to

law school are rejected. There are places in a law
school class for some 60 percent of those who
apply. For this and other reasons, the average
law school aspirant applies to some five law
schools. The result is that nearly 90 percent of all
applications are wasted. Put another way, if the
selection system worked perfectly, only about 10
percent of applications would be accepted. Since
the system is far from perfect, many more than
10 percent are accepted.
Virtually all of the law school rejection
decisions made by directors of rejection (who
you should know prefer to be addressed as
directors of admission) can be accounted for by
the LSAT score and undergraduate grade point
average (GPA). This does not mean that other
factors are not taken into account in the admission decision, but that, after all is said and done,
the LSAT and GPA usually can explain the
decision to accept or reject, other factors
notwithstanding.
To facilitate decision making, the vast
majority of law schools combine the LSAT and
GPA into an admission index. Each school
determines the weight to be given to applicants
LSAT and GPA and calculates each applicants
admission index.
63
www.petersons.com
SUCCESS SESSION 2
FOR EACH LAW SCHOOL TO WHICH YOU
APPLY, YOUR ADMISSION INDEX IS A
FUNCTION OF YOUR LSAT SCORE AND
YOUR GPA.
balance between the two. The LSAT, however,

indirectly measures your ability to break through
your academic conditioning to find and consistently apply an optimal balance between speed
and accuracy as you work your way through the
test questions and answer choices.
Your academic conditioning suggests that
you should study for a test, and the test will
measure your success at such study. But the total
predictability of the LSAT suggests that you plan
for the test, and the test will measure your
success at such planning. Also, indirectly, the
LSAT measures your self-discipline in following a
plan and avoiding the limitations that academic
conditioning could place as a barrier to your best
LSAT score.
Its final measurement is of your skill at the
mechanics of test taking. For example, transcription is a critical skill. LSAT test-takers often make
errors in transcribing their answers from the test
book to the answer sheet. By avoiding transcription errors and other mechanical mistakes, you
can avoid a barrier to receiving your best
possible LSAT score.
In constructing your test plan, we will
consider both the selection of wrong answers
and the factors that are measured indirectly by
the LSAT.
All applicants can then be ranked by admission

index and admitted or rejected according to the
policies and practices of that law school. The
next page contains an illustration of this process.
The relative weight law schools assign to
the LSAT score and GPA is all-important to the
admission index. Assuming that all applicants
have a GPA of at least 2 on a 4-point scale, a
survey of the admission indices of 150 law
schools shows that the effective weight of the
LSAT is more than that of the GPA. For 45
percent of the schools, the LSAT score accounted
for some 70 percent of the index. If you have a
relatively strong GPA, you will want to apply to
those schools that weigh the GPA most. If you
have a relatively strong LSAT score, you will
want to apply to those that weigh the LSAT
most.
KNOW HOW MUCH WEIGHT THE LSAT
SCORE WILL BE GIVEN BY THE LAW
SCHOOLS TO WHICH YOU APPLY.
WHAT
DOES THE
LSAT
MEASURE?
The test-maker says the LSAT measures the ability

to read and comprehend complex texts, manage
and organize information, and process information to reach conclusions. All of this begs the
question.
IN ADDITION TO THE REQUIRED
REASONING ABILITIES, THE LSAT MEASURES
YOUR SPEED, ACCURACY, AND SKILL AT
PLANNING, DISCIPLINE, AND MECHANICS.
Your prior academic conditioning emphasizes
speed over accuracy rather than the optimal
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64
LSAT Success
LSAT Success
65
www.petersons.com
Success Session 3
YOUR STRATEGY IS ESSENTIAL TO YOUR SUCCESS
YOUR
TEST-TRAINING PLAN BEGINS
Given that the LSAT is predictable, your LSAT

success is best assured by a good training plan
and a good performance plan. A good plan
requires a solid strategic base. In this instance, a
solid strategic base for you must take into
account that strategy upon which the LSAT is
based. Thus, we begin this session with a brief
analysis of the strategy upon which the LSAT is
based.
At the core of the LSAT strategy is a plan.

The LSAT plan establishes detailed objectives for
the test, identifies the variables involved,
determines the optimal mix of the variables
needed to meet the objectives, and mixes the
variables consistently. The test-maker has
developed this planning process over a long
period and at great expense. Contrary to the
advice or propaganda some people may offer to
you, you have neither the time nor the resources
to develop a competing processnor should you
trynor should they try.
WHAT
WHAT
WITH A STRATEGY.
IS THE
STRATEGY?
LSATS
PREPARATION
IS YOUR PREPARATION
STRATEGY?
The LSAT is based upon a carefully prepared

strategy that ensures that the expectationsyea,
requirementsfor the LSAT are met each time
the test is administered. First and foremost, if the
LSAT does not perform consistently as expected,
the value of the test is lost. So the test-maker
spares nothing to make certain that every time
an LSAT is administered, the test results are those
specified. The LSAT is not prepared, administered, scored, and results reported. Au contraire.
As you know, most peoples LSAT preparation

strategy is to practice past or simulated LSAT
questions and to review analyses of the questions
and the answer choices. This usually means
practicing test-taking habits, mechanics, and skills
that are not appropriate to the LSAT, which
results in the expenditure of a great deal of effort
and little score improvement for most people.
For some, this practice strategy actually impairs
rather than improves test performance.
Your strategy, on the other hand, is to take
advantage of the LSATs strategy. All the hard
work has been done for you. Your job is to take
advantage of the hard work and use the model
provided for you.
THE TEST-MAKERS STRATEGY IS TO KNOW

HOW THE TEST WILL PERFORM BEFORE IT
IS ADMINISTERED.
The adage of the trial lawyer applies equally to
the LSAT: Never ask a witness a question if you
dont know what the answer will be. The LSAT
is not improvised. It is fully scripted, planned in
every detail. Long before the test is administered,
test scores and their structure for the specific
edition of the LSAT involved have been determined. By the time an LSAT is administered, all
that remains for the test-maker to do is connect
individual test-takers to the predetermined
scores. This is done by administering the test to
you and others. To belabor the point, predetermined means that the LSAT is predictable. You
will use that predictability.
AT THE CORE OF YOUR TEST-TRAINING

STRATEGY IS YOUR PLAN.
To best succeed, you will follow the model of
the test performance plan designed for the LSAT.
You will begin, as does the LSAT model, by
establishing your objectives for the test. Next
you will identify the factors or activities that will
be meaningful in achieving your objectives. Then
you will determine the optimal mix of variables
needed to meet the objectives. And finally, you
will execute your plan consistently to ensure that
your objectives are realized through your
performance.
67
SUCCESS SESSION 3
WHAT
ARE YOUR OBJECTIVES?
management does not come naturally to you, do

not plan on it to contribute positively to your
training and test performance. To the contrary,
plan on it being a barrier to your best performance, and make your greatest effort to avoid
those practices that depend on a large infusion
of self-discipline.
At this point, you have only one objective. You

want a superior LSAT score. A score in the
ninety-ninth percentile would do very nicely. In
the context of your test plan and the purpose of
the LSAT, this objective has little meaning. Put
simply, it is too general. For practical purposes,
the LSAT consists of five separate tests and a
writing sample. Only four of the tests contribute
to your score.
The more specific your objectives, the
better your plan will be. At the minimum, a good
test plan will have an objective for each of the
separate tests that make up the LSAT. It will
include the number of wrong answers planned
for each test. It will also include a procedure to
follow for achieving this wrong-answer objective.
This procedure will take into account each of
your test-performance factors and the predictable
attributes of the LSAT.
WHAT
WHAT IS MEANT BY
TEST-PERFORMANCE FACTORS?
Your level of anxiety, academic test-taking habits
and mechanics, reasoning skill, time use, and
self-discipline are the major factors that influence
performance on the LSAT. Facts, perspectives,
and other such information are of very little
consequence. The training in this book is
designed to minimize the impact that the factors
of anxiety and entrenched academic test-taking
habits and mechanics have on your performance.
By learning and applying procedures that take
advantage of the LSATs nature, you will be able
to avoid any negative impact these performance
factors might have on your test score.
The reasoning skill required by law schools
is a critical performance factor on the LSAT. For
most people it is the most important factor by
far. Your training regimen should include regular
monitoring of this skill as you refine it, and your
test plan should be modified to take improvement in your reasoning into account.
Self-discipline is the most difficult of all
performance factors to build into your plan. Only
you know if you are strict or lax in following the
test-taking procedures you train to use. Avoid
being overly optimistic in this regardthere is a
great tendency to believe that each of us enjoys a
generous measure of self-discipline, but the
evidence consistently proves the contrary. If
self-discipline, sometimes referred to as concentration, persistence, focus, or effective time-
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IS AN OPTIMAL MIX?
The LSAT establishes an optimal mix of performance factors to ensure that the test results are
precisely those desired; for example, that the
proportion of test-takers that will produce a
score of 150 satisfies the number that is the
objective for the test. Among other things, this
effort leads to the structuring of the LSAT as
separate tests, the inclusion of a specific number
of questions in each of the tests, the selection of
certain types of questions, the allocation of time
for each test, and the following of a particular
presentation pattern. To achieve an optimal mix,
many experiments with the LSAT variables are
conducted, increasing this, decreasing that,
changing something else. Once the variables
produce exactly the results intended, the test is
ready to be administered.
As with the LSAT strategy, your optimal
mix of performance factors is the one that best
ensures that your objectives are achieved. Just
enough worry to make sure that you are in
control of the training and testing process is
best. Balancing your speed of working on the
questions against the accuracy of your answers
so that you select the expected number of
wrong answers is crucial. Mechanics are importantthe sequence in which you consider
questions, the order in which you examine
answer choices, the recording of your answers in
the test book, the transcription of answer
choices onto the answer sheet, and others.
HOW
ABOUT CONSISTENT
PROSECUTION?
As you will understand better when you learn
more about the structure of each of the question
types on the LSAT, it is difficult for the test itself
to perform consistently. It is also difficult for you
to perform consistently over the course of the
205-minute LSAT. Yet, your best performance
will depend on consistency.
68
LSAT Success
YOUR STRATEGY IS ESSENTIAL TO YOUR SUCCESS

CONSISTENT EXECUTION OF YOUR TEST
PLAN AND CONSISTENT PROSECUTION OF
THE TASKS REQUIRED WILL CONTRIBUTE
POSITIVELY TO YOUR PERFORMANCE AND
TEST SCORE.
WHERE
Your ability to handle the Passages question

sets may differ from the way you handle the
Relationships or Arguments sets; so your test
plan will reflect these differences. Also, your test
plan will be dynamic. It will change as you gain
proficiency in the following:
DO YOU START YOUR
Leveraging the one basic reasoning task

required by the LSAT
Taking advantage of the LSATs total
predictability
Exploiting your wrong-answer advantage
Combating obfuscation, the test-makers
only tool
Conquering the multiple-option trick
Employing special mechanical and
transcription techniques
Mastering critical question-visualization
techniques
Preparing your Writing Sample in
advance
Avoiding the test habits that lower your
score
Using the 9-12-18 planning system
TEST PLAN?
You will recall that the LSAT consists of five
separately timed tests and a Writing Sample. Each
of the five tests consists of four sets of questions
and answer choices. Thus, the LSAT is made up
of twenty of these question/answer sets. A good
way to visualize this is to think of the LSAT as
consisting of twenty minitests of six or seven
questions each.
THE QUESTION/ANSWER SET IS THE FOCUS
OF YOUR TEST PLAN.
WHAT
MAKES UP THE
MINITESTS?
LSAT
A Passages question set consists of one reading

passage and the questions and answer choices
related to it. There is a passage and seven
questions that have five answer choices each. A
Relationships question set consists of the facts
and rules common to the problem and the six
questions and the five answer choices related to
each question. An Arguments question set
consists of six questions and the five answer
choices related to each of the questions. A short
paragraph provides the material upon which one
or two Arguments question sets depend.
LSAT Success
As you train, the optimal mix of your performance factors will change, and, as the optimal
mix changes, so will your plan.
69
www.petersons.com
R E D A LERT
THE 9-12-18 TEST-PLANNING SYSTEM
YOUR
TEST-PLANNING PROCESS
STARTS HERE.
answer selection activity, giving no consideration

to your selection process. Through the implementation of the 9-12-18 process, you will
establish the optimal mix of factors required for
you to establish and meet your LSAT performance objectives.
Each of the principal test-performance
factorsreasoning skill, speed, accuracy,
planning, discipline, and mechanicsmanifests
itself in your selection of answers. Thus, your
plan, like that of the LSAT, takes advantage of
this performance result.
The 9-12-18 test-planning system is based on
your selection of answers to a set of LSAT questions. You will choose a set of questions from the
LSAT diagnostic and practice tests in this guide
and consider the questions and related answer
choices, then you select answers for 9 minutes.
The results of your performance will be recorded
for later analysis. You will then give the same set
of questions and related answer choices further
consideration for an additional 3 minutes and
record the results of your performance in those 3
minutes. Finally, you will give the set of questions
and related answer choices an additional 6 minutes consideration and record the results of this
performance as well. Following this 9-12-18 process, you will analyze your performance results.
Your test plan is developed by using a system

that takes into account your test performance
strengths and weaknesses. It is important that
you carefully follow the process that is described
here. Your best performance is in the balance.
WHAT
IS THE
9-12-18
SYSTEM?
The 9-12-18 test-planning system is based on the

same process used in establishing the optimal
mix of factors needed for the LSAT to meet its
objectives. The process is well described by the
proverb The proof of the pudding is in the
eatingthat is, the way to test whether
something works as intended is to try it. Through
the inclusion of a set of experimental questions
on every test, the LSAT learns exactly how these
questions perform and exactly how test-takers
perform with respect to these questions. This
pretest process produces the information upon
which the LSAT bases the performance plan for
the development of each form of the test.
The pretest process is effective for the
LSAT because it avoids conjecture. This process
can be equally effective for you, because it
avoids the academic conditioning that leads you
to aim your performance expectations away from
what is reality toward what you wish reality to
be. There is no ambiguity about your performancewhat you see is what you get, and what
you get is a function of the process upon which
you choose to base your test plan.
When you are presented with a set of LSAT
questions and the related answer choices,
performance factors influence your approach,
including the method you use to select your
answer choices. The only record of your
consideration of test questions is your answer
selection. How you go about choosing an answer
is of no consequence to your score. Thus, you
will base your test plan on the results of your
RED
CONSIDER THE
CAREFULLY.
FOLLOWING EXAMPLE
Suppose that you are working at selecting the

credited or best answers to a set of six Relationships questions. Each Relationships section-test
consists of four sets of six questions and their
related answer choices, to be completed in 35
minutes. You calculate that there are about 9
minutes in which to complete all six questions in
the set (four question sets into 35 minutes), so
you decide to allocate 112 minutes to each
question. At the end of 9 minutes, you have
completed the selection of six answers. The
71
ALERT
RED ALERT
onto the entire section-test, were you to perform
on three question sets with the same accuracy as
you did on the one.
The third formula shows what happens if
you decide to work on only two question sets
during the time allocated for the section-test.
This means that there is an average of about 18
minutes (18 2 = 36) available for each set. The
number of best answers (6) is multiplied by 2 to
project your one-set performance onto the entire
section-test, were you to perform on two
question sets with the same accuracy as you did
on the one set.
The third number in the formula represents
the credited or best answers that will result from
guessing on question sets that you do not
otherwise consider. Recall that you should
always guess on an LSAT question, even when
you have not considered it. Since there are five
answer choices to every question, a guess has a
one-in-five chance of being the best answer.
There are six questions per set on the Relationships section-test; consequently, over a sixquestion set, chance alone will result in your
selecting one best answer, even though you give
that question no other consideration.
Obviously, if you consider all four question
sets in the section-test, you get no guessing
bonus. If you consider three of the four question
sets, you get a guessing bonus of one. If you
consider two of the four question sets, you get a
guessing bonus of two. This results from the fact
that, even though you have not considered a
particular six-question set, you have arbitrarily
selected (guessed) an answer for each of those
questions.
The total of best answers, the fourth
number in the formula, shows how you would
perform on the whole section-test, were you to
consider and complete four, three, or two
question sets. In the example, you can see that
you will select the fewest wrong answers on the
section-test if you consider only two question
sets and guess your answers for the other two.
This pretest process produces your optimal
balance between speed and accuracy on the
Relationships section-test of the LSAT. The
example shows that by considering all four
question sets (a total of twenty-four answers),
you can plan on selecting sixteen (twenty-four
total answers minus eight best answers) wrong
answers. By considering just three question sets,
you can plan on selecting fourteen wrong
answersnot a large difference. However, by
purpose of the next part of the exercise is for

you to reconsider the questions and related
answer choices and change the choices you first
made if you determine a better choice is
available. Since you next have an additional 3
minutes to work, you follow the same strategy
you used for the 9 minutes; you divide the time
equally and spend an additional half minute on
each question. After reconsidering each question,
you change two answers. With the last 6 minutes
you have available, you decide to concentrate on
four questions about which you are unsure. As a
result, you change three answers.
You next compare your answer choices to
the key. Of the six answers you selected during
the first 9 minutes, you find that only two were
credited or best answers. Of the answer choices
you selected after the 3 additional minutes (for a
total of 12 minutes), three were credited or best.
Of the answer choices you selected after the
additional 6-minute period (for a total of 18
minutes), all six were credited or best.
Summarized, your performance on this
question set was as follows:
9 minutes
12 minutes
18 minutes
WHAT
24+0= 8
3 3 + 1 = 10
6 2 + 2 = 14
DOES THIS PROCESS SHOW?
The first number in each formula represents the

number of credited or best answers selected in
that period of time. When you considered the
question set for 9 minutes, you selected only two
credited or best answers. When you spent 12
minutes, you selected three credited or best
answers, and when you spent 18 minutes, you
selected six credited or best answers.
The second number in the calculation
represents the projection of your one-set
performance onto the entire 35-minute, four-set
Relationships section-test, were you to perform
with the same accuracy as you did on the one
set. Thus, in the first formula, the number of best
answers (2) is multiplied by 4 (the full four
question sets in the section-test).
The second formula shows what happens if
you decide to work on just three question sets
during the time allocated for the separate
section-test. This means that there is an average
of about 12 minutes (12 3 = 36) available for
each set. The number of best answers (3) is
multiplied by 3 (the three sets you intend to
complete) to project your one-set performance
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RED
72
ALERT
LSAT Success
RED ALERT
HOW DO YOU DEVELOP

LSAT SUCCESS PLAN?
considering only two question sets, you can plan

on selecting ten wrong answers, an improvement
of 75 percent over your performance if you
completed all four sets.
The 9-12-18 system uses your performance
to establish the optimal balance between speed
and accuracy for you. In the example, this
performance produces your basic test plan for
the Relationships section-test. On the Relationships section-test, you will select the fewest
wrong answers if you stress accuracy over speed.
The faster you are forced to go the more
inaccurate your selection process becomes.
This Relationships performance may not
apply to the other two types of sections-tests on
the LSAT. Following is an example that expands
this 9-12-18 strategy to a full four section-test
LSAT. Hypothetical results on each of the four
section-tests are summarized in the same way as
in the preceding example.
The 9-12-18 system of test-plan development

starts with three pretests, or minitests, each of
which measures and evaluates your test performance factors through a single set of six questions. The first minitest involves a Relationships
question-set, the second an Arguments questionset, and the last a Passages question-set (all of
which you can pull from the full-length LSATs
included in this guide). The results of these
minitests are used to establish the optimal mix of
the principal test performance factors for you as
they apply to the different question types found
on the LSAT.
Use a watch, clock, alarm, or timer on each
pretest. The three minitests can be completed at
different times or in a single 1-hour period. Try
to take the minitests in a quiet place, under
reasonably relaxed circumstances, and at a time
when you will not be interrupted.
You will have 18 minutes to complete each
minitest. Your objective is to select as many best
answers as you can in the first 9 minutes, then to
select as many best answers as you can in an
additional 3 minutes, and finally to select as
many best answers as you can in an additional 6
minutes.
The pretest process will be unfamiliar and
may, at first, appear to be somewhat complicated. Review the directions carefully, and you
will have no problems.
Relationships Section-Test
9 minutes
24+0= 8
12 minutes
3 3 + 1 = 10
18 minutes
6 2 + 2 = 14
Arguments Section-Tests
(remember, there are two
Arguments section-tests)
9 minutes
3 4 + 0 = 12 2 = 24
12 minutes
6 3 + 1 = 19 2 = 38
18 minutes
6 2 + 2 = 14 2 = 28
Passages Section-Test
9 minutes
12 minutes
18 minutes
3 4 + 0 = 12
5 3 + 1 = 16
5 2 + 2 = 12
HOW
2 sets
each
3 sets
each
3 sets
each
3 sets
each
STEP 1
at 18 minutes
Set your timer for 9 minutes. Read the directions

at the top of the set of questions. Then answer
as many questions in the set as you can in 9
minutes. Circle your answers. Do not be concerned if you do not complete all of the questions. At the end of 9 minutes, stop. These
answers become your 9-minute set.
at 12 minutes
at 12 minutes
at 12 minutes
The total score of 68 that results from this plan

contrasts with the total of 44 that would result if
every question-answer set were given consideration. By focusing on the optimal balance between
speed and accuracy, an increase of more than 50
percent in LSAT performance results.
LSAT Success
RED
DO YOU TAKE THE PRETESTS?
There are five steps to completing each of the

minitests.
These calculations result in the following sample

test plan:
Relationships
section-test
Arguments
section-test
Arguments
section-test
Passages
section-test
YOUR OWN
STEP 2
Next, give yourself an additional 3 minutes. Go
back to the set, and answer any questions you
did not get to in the first 9 minutes, or review
the questions you answered in the first 9
minutes, and change your answers if you wish.
73
ALERT
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RED ALERT
STEP 5
This brings the total minutes expired to 12. Place

a box beside each of the answers you selected
during this 3-minute period. If you did not
change an answer, place a box beside the circled
answer. If you changed the answer, place a box
beside the new selection. The boxed answers
represent your 12-minute set. Do not erase or
change the circles you placed beside questions
during the first 9 minutes.
Complete the calculations indicated.

Relationships Set
Circles ___________ 4 + 0 = ________
Boxes ____________ 3 + 1 = ________
Asterisks __________ 2 + 2 = ________
Largest total ________
Arguments Set
STEP 3
Circles ___________ 4 + 0 = ________

Boxes ____________ 3 + 1 = ________
Asterisks __________ 2 + 2 = ________
Finally, give yourself an additional 6 minutes. Go

back to the set, and answer any questions you
did not get to in the first 12 minutes, or review
the questions, and change answers if you wish.
This brings the total minutes used to 18. Place an
asterisk beside each of the answers you selected
change an answer, place an asterisk beside the
boxed answer. If you changed the answer, place
an asterisk beside the new selection. The
answers identified with asterisks are your
12-minute set. Do not erase or change the circles
or boxes you placed beside questions during the
first 12 minutes.

Passages Set
Circles ___________ 4 + 0 = ________
Boxes ____________ 3 + 1 = ________
Asterisks __________ 2 + 2 = ________
WHATS
STEP 4
Turn to the appropriate Quick-Score Answers
section for the question-sets used in the minitests
(page 39 for the Diagnostic LSAT, page 191 for
Practice Test 1, and page 229 for Practice Test 2).
For each set, determine the number of best
answers you selected in the 9-minute set
(circled), 12-minute set (boxed), and 18-minute
set (asterisked). Enter those numbers on the
Pretest Performance Tracking Worksheet on
page 75. Alternatively, you can use the following
calculation form.
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RED
NEXT?
To develop your first test plan, enter in the

blanks below the number of sets that corresponds to the largest total for each of the four
section-tests.
Relationships section-test
Arguments section-tests (2)
Passages section-test
________ sets
________ sets
________ sets
As your training progresses, you should monitor

your performance on question sets by updating
your Pretest Performance Tracking Worksheet
(page 75) as you complete additional section-tests.
As your training results in more consistent and
improved use of time, your optimal balance
between speed and accuracy will change. The
changes will be reflected in your test plan.
There are two major components to your
test plan. One is your question-set performance,
and the other is your section-test strategy. Your
performance on each question set determines
whether your section-test strategy is to complete
four, three, or two question sets in each sectiontest. You want to produce the optimal balance
between speed and accuracy for each of the three
different types of section-tests (five tests in all).
Your combined strategies for the five
section-tests will constitute your test plan.
74
ALERT
LSAT Success
RED ALERT
Pretest Performance Tracking Worksheet

Relationships
Minitest
75
ALERT
Circles (9 minutes) x 4 + 0 =
Boxes (12 minutes) x 3 + 1 =
Asterisks (18 minutes) x 2 + 2 =
Largest Total
From 4, 3, or 2 sets?
Arguments
Minitest
Largest Total
Passages
Minitest
Largest Total
LSAT Success
RED
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Success Session 4
LSAT QUESTION SETS
WHAT
IS THE BASIC
COMPONENT?
LSAT
The fourth element of the profile is the

answer choice, the most important element of
the profile for the test-taker. Answer choices give
meaning to the question and effectively become
the question. For example, the question Which
of the following must be true? can only derive
meaning when it is considered in the context of
the five answer choices.
As you determined in the previous session, the

question set is a critical component of the test
plan: It facilitates your management of time,
maximizes your sense of control, and avoids
much of your academic conditioning. And the
basic component of the set is the LSAT question.
While generally referred to as a single question,
in fact, this question component presents a
multielement profile.
WHAT
IS THE
PROFILE?
LSAT
HOW
CAN THE ANSWER CHOICES BE
DESCRIBED?
In the recent past, LSAT answer choices have
appeared in two formats: the single-option
format and the multiple-option format. Only the
single-option format has been used on the most
recent tests. It is very unlikely that a multipleoption answer choice will appear on an LSAT
that you take. However, a brief description of the
multiple-option answer choice is included here.
If the time available to you permits, read through
the description. In any event, do not spend any
substantial time with the multiple-option
answer-choice description.
QUESTION
The LSAT question profile is simple, and every

question fits it. The profile has four elements.
First are the directions, which make three
important points. They tell you that every
section-test is separately timed, that you are to
select the best answer to each question, and that
notes must be made in the test book, not on
scratch paper, the work surface, or a shirt sleeve.
The second element is a statement. The
statement provides the context for the questions.
The statement varies in both length and structure. For a Relationships question, the statement
presents a small number of facts and rules. The
statement for an Arguments question is also short
and consists of a small number of facts and/or
conclusions. In contrast, Passages statements are
lengthy extracts from journals and similar
sources.
Following the statement is the question.
LSAT questions are short. Remember, questions
are not questions in the customary academic
sense. Each question can be viewed as a variation
on one of three basic typesthat which must,
could, or cannot be true given the information
presented in the statement and question.
The Single-Option Answer

Choice
The single-option format presents five answer
choices following a brief question. Your objective is to select the best answer choice from
among the five options presented.
The question is identified by its number,
which, as is conventional, corresponds to one on
the LSAT answer sheet. The answer choices are
identified by letters.
1. If Ms. Stark sits next to Mr. Taylor, which
of the following must be true?
(A) One of the Reeds sits next to one of
the Starks.
(B) The Vines sit opposite the Reeds.
(C) The Taylors sit together.
(D) The Vines sit together.
(E) One of the Taylors sits next to one of
the Reeds.
77
SUCCESS SESSION 4
The Multiple-Option Answer

Choice
The multiple-option trick?

When first encountering the complexities of the
multiple-option format, many test-takers believe
they are the victims of an insidious plot. They
find the format problematic and confusing.
However, this response is not called for; in fact,
in most circumstances the format provides you
with an advantage I call the multiple-option trick.
Perhaps this accounts for the demise of this
answer type?
Looking at the preceding example, review
the five letter-designated answer choices. You
will notice that II appears in answer choices B,
C, D, and E. If you could determine the status of
choice II, you would be able to eliminate four
answers and identify the best answer. Suppose
that you study the facts and determine that
choice II cannot be true. If choice II cannot be
true, neither can answers B, C, D, and E. The
only answer not discarded is A, which thus must
be the best selection.
Presto, you have selected the best answer
by having to consider only choice II! The
example shows the multiple-option trick at peak
power. Usually the test-maker makes application
of the trick helpful but not determinative, as
here. Since using the trick has no downside risk
for you, you can apply it every time you encounter the multiple-option format.
The multiple-option answer choice has a number

of characteristics that make it more difficult than
the single-option answer choice. Most significant
among them is that more than one of the answer
choices can be best and that five answer options
are effectively expanded into seven. (This is illustrated in the diagram below. Note that only five of
the possible seven are actually used.) Because
there can be more than one best answer, the testmaker doesnt have to work so hard to produce
wrong answer choices. The complexity of the answer structure makes the selection of the best answer more difficult for the test-taker. So, with less
effort than is required by the single-option format,
the test-maker can produce a more difficult question. Following is an example.
2. If Mr. Vine sits next to Mr. Taylor, which of
the following must be true?
I.
II.
III.
All fathers sit next to each other.

Three daughters sit next to each other.
Each father sits next to his daughter.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
I only
II only
I and II only
II and III only
I, II, and III
Where is the none of the

above answer choice?
As you can see, the multiple-option format

initially presents only three choices, any or all of
which may meet the conditions set by the
question. The answer-choice structure then
presents five lettered single or multiple options
from which to select one best answer.
None of the above is another answer choice

that test-makers frequently use to make their
work easier by not having to produce a best
answer. All answers can be bad. There is no
none of the above answer choice on the LSAT.
WHAT
IS THE BASIC REASONING TASK
REQUIRED BY THE
LSAT?
In addition to the four-element profile, all LSAT

questions also have a reasoning task in common.
The primary reason that the LSAT is useful to law
schools is that it measures applicants skills at
reasoning in the principal way the schools and
the legal system require.
However, the best information a single
question can contribute to the measurement is
very limited. Only after accumulating information
from many test questions does the LSAT provide
sufficiently precise results to be useful to the law
schools. To get a reasonably accurate result,
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78
LSAT Success
LSAT QUESTION SETS

The statement tells you that a tree called an oak
has certain attributes or conditions. Among them
are that it is deciduous, is a hardwood tree, and
always produces acorns. The question, which
involves a tree that produces acorns, is designed
to exploit the statement that precedes it.
The statement uses the words always
produces . . . an acorn to suggest more than it
actually tells you, encouraging the assumption
that a tree that produces acorns must be an oak.
However, the statement only tells you that in
order for a tree to be an oak, it must produce
acornsit does not tell you that a tree that
produces acorns must always be an oak.
In the spirit of the LSAT, the question also
exploits what the statement does not tell you.
The question asks you to identify a tree by
providing you with only one of the three
conditions (attributes) that the statement says are
necessary for a tree to be an oak. No matter
what that condition (acorn), its existence does
not identify the object (oak) to a certainty. For
the acorn to be sufficient to establish the tree as
an oak, the statement would have had to clearly
state that a tree that produces an acorn is always
an oak, and the statement said no such thing.
However, you remember from your basic
botany course that acorns are only produced by
an oak tree. No other tree produces acorns.
Besides, your own experience tells you this is so.
What does this mean? This means nothing!
Nothing!
No matter how certain you are about
acorns and oaks, the information from your
botany course and experience is outside of the
test; it is not in the statement, and it has no
relevance in the context of the LSAT question.
Outside information can often and clearly be
detrimental under certain test circumstances.
Avoid it. Use only the information the LSAT
provides to you when selecting answers.
many individual measurements have to be taken,

so the LSAT involves some 100 questions. If
these questions measured a variety of skills, the
test would be unable to give reasonably reliable
information about each one, but because it
measures a singe skill, the results are reasonably
consistent.
The single skill measured by the LSAT is
difficult to describe in precise or familiar terms,
though it can be relatively easily understood in
terms of the task it requires. A good analogy is to
aspirin, whose workings scientists have been
unable to explain precisely despite vast amounts
of research, although they can observe the
results of its operation and understand its nature
in terms of those results. By observing the basic
task in operation, the LSAT can understand it in
terms of the results produced.
FOR OUR PURPOSES, THE BASIC REASONING
TASK THE LSAT DEMANDS CAN BE CALLED
CONDITIONAL REASONING, THOUGH THIS
IS NOT TO SUGGEST A FORMAL LOGICAL
CONCEPT OR ANYTHING FORBIDDING.
CAN
THE BASIC TASK BE ILLUSTRATED?
Following is a problem placed in the LSAT

format, with the four elements of the question
profile identified.
DIRECTIONS
Answer the following question as quickly
as you can. Circle the best answer choice.
STATEMENT
The oak is a deciduous, hardwood tree
known for the fact that it always produces
a nut commonly called an acorn.
QUESTION
1. If it has been determined that a
specific tree produces acorns, which
of the following descriptions of the
tree must be true?
NO EXTERNAL INFORMATION IS REQUIRED

FOR YOU TO BE ABLE TO SELECT THE BEST
ANSWER TO AN LSAT QUESTION.
ANSWER CHOICES
(A) It is a deciduous tree.
(B) It is an acorn tree.
(C) It is a hardwood tree.
(D) It is an oak tree.
(E) It is an unknown species of tree.
LSAT Success
While the LSAT does not go out of its way to set

traps of the acorn question type, it often sets
such traps. Using only the information you are
given is the most effective way to avoid the BYO
information and calculationsacademic conditioning that has been so helpful to you in
previous test situations.
79
www.petersons.com
SUCCESS SESSION 4
DIRECTIONS
Answer the following question as quickly
as you can. Circle the best answer choice.
AVOID EXTERNAL INFORMATION WHEN

SELECTING AN LSAT ANSWER CHOICE.
Now you know why answer choice E is the best
choice. It is the only one of the five that must be
true. The other choices could be true, but, based
on the information provided, they also could be
untrue. You just dont know, and since the
question asks you what you know to a certaintywhat must be trueanswer choice E is
your only option. You are certain that you dont
know.
STATEMENT
The card-master holds four cards in a
stack. Each card has a single letter on the
front side and a single number on the
back side. The master states that if a card
has a vowel on one side it will have an
even number on the other side. The
master places the four cards on a table
with the visible sides showing A, B, 1,
and 2, respectively.
THE BASIC REASONING TASK IS FOUND IN

EVERY LSAT QUESTION.
QUESTION
2. Of the following, which names only
the cards that must be turned over to
determine whether what the master
said is true?
Unfortunately, the basic reasoning task is seldom

presented as obviously as it is in the oak-acorn
example. If it were, the LSAT would be even
more predictable than it is. It would be too easy
and would not be able to differentiate among
people very well. The law schools would have
little use for it, and the LSAT would have to find
some other application for the many questions in
its inventory. To make certain that this scenario
is not realized, the LSAT goes to great pains to
mask the basic reasoning task. This could be
called camouflage, concealment, disguise, ormy
personal favoriteobfuscation.
WHAT
ANSWER CHOICES
(A) The cards showing A and B.
(B) The cards showing A and 1.
(C) The cards showing A and 2.
(D) The cards showing A, B, and 1.
(E) All four of the cards.
A method for dealing with the four cards on the
table can be depicted as follows:
IS OBFUSCATION?
Obfuscation is the LSATs primary tool. Obfuscation makes it difficult for the test-taker to see the
basic reasoning tasks in most LSAT questions.
The greater the degree of obfuscation, the more
difficult the selection of an LSAT answer choice
becomes for the test-taker. Nevertheless, the
basic reasoning task is thereit is the essence of
every LSAT question. In fact, the basic reasoning
task must be there if the test is to measure your
skill in dealing with it. With some training, you
can become effective at locating the basic task,
avoiding the academic conditioning the problem
sets out to exploit, and selecting the best
answers consistently.
In this next example of the basic reasoning
task, you are asked to answer a question about
cards. Give it a try, and see if you can notice how
the LSAT could obfuscate your route to the best
answer. Once again, the basic elements of the
problem have been identifiedjust remember,
they wont always be spelled out in this way.
www.petersons.com
First, remember that each card has a number on

one side and a letter on the other. The cardmaster has said that if a card has a vowel on one
side, it has an even number on the other. Circle
only those cards that you have to turn over to
determine if the card-masters statement is true.
The object is a card with a vowel on one
side (front); the condition is an even number on
the other side (back). There are four cards. As
with the oak-acorn example, this question is
designed to exploit your conditioning.
Remember, no outside information. You are
not being asked about all possible cards, alphabetic or numeric. It may appear to you that the
question seeks to establish some universal proof,
but the question only deals with four cards.
Review the question carefullyit asks you to do
80
LSAT Success
LSAT QUESTION SETS

what you can to establish the truth of the
card-masters statement. In this context, what
technique is available to you to establish that
which is true? There is only oneto locate
evidence that disproves the statement.
In your quest for such evidence, you
consider each card. The first one has an A on the
side you can see. A is a vowel. (Note that you do
need this outside information.) This card is the
object of the statement. By turning it over, you
will determine if the condition is met. If the card
has an even number on the reserve side, you will
have learned no more than what the statement
told you. But, if an odd number appears on the
reverse side, you will establish that the cardmasters statement is untrue. Thus, you must turn
the A-card over.
The second card has a B on the side you
can see. B is not a vowel but a consonant. It is
not the object of the statement. In fact, it is
irrelevant to your problem, whatever is on the
back. Neither the statement nor the question
says anything about consonants. This card is no
help to you, and you need not turn it over.
The third card shows a 1, an odd number.
If you turn it over and a consonant appears, you
will gain no evidence concerning the question.
But if you turn it and a vowel appears, you will
establish that the card-masters statement is
untrue. Thus, you must turn this card over.
The fourth card has a 2, an even number. If
you turn this card over and find a consonant on
the other side, you will gain no evidence
concerning the question. Remember that there is
nothing in the statement or question that would
preclude there being an even number on a card
with a consonant on its reverse side. Should you
turn this card and find a vowel, you have no
more evidence about the truth of the cardmasters statement than you had before. Thus,
there is no reason to turn the 2-card.
After consideration, you deduce that the
best answer choice is (B). Only answer-choice
(B) involves the object of the question and the
relevant condition. The basic reasoning task leads
to the selection of the best-answer choice.
Obfuscation tactics make this example of
the cards more difficult than the oak tree
question. By inviting you to assume that even
numbers cannot appear on cards with a consonant, the LSAT could obfuscate the basic
reasoning task. Then, by inviting you to read the
question as if your task were the opposite of
what you are actually asked to do (that is, to
LSAT Success
confirm the card-masters statement rather than

disaffirm it), the LSAT could further obfuscate
the basic reasoning task. Such obfuscation tactics
maintain the effectiveness of LSAT questions, and
some obfuscation tactics work better than others.
WHAT
ARE THE TYPES OF
OBFUSCATION TACTICS?
Three of the five general types of obfuscation
tactics used on the LSAT involve varying the
presentation of the basic task. First, the context
in which the basic task is presented is varied. For
example, three seemingly different section-tests
are usedArguments, Passages, and Relationships. Within each of these section-tests, the
appearance of the questions is varied to add to
the impression that many different tasks are
required. The question structure is emphasized in
the mind of the test-taker, who tends to concentrate on differences in form and overlook the
essential similarity of LSAT questions. Varying the
presentation of the basic task causes the LSATs
focus to seem different from what it really is.
Related to the obfuscation-by-variation
tactic is the use of excess or excessive information. Although it is employed elsewhere on the
test, this tactic is seen best in the Passages
statement, which gives the test-taker much more
information than is needed to respond to the
question-answer choice sets. The test-taker
concentrates on the information presented,
trying to understand and retain the data by using
processes that have proven effective in past test
experiences. Thus, the test-taker becomes
absorbed in processes that detract from work on
the real LSAT task.
The third obfuscation tactic involves the
omission of information in the statement and
question. The test-taker gets the impression that
there is insufficient information to respond to the
question, and this missing data grabs and keeps
the test-takers attention away from the basic
reasoning task involved. While it often may
appear otherwise, the information needed to
respond to the question is always givenwhat is
not stated is often as informative as what is
stated.
These three tactics generally create
difficulties with question location for the
test-taker. The test-taker uses limited test time
seeking rather than responding to the question.
You can minimize the impact of these tactics by
remembering that the basic task of reasoning
81
www.petersons.com
SUCCESS SESSION 4
The invited question is also very difficult
for the well-conditioned test-taker to resist. The
invited question obfuscation tactic often shows
up on television quiz showsthe host reads only
a few words of the question and a contestant
blurts out an answer. A more subtle form of the
same thing was involved in the card-master
example. Although the question invited you to
identify cards that might confirm the truth of the
card-masters statement, the operative question
required you to identify only those cards that
could disprove the truth of the statement. The
question asked was not the operative question.
You will find that nearly all LSAT questions are
generic and unclear. Consequently, they invite
interpretation. Effective interpretation of the
questions best results from a review of the
answer choices. Seldom can interpretive data be
found other than in the answer choices.
with objects (including nonmaterial ones) and

conditions is always the same and by avoiding
activities that do not involve this basic task.
The last two obfuscation tactics are less
obvious than the first three and pose greater
difficulties for most test-takers. They are the
invited assumption and the invited question.
You experienced the invited assumption
tactic in both the oak-tree and card-master
examples. In the oak-tree example, you were
invited to assume that every tree that produces
acorns is an oak. In the card-master example, you
were invited to assume that cards with even
numbers on one side had to have vowels on the
other. You were also invited to assume that cards
with consonants on one side had odd numbers
on the other. Each of these assumptions was
invited by a familiar or probable pattern (vowel
= even, consonant = odd) or by external
knowledge (acorns occur only on oak trees). The
invited assumption usually involves these or
other familiar patterns or external knowledge.
Avoid the assumption tactic by identifying and
using only the patterns and information presented in the problem.
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BY CONSIDERING ONLY THE FIVE ANSWER

CHOICES, YOU CAN RESIST THE INVITATION
TO ANSWER A QUESTION THAT IS NOT
ASKED.
82
LSAT Success
Success Session 5
RELATIONSHIPS PROBLEMS
WHAT
ARE
QUESTIONS
RELATIONSHIPS
ABOUT?
RELATIONSHIPS QUESTIONS REQUIRE VERY

LITTLE RECALL, NOR DO THEY INVOLVE
LEARNED PERSPECTIVES, POINTS OF VIEW,
OR ARGUMENTS. CONSEQUENTLY, THEY
ARE UNFAMILIAR, DISCOMFORTING, AND
DIFFICULT.
Of the three LSAT question formats, Relationships questions present the basic task most
obviously. This clarity can assist you in developing the skills and procedures you need for
handling the basic task in the other two LSAT
problem formats. Note also that of the three
question formats, Relationships is also the most
difficult for most people to master. Thus, we
begin specific problem-type training with
Relationships. Working on Relationships first
gives you additional time to get the basic task in
this context under control and thus, helps to
maximize your test performance.
WHY
SO
RELATIONSHIPS
DIFFICULT?
ARE
HOW MANY QUESTIONS ARE THERE

A RELATIONSHIPS SECTION-TEST?
IN
There are four sets of Relationships questions in

each 35-minute section-test. Generally, there are six
questions in each of the four sets, though, occasionally, you will find as few as five or as many as seven
questions in a set when the LSAT has had to deviate
from the norm to get the test performance required. Thus, there are almost always twenty-four
questions in a Relationships section-test.
QUESTIONS
THE FOUR SETS OF QUESTIONS IN THE

SECTION-TEST ARE CRITICAL TO YOUR TEST
PLAN.
In short, the reason Relationships questions are

difficult is that they are unfamiliar and require
the consistently exact application of the basic
reasoning task. Most test-takers are familiar with
and relatively proficient at test questions that
require recall or are based upon contexts with
which they have experience. Questions about
definitions, formulas, and facts require the
test-taker to recall memorized information and to,
perhaps, apply it. Questions about the concepts,
procedures, and theories presented in lectures,
texts, and class discussions depend on the
test-takers assimilation of teachers and writers
perspectives. These experiences and acquired
perspectives permit the test-taker to consider
points of view, arguments, and the like when
responding to a question. Relationships questions
require a much different application of the skill
that I refer to as the basic task of conditional
reasoning.
WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS

RELATIONSHIPS QUESTION?
OF A
As you will recall, the LSAT problem profile has

four componentsdirections, statements,
questions, and answer choices.
The directions for Relationships questions
are brief. What they do say, however, is pertinent: Each group of questions is based on a
number of conditions. You are to choose the
best answer to each question. Interpreted, this
means that the best answer is the only one of
the five options that satisfies all the relevant
conditions involved in the question.
Thus, you gain an advantage. For example,
if you are finding it difficult to select between
two answer options to a Relationships question,
you know that only one meets all of the conditions. You should be able to resolve your
dilemma quickly by finding the condition that
differentiates between the two answer options.
In this way, you avoid a trap that captures many
test-takers, who repeatedly review the same
answers in the same way in the futile hope that
the best answer will eventually reveal itself.
83
SUCCESS SESSION 5
HOW
DO
WORK?
RELATIONSHIPS
that only a few are actually relevant to the set of

questions. Test-takers become confused by the
presence of many variables, with their potential
for vast numbers of combinations. They then
spend much time trying to sort through the
variables and their combinations, or they move
to another question set in the hope that it will
be less forbidding. You can avoid these detrimental reactions by looking to the rules and questions to render the facts manageable.
QUESTIONS
The Directions
The directions for Relationships questions are
brief and not very enlightening. The LSAT tells
you that questions are based on a set of conditions and that you are to select the response that
most accurately and completely answers the
question. And thats it! The important thing you
are not told is that the conditions that appear in
the statement apply to all questions, and the
conditions that appear in a question apply to
that question only. As you will soon learn, the
response that most accurately and completely
answers a question will be the only answer
option that satisfies all of the conditions applicable to that question. There is no ambiguity to
resolve when dealing with Relationships problems.
CONCENTRATING ON THE RULES AND

QUESTIONS REDUCES THE NUMBER OF
POSSIBLE VARIABLES AND COMBINATIONS
TO THE RELEVANT FEW.
When applied to the facts, the rules portion of
the statement generally yields a number of
conditions. And it is these conditions that are
referred to by the questions. The rules limit the
number of conditions you have to consider in
selecting the best answer to a Relationships
question. Taken together, the facts and rules
define the conditions applicable to the questions
and usually eliminate many possible conditions.
The Statement
Relationships statements usually consist of two
parts, designated here as facts and rules. Although the facts and rules are short and seemingly simple, there is a possible complication
unique to Relationships questions. While each
question in a set shares the common statement,
some problems include an additional statement
embedded in the question itself. In general,
about two thirds of Relationships questions
include one of these supplemental statements.
Supplemental statements can also overrule or
disable a fact or rule that appears in the common
statement. Be alert!
The facts and rules in the common statement apply to all questions in the set. The facts
and rules in a supplemental statement apply only
to the questions in which they appear.
The Question
The question circumscribes or brackets the
answer selection to be made. As described
previously, it also may add facts and rules to
those that are common to the entire question
set, further narrowing the relevant conditions
with which you must deal. However, the
question seldom reduces the relevant conditions
to one.
Relationships questions are very straightforward. There are only three basic questions.
Which of the following must satisfy the
conditions/be true?
Which of the following could satisfy the
conditions/be true?
Which of the following cannot satisfy the
conditions/be true?
WHEN THE LSAT PLACES A SUPPLEMENTAL

STATEMENT WITHIN A QUESTION, THE
ADDED STATEMENT APPLIES ONLY TO THAT
QUESTION.
In most Relationships section-tests, you will

find more must and could questions and fewer
cannot questions. The LSAT is able to vary the
presentation of these basic questions. The
questions and their variations are illustrated in
the diagram below.
The first variation shows the supplemental
statement format. The second is the converse of
the basic question, requiring the selection of the
answer option that is an exception to the
Note again that not only does the supplemental

statement apply solely to the question in which it
is found, but it may contradict another such statement placed in a different question in the set.
In the facts portion of the statement, the
LSAT presents the variables involved in the
question set. By including many variables in the
statement, the LSAT is able to obfuscate the fact
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The
Question
Which of the
following
must?
Which of the
following
CANNOT?
Which of the
following
could?
If this is true,
which of the following
must be true?
If this is true,
could be true?
If this is true,
CANNOT be true?
All of the
following must
be true EXCEPT?
All of the
following could
be true EXCEPT?
All of the
following CANNOT
be true EXCEPT?
If this is true, all

of the following must
be true EXCEPT?
If this is true, all

of the following could
be true EXCEPT?
If this is true, all of the

following CANNOT
be true EXCEPT?
questions using the single-option format, the

failure is easy to detect in at least three of the
five answer options.
conditions required by the question. The last

variation combines the supplemental statement
format with the converse of the basic question.
The LSAT also varies the appearance of
questions by slipping synonyms in here and
there. For instance, might may be substituted
for could and has to or is may substitute
for must.
And that about tells it all for Relationships
questions. You have reviewed all of them. Learn
the elements and the variations and there will be
no surprises on the Relationships section-test on
the LSAT. You now can predict every Relationships question that will appear on the LSAT.
THE LSAT USUALLY OFFERS JUST ONE

ATTRACTIVE WRONG ANSWER OPTION.
Wrong answers follow patterns that can assist in
your detection of them. Recall that the best
answer option is the only one that satisfies all of
the relevant conditions. If the question is Which
of the answer options must be true? options
that could be true or cannot be true are
wrongthey fail to satisfy all of the conditions.
If the question is Which of the answer
options could be true? options that cannot be
true are wrong. They, too, fail to satisfy all of the
conditions. (Note that the LSAT accepts that an
answer choice that must be true satisfies a
question asking for the choices that could be
true.)
If the question is Which of the answer
options cannot be true? options that must be
true and could be true are wrong, failing as they
do to satisfy all of the conditions.
With Relationships questions, the LSAT
usually uses the too-little-too-much technique
(and a variation we will deal with a little later) to
create wrong answer options. This simply means
The Answers
The LSATs selection of answer options gives you
the wrong-answer advantage. Not only are there
just five answers from which to select, but four
of them do not satisfy one or more of the
conditions required by the problem. As you
learned previously, it is difficult for the LSAT to
produce attractive wrong answers, since every
wrong answer fails to satisfy one or more of the
conditions required by the combined statement
and question. The LSAT attempts to disguise this
weakness, but, for most answer options, it is
relatively easy to detect. In fact, for most
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SUCCESS SESSION 5
Since the question asks for that which must be
true, wrong answers will be those that could or
cannot be true.
Answer option (A) overstates what must be
true. The supplemental statement requires that
no more than two of the three members of a
committee be shared with another committee.
Thus, all three committee members cannot be
shared by two committees.
Answer option (B) understates what must be
true. The common statement requires that one director be a member of both the Audit and Planning
committees. Thus, it cannot be that no committee
members are shared by the two committees.
Answer option (C) overstates what must be
true. The common statement requires that one
member of the Audit and Finance committees be
shared, not two. The supplemental statement
requires that no more than two members of a
committee be shared with another committeeit
does not require that two members be shared.
Thus, it could be that two committee members
are shared by two committees, but it is not
necessarily so.
Answer option (D) both understates and
overstates what must be true. The common
statement does not require that the member of
the Audit, Finance, and Planning committees be
the same person who is shared by the Audit,
Finance, and Shareholder Relations committees.
It is possible but not required. The supplemental
statement requires that no more than two
members of a committee be shared with another
committee. It does not require that any members
be shared. Thus, it could be that the Planning
and Shareholder Relations committees have only
one member in common, but it need not be so.
Answer option (E) illustrates a variation of
the too-little-too-much technique sometimes
used by the test-maker. It is wrong because it is
far too precise to meet the stated conditions.
This technique can be disconcerting and
distracting to a test-taker who fails to recognize it
and tries to develop some conclusive proof.
By identifying a condition implicit in the
answer option that fails to satisfy the question,
you can determine that an answer is wrong and
dump it. The wrong-answer patterns and
obfuscatory tactics are summarized below.
For must questions, wrong answer options
are those that could or cannot satisfy required
conditions, even though they use
that the answer option overstates or understates

conditions that would satisfy the question.
Notice that the following example of a
Relationships problem employs a supplemental
statement in the question. For the purposes of
illustration, all of the answer options offered here
are wrong. This would not be the case with an
actual LSAT question. Remember also that the
identifiers used here do not appear on the LSAT.
STATEMENT
Facts
The twelve-member board of directors of
Acme International, Inc., is divided into
four committees: the Audit Committee, the
Finance Committee, the Planning
Committee, and the Shareholder Relations
Committee.
Rules
At least one of the directors is a member
of the Audit, Finance, and Planning
committees.
of the Audit, Finance, and Shareholder
Relations committees.
QUESTION
1. If each committee has three members,
and no two committees share more
than two members, which of the
following must be true?
ANSWER CHOICES
(A) All members of the Audit Committee
are members of the Planning
Committee.
(B) No member of the Audit Committee is
a member of the Planning Committee.
(C) The Audit and Finance committees
have at least two members in
common.
(D) The Planning and Shareholder
Relations committees have only one
member in common.
(E) The Audit Committee has exactly
twice as many members in common
with the Finance Committee as does
the Shareholder Relations Committee.
the too-little-too-much tactic

the overprecision tactic
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For could questions, wrong answer options are
those that cannot satisfy required conditions,
even though they use
With respect to your test plan, it makes

sense to complete questions in the order of
increasing difficulty. This strategy applies even
more to question sets than to questions within
sets. However, except for using the techniques
described above, the LSAT provides no clear
clues about the difficulty of questions.

For cannot questions, wrong answer options are
those that must or could satisfy required
UNLIKE MANY OTHER STANDARDIZED TESTS,

THERE IS NO ORDER OF DIFFICULTY AMONG
LSAT QUESTIONS OR QUESTION SETS.

HOW
LSAT
QUESTIONS?
DOES THE
DIFFICULT
Later question sets are no more difficult than

earlier ones, nor are later questions harder than
earlier ones. Fatigue may sometimes make later
question sets appear to be more difficult, but this
is illusory.
CREATE MORE
As you have seen, making more difficult questions is not simply a matter of asking tougher
questions. Rather, in order to create more
difficult questions, the LSAT must develop better
answers. The LSAT wants the substantial majority
of questions on any section-test to be of medium
difficulty, with some 4060 percent of test-takers
selecting the best answer. It wants a smaller
proportion of questions to be relatively easy,
with more than 60 percent of test-takers selecting the best answer. And it is important that an
even smaller proportion is to be relatively tough,
with fewer than 40 percent of test-takers
selecting the best answer.
To adjust the difficulty level of a question
or question set, the LSAT use two basic techniques. First, the complexity of the relationships
can be varied. This is demonstrated in the
preceding example by the inclusion of the
supplemental statement, which defines the size
of the committees and limits the nature of their
composition.
HOW
COMPLEXITY OF
QUESTIONS?
RELATIONSHIPS
Visualization is a critical efficiency device for

working with the format of Relationships
questions. How do you visualize? If you are told
to put yourself in Marys position and that John
is standing to Marys left and Betty to her right,
what do you project onto the screen in your
mind? If you see three people in a line, two
women together and a man on one end or the
other, your visualization technique is working
well. If you see a woman, another woman, and
a man standing in a line from left to right, your
visualization is slightly more efficient, because
you have defined the exact placement of the
three on the basis of Marys position. If you see
something else or nothing at all, you will find the
node-and-line visualization technique particularly helpful.
By using a single visualization as the basis for
selecting answers to many questions, you maximize your use of test time and minimize the potential for confusion. The technique uses nodes to
depict variables (usually things) and lines to depict
connections (usually relationships) between them.
Below is a visualization of the John-Mary-Betty
statement in the previous paragraph.
IN GENERAL, THE GREATER THE COMPLEXITY OF THE STATED RELATIONSHIPS, THE

MORE DIFFICULT THE QUESTION.
The second technique used by the LSAT to
create more difficult questions involves the
answer options. Again, this is demonstrated in
the preceding example. Answer options (A) and
(B) are determined to be wrong by direct
reference to a condition in the statement or the
question. If all the wrong answer options could
be similarly eliminated, the question would be
relatively easy; it is made slightly more difficult
by the inclusion of answer options (C), (D), and
(E), which require a more complicated review of
conditions to determine that they are wrong.
LSAT Success
DO YOU BEST HANDLE THE
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SUCCESS SESSION 5
HOW
extending or contracting as circumstances

require. In fact, a squiggly line can be used to
remind you of this important point. (The
varieties of visualization will be thoroughly
illustrated in the next success session.)
After you complete your visualization,
consider the questions. As you work through
them, you may have to adjust your visualization
slightly to accommodate a supplemental statement or some other attribute of the question.
Consider each answer option, remembering that
your objective is to identify the condition that
will make it wrong by failing to satisfy the
requirements of the question and statement. Use
comparison, identifying the conditions in the
answer option and comparing them to those in
your visualization. When you find the condition
that fails to satisfy the requirements, dump that
answer choice. One unsatisfactory condition is
sufficient to eliminate an answer choice
compare no more.
Repeating the process, you select the best
answer option and circle it in the test book.
Once you have completed all six questions in the
set, transfer all of your answers to the answer
sheet at the same time. This provides a natural
break for you before you move on to the next
Relationships problem.
DO YOU APPLY THE
VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUE?
First, you read the facts and rules. It is rare that
these alone will provide sufficient information for
you to develop an effective visualization, so you
must next scan the questions. At this point, the
core of information you will be working with
becomes clear, and you can begin your
visualization.
You usually will find some space to record
your visualization on the pages of the question
set, but occasionally you will encounter a full
page with no white space. Scratch paper and
shirt cuffs are forbidden. What to do? Just fold
the preceding or succeeding page in half, and
use the space thus exposed.
In the LSAT, relationships are defined in
relative rather than specific terms. You will find
such statements as Mary is older than John and
John is younger than Betty. You will not read
that Mary is 10, John is 8, and Betty is 12. The
most efficient visualization must anticipate this
lack of specificity and allow for the shifts that
inevitably will be required by the questions.
You must remember that the lines in your
visualization do not depict exact relationships
they are more akin to rubber bands, capable of
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Success Session 6
ARGUMENTS AND PASSAGES PROBLEMS
WHAT ARE ARGUMENTS AND

PASSAGES QUESTIONS ABOUT?
conceal their underlying similarity: Each statement presents an argument.

Applied to the LSAT, the term argument
means that the statement involves premises,
propositions, and reasons that lead to, support,
or imply a conclusion. The combination of
different elements in the argument produces the
conditions upon which Arguments and Passages
questions and answer options are based.
The fact that Arguments and Passages
statements both involve arguments should be
comforting to most test-takers. The argument
provides a context and a starting position for the
consideration of questions and answer options
that seem to be similar to those encountered in
an academic environment. This perceived
similarity seems to be sufficient to make the
average test-taker more comfortable with these
question types than with Relationships. Whether
for this reason or others, Arguments are the least
difficult for most test-takers. Passages are more
difficult for most test-takers, and, finally, Relationships, as noted previously, the most difficult.
This session will consider both Arguments and

Passages, the other two question formats found
on the LSAT. These formats appear to be more
familiar than Relationships questions to most
people, but appearances can be deceiving. While
the formats may seem familiar to you, the
material is not. In fact, the LSAT selects material
that is extremely unlikely to be familiar in order
to make sure that your reasoning skill is being
measured, not your knowledge of the material.
You should not treat Arguments and Passages as
if they were academic material simply because
there is a superficial resemblance in the formats.
While Arguments and Passages appear to be
very different from each other, they share many
common characteristics that are more important
to your test performance than their perceived
differences. In this session we will examine the
similarities of the two formats, and in later
sessions we will consider in detail their distinctive qualities.
WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS

ARGUMENTS AND PASSAGES
PROBLEMS?
WHAT
OF
Arguments and Passages questions are very much

alike. They are of two basic types: the description question type and the extension question type.
Description questions ask you to select the
answer option that best embodies or describes
the conditions set out in the statement. They
look familiar because they refer to the statement
or the conditions presented. Description questions often relate directly to key words or
concepts found in the statement. Consider this
example of a description question type.
Like Relationships problems, both Arguments and

Passages problems present the four-component
LSAT problem profile: directions, statements,
questions, and answer options. The directions and
statements of Arguments and Passages problems
differ in notable respects, while the questions and
answers are very similar. (Directions will be discussed in detail in Sessions 8 and 9.)
WHAT
ARE THE QUESTIONS LIKE?
1. According to the passage, the Technocrats

were
ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE STATEMENTS?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
The most apparent difference between Arguments and Passages statements is their format.
Passages statements are long and heavy on detail.
They contrast with Arguments statements, which
are short and offer little detail. These differences
89
twentieth-century politicians
frustrated modern inventors
overpaid factory workers
precursors of todays scientists
nineteenth-century economists
SUCCESS SESSION 6
The extension question asks you to select the
answer option that best represents an extension
of the conditions set out in or required by the
statement. An example of the extension question
type follows.
Arguments and Passages questions share

another common trait: Neither one adds to or
alters information contained in the statement.
IN AN ARGUMENTS OR PASSAGES QUESTION,
THERE IS NEVER A SUPPLEMENTAL STATEMENT TO CONFUSE OR OBFUSCATE.
1. The passage suggests that which of the

following might occur if governments
increased control over the means of public
communication?
HOW
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
(A) Newspapers would become more

conservative.
(B) Free speech would be threatened.
(C) Individual rights to privacy would be
better respected.
(D) Citizens would be more considerate
of diversity.
(E) The content of radio programs
would be more informative.
STRUCTURED?
The questions and answer options for Arguments
and Passages are presented in three formats. The
first is the question-and-answer format with
which you are likely to be very familiar. As the
name implies, a question is posed to which the
answer options are responses. The second format
is the question-question format, in which the
question asks you to select the question that is
answered by the information given or implied by
the statement. The last format is sentence
completion. The question is the first part of the
sentence that the answer options complete in
various ways. There is no question mark involved
in this question format.
The variety of formats serves to obfuscate
the question. The formats are summarized in the
illustration on page 91. Although they are
included in order to leave nothing to chance, the
multiple-option format is very unlikely to appear
on the LSAT and you should spend only a
minimal amount of time considering it.
The reasoning task involved in Arguments and

Passages problems is the same as in all LSAT
questions. Because the task is the same, the
questions have the same basic format. As you
learned in previous sessions, there are three
basic question types that require you to determine which of the answer options must, could,
or cannot satisfy the conditions. As you remember, these questions are put quite directly in the
Relationships section-test, but the LSAT is less
direct in the Arguments and Passages sectiontests. Seldom is a basic question asked directly,
so each question type needs to be identified
before you can proceed to the answer options.
WHAT ARE THE ANSWER CHOICES LIKE?
IN ARGUMENTS AND PASSAGES PROBLEMS,

YOU NEED TO IDENTIFY THE QUESTION
THAT IS BEING ASKED.
Answer options to Arguments and Passages

questions are similar in structure.
Description questions are drawn directly
from the statement, and the LSAT has little
leeway in interpreting the information when
constructing questions and answer options for
this type of problem presentation.
While this identification can be challenging, the

wrong-answer advantage that results is worth the
effort. The work of identification is assisted by
the LSATs dominant use of could questions in
both the Arguments and Passages section-tests.
(Must and cannot options do appear regularly,
but they are far less frequent than could answer
options.) As you recall, every wrong answer to a
could question is an answer option that cannot
satisfy the conditions. Most test-takers identify
cannot wrong answer options more readily than
either must or could options. For these reasons,
and perhaps some others, Arguments questions
are, on average, the least difficult for test-takers.
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IS THE INTERACTION BETWEEN
ANSWERS TO DESCRIPTION QUESTIONS

CONNECT DIRECTLY TO THE STATEMENT.
The direct connection between statement and
question means that the focus of the question is
immediately apparent. This often seems too easy
to test-takers, so many of them seize the opportunity to convert a relatively straightforward
question into one that is much more difficult by
entertaining assumptions or interpretations that
are unwarranted and not called for.
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SUCCESS SESSION 6
answer patterns for the three basic question
types, you will be positioned to take full advantage of the wrong-answer options to every
Arguments and Passages question.
Take a moment to recall that the bestanswer option is the only one that satisfies all of
the relevant conditions set out in the statement
and question. When you identify a question as a
variation of Which of the answer options could
be true? the options that cannot be true fail to
satisfy all of the conditions and are wrong. With
a variation of Which of the answer options
cannot be true? the options that must and could
be true fail to satisfy all of the conditions and are
wrong. With a variation of Which of the answer
options must be true? the options that could
and cannot be true fail to satisfy all of the
conditions and are wrong.
When constructing extension questions, the

LSAT interprets the information contained in the
statement and, thus, is much more likely to
obfuscate the question or its focus.
ANSWERS TO EXTENSION QUESTIONS
CONNECT TO INTERPRETATIONS OF THE
STATEMENT.
More than in any other LSAT format, you need to
rely on the answer options to cut through any
existing obfuscation. The best-answer option
generally provides a focus for the question that
the other answer options do not.
You will recall that the LSAT eliminates
questions that do not work as predicted. A
question-and-best-answer combination that does
not attract a consensus of those it was designed
to snag is discarded. This gives you a big
advantage where Arguments and Passages
questions are concerned, because the questions
that pass all of the trials and are placed on the
LSAT are not going to be followed by bestanswer options that are too obscure to be
identified. The best-answer choice is right in
front of you. Selecting it can be difficult, but the
wrong-answer advantage assists your efforts with
Arguments and Passages even more than it does
with Relationships. Recall that the wrong-answer
advantage is one of the most powerful tools you
have for dealing with the LSAT.
WHAT
WHAT
DISGUISES?
The LSAT uses four basic disguises for wronganswer options. Briefly stated, they are the
same-language disguise, the too-little-toomuch disguise, the true but disguise, and the
false-assertion disguise.
It is not beneath the LSAT to use disguises.
That is, a particular wrong-answer option may
simultaneously wear a same-language and a
false-assertion disguise.
The same-language disguise is simple. It
consists of a repetition of the same language that
was in the statement. This disguise attracts
test-takers because it connects directly to the
statement, and the language is usually so obscure
as to create an impression of subtle significance.
The too-little-too-much disguise is used to
overstate or understate something in the answer
option so that it fails to satisfy the conditions
required by the question.
The true but disguise means what it says.
The answer option is true, but it does not satisfy
the conditions required by the statement and the
question. It attracts the test-taker because it is
true and makes good sense. Its veracity obscures
its irrelevance.
The false-assertion disguise is used to
misstate information in the answer option. That
is, the answer option misinterprets or wrongly
characterizes a proposition or conclusion in the
problem. It is often combined with the samelanguage disguise. It is attractive because it is
obscure and authoritatively put.
DISTINGUISHES THE WRONG-
ANSWER OPTIONS?
Every wrong answer on the LSAT fails to satisfy

the conditions required by the combination of
statement and question. It is worth repeating that
even though the LSAT attempts to disguise it, it is
relatively easy to detect this failure in most answer
options. You wont be surprised to hear that there
are certain disguises that obfuscate more effectively than others, nor will you be shocked to find
out that these are the very disguises the LSAT uses
for the wrong-answer options in the Arguments
and Passages section-tests.
BY TRAINING YOURSELF TO IDENTIFY
WRONG-ANSWER DISGUISES, YOU ENHANCE
YOUR WRONG-ANSWER ADVANTAGE.
When you combine the fact that the LSAT usually
includes just one attractive wrong-answer option
among the four offered with your knowledge of
the disguises and understanding of the wrong-
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ARE WRONG-ANSWER
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LSAT Success
HOW DO ARGUMENTS AND

PASSAGES PROBLEMS WORK?
This question calls for selection of the answer option that could satisfy the conditions set out in the
statement and question. Wrong-answer options
are those that cannot satisfy the conditions.
Answer option (A) is the best selection,
though it is unlikely that you would select it as
best after a quick reading. A careful reading will
disclose that there is nothing in the answer
option that conflicts with the conditions in the
statement and question. It is an attractive
cream-of-the-crop answer.
Answer option (B) is a cannot wronganswer option in a same-language disguise.
Every word of this answer is taken from the
statement, which connects it to the statement
and makes it seem attractive. However, it cannot
satisfy the statement conditions because, among
other reasons, confidence cannot support the
conclusions of media experts.
Option (C) is a cannot wrong-answer
option in too-much and same-language
disguises. The answer option overstates by using
much of the language of the statement to declare
that what was one measure is actually critical
and that it encompasses not just youthful
political involvement but all human behavior.
By using what could be misperceived as paraphrase rather than overstatement, the answer
might attract a few test-takers.
Option (D) is a cannot wrong-answer
option in a true but disguise. The answer option
is a true statement, but it is irrelevant to the
question posed. The authors conclusion, not the
media experts, is what is sought.
Option (E) is a cannot wrong-answer option
in false-assertion and same-language disguises.
It misstates the information given. Among many
other things, there is no mention in the statement
of the degree of teenage political activity involved,
nor is it suggested that such activity is related causally to exposure to the news.
Your knowledge of wrong-answer patterns and

disguises will assist you in the identification of
wrong-answer options. By dumping wronganswer options, you can expeditiously locate the
cream-of-the-crop answer optionthe best
answer optionthe one that satisfies the
conditions required by the statement and
question. The way wrong-answer patterns and
disguises are combined is illustrated in the
following discussion.
STATEMENT
It is worth repeating that studies show that
teenagers exposure to the news is one
measure of the extent of youthful political
involvement in this society. In addition, the
patterns of exposure to the news that
develop during the teens continue
throughout life. Even though we have
confidence in these observations, the
conclusions drawn from them by many
media experts are simply not valid
because so little is understood about the
variables that are involved.
QUESTION
1. Which of the following best states the
conclusion to which the authors
statements lead?
ANSWER CHOICES
(A) It is worth studying teenagers
exposure to the news.
(B) Confidence in the observations of the
variables that are involved in patterns
of exposure to the news supports the
conclusions drawn by many media
experts.
(C) Understanding teenagers exposure to
the news is critical to understanding
human behavior.
(D) The conclusions of many media
experts about exposure to the news
involve little-understood variables.
(E) Adult patterns of exposure to the
news will ultimately reflect the fact
that teenagers are more politically
active.
LSAT Success
WHAT
ARE THE VARIATIONS ON THE
WRONG-ANSWER DISGUISES?
The ways the LSAT varies the four basic disguises
are often fuzzy, although they are predictable.
Their outlines are always identifiable, and they
frequently can assist your identification of the
basic disguise and wrong-answer pattern.
However, for this knowledge to work to your
advantage, you have to have or develop a certain
tolerance of imprecision.
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SUCCESS SESSION 6
IT IS IMPORTANT THAT YOU NOT GET
CAUGHT UP IN TRYING TO IDENTIFY WRONGANSWER DISGUISES PRECISELY. YOUR SENSE
THAT THEY ARE WRONG IS SUFFICIENT.
This question requires an answer option that

could satisfy the conditions set out in the
statement. Wrong-answer options will be those
that cannot satisfy the conditions.
Option (A) is a cannot wrong-answer
option in which the same language is used
with a dash of too much to express an incorrect
conclusion. There is nothing in the statement to
suggest that youthful political involvement is
extensive.
Option (B) is a cannot wrong-answer
option using the same language to contradict
the statement. The statement says that the
variables are the reason media experts conclusions are invalid. This is the opposite of supporting the conclusions.
option using the same language as the statement to refer to a different topic or point. There
is nothing in the statement to suggest the
method used to measure patterns of exposure to
the news.
option that misinterprets a point in the statement
while using the same language as the statement. The statement does not indicate what the
experts conclusions are based on, although it is
possible to interpret it as suggesting that
observations were involved. To infer that the
variables provide the base of their conclusions is
a clear misinterpretation of the statement.
In the examples that follow, note that the

number of answer options fluctuates atypically
between four and five, depending on the number
of variations being illustrated. For each LSAT
question there will always be four wrong-answer
choices and one best choice.
Same-Language Variations
There are four variations on the same-language
wrong-answer disguise that the LSAT usually uses.
The first reaches an incorrect conclusion,
using the language of the statement.
The second contradicts the statement,
using the language of the statement.
The third refers to a topic or point not in
the statement, using the language of the
statement.
The fourth misinterprets points made in
the statement, using the language of the
statement.
STATEMENT
It is worth repeating that studies show that teenagers exposure to the news is one measure of
the extent of youthful political involvement in
this society. In addition, the patterns of exposure to the news that develop during the teens
continue throughout life. Even though we have
confidence in these observations, the conclusions drawn from them by many media experts
are simply not valid because so little is understood about the variables that are involved.
Too-Little-Too-Much Variations
There are four primary variations on the toolittle-too-much wrong-answer disguise used by
the LSAT.
One contradicts the statement, taking a
part of the statement for the whole.
Another agrees with the statement, taking
a part of the statement for the whole.
Another is too narrow, answering part of
the question but not all of it.
The last is too broad, answering all of the
question and much more.
QUESTION
1. Which of the following can be
inferred from the statement?
ANSWER CHOICES
(A) Youthful political involvement in this
society is extensive.
(B) The variables that are involved in
patterns of exposure to the news
support the conclusions drawn by
many media experts.
(C) Patterns of exposure to the news are
measured by observation.
(D) The conclusions of many media
experts about youthful political
involvement are based on littleunderstood variables.
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LSAT Success

STATEMENT

option that takes the first observation in the
statement into account but understates it (too
little) in that it ignores the second observation
entirely.
option that goes too far in that it answers the
question and much more. It declares that
exposure to the news measures all political
involvement (not just among teenagers) in most
societies (not just this society) and that its
patterns explain all behavior (no behavior is
involved in the statement).
QUESTION
1. Which of the following best describes
the observations of exposure to the
news made in the above statement?
True-But Variations
There are five primary variations on the true but
wrong-answer disguise used by the LSAT. The
wrong-answer option is true, but
ANSWER CHOICES
(A) It can be comprehensively measured
by youthful political involvement.
(B) It can measure youthful political
involvement in all societies.
(C) It can measure youthful political
involvement.
(D) It measures political involvement in
most societies, and its patterns
explain both teenage and adult
behavior.
it refers to a part of the statement not

involved in the question.
it does not match the information in the
statement, although it is a logical
response.
it is not responsive to the question,
although it is a logical response.
it answers a different question.
it implies a point or judgment not made
in the statement.
STATEMENT
This question calls for the selection of the

answer option that could satisfy the conditions
set out in the statement and question. The
wrong-answer options are those that cannot
satisfy the conditions.
Option (A) is a cannot wrong-answer option
that contradicts the statement by declaring that
exposure to the news is comprehensively (too
much) measured by youthful political involvement. The statement indicates just the opposite
that youthful political involvement is measured by
exposure to the news. It also ignores the second
observation in the statementpatterns of exposure to the news that develop during the teens
continue throughout lifethus taking a part of the
statement for the whole.
option that agrees generally with the statement
but overstates it (referring to all societies
instead of this society). It also ignores the
observation that patterns of exposure to the
news that develop during the teens continue
throughout life, thus taking a single observation
for the whole.
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SUCCESS SESSION 6
The third uses a false assertion to agree
with the statement.
The fourth is a logical response but does
not match the premises of the statement.
QUESTION
1. Which of the following best summarizes the observations about exposure
to the news made in the above
statement?
STATEMENT
ANSWER CHOICES
(A) Accurate studies do not always reach
accurate conclusions.
(B) Exposure to the news changes over a
lifetime in response to changes in the
way news is reported.
(C) Those reporting news should take
teenagers interests into account.
(D) Exposure to the news is a lifelong
experience.
(E) Patterns of exposure to the news are
important to media experts.
QUESTION
1. Which of the following best describes
the conclusions reached by the media
experts referred to in the above
statement?
Again, the best answer option is one that could

satisfy the conditions set out in the statement
and the question. Wrong-answer options are
those that cannot satisfy the conditions.
Answer option (A) is a cannot wronganswer option that may be true, but it makes
reference to parts of the statement (the studies
and the invalidity of the experts conclusions)
that are not involved in the question.
option that may be true, but it does not match
the statement, which declares that the patterns
of exposure to the news continue rather than
change over a lifetime.
Answer option (C) is a cannot wronganswer option that may be true, but it is not
responsive to the question, which focuses on
observations drawn from studies about exposure
to the news.
option that may be true, but it is answering a
different question, not the one asked.
Option (E) is a cannot wrong-answer
option that may be true, but it implies a point or
judgment that is not made in the statementthat
patterns of exposure to the news are important
to media experts.
ANSWER CHOICES
(A) Youthful political involvement is a
measure of teenagers exposure to
the news.
(B) Youthful political activity is the result
of increased exposure to the news.
(C) Youthful political involvement is
measured by media experts.
(D) The conclusions are not valid because
the observations upon which they are
based are not complete.
This question again requires that you select the
answer option that could satisfy the conditions
set out in the statement. Wrong-answer options
are those that cannot satisfy the conditions.
Answer option (A) is a cannot wronganswer option that misinterprets or negates a
premise of the statement (that exposure to the
news measures political involvement) by making
the false assertion that political involvement
measures exposure to the news.
option that uses a false assertion that contradicts
the statement. It declares that there is a causal
relationship between political activity and
exposure to the news.
option involving a false assertion that agrees with
the statement to the extent that it notes that
political involvement is being measured. It is
False-Assertion Variations
There are four variations on the false-assertion
wrong-answer disguise:
The first misinterprets or negates a
statement premise.
The second uses a false assertion to
contradict the statement.
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LSAT Success

proportion of the questions are to be relatively
easy, with more than 60 percent of the testtakers selecting the best answer. And a smaller
proportion are to be relatively tough, with fewer
than 40 percent of test-takers selecting the best
answer.
In Arguments and Passages section-tests,
there is no order of difficulty among sets.
Question sets appearing later in a section-test are
not necessarily more difficult, nor are questions
appearing later in a question set harder, than
those that come first. Later questions sometimes
appear to be more difficult, but this is usually
due to the cumulative effect of having reviewed
many questions and answer options. Fatigue may
make later question sets appear more difficult,
but, while the fatigue may be real, the apparent
difference in difficulty is not.
false because it asserts that media experts do the

measuring, a fact neither included nor implied in
the statement.
Answer option (D) is a cannot wronganswer option that is a logical response to the
question but makes the false assertion that
observations are not complete. This assertion
does not match the premise in the statement that
experts conclusions are not valid because little is
understood about the variables involved.
HOW DIFFICULT ARE ARGUMENTS

PASSAGES QUESTIONS?
AND
As noted earlier, the LSAT wants the substantial

majority of questions on each section-test to be
of medium difficulty, with some 40 to 60 percent
of test-takers selecting the best answer. A smaller
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Success Session 7
RELATIONSHIPS IN DETAIL
RELATIONSHIPS
PROBLEMS
question sets and number the sets in the order

you will work them.
After completing this task you turn to the
specific contexts.
CRITICAL DETAILS
There is one Relationships section-test on each
LSAT, which translates into some 25 percent of
the questions. Relationships question sets appear
in four forms: the line-up, cluster, map, and
schedule contexts.
Since there are four sets of Relationships
questions on each 35-minute section-test, this
might suggest that each of these contexts will be
represented on each section-test. In fact, a
section-test may include only two or three of
them. The line-up, cluster, and schedule contexts
appear with much greater frequency than does
the map context. In fact, the map context has
been almost completely phased out by the LSAT,
and it is unlikely that you will encounter it.
However, it will be covered just in case.
IN
WHAT
Most question sets include at least one question

using the line-up context. You are already
familiar with this context in its basic form. It
involves simply putting items in a required order.
A teacher arranges the students in a row, from
shortest to tallest, from fastest to slowest, or
from youngest to oldestthis is what is meant
by the line-up context.
HOW DO YOU WORK

LINE-UP CONTEXT?
RELATIONSHIPS
WITH THE
You begin by reading the statement, noting the

facts and rules.
WHAT ORDER SHOULD YOU
CONSIDER
IS THE LINE-UP CONTEXT?
ARF dog food comes in six sizesSmall,

Medium, Large, Jumbo, Giant, and
Colossal.
PROBLEMS?
While individual experiences differ, certain

contexts are generally more difficult for testtakers than others. The line-up context is
generally the least difficult, the cluster and map
contexts somewhat more difficult, and the
schedule context usually the most difficult.
Therefore, you should work on them in that
order, from least to most difficult. Recall that
there is no benefit from getting the best-answer
choice for a more difficult question when
compared to the least difficult question-answer
choice combination.
Colossal weighs more than Large.

Large weighs more than Small.
Medium weighs less than Jumbo.
Large weighs more than Giant.
Giant weighs more than Jumbo.
The facts and rules announce the line-up
context and suggest that the question set will
focus on weight. A brief review of the questions
confirms this suggestion. Now that the focus for
the questions is clear, you can visualize the
problem.
The facts tell you that ARF comes in six
sizes. These are the variables that will become
nodes in your visualization. Abbreviate them as S,
M, L, J, G, and C. (The LSAT generally uses
names beginning with different letters to
facilitate their abbreviation.)
WORK ON RELATIONSHIPS PROBLEMS IN

THE ORDER OF DIFFICULTY OF THEIR
CONTEXTSFROM THE LINE-UP TO THE
CLUSTER, MAP, AND SCHEDULE CONTEXTS.
In most instances, the question sets do not
appear on the section-test in the order in which
it is best to consider them. So your first assignment when beginning a Relationships section-test
is to identify the context of each of the four
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SUCCESS SESSION 7
CHECK YOUR WORK TO BE CERTAIN THAT
EACH VARIABLE IS INCLUDED.
Notice that the best answers for questions

1 and 2 are opposites. The LSAT frequently uses
such an approach. By being alert to take advantage of this circumstance, you can reduce the
time required to respond to questions and
become more efficient.
The differences in weight are expressed in the

relative terms lighter and heavier. The lines
in the visualization will depict these transitive
relationships.
3. How many sizes must be lighter than

Giant?
AGAIN, RUN A CHECK TO BE CERTAIN THAT

EACH RELATIONSHIP IS REPRESENTED.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Then combine these representations into a single

visualization. After you complete the visualization, consider the questions. Do not return to the
statement for any reason. This is a time-waster
and is to be avoided.
This is a must question. The wrong answers are

those that could or cannot be lighter than Giant.
By referring to the visualization, you determine
that Jumbo weighs less than Giant, and Medium
weighs less than both. You also determine that,
because both Large and Colossal weigh more
than Giant, they cannot be lighter. Finally you
determine that Small could be lighter than Giant.
Thus, three sizes either could or cannot be
lighter than Giant, leaving two that must be
lighter. Therefore, option (C) is the best answer.
AS YOU WORK THROUGH THE QUESTIONS,

REFER TO THE VISUALIZATION ONLY.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Large is heavier than Jumbo.

Large is lighter than Jumbo.
Small is lighter than Medium.
Large is lighter than Giant.
Giant is heavier than Small.
This is a must question. Refer to the visualization, and start work with answer option (A). You
determine that Jumbo weighs less than Giant,
which weighs less than Large. This means that
Large is heavier than Jumbo, and option (A) is
the best answer. Since you know there can be
only one answer that satisfies all conditions, and
you have determined that option (A) does this,
there is no reason to go any further in considering options. Testing every answer option can be
a big time-waster, avoid it.
4. How many sizes must be heavier than

Jumbo?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Jumbo is heavier than Large.

Jumbo is lighter than Large.
Small is lighter than Medium.
Large is heavier than Giant.
Giant is heavier than Small.
This is a cannot question. Again, refer to the

visualization, and start work with answer option
(A). As you noted in the previous question,
Jumbo weighs less than Giant, which weighs less
than Large. This means that Jumbo cannot be
heavier than Large. Option (A) is the best
answerit satisfies all conditions. There is no
reason to go beyond (A) in considering options.
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1
2
3
4
5
This is a must question. The wrong answers are

those that could or cannot be heavier than
Jumbo. By referring to the visualization, you
determine that Jumbo weighs more than Medium, which cannot then be heavier. You also
determine that Jumbo could be lighter than
Small, which means that Small could be heavier.
Thus, two sizes either could or cannot be lighter
than Giant, leaving three that must be heavier.
Option (C) is the best answer.

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
0
1
2
3
4
5. If a new Kennel size is added to the ARF

line of dog food, and it is lighter than
three of the six original sizes, which of the
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
100
Giant is heavier than Kennel.

Large is heavier than Kennel.
Jumbo is heavier than Kennel.
Small is lighter than Kennel.
Small is heavier than Kennel.
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SUCCESS SESSION 7
WHAT
This is a must question that involves a supplemental statement. The wrong answers are
those that could or cannot be true. First you
must add the supplemental information to the
visualization (K on page 101). By referring to the
augmented visualization, you determine that
Colossal and Large are the two heaviest sizes;
what is uncertain is the third size that is heavier
than Kennel. A review of the conditions discloses
that you have no information through which
certainty can be reached. Thus, it is likely that
the best answer will not involve the uncertainty.
Answer option (A) directly involves the uncertainty: Since Giant could be heavier than Kennel,
option (A) is wrong. Because Large weighs more
than all sizes other than Colossal, it must be
heavier than Kennel, making option (B) the best
answer. Since you know that only one answer
option satisfies all conditions, and you have
determined that (B) satisfies all conditions, there
is no reason to consider further options.
HOW
Kennel
Kennel
Kennel
Kennel
Kennel
is
is
is
is
is
As usual, you begin by reading the statement,

with its facts and rules, to determine the context.
You will recognize the following statement from
the previous session.
The twelve-member board of directors of
Acme International, Inc., is divided into
four committees: the Audit Committee, the
Finance Committee, the Planning
Committee, and the Shareholder Relations
Committee.
of the Audit, Finance, and Planning
committees.
heavier than Small.

heavier than Jumbo.
heavier than Giant.
lighter than Large.
lighter than Jumbo.

of the Audit, Finance, and Shareholder
This is a cannot question that involves a supplemental statement. The wrong answers are those
that must or could be true. First you must add the
supplemental information to the visualization. The
supplemental information, though conflicting with
that in question 5, yields the same visualization.
What is uncertain is the third size that is lighter
than Kennel. Again, a review of the conditions
discloses that you have no information through
which certainty can be reached.
Thus, once more it is likely that the best
answer will not involve the uncertainty. Answer
options (A) and (C) directly involve the uncertainty: since Kennel could be heavier than Small
and Giant, (A) and (C) are wrong. Because
Jumbo weighs less than all sizes other than
Medium, it must be lighter than Kennel, and
option (B) must be true, making it wrong when
what is asked for is a cannot answer. And
because Large weighs more than all sizes other
than Colossal, it must be heavier than Kennel,
and option (D) must be true, making it similarly
wrong. Thus, the best answer is (E).
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DO YOU WORK WITH THE
CLUSTER CONTEXT?
6. If a new Kennel size is added to the ARF

line of dog food, and it is heavier than
three of the six original sizes, which of the
following CANNOT be true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
IS THE CLUSTER CONTEXT?
You probably have some familiarity with the

cluster context. On the LSAT, the cluster
context usually appears in problems involving
groups and individuals within those groups. It
introduces the complications that arise when
individuals have dual status or are affected by
more than one set of conditions. Some conditions may apply to groups only, some to individuals within groups, some to individuals alone, and
some to combinations of these. This complication tends to make the cluster context somewhat
more difficult than the line-up context.
The facts present a board of twelve

directors and four committees. These are the
potential variables. By scanning the questions,
you determine that their focus is committee
membership, so the committees become the
nodes in your visualization: A, F, P, and S. The
relationships are depicted by the lines in your
visualization. Always check to be certain that
each variable and relationship is visualized.
In this instance, you will need to produce
two visualizations, because the facts and rules
leave an uncertainty. The director who is a
member of the Audit, Finance, and Planning
committees may or may not be the director who
is a member of the Audit, Finance, and Shareholder Relations committees. The first visualization depicts the facts and rules if there are two
directors (X and Y) satisfying the conditions; the
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LSAT Success
second one depicts the facts and rules if there is
just one director (Z) satisfying the conditions.
After completing the visualization, consider
the questions, recalling that you will be referring
only to the visualization as you work through the
questions.
satisfies all conditions, there is no reason to

consider further options.
2. Which of the following could be true?
(A) No member of the Audit and
Planning committees is the same
person.
(B) No member of the Audit Committee
is a member of the Finance Committee.
(C) Some members of the Audit Committee are members of the Finance
Committee.
(D) No member of the Finance Committee is a member of the Planning
Committee.
(E) No member of the Shareholder
Relations Committee is a member of
the Audit Committee.

(A) At least one member of the Finance
Committee is a member of the
Planning Committee.
(B) No member of the Planning Committee is a member of the Shareholder
Relations Committee.
(C) The members of the Finance and
Planning committees are the same
people.
(D) The members of the Planning
Committee are different from those
of the Finance and Shareholder
(E) The members of the Shareholder
Relations Committee are the same as
those on the Finance Committee.
This is a could question. You note from the visualizations that at least one member of the Audit
Committee is a member of the Planning Committee. Therefore, answer choice (A) cannot be true,
and it fails to meet the question conditions and is a
wrong-answer option. Next you consider answer
choice (B). From the visualizations you determine
that at least one member of the Audit Committee
is a member of the Finance Committee. Therefore,
answer choice (B) cannot be true, and it fails to
meet the question conditions and is a wrong-answer option. Then you consider answer choice
(C). The visualization shows you that at least one
This is a must question. Note from the visualizations that at least one member of the Finance
Committee is a member of the Planning Committee. Since this option satisfies the conditions of
the question, circle answer choice (A). Since you
know that only one answer option satisfies all
conditions, and you have determined that (A)
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SUCCESS SESSION 7
This is a must question with a supplemental
statement that establishes the second visualization as the accurate representation of the
questions conditions. Note on the visualization
that Gates (Z) is a member of the Audit and
Finance committees and a member of the
Planning and Shareholder Relations committees.
Since option (E) is the only one that satisfies the
conditions of the question, it is the best answer
choice. Also notice that this question is a
variation of the previous question 3. The LSAT
often uses this technique with Relationships
questions. Be on the alert for it!
member of the Audit Committee is a member of

the Finance Committee. Since answer choice (C)
is true, it could be true and it meets the conditions
specified. It is the best-answer choice, it satisfies
all conditions, and there is no reason to consider
further options.
3. If the fewest number of members possible
meet the Board organization conditions
and Carter is the only common member of
two committees, which of the following
could be FALSE?
(A) Carter is a member of the Planning
Committee.
(B) Carter is a member of the Shareholder Relations Committee.
(C) Carter is a member of the Planning
and Shareholder Relations Committees.
(D) Carter is not a member of the
Planning Committee.
(E) Carter is a member of both the
Finance and Shareholder Relations
Committees.
5. If Martin is the only director that the

Planning and Shareholder Relations
committees have in common, which of the
following could be true?
(A) Martin has to belong to both the
Finance and Shareholder Relations
committees.
(B) Martin does not belong to both the
Audit and Finance committees.
(C) The Finance and Planning committees have to have only Martin in
common.
(D) Martin has to belong to at least
three different Board committees.
(E) Martin has to belong to all four
Board committees.
This is a could question with a supplemental

statement that establishes the second visualization as the accurate representation of the
questions conditions. Note that could be false
also implies could be true. It also is true that
could be false subsumes that which must be
false. From the visualizations, you determine that
Carter is a member of all four committees. Since
all answer choices but (D) provide that Carter is
a member of one or more of the committees, it
is the only answer choice that could be false.
Answer choice (D) is the best option.

statement that suggests that visualization two
applies to the question. However, nothing in the
supplemental statement provides that some
Board member other than Martin could not
satisfy the first condition in the statement and
that some other Board member, also not Martin,
could not satisfy the second condition in the
statement. Put another way, nothing in the
conditions requires that Martin is the Board
member that is common to all committees. This
being true, all answer choices that require that
Martin be on committees are not true and each is
not the best answer choice. On the other hand,
nothing requires that Martin be a member of
either the Audit or Finance committees, thus
answer choice (B) meets the conditions specified, it could be true and is the best answer
choice.
4. If Gates is the only director that the Audit

and Finance committees have in common,
which of the following must be true?
(A) Gates is a not a member of the
Planning Committee.
(B) Gates is a not member of the
Shareholder Relations Committee.
(C) The Planning and Shareholder
Relations committees do not have at
least one member in common.
(D) The Finance and Planning committees do not have at least one
member in common.
(E) Gates is a member of all four Board
committees.
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HOW
6. If Titus and Varga are the only members

of the Finance Committee, and neither is a
member of all four committees, which of
CONTEXT?
As with the other contexts, you begin by reading
the statement, with its facts and rules.
There are nine gasoline stations in the town
of Mountain View: Amoco, Boron, Chevron,
Exxon, Gulf, Hess, Mobil, Shell, and Texaco. The
stations are located as follows:
(A) Titus is a member of the Audit and

Planning committees.
(B) Titus and Varga are not both
members of the Audit Committee.
(C) Titus is a member of the Audit and
Shareholder Relations committees.
(D) Titus and Varga are not both
members of the Planning Committee.
(E) Varga is a member of the Planning and
Shareholder Relations committees.
Amoco, Boron, Chevron, and Exxon are

all west of Gulf, and all of the others are
east of Gulf.
Boron and Chevron are both due west of
Gulf, and Amoco is due north of Boron.
Exxon is due south of Chevron, and Mobil
is due northeast of Gulf.
Hess is due north of Mobil, and Shell and
Texaco are both due south of Mobil.

statement that establishes the first visualization as
the accurate one. By reference to that visualization, you can determine that Titus and Varga are X
and Y, but you have no information to help you
establish which is which. You consider the answer
options in order. As to (A), Titus could be a member of the Audit and Planning committees. Since
could is a wrong answer to a must question, option (A) is dumped. As to (B), the visualization establishes that Titus and Varga are both members of
the Audit Committee, so it cannot be that they are
not. This makes option (B) wrong, and you dump
it. As to (C), Titus could be a member of the Audit
and Shareholder Relations committees. As with
(A), could is a wrong answer to a must question,
so (C) is dumped. As to (D), Titus and Varga cannot both be members of the Planning Committee.
Option (D) satisfies the conditions and is the best
choice. There is no need to consider option (E).
WHAT
IS THE MAP CONTEXT?
The statement establishes the map context

and suggests that direction and distance will be
the focus of the question set. A brief look at the
questions confirms this suggestion. Now you
record your visualization.
The facts tell you that there are nine
stations: A, B, C, E, G, H, M, S, and T. These
variables will be the nodes in the visualization.
The differences in direction are expressed in
relative terms, and the lines in the visualization
will depict these transitive relationships. As
always, check to be certain that each relationship
is visualized, and be especially careful not to
confuse direction with relative distance.
Complete your visualization, and consider
the questions. Note that, because directions are
relative, you should take care to consider the
You are not likely to be familiar with the map

context, which is a type of spatial or relativelocation exercise. It has many of the attributes of
the line-up, although line-ups are deployed in
two-dimensional space instead of in a single line.
A few terms the LSAT consistently uses are
worthy of review. To indicate a precise direction,
the LSAT uses such terms as due, directly, or
exactly. Therefore, due north means precisely north0 and 360 on the compass.
North means northerly; that is, anything in the
northern direction bounded by the east/north/
west hemisphere. Northeast means northeasterly; that is, anything in the direction of the
quadrant bounded by north and east. These
conventions apply to each of the compass
directionsnorth, east, south, and west.
LSAT Success
DO YOU WORK WITH THE MAP
105
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SUCCESS SESSION 7
answer options from the position declared in the

question. Remember to refer to the visualization
only.
(A) The Hess, Shell, and Texaco stations

are south of the Gulf station.
(B) The Boron, Chevron, and Exxon
stations are north of the Gulf station.
(C) The Amoco, Shell, and Texaco
stations are north of the Gulf station.
(D) The Hess and Amoco stations are
south of the Gulf station.
(E) The Chevron and Boron stations are
southwest of the Gulf station.
1. Hess lies in which direction from Chevron?

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
due east
southeast
due north
northeast
southwest
Even though it does not use the term, this is a

must question. Locate C and H by referring to
the visualization. H is east of C but also north.
Thus, answer options (A), (B), and (C) cannot be
true. They do not meet the conditions and are
dumped. Option (D), however, does meet the
north and east conditions of the question and is
the best-answer option. There is no need to
consider option (E).
This is could question. From Gs position on the

visualization, you determine that H is north of M,
and, because M is northeast of G, H must also be
northeast of G, not south. Since cannot is the only
wrong answer to a could question, you have determined that (A) cannot be true; it is a wrong-answer
choice. Answer choice (B) provides that both Boron and Chevron are north of the Gulf station. The
second condition in the problem statement declares that B and C are due west of G. Therefore,
by virtue of this rule, they cannot be north of G and
answer choice (B) does not meet the required conditions of the problem; (B) is a wrong-answer
choice. You next determine that A is north of B,
and, because B is due west of G, A must also be
north of G. You know that S and T are due south of
M, but they could be north or south of G. Option
(C) satisfies the conditions of the question and is
the best answer. There is no reason to consider the
remaining answer choices because only one choice
satisfies all required conditions.
2. If a person were to travel directly west

from Mobil, what is the maximum number
of stations the person could encounter?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
0
1
2
3
4
This is a could question. From Ms position on

the visualization, you determine that B, C, E, G,
S, and T are all south and cannot be due west of
M. Cannot is the wrong answer to a could
question. H is north of M and cannot be due
west of it. Again, cannot is the wrong answer to
a could question. Since A is due north of B,
which is southwest of M, A could be directly
west of M, depending on how far north A is
from B. All nine variables are thus accounted for,
and only A could be directly west of M. Answer
options (A), (C), (D), and (E) cannot be true;
they do not satisfy the question conditions and
are dumped. Option (B) satisfies the conditions
and is the best answer.
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4. How many stations must be south of the

Boron station?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
1
2
3
4
5
This is a must question. Referring to the location of

B on the visualization, you determine that A is north
of B, and both B and C are due west of G. This
means A, C, and G cannot be south of B. Because E
is south of C, and both B and C are due west of G, E
must also be south of B. Since could and cannot are
the only wrong answers to a must question, A, C,
and G do not satisfy the conditions of the question,
and E does. Since B is due west of G, M is northeast
of G, and H is north of M, H and M cannot be south
of B and do not satisfy the conditions of the question. There is no information about how far south S
and T are from M, so they could be as far south as
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LSAT Success
to be south of B, but they might not be. S and T do
not satisfy the conditions. Answer options (B), (C),
(D), and (E) cannot be true; none of them meets
the question conditions. Answer option (A) does
satisfy the conditions of the question, and it is the
best-answer option.
of A, and answer options (A), (B), (C), and (E) cannot be true. They do not meet the conditions and
are dumped. Option (D) does satisfy the conditions and is the best-answer option.
WHAT
You may have some familiarity with the schedule

(or assignment) context. As used on the LSAT,
it expands upon the complication of the cluster
context, with some conditions applying to
individuals, some to locations, some to times,
and some to combinations of the three. This
complication generally makes the schedule
context the most difficult of the five Relationships contexts, which is why you should plan to
work on schedule problems last when working
on the Relationships section-test of the LSAT.

(A) The Amoco station is due west of the
Gulf station.
(B) The Exxon station is west of the
Boron station.
(C) The Boron station is east of the
Exxon station.
(D) The Hess station is due east of the
Chevron station.
(E) The Mobil station is south of the
Exxon station.
HOW
This is a could question. By referring to your

visualization, you see that As east-west position
is determined by the position of B. Since B and C
are due west of G, and A is due north of B, A
cannot be west of G. Thus answer choice (A)
cannot be true; it is a wrong answer to a could
question. The visualization shows you that Es
east-west position is determined by the position
of C. Since C could be west of B or vice versa, E
could be west of B. Option (C) satisfies the
question conditions and is the best-answer
choice. There is no reason to consider the
remaining answer choices because only one
choice satisfies all required conditions.
You begin, as with all Relationships questions, by

reading the statement to establish the facts and
rules. The sample problem that follows is
probably more difficult than any you will find on
the LSAT. It is included to make the point that
appearances can be deceiving. Despite its
difficulty, the question set can be managed by
following the Relationships protocol that is
quickly becoming familiar to you.
A circus presents a twelve-act show in three
rings. Ring 1 is adjacent to ring 2, which is adjacent
to ring 3. During a show, which is divided into four
equal segments, each act is presented exactly once.
Three acts are presented simultaneously in each
segment. The acts are: acrobats, bears, clowns,
dogs, elephants, horses, jugglers, lions, seals, trapeze artists, unicyclists, and wire-walkers.
4
5
6
7
8
Only ring 2 has wire-walking, unicycling,

and trapeze rigging.
The lions and bears must perform in
ring 3, the only ring with a cage.
Because of the cage, the clowns, elephants,
and horses cannot perform in ring 3.
This is a could question. Studying the visualization, you determine that A is due north of B and,
consequently, that B cannot be southeast of A.
Since cannot is the only wrong answer to a could
question, B does not satisfy the conditions of the
question. There is no information in the statement
or question from which you can determine that B
and A are not westernmost among the stations,
nor can you determine how far north of B station
A is located. So if A is located sufficiently far north,
all stations other than B could be southeast of A.
This means that seven stations could be southeast
LSAT Success
SCHEDULE CONTEXT?
6. What is the maximum number of stations

that could be southeast of the Amoco
station?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
IS THE SCHEDULE CONTEXT?
Two adjacent rings may not present an

animal act at the same time.
The acrobats, dogs, and lions perform at
the same time.
The trapeze artists and wire-walkers cannot follow immediately after each other,
and the clowns must perform between the
two to provide relief from the tension.
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SUCCESS SESSION 7
The many facts and rules tell you that this is the
schedule context and suggest that order and
location are the ideas on which the question set
will focus. A brief survey of the questions
confirms this suggestion. Now you are ready to
visualize a schedule.
The facts tell you that there are twelve acts
(individuals), four time slots, and three rings
(locations). The individuals are A, B, C, D, E, H,
J, L, S, T, U, and W. The intersection of time and
location determines the nodes of your visualization, which results in a 3 x 4 matrix. Check to
be certain that each variable is included, and
apply the rules to the individuals, noting the
results in the matrix as follows.
The first rule tells you that T, U, and W
perform only in ring 2. The second rule tells you
that L and B perform only in ring 3. Since rule
three provides that animal acts cannot be
presented in adjacent rings at the same time, rule
four provides that dogs and lions (and acrobats)
perform at the same time, and rule two provides
that lions perform in ring 3, it follows that dogs
must perform in ring 1 (not adjacent to another
animal act) and acrobats in ring 2. You have
now determined all of the acts for ring 2: A, T,
U, and W.
Rule two provides that C, E, and H cannot
perform in ring 3, and ring 2 is full, so C, E, and
H must perform in ring 1 with D. This determines all of the acts for ring 1: C, D, E, and H.
The remaining acts must perform in ring 2.

Thus you have determined all of the acts for
ring 3: B, J, L, and S.
Take note that the clowns must perform
between the trapeze artists and the wire-walkers.
(A) There are no animal acts in ring 1.
(B) There are no animal acts in ring 2.
(C) All acts presented in ring 3 are
animal acts.
(D) All acts presented in ring 2 are
animal acts.
(E) Animal acts perform in all three rings.
This is a must question. Beginning with answer
option (A), you refer to your visualization and
determine that dogs perform in ring 1. Option
(A) cannot be true, as it does not satisfy the
conditions of the question, and is dumped.
Moving on to option (B), you refer to the
visualization and determine that A, T, U, and W
perform there. None is an animal act, so option
(B) is true, does satisfy the conditions of the
question, and is the best answer. There is no
reason to consider options (C), (D), and (E).
2. Which three acts CANNOT start the show
in rings 1, 2, and 3, respectively?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
elephants, trapeze artists, bears

horses, unicyclists, seals
dogs, acrobats, lions
clowns, wire-walkers, jugglers
elephants, unicyclists, jugglers
This is a cannot question. Beginning with answer

option (A), you refer to the visualization and determine that E performs in ring 1, T in ring 2, and B
in ring 3. There is no other information to suggest
that it cannot be true, so option A could be true,
does not satisfy the conditions of the question, and
is dumped. Working with option (B), you refer to
the visualization and determine that H performs in
ring 1, U in ring 2, and S in ring 3. As with option
(A), option (B) could be true and is therefore
dumped. Answer option (C) goes the same way,
since (D) performs in ring 1, together with A in
ring 2 and L in ring 3, and option (C) could be
true. When you arrive at option (D), you refer to
the visualization and determine that C performs in
ring 1, W in ring 2, and J in ring 3. However, C
must perform between W and T; therefore, C and
W cannot perform at the same time, and option
(D) cannot be true, satisfies the conditions of the
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LSAT Success
5. If the acrobats are presented in the first
segment, which of the following CANNOT
be true?
question, and is the best answer. There is no reason to consider option (E).
3. If the lions are presented in the first
segment, which of the following must be
true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(A) The clowns are the third act presented.

(B) The elephants are the second act
presented.
(C) The wire-walkers are the fourth act
presented.
(D) The horses are the first act presented.
(E) The bears are the third act presented.
6. If the clowns and dogs are presented in

the second and fourth segments, respectively, which of the following could be
true?
(A) The unicyclists are presented first.
(B) The horses are presented third.
(C) The wire-walkers are presented
second.
(D) The acrobats are presented first.
(E) The elephants are presented fourth.
4. If the trapeze act is presented second,

which of the following could be true?
(E)
The elephant act is presented second.

The lion act is presented third.
The clown act is presented fourth.
The wire-walkers act is presented
third.
The acrobats act is presented last.

statement. The supplemental statement dictates
that D, A, and L are the fourth acts presented. Either W or T must perform first in ring 2, since C
must perform second between them. This means
that U cannot be among the first acts presented.
Answer option (A) cannot be true, does not satisfy
the conditions of the question, and is dumped. As
to answer option (B), supplemental statement says
that C performs second and D fourth in ring 1.
This means that E or H could perform third, since
there is no information that dictates they cannot.
Answer option (B) could be true, satisfies the conditions of the question, and is the best answer.
There is no reason to consider answer options (C),
(D), and (E).

statement. From the supplemental statement
that T is presented second and the requirement
that an act be presented between it and W, it
follows that W must be presented fourth. Since C
must be presented between T and W, it must be
third. We know that D, A, and L must be
presented together, and the only time left for
them to perform is first.
Answer choice (A) tells you that E performs
second. Referring to the visualization, you
determine that there is no reason this cannot be
true. Since this option satisfies the question
conditions, you circle answer choice (A) as the
best-answer choice. Because there is only one
answer choice that meets all of the conditions of
the problem, there is no reason to consider
options (B), (C), (D), and (E).
LSAT Success
unicyclists are presented second.

horses are presented second.
seals are presented second.
jugglers are presented second.
elephants are presented second.
This is a cannot question with a supplemental

that D, A, and L are the first acts presented.
Either W or T must perform second in ring 2,
since C must perform between them. This means
that U must be among the third acts presented.
Answer option (A) cannot be true, satisfies the
conditions of the question, and is the best
answer. There is no reason to consider options
(B), (C), (D), and (E).

that D (ring 1), A (ring 2), and L (ring 3) are the
first acts presented. This means that either T or W
must perform second in ring 2, since C must perform between them. This means that C must be
among the third acts presented. Answer option
(A) must be true, satisfies the conditions of the
question, and is the best answer. There is no reason to consider options (B), (C), (D), and (E).
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
The
The
The
The
The
A practice exercise
To get a sense of each of the types of Relationships questions, turn to one of the complete
tests in the book. Scan through each of the
Relationships sets and identify the type of
context that each question set presents.
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Success Session 8
ARGUMENTS PROBLEMS IN DETAIL
below. In this way, you create four sets of Arguments questions in each 35-minute section-test.
In this session you will work with Arguments

problems separately from Passages. There are
two Arguments section-tests in every LSAT. This
means that Arguments comprise about half of all
of the questions on the test. Quantitatively,
Arguments are twice as important as other
question types. This means that you should
concentrate on Arguments until you are performing consistently with them.
IN
Question
Question
Question
Question
set
set
set
set
1:
2:
3:
4:
16
712
1318
1924+
ARGUMENTS
CONSIDERED?
WHAT ORDER SHOULD
QUESTION SETS BE
WHAT IS THE FUNDAMENTAL APPROACH

TO ARGUMENTS PROBLEMS?
questions
questions
questions
questions
Previously it was stated that you should work on

the least difficult question set first and the most
difficult last. However, when this principle is
applied to Arguments questions, a problem
arises. Because Arguments question-answer sets
do not share a common statement, it is very
time-consuming to place them in a clear order of
difficulty. In general, the effort it takes to identify
the questions in terms of their difficulty outweighs any advantage you might realize from the
effort. So, simply work through Arguments
questions in the order in which they appear.
Instead of reordering question sets according to their difficulty, you will approach the
questions according to your test plan. If your
plan is to complete all four question sets in the
section-test, you will work through the questions
in sets of six.
If your plan is to complete three question
sets, you have a choice of two strategies. The
more straightforward one is to work through the
first three sets of questions and guess the
answers to the fourth set. A more sophisticated
strategy is to omit six questions as you work
through the four question sets. Pass over six long
question-answer combinations or question-answer
sets that you find confusing, since you have the
poorest prospects of selecting the best-answer
options to these questions. (Of course, you will
select answers to the omitted questions by
guessing.) Either question-selection strategy will
meet the objectives of your test plan and
maximize your wrong-answer advantage.
If your plan is to complete two question sets
in a section-test, you apply the strategy described
above, in this instance either working through the
An Arguments section-test contains between

3,000 and 4,500 words, with 4,000 the average.
If you use all of the time allotted to reach the
section-test material, you must read at the rate of
about 115 words per minute. While not too fast
for careful reading, this is not a slow pace.
Taking into account the time you need to make
decisions about answer options, you may find
that such a reading pace is demanding and
difficult to maintain.
Your pace when reading carefully will
influence your optimal balance between speed
and accuracy. You should also be mindful of the
fact that answer options, not statements, provide
much of the reading burden in an Arguments
section-test. In order to keep your test-taking
mechanics consistent throughout, there is a small
task you should complete before you begin an
Arguments section-test. Only one or two Arguments questions are based on a common
statement, so the questions are not presented in
sets. It is up to you to establish the questionanswer sets for each Arguments section-test.
YOU, RATHER THAN THE LSAT, PACKAGE
THE QUESTIONS INTO SETS.
You will package the questions into sets of six.
Sets are easily built by combining questions 1
through 6, 7 through 12, etc., as summarized
111
SUCCESS SESSION 8
HOW
first two sets of questions and guessing your answers on the last two sets or omitting twelve questions as you work through the four question sets,
passing over twelve long question-and-answer
combinations or confusing questions.
HOW
ARGUMENTS
CONSTRUCTED?
ARE
WORK?
ARGUMENTS
QUESTIONS
As you know, the profile of an Arguments

problem is the same as for other LSAT problems.
There are directions, a statement, questions, and
answer options.
PROBLEMS
The Directions
Arguments are generally drawn from informal

sources. Letters to the editor are good sources,
because they are often implausible and unpersuasive while appearing to be logical. Advertisements
are also used for source material, because they
often encourage unjustified assumptions. Books,
periodicals, editorials, speeches, and reported conversations provide Arguments statements, too.
Whatever the source, the statement has usually
been heavily edited to ensure that it is compatible
with the LSAT format.
Each argument is selected because it has
three major characteristics. Evidence, or a
premise, is always involved. And a point or
purposethe conclusionis also involved. A
structured process connects the evidence and
conclusion. This process is sometimes called
reasoning, and it accounts for the Arguments
sections being called tests of logical reasoning
by many people. This designation is misleading,
however, since no formal logic is required, even
when the form and content of the argument are
unfamiliar.
In the directions the LSAT tells you to evaluate

the reasoning contained in brief statements and
that the best answer is a conceivable solution to
the particular problem posed by the question.
The LSAT also says that the best answer is the
one that does not require you to make what are
by common-sense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible assumptions.
For many test-takers, these directions
obfuscate rather than clarify what is expected of
them. It is difficult to extract the practical
meaning of the directions from the language
used by the LSAT. However, the directions can
be translated into more familiar terms, especially
when it comes to wrong-answer options. And
you know how important it is to your performance to be able to identify wrong-answer
options to LSAT questions. Identifying and
dumping wrong-answer options is the most
efficient way of selecting the best-answer
optionsthe cream of the crop.
To reiterate, a wrong-answer option is one
that does not satisfy the conditions of the
statement and question. Thus, if the question
seeks an answer that must satisfy the conditions,
answer options that could or cannot satisfy the
conditions are wrong choices. If the question
seeks an answer that could satisfy the conditions, options that cannot satisfy the conditions
are wrong. And last, if the question seeks an
answer that cannot satisfy the conditions,
answers that must or could satisfy the conditions
are wrong.
There are two basic reasons why an answer
option can fail to satisfy the required conditions
of the question: One is that it conflicts directly
with the statement, and the other is that it makes
unjustified assumptions. Directly conflicting
options are usually not difficult to identify.
In the matter of the unjustified assumption,
the wrong answer looks like it satisfies the
required conditions only because you make a
related but unjustified assumption. So all you
have to do is avoid making unjustified assump-
NO KNOWLEDGE OF FORMAL LOGIC IS

REQUIRED FOR YOU TO HANDLE
ARGUMENTS PROBLEMS EFFECTIVELY.
To summarize, every argument is selected
because it involves evidence that is used to
support or reach a conclusion through a structured process. But the customary order of a
series of pieces of evidence leading to a conclusion is not always followed by the LSAT. The
order of presentation varies. Sometimes the
conclusion is placed in the statement. It may
come first, last, or between pieces of evidence. It
also may be placed in the answer options. And
evidence may be placed in the statement or in
the answer options.
Possible arrangements of Arguments
problems look like this:
Evidence Conclusion
Conclusion Evidence
Evidence Conclusion Evidence
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DO
112
LSAT Success
The Question
tions when working through Arguments questionsthis seems to pose no great challenge.
And it is not much of a challenge if you
heed the directions we looked at earlier.
Translated, the LSATs directions tell you that
unjustified assumptions are those that exceed the
terms of the statement, are inconsistent with the
terms of the statement, or are unfounded given
the terms of the statement. Avoid these things,
and you will identify wrong-answer options
readily and efficiently select best answers, right?
Not exactly!
Unfortunately, experience shows that this is
easier said than done. Assumptions are the
stock-in-trade of the able student, for whom the
ability to justify assumptions and positions
persuasively is a necessary skill rewarded in
examination papers, essays, debates, and other
such exercises. The temptation to apply this
ability in the context of the LSAT can be almost
irresistible to the able student. When a test-taker
gives in to this temptation, the result is the
erroneous selection of a wrong-answer option as
the best answer to an Arguments question, so
fight the unjustified-assumption trap with
everything youve got. Your Arguments sectiontest performance will benefit.
Arguments questions are straightforward. They

directly present the decision that must be made.
They do not contain supplemental statements,
which means that questions never modify or add
to the argument. In most section-tests, there are
more instances of the statement supporting one
question than two. When two questions are
supported by a single statement, each question is
independent of the other.
As was discussed in the preceding session,
there are two basic Arguments question types:
description questions and extension questions.
There are two variations on the description
question:
One requires you to recognize the point,
purpose, premise, or reasoning of a
statement.
The other requires you to recognize a
stated presumption.
There are four variations on the extension
question:
The first requires you to identify a pattern.
The second requires you to identify
inferences and conclusions.
The third requires you to identify
assumptions.
The fourth requires you to assess
evidence.
AVOID EVERY ASSUMPTION THAT IS NOT

CLEARLY SUPPORTED BY THE ARGUMENTS
STATEMENT.
These six variations in description and extension

questions cover all of the questions that will
appear in the Arguments section-test.
The Statement
Arguments statements are generally short. Their
brevity can make them seem deceptively simple.
The brevity is often the result of the LSATs
strategy of obfuscation by omission. Many
Arguments questions seek omitted evidence or a
conclusionin other words, the information
required to complete the argument.
Arguments statements always involve a
position or point of view. Although the position
or point of view may not be clearly articulated,
the statement is never neutral. Identify the point
of view presented. It makes dealing with the
problem much more straightforward.
A statement consists of 75 to 125 words. It
defines the context for either one or two question-and-answer sets. Usually a statement supporting two questions has a relatively smaller reading
burden than a statement supporting only one.
LSAT Success
YOU NOW CAN PREDICT EVERY ARGUMENTS

QUESTION THAT WILL APPEAR ON THE LSAT.
The Answers
The answer options complete the Arguments
question; without them the question has little
practical meaning. Take a typical Arguments
question: Which of the following is the underlying point of the above? You are being asked,
Whats the point? As you know, this is not an
invitation to extemporize or demonstrate your
ability to synthesize. Your activity should be
confined to the selection of the answer options
that best satisfy the conditions of the question
and statement. You achieve this by viewing each
answer option in relation to the question. Only
then can you select answers in the way the LSAT
requires.
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SUCCESS SESSION 8
THE ANSWER OPTIONS PRESENT YOU WITH
A FIELD OF CHOICES FROM WHICH YOU
MUST DECIDE. YOU SELECT ONLY FROM
THE FIVE OPTIONS PRESENTED.
required conditions, then options that could or

cannot satisfy all of the conditions are wrong.
And if you determine that a question seeks an
answer option that cannot satisfy required
conditions, then options that must or could
satisfy all of the conditions are wrong.
To make wrong-answer options attractive,
the LSAT disguises them by using the samelanguage, too-little-too-much, true but, and
false-assertion disguises we have met before.
The patterns and disguises are combined in the
following summary of wrong-answer options.
For could questions, wrong-answer options
are those that cannot satisfy required conditions,
even though they use
Your objective with Arguments questions is to

identify wrong-answer options quickly so that
you can locate the best answer to the question
posed.
In addition to obfuscating by omission, the
LSAT will attempt to disguise both the question
and the wrong-answer options. Often, the LSAT
does not present the question explicitly. This
means that you must first determine whether you
are being asked to select the answer option that
must, could, or cannot satisfy the conditions of
the question and statement. And, until you work
through the answer options, it is very difficult to
tell which statement conditions are relevant and
which are not. In order to make the best use of
the time available, you need to minimize the
number of times you deal with an answer option.
The decision technique you will use to work
through answer options involves comparison
and contrast.
Comparing an answer option against the
statement only one time meets the objective of
efficiency. Repeating the same process is a
time-wasting score drain. The answer options are
compared against the conditions required by the
statement and question. When the comparison
makes it clear that an answer option fails to
satisfy the conditions, you know that it is a
wrong-answer option and chuck it.
If comparison fails to produce all four wrong
answers, contrast the remaining options (usually
two). Using this technique often makes it possible
to identify differences that highlight the failure of
one of the answer choices to satisfy the conditions required by the statement and question.
same-language disguise
too-little-too-much disguise
true but disguise
false-assertion disguise
For must questions, wrong-answer options are

those that could or cannot satisfy required
the
the
the
the
true but disguise
For cannot questions, wrong-answer options are

the
the
the
the
true but disguise
Knowing wrong-answer patterns and disguises is

advantageous to you, as is knowing that the LSAT
usually includes just one very attractive wronganswer option among the four offered. When
you combine this knowledge with the ability to
predict the six basic questions that appear and
reappear on the Arguments section-test, you will
be ready for anything.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST FACILITATE

YOUR IDENTIFICATION OF WRONG
ANSWERS AND YOUR DECISION MAKING
ABOUT ANSWER OPTIONS.
WHAT
To review the patterns of wrong-answer options,

think of them in terms of an if-then format. If
you determine that the question seeks an answer
option that could satisfy required conditions,
then options that cannot satisfy all of the
conditions are wrong. These could questions are
the most frequently asked in the Arguments
section-test. If you determine that the question
seeks an answer option that must satisfy
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the
the
the
the
IS THE BEST RESPONSE
TECHNIQUE FOR
QUESTIONS?
ARGUMENTS
Even though the question appears after the

statement, the first thing you do is read the
question. You need to determine whether it is a
could, must, or cannot question. Note your
decisions next to the question. You want to be
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A whats-the-point? question uses a direct
format that takes the form Which of the
following best describes (or is) the point,
purpose, premise, or form of reasoning used in
the argument? An example follows. Remember
to read the question first.
able to tell as quickly as possible which information in the statement is relevant to the question
and which is superfluous. Reading the question
first gives you clues about what will be relevant.
Now read the statement. As you do so,
highlight or underline key words, assertions, and
the conclusion, if there is one. If there is no
conclusion in the statement, it is likely that the
question will ask for a conclusion in some form.
Next, work through each answer option. As
you work through the answer options, you will
use comparison and contrast to identify the
options that fit a wrong-answer pattern, keeping
alert for disguises. When you find a condition in
an answer option that fails to satisfy the requirements of the question or statement, you chuck it.
Repeating this process as necessary, you select the
best answer option and circle it in the test book.
Once you have completed all of the
questions in the set of six, you transfer all your
answers to the answer sheet at the same time.
This gives you a natural, albeit brief, break before
you move on to the next Arguments questionanswer set.
HOW
BASIC
1. Too little staging rather than too much is

the failure of producers of wild animal
movies. The indifference recently displayed
by an Animals in the Wild film crew is
hard to excuse as it zealously filmed a
newly born killer whale agonizingly
drowning in an overwhelming flood tide.
Which of the following is the underlying
point of the above?
(A) Producers should not stage animal
action shots.
(B) Producers should document the inhumanity of whalers, because their cruelty can be stopped only by exposure.
(C) Producers should not continue as
observers when doing so is incompatible with humane behavior.
(D) Producing real-life films is a brutal business, because it requires people to sacrifice their feelings in order to record
events.
(E) Producers should commit themselves
to reducing suffering and promoting
humane behavior.
DO YOU WORK WITH THE SIX
ARGUMENTS
QUESTIONS?
The LSAT uses six basic question types in the Arguments section-test. The techniques used to
work through them are detailed in the following
paragraphs. These techniques are applicable to
any version or variation of the six questions. It
might also help you familiarize yourself with the
thinking required if, after this discussion, you review each question and answer option, specifically identifying the disguises used by the LSAT.
(For example, option (C) in question 4 uses the
same language as the statement to disguise the
wrong answer. Option (B) in question 3 takes advantage of the true but disguise, and option (B) in
question 1 applies the false-assertion disguise to
a wrong-answer choice.)
The question in this example asks you to select

the answer option that could express the point
of the statement. The first sentence of the
statement clearly accepts staging, whereas
answer choice (A) rejects it. Thus, (A) cannot
satisfy statement conditions and is wrong.
Answer option (B) cannot satisfy required
conditions because it refers to matters not
involved in the statement, such as the inhumanity of whalers and the prevention of cruelty.
Options (D) and (E) are wrong for the same
reason as (B). They refer to matters not involved
in the statement, such as peoples feelings and
their obligations. Thus, answer option (C) is the
best selection, since it does not require anything
inconsistent with the statement.
The second form of description question
asks you to identify a stated presumption. The
format for this question type is usually direct,
although the LSAT varies the question structure.
Description Questions
Description questions make direct reference to
the argument. There is no need to go beyond the
argument to identify the answer option that
satisfies the conditions of the question and
statement. Description questions take two forms.
The first asks you to identify a point, purpose,
premise, or form of reasoning used in the
argument. The second asks you to identify a
stated presumption.
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SUCCESS SESSION 8
principle in common with or analogous to that
of the statement. Rarely, you might be asked to
identify a logical flaw in a statement. It takes the
form The above is most like which of the
following?
The following example uses a conversation

structure. Read the question first.
2. Mark: Everyone who was a fighter pilot
during the Korean War suffered battle
fatigue.
Harry: That is untrue. Many veterans of
the Korean War who were in the infantry
had an acute psychological reaction to
their wartime experience.
3. The automation of industry throws people

out of work; therefore, machines are
harmful.
The argument above is most like which of
the following?
Harrys response indicates that he

interpreted Marks remark to mean that
(A) Hitler was a fascist; therefore, he

was evil.
(B) Fatty foods are harmful; therefore,
eating butter is dangerous.
(C) The senator steals public funds;
therefore, he is dishonest.
(D) Alcoholic beverages are high in
calories; therefore, beer is fattening.
(E) Pigeons spread disease; therefore,
birds are nuisances.
(A) fighter pilots are more likely to have

suffered battle fatigue than any others
(B) only those who were fighter pilots
suffered from battle fatigue
(C) battle fatigue is a mental rather than
physical reaction to stress
(D) flying fighter planes was more
stressful than being a foot soldier
(E) some who were not fighter pilots
suffered battle fatigue
This pattern-recognition question asks you to

select the answer option that could satisfy the
requirements of the statement and question.
Many people approach such a question by trying
to find a rational explanation for a similarity in
subject matter between the statement and the
answer option. This technique is not productive.
Rather, you should compare the statement and
answer option to determine a difference between
them. Option (A) is wrong for a number of
reasons. It cannot satisfy the question conditions
because of the verb in the first phrase of the
statement: Throws is active, while was in the
answer is not. Also, the subject of the first and
second phrases in the answer option is the same
(Hitler and he), while in the statement it is
different (automation and machines). Option
(B) also exhibits the first-phrase verb difference
(throws versus are). For the same reason,
answer option (D) is wrong. There are other
differences, if you want to seek them out, but
you should avoid such unnecessary hunts when
taking the test. Option (C) is also a wrong
answer. The verb pattern in the statement and
answer is the same, but the subject pattern is
not: In the statement the subjects of the two
phrases are different (automation and
machines), but they are the same in the answer
option (senator and he). So the best answer
option is (E), which shares both the verb and
subject patterns of the statement.
The question in this example requires careful reading. It asks you what Harry presumes Mark meant.
Answer options (A) and (D) cannot satisfy the required conditions because they compare such
items as the likelihood of battle fatigue and differences in job stress. Nothing in the statement suggests such comparisons. Option (C) cannot satisfy
the required conditions because there is nothing
in the statement to suggest a disagreement about
the nature of battle fatigue. Option (E) cannot satisfy the required conditions because it is Harrys
position, not Harrys interpretation of Marks position. Option (B) is the best selection because it
does not conflict with the conditions of the statement in any way.
Extension Questions
Extension questions require you to go beyond
the argument to identify the answer option that
satisfies the question and statement conditions.
You will have to draw inferences or define
assumptions or reach conclusions. The answer
options do not connect to the statement directly.
Extension questions take four forms, in
which you are asked to identify a matching
pattern, determine inferences and conclusions,
recognize assumptions required for a conclusion,
or assess evidence.
Pattern questions ask you directly to select
the answer option that has a structure or
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LSAT Success

5. Since Byrons fingers are so short and
stubby, he will never be an outstanding
pianist.
While the pattern is not always based on sentence structure, very often an analysis at the sentence level will quickly produce the best answer.
Inference and conclusion questions ask you
to select the answer option that expresses an
inference or conclusion drawn from the statement. The format is very direct, asking, Which
of the following conclusions can be logically
inferred?
The statement above is based on which of

the following assumptions?
(A) The size and shape of fingers are
important attributes for a professional musical career.
(B) Piano playing requires long, thin
fingers.
(C) Physical characteristics can affect
how well one plays the piano.
(D) Byron is not a particularly able
pianist.
(E) No amount of practice will make a
difference in Byrons playing ability.
4. Children perceive the world spontaneously

and unself-consciously. But as they grow
into adulthood, learning more facts about
reality, they lose their capacity for direct
perception and immediate response.
If the statements above are true, which of the
following conclusions can be logically
inferred?
The question asks you to select the answer

option or options that express the assumptions
that could be made in order to satisfy the
requirements of the statement and question.
Recall that you must always try to identify the
conclusion when you read an Arguments
statement. In this statement, the conclusion is
he will never be an outstanding pianist. Answer
option (A) is a wrong answer to a could question. The conclusion in the statement involves
only the type of pianist (outstanding), not
whether the pianist is an amateur or professional
or has a musical career or not. The references
made in (A) cannot account for the conclusion,
and it is a wrong answer. Because the statement
clearly implies that Byron plays the piano, even
though he does not have long, thin fingers,
answer choice (B) contradicts the statement and
cannot satisfy its conditions.
Short and stubby are physical characteristics. If physical characteristics can affect the
way a person plays the piano, as answer choice
(C) states, the length and shape of Byrons
fingers could account for the conclusion that he
will never be an outstanding pianist. Thus
answer choice (C) is the best answer. There is
no need to consider answer options (D) and (E)
since (C) satisfies all of the conditions in the
question, and there is only one answer option
that satisfies all conditions.
Evidence-assessment questions appear in a
number of forms in the Arguments section-test.
They ask you to select the answer option that
strengthens or weakens an argument, criticizes an
argument, or distinguishes between fact and opinion in an argument. The format for the evidenceassessment question varies, but it is usually direct.
(A) Childrens perceptions are better

than those of adults.
(B) Facts are unimportant in the process
of perceiving.
(C) Children and adults do not perceive
the world in the same way.
(D) It is impossible for adults to recapture spontaneous perception.
(E) Children do not distinguish clearly
between fact and fantasy.
This conclusion question asks you to select the
answer option that could satisfy the requirements
of the statement and question. Answer option (A)
does not satisfy the conditions because it introduces a value term, better, as a conclusion.
There is nothing in the statement or question to
suggest values. Option (B) is wrong for the same
reasonthe value term here is unimportant.
Option (D) is wrong because it declares that something cannot be recaptured, when the statement
gives no indication that what is lostspontaneous
perceptioncannot be regained. Option (E) introduces two concepts, fantasy and distinguishing,
that are not suggested in any way by the statement. This leaves option (C) as the best answer,
since it offers nothing contrary to the conditions
of the statement and question.
Assumption questions ask you to select
the answer option that provides the evidence
necessary to permit the conclusion in the
statement to be reached. The question format is
usually direct. It asks, The above requires (or is
based on) which of the following assumptions?
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SUCCESS SESSION 8
6. The British economy is stagnant, which
can only be the result of its overgenerous
governmental programs of social aid.
argument, because nothing in it conflicts in any

way with the statement, and it affirms that
countries with more comprehensive social-aid
programs and economies similar to Britains are
not stagnant (thriving).

seriously weakens the view expressed
above?
ARE THERE CUE CLUES IN

ARGUMENTS PROBLEMS?
(A) Britain spends a lower percentage of

its national income on medical care
than does prosperous Germany.
(B) Several countries in the world have
found that certain governmental socialaid programs have absorbed an unexpectedly high percentage of government revenues.
(C) The governmental social-aid
programs of Britain meet many of
the needs of its citizens and residents
and yet cost less than similar
programs elsewhere.
(D) The Scandinavian nations, with more
comprehensive governmental
social-aid programs than Britains,
have similar economies that are
thriving.
(E) Italy, which has few governmental
social-aid programs, has for many
years been in economic difficulty to
a degree that equals or exceeds that
of Britain.
Arguments statements and answer options are replete with cue words. These words indicate the
nature of the information that follows them. For
example, the appearance of the word therefore
cues you that the conclusion is coming up. There
are a bundle of similar cue words. They are not
worth committing to memory, but a read-through
may prove beneficial to your test performance.
Some conclusion cues follow.
This evidence-assessment question asks you to select the answer option that could weaken the statement. The fact that the word most is used to
modify weaken is of no importance; this degree
of refinement is virtually never involved on the
LSAT. You will need to identify the conclusion in
the statementThe British economy is stagnant.
Answer option (A) does not satisfy the
requirements of the question and statement. It is
wrong because nothing in the option suggests
the proportion of income the Germans spend on
social-aid programs. Also, it involves only medical
care, which is just one social-aid program;
therefore, it cannot be related to the statement.
Options (B) and (C) cannot satisfy the statement
conditions and are wrong because, among other
things, they fail to indicate the condition
(stagnant?) of the economies to which Britains
economy is being compared. Option (E) is wrong
because it fails to indicate whether the amount
Italy spends on its few social-aid programs is
more, less, or the same as that spent by Britain.
It cannot be related to the statement. This leaves
(D) as the answer option that weakens the
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so
indicates
therefore
suggests
hence
proves
thus
means
accordingly
shows
can be inferred
nevertheless
results
however
follows
There are also a number of cue words whose

presence generally indicates that the information
that follows is evidence. The evidence that it
cues may or may not be relevant. Representative
words are listed below.
118
given
inasmuch as
since
as
because
but
assume
except
suppose
despite
if
notwithstanding
insofar as
although
LSAT Success
Success Session 9
PASSAGES PROBLEMS IN DETAIL
WHAT ARE THE FUNDAMENTALS

PASSAGES PROBLEMS?
WITH PASSAGES STATEMENTS, YOU READ

FOR THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
STATEMENT, NOT FOR INFORMATION OR
UNDERSTANDING OF THE TOPIC.
OF
There is one Passages section-test on each LSAT,

with four Passages problems in the section-test.
Each Passages problem fits the LSAT profile:
directions, a statement, a question, and answer
options. Each statement supports a set of
questions and answer options. There are seven
questions per set, making the total number of
questions in a section-test twenty-eight.
HOW
PASSAGES
CONSTRUCTED?
ARE
HOW DO YOU HANDLE

PASSAGES READING?
As you have seen from your previous work,

Passages problems impose a substantial reading
burden on test-takersnearly twice that of the
other LSAT section-tests. The Passages reading
burden is a major factor in your performance on
the Passages section-test, much more so than
with Relationships and Arguments problems.
There are between 4,000 and 7,500 words in a
section-test. This means that to complete all of
the reading in a long section-test, a pace above
200 words per minute must be maintained. The
required pace can go even higher when the time
needed to select the best-answer options is taken
into account, since, for Passages problems, the
questions and answer options require as much
reading as the statements. It is difficult, if not
impossible, to read carefully at this pace.
PROBLEMS
For the most part, Passages are taken from law reviews and similar journals. This is not to suggest that
some knowledge of law is required or even beneficial in working through Passages problems. In fact,
the statements are chosen and edited to avoid jargon and legalese. They involve diverse topicsfrom
technical subjects to topics drawn from the social
sciences, the humanities, and other fields.
PASSAGES STATEMENTS ARE CHOSEN FOR
THEIR COMMON CHARACTERISTICS, NOT
FOR THEIR SUBJECT MATTER.
YOUR READING PACE CLEARLY INFLUENCES

YOUR BALANCE BETWEEN SPEED AND
ACCURACY.
From the LSATs perspective, the topic of the

statement is irrelevant. What is critical to the
LSAT is that the Passages statements have six
major characteristics:
ALL OF THE
By testing your pace, you can estimate the time

you will need to complete the reading in the
Passages section-test. Read the following example
carefully. Keep a record of the time it takes you
to complete the reading. Then divide the number
of words in the statement (some 550) by the
number of minutes you took to read the statement. This tells you your speed at reading a
Passages statement. Suppose you took 5 minutes
to read the statement carefully: This means that
you read the statement at a pace of 110 words
per minute.
point of purpose
key words or concepts
authorities
enumerations
unusual words or phrases
competing perspectives
The fact that Passages problems have common

characteristics that are the critical attributes
necessitates an adjustment in the way you read.
You have most likely been conditioned to read
material of the type presented in material like
Passages statements for information and understanding. However, successful performance on
the LSAT Passages section-test depends upon you
avoiding this conditioning.
Line
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Blackmail may be defined as the sale of

information to an individual who would be
incriminated by its publication, and at first
glance it appears to be an efficient method
SUCCESS SESSION 9
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
of private enforcement of the law (the

moral as well as the positive law). The
value of the information to the blackmailed
individual is equal to the cost of the
punishment that the individual will incur if
the information is communicated to the
authorities and he is punished as a result,
and so he will be willing to pay up to that
amount to the blackmailer for the information. The individual is thereby punished,
and the punishment is the same as if he
had been apprehended and convicted for
the crime that the blackmailer has discovered, but the fine is paid to the blackmailer
rather than to the state.
Why, then, is blackmail a crime? One
scholars answer is that it results in
underdeterrence of crimes punished by
nonpecuniary sanctions because the
criminals lack the resources to pay an
optimal fine. The blackmailer will sell his
information to the criminal for a price
lower than the cost of punishment if the
criminal cannot pay a higher price. A more
persuasive explanation of why blackmail
follows directly from the decision to rely
on a public monopoly of law enforcement
in some areas of enforcement, notably
criminal law. Were blackmail, a form of
private enforcement, lawful, the public
monopoly of enforcement would be
undermined. Overenforcement of the law
would result if the blackmailer were able to
extract the full fine from the offender.
Alternatively, the blackmailer might sell his
incriminating information to the offender
for a price lower than the statutory cost of
punishment to the criminal, which would
reduce the effective cost of punishment to
the criminal below the level set by the
legislature. This problem, however, could
be solved by a system of public bounties
equal to the cost of punishment (or lower,
to induce the enforcement industry to
contract to optimal size). Then the blackmailer could always claim a bounty from
the state if the criminal was unable to pay a
price equal to the optimal fine.
Consistent with this analysis, Axels
studies show that practices indistinguishable from blackmail, though not called by
that name, are permitted in areas where the
law is enforced privately rather than
publicly because the overenforcement
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65
70
75
80
problem is not serious. No one seems to

object to a persons collecting information
about his or her spouses adulterous
activities and threatening to disclose that
information in a divorce proceeding or
other forum in order to extract maximum
compensation for the offending spouses
breach of the marital obligations.
Blackmail and bribery appear to be
virtually identical practices from the
standpoint of the analysis of private
enforcement. The blackmailer and the
bribed official both receive payment in
exchange for not enforcing the law. We
therefore predict that in areas where there
is a public monopoly of enforcement,
bribery, like blackmail, will be prohibited,
while in areas where there is no public
monopoly, it will be permitted. And so we
observe. The settlement out of court of
negligence claims is a form of perfectly
lawful bribery, although the term is not
used in these situations because of its
pejorative connotation.
If you read at the pace of 110 words per

minute and assume a Passages section-test of about
5,000 words, you will be able to read 75 percent
of the full burden of the Passages section-test or
put another way, three of the four Passages problems. The reading burden puts a premium on the
techniques you use to work through each Passages
problem. You especially want to avoid rereading
or other repetitive activities.
IN WHAT ORDER DO YOU

PASSAGES PROBLEMS?
CONSIDER
You should work on the least difficult Passages

problem first and the most difficult last. There
are two major factors determining Passages
difficulty. The first and dominant one is the
reading burden of the problem. (As elsewhere,
problem refers to the combined statement,
questions, and answer options.)
THE GREATER THE READING BURDEN, THE
MORE DIFFICULT THE PROBLEM.
The other factor is the subject matter of the
statement. While we have said that the statement
subject matter is less significant than it appears
to be, many test-takers are significantly less
proficient at reading a statement about a subject
they dislike or find difficult.
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REORDER PASSAGES PROBLEMS ACCORDING
TO THEIR DIFFICULTY.
topics or points. The grammar is generally

awkward, and the writing is in a technical, rather
than journalistic, style.
The line numbers placed beside each
statement are used to mark five-line increments,
which facilitates the making of references to
statement material in the questions. When a
question refers to a specific word in the statement, the line number is used to indicate the
location of that word.
Opinion is involved in virtually every
Passages statement, although the point of view,
purpose, or position is often veiled. The form
and substance these opinions take are likely to
be unfamiliar to you, and they can be confusing
if you let yourself become involved with them.
You will proceed by working on the problems

according to their degree of difficulty, from least
to most difficult. This means that you must first
rank the problems by length. (The greatest
variation in length occurs within the combination
of seven questions and answer options that follow
each statement.) You then consider the subject
matter of the statementsif a statement involves
subject matter that is problematic for you, rank
that statement last. Otherwise, work through
Passages problems in the order of their length,
with the shortest first and the longest last.
Of course, the number of problems you
will work through depends on your test plan. If
your plan is to complete all four Passages
problems in the section-test, you will work
through all the questions in sets of seven. If your
plan is to complete three problems, you will
work through your selected three sets of
questions and guess your answer selections on
the fourth set. If your plan is to complete two
problems, you will work through the first two
question sets and guess your answer selections
on the last two sets.
OVERLOOKING FORM AND CONTENT

PERMITS YOU TO AVOID CONFUSION AND
FOCUS ON THE ELEMENTS OF THE
STATEMENT THAT ARE REALLY INVOLVED IN
THE QUESTIONS.
You will recall that the pertinent elements of the
statement are its point or purpose, key words or
concepts, authorities, enumerations, unusual
words or phrases, and competing perspectives.
Most statements present competing perspectives,
although the presentation may at first appear to
be balanced by viewing the topic on the one
hand and on the other hand. Even if it is
camouflaged, one of the views is preferred by
the author. Key words and concepts usually can
be identified by their being repeated or elaborated upon. References to authorities include
such statements as The Task Force study shows
. . . Enumerations are usually found in the
statement and take the form Examples of these
are dogs, cats, canaries, tropical fish, and horses.
Unusual words or phrases also appear regularly.
Some examples are syntactics, on-all-fours,
credence goods, post-Pigovian, prose
models, and gentry controversy.
In other words, the statement presents
elements upon which the set of questions and
answer options is based. It supports all of the
questions in the set.
HOW DO PASSAGES QUESTIONS WORK?

The Directions
In the directions to Passages questions, the LSAT
tells you to select the best answer to the
question based upon what is stated and implied
in the statement. Beyond acknowledging the
presence of the two basic question typesthe
description and extension typesthese directions do not give you any information.
The Statement
Passages statements obfuscate by their basic
structure. They are relatively long, generally
between 500 and 550 words, and much of the
material in them is not relevant to the questions.
But the length of the statement presents most
readers with fewer difficulties than do its other
attributes. The absence of familiar structure can
be disconcerting, and there are no titles to go by.
Each statement has been heavily edited beforehand, with the result that the purpose of the
statement is unclear, especially since it appears
outside of its original context. The statement is
compressed into three to five paragraphs, and
the paragraphs often do not reflect different
LSAT Success
The Question
Passages questions are limited in their coverage
and structure. They directly state the decision to
be made by test-takers. They do not contain
supplemental statements. Passages questions do
not modify or add to the statement, and each
question is independent of every other one.
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SUCCESS SESSION 9
answer option that must, could, or cannot satisfy
the question and statement conditions. This
means that, before you work through the answer
options, you must first determine the nature and,
to the degree possible, the focus of the question.
Is it must, could, or cannot? Does it focus on an
enumeration, authority, unusual word, or some
other statement characteristic? By doing this, you
can take best advantage of the time available,
minimizing the number of times you deal with
the statement and answer options.
When a question refers to a line number,

that reference ought to be taken in context. This
means that you should consider the material
before and after the specific reference at the
same time that you look at the referenced
material.
As you recall, there are two basic Passages
questions types: description questions and
extension questions. The variations on these
questions are similar to those used in Arguments
questions, but they are not exactly the same.
The three variations on the description
question require you to select an answer option
that presents:
REPEATED REVIEWS OF THE SAME

MATERIAL ARE EFFICIENCY-BUSTERS OF
THE WORST KIND.
the summary, principal point, or purpose

of the statement
some specific detail
some meaning in context
Your efficiency objective is to compare an

answer option against the statement conditions
just once. When the comparison shows that an
answer option fails to satisfy the conditions, you
chuck it. In the contrast technique, one answer
option is contrasted with another. This is useful
when the comparison of an answer option
against the required conditions has yielded more
than one possible best answer. Contrasting
answer options often identifies differences in
them that make it clear that one or both fail to
satisfy the required conditions.
The summary, point, or purpose question almost

always appears in Passages question sets. The
four variations of the extension question require
you to:
identify a perspective
identify a context
identify a pattern
assess evidence
These seven points cover all the types of

questions that appear on a Passages section-test.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST FOR EFFICIENT

WRONG-ANSWER IDENTIFICATION.
YOU NOW CAN PREDICT EVERY PASSAGES

QUESTION THAT WILL APPEAR ON THE LSAT.
Take a moment to recall the other aids we have

employed to identify wrong-answer options
efficiently: the wrong-answer patterns and
disguises. For a question seeking an answer that
could satisfy required conditions, the pattern
predicts that options that cannot are wrong.
These could questions are the ones most often
asked on the Passages section-test. Questions
asking for an answer that must satisfy required
conditions are not completed by options that
could or cannot satisfy all of the conditions. And
questions asking for an answer that cannot
satisfy required conditions are not completed by
options that must or could satisfy the conditions.
As to disguises, the LSAT uses the samelanguage, too-little-too-much, true but, and
false-assertion strategies to create answer
options that are attractive but do not satisfy the
conditions of the question and statement.
These patterns are combined in the
following summary of wrong-answer options.
The Answers
The answer options complete the question,
which, by itself, means very little. The typical
Passages question asks, Which of the following
best summarizes the point? It does no more
than tell you that the selection of an answer
option will be necessary. Only when it is
connected to the answer options does the
question become sufficiently specific to permit
answer selection.
THE ANSWER OPTIONS PRESENT THE REAL
DECISION TO YOU.
As with Arguments, you will use comparison
and contrast to work through the answer
options. These techniques assist you in detecting
wrong-answer disguises and identifying differences between options.
With most Passages problems, it is not clear
whether the question requires the selection of an
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LSAT Success

For could questions, wrong-answer options
are those that cannot satisfy required conditions,
even though they use:
the
the
the
the
first sentence of each paragraph. This gives you a

sense of the statements orientation before you
scan the questions. Both this and the question
scan are important preparation for the one
careful reading of the statement that follows.
Scan the questions. As you know, they are
short and serve primarily as cues, but they often
provide a good idea of the characteristic in the
statement that is their focus. A clear example is
the question that refers you to a specific line in
the statement. Mark that line during your scan so
that you can concentrate when it comes to the
careful read-through.
During the scan, designate the questions as
description (D) or extension (E) types. This is
so you can work through description questions
first. Working through the questions that make
direct reference to the statement first will
improve your familiarity with the statement
before you reach the extension questions that
require you to go beyond the statement.
Next, read through the statement carefully,
focusing on the six characteristics and discarding
the residual. There are two alternative techniques
that facilitate this objective. The first is unfamiliaras you read, use a marking pen to cross out
extraneous material, leaving only the common
characteristics for later reference. Not only does
this make reference to the characteristics easy,
but it eliminates the potential distraction of
superfluous portions of the statement. But this
procedure creates insecurity in many test-takers,
because the blackened text is gone, and there is
no turning back. However, the marked out text
is unnecessary and a distraction.
true but disguise
For must questions, wrong answer options are

those that could or cannot satisfy required
conditions, even though they use:
the
the
the
the
true but disguise
For cannot questions, wrong-answer options are

conditions, even though they use:
the
the
the
the
true but disguise
Another strategy used by the LSAT to

disguise the best answer option is paraphrasing. This disguise obfuscates the best answer and
adds to the attractiveness of answer options that
use the same language as the statement. Recognizing that an answer option paraphrases the
statement can keep you from discarding it too
quickly. Carefully check answer options that are
clear paraphrasesthey often satisfy all the
required conditions.
WHAT IS THE BEST RESPONSE TECHNIQUE

FOR PASSAGES QUESTIONS?
Blackmail may be defined as the sale of information to

an individual who would be incriminated by its
publication, and at first glance it appears to be an
efficient method of private enforcement of the law (the
moral as well as the positive law). The value of the
information to the blackmailed individual is equal to the
cost of the punishment that the individual will incur if the
information is communicated to the authorities and he is
punished as a result, and so he will be willing to pay up
to that amount to the blackmailer for the information.
The individual is thereby punished, and the punishment
is the same as if he had been apprehended and
convicted for the crime that the blackmailer has
discovered, but the fine is paid to the blackmailer rather
than to the state.
Efficient use of time is important to your

performance on all LSAT section-tests. Passages
provide you with many opportunities for
efficiency. Your challenge is to take advantage of
the opportunities.
The first order of business is to determine
and mark the order in which you will work
through the four Passages statements and
question sets. Using the techniques described
earlier in this session, you rank the Passages
problems according to their difficulty, numbering
them in the order in which you will work
through them.
Next, you begin to work on the statement
you designated as first. Orient yourself to it
briefly by taking 10 to 20 seconds to read the
LSAT Success
The second technique is more familiar to most

test-takers. It involves underlining or highlighting
the common characteristics for later reference.
(For an example, see page 124.)
In using either of these techniques, you are
connecting the statement to the predetermined
123
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SUCCESS SESSION 9
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Blackmail may be defined as the sale of information to

an individual who would be incriminated by its
publication, and at first glance it appears to be an
efficient method of private enforcement of the law (the
moral as well as the positive law). The value of the
information to the blackmailed individual is equal to the
cost of the punishment that the individual will incur if the
information is communicated to the authorities and he is
punished as a result, and so he will be willing to pay up
to that amount to the blackmailer for the information.
The individual is thereby punished, and the punishment
is the same as if he had been apprehended and
convicted for the crime that the blackmailer has
discovered, but the fine is paid to the blackmailer rather
than to the state.
Why then is blackmail a crime? One scholars
answer is that it results in underdeterrence of crimes
punished by nonpecuniary sanctions because the
criminals lack the resources to pay an optimal fine. The
blackmailer will sell his information to the criminal for a
price lower than the cost of punishment if the criminal
cannot pay a higher price. A more persuasive explanation of why blackmail follows directly from the decision
to rely on a public monopoly of law enforcement in
some areas of enforcement, notably criminal law. Were
blackmail, a form of private enforcement, lawful, the
public monopoly of enforcement would be undermined.
Overenforcement of the law would result if the blackmailer were able to extract the full fine from the
offender. Alternatively, the blackmailer might sell his
incriminating information to the offender for a price
lower than the statutory cost of punishment to the
criminal, which would reduce the effective cost of
punishment to the criminal below the level set by the
legislature. This problem, however, could be solved by a
system of public bounties equal to the cost of punishment (or lower, to induce the enforcement industry to
contract to optimal size). Then the blackmailer could
always claim a bounty from the state if the criminal was
unable to pay a price equal to the optimal fine.
Consistent with this analysis, Axels studies show
that practices indistinguishable from blackmail, though
not called by that name, are permitted in areas where
the law is enforced privately rather than publicly
because the overenforcement problem is not serious. No
one seems to object to a persons collecting information
about his or her spouses adulterous activities, and
threatening to disclose that information in a divorce
proceeding or other forum, in order to extract maximum
compensation for the offending spouses breach of the
marital obligations.
Blackmail and bribery appear to be virtually
identical practices from the standpoint of the analysis of
private enforcement. The blackmailer and the bribed
official both receive payment in exchange for not
enforcing the law. We therefore predict that in areas
where there is a public monopoly of enforcement,
bribery, like blackmail, will be prohibited, while in
areas where there is no public monopoly, it will be
permitted. And so we observe. The settlement out of
court of negligence claims is a form of perfectly lawful
bribery, although the term is not used in these situations
because of its pejorative connotation.
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Point and Purpose

Blackmail . . . appears to be an efficient method
of private enforcement of the law. . . .
Were blackmail, a form of private enforcement,
lawful, the public monopoly of enforcement
would be undermined.
blackmail . . . permitted in areas where the law
is enforced privately. . . .
where there is no public monopoly, it will be
permitted.
Key Words and Concepts
Blackmail
cost of the punishment . . . is the same as if he
had been apprehended and convicted for the
crime.
cost of punishment . . . set by the legislature.
Blackmail and bribery appear to be virtually
identical practices . . . payment in exchange for
not enforcing the law.
Authorities
One scholars answer. . . .
Axels studies show. . . .
Enumerations
collecting information about his or her spouses
adulterous activities, and threatening to disclose
that information . . . to extract maximum
compensation for the offending spouses breach
of the marital obligations.
The settlement out of court of negligence claims
is a form of perfectly lawful bribery. . . .
Unusual Words and Phrases
public monopoly of law enforcement
optimal fine
a system of public bounties equal to the cost of
punishment
Competing Perspectives
Why then is blackmail a crime? . . . it results in
underdeterrence of crimes. . . .
A more persuasive explanation . . . is that the
decision to discourage blackmail follows directly
from the decision to rely on a public monopoly
of law enforcement in some areas. . . .
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LSAT Success

necessary to make a decision about the conditions, but make only one such reference back.
Description questions take three forms.
They ask you to recognize the principal point or
purpose of the statement, identify a specific
detail in the statement, or determine the meaning
of a term or concept in context. (All of the
examples of questions and answer options that
follow are based on the previous passage about
blackmail and bribery.)
Principal point or purpose questions
employ a direct approach of the form Which of
the following best describes (or is) the principal
point or purpose of the passage?
analysis of the statement. You know that the

point or purpose, key words or concepts,
authorities, enumerations, unusual words or
phrases, and competing perspectives in the
statement will be the focus of the questions. No
other material will be involved in the questions.
DO NOT WASTE TIME WITH EXTRANEOUS
MATERIAL.
Return to the statement earlier in this session.
Using whichever technique you prefer, read the
statement carefully and note the point or
purpose, key words or concepts, authorities,
enumerations, unusual words or phrases, and
competing perspectives. After you have completed your reading, review the samples here and
compare your results. Beside the underlined
sample on page 124 are extracts of the noted
material organized under headings reflecting the
six characteristics used by the LSAT to select
Passages statements.
Now you are ready to work through the
description questions and then the extension
questions. Determine whether the question seeks
a must, could, or cannot answer option. Examine
the answer options in order, using the techniques of comparison and contrast to identify the
options that match a wrong-answer pattern. Be
alert for the LSATs disguises. When you find an
answer option that fails to satisfy the requirements of the question and statement, you chuck
it. Repeat the process until you have selected the
best-answer option. Circle it in the test book.
Once you have completed all of the questions in a set, transfer all of your answers to the
answer sheet at the same time. This provides you
with a natural break before moving on to the next
Passages statement and question set.
Passages answers may be presented in both
the single- and multiple-option formats. Recall
that the multiple-option format permits one, two,
or all three of the Roman numeral choices to
satisfy the conditions required by the statement
and question. In most Passages section-tests, the
multiple-option format is used very sparingly.
HOW
1. Which of the following best summarizes

the main point of the passage?
(A) Blackmail and bribery are valuable
forms of law enforcement.
(B) Private law enforcement is more
efficient than public law enforcement.
(C) Punishment under private and public
law enforcement is the same.
(D) The law enforcement industry should
contract to optimal size.
(E) When public law enforcement is not
threatened, blackmail and bribery
are permitted.
Although not directly, the question asks for the
answer option that could satisfy the required
conditions. Answer option (A) makes a value
judgment not made in the statement. The
statement indicates that blackmail is an efficient
method of private law enforcement but nowhere
says that it is a valuable form of law enforcement or even a valuable form of private law
enforcement. Option (A) does not satisfy the
conditions of the statement and is wrong. (Be
particularly alert to answer options that make
value statements, which often employ the
too-little-too-much disguise.) Answer option (B)
cannot satisfy the required conditions because it
compares the efficiency of public and private law
enforcement. No such comparison is made in the
statement. Option (C) is wrong because it
involves a peripheral point, not the main point
of the statement. It is an example of the true
but wrong-answer option, as is option (D).
Option (D) reflects the point made on line 49 of
the statement but has nothing to do with the
question, which seeks the main point of the
statement. Option (E) is the best answer.
SEVEN BASIC QUESTIONS?
Description Questions
Description questions always refer directly to
the passage statement. Refer to the statement if
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SUCCESS SESSION 9
Specific detail questions also have a direct
format. They focus on enumerations, a key word
or concept, or an unusual word or phrase.
Specific detail questions usually require a must
or cannot answer option.
parenthetical aside (lines 3739) on the meaning

of public bounties and is thus a wrong-answer
option. Option (D) states the purpose of public
bounties to be the inducement of enforcement, a
concept that is outside the scope of the statement and therefore wrong. Answer option (E)
fails similarly. Nowhere does the statement deal
with the concept of optimal punishment. This
leaves (B) as the best-answer selection.

following sets the cost of punishment?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
the
the
the
the
the
blackmailer
offenders
legislature
criminal
bribed officials
Extension Questions
Extension questions always require that you go
beyond the statement to arrive at the answer.
You are required to make inferences and
assumptions and draw conclusions from material
you find in the statement. Reference to the
statement may be helpful.
Extension questions take four forms. You
are asked to determine a perspective, select the
context from which the statement came, identify
a pattern, or assess evidence.
Perspective questions ask you directly to
select the answer option that reflects the view,
attitude, or purpose of the statements author or
some other person involved with the statement.
They may seek either general or specific perspectives. While they may go beyond the statement,
they also may connect directly to material in the
statement, often bridging the area between
description and extension questions.
This is a must question. The blackmailer

may set the tribute to be paid, but the tribute is
not the cost of punishment. Answer option (A)
does not satisfy the statement conditions and is
wrong. Nothing in the statement suggests that
the offenders, criminals, or bribed officials set
the cost of punishment. Besides, they are
practically the same in the context of this
question. For both reasons, answers (B), (D), and
(E) are wrong. Option (C) is best, and the
statement makes the point clearly in lines 3335.
Meaning-in-context questions use a
straightforward format. They require direct
reference to the statement, but the reference is
to the context and not to the specific words
involved. The meaning is drawn from the
context, not from the dictionary.

authors attitude toward bribery?
3. In line 36, public bounties refers to

(A) a claim made to establish optimal
fines for blackmailers
(B) a way to ensure that blackmailers
receive the statutory cost of punishment
(C) a way to ensure the optimal size of
the law enforcement industry
(D) a claim paid by the state to blackmailers to induce enforcement
(E) a way to ensure that optimal
punishment is enforced by blackmailers
(A) It will be permitted in divorce

proceedings.
(B) It will be encouraged when overenforcement is not a serious problem.
(C) It will be used in order to extract
maximum compensation.
(D) It will be permitted where there is no
public law enforcement monopoly.
(E) It will be permitted where private
law enforcement is not a serious
problem.
This is a could question. Answer options
(A) and (C) fail to satisfy the statement conditions, since all the references to divorce proceedings in the statement involve something akin to
blackmail, not bribery, which is the focus of the
question. There is nothing in the statement to
suggest that the overenforcement mentioned in
option (B) is encouraged or should be. (B) is a
wrong-answer option. Option (E) also fails to
This is a could question. Answer option (A)

fails to satisfy the conditions and is wrong. It
declares that optimal fines are established by
claims, a concept suggested nowhere in the
statement. The statement does declare that
blackmailers could make claims (lines 3940) but
also suggests that such claims would be made to
collect an amount equal to the optimal fine, not
to establish the fine. Option (C) is drawn from a
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LSAT Success

6. Which of the following most closely
parallels the authors example of perfectly
lawful bribery in the passage (lines
5962)?
satisfy the statement conditions, since there is no

reference in the statement to private law
enforcement being a serious problem, let alone
its connection to bribery being permitted.
Answer (D) is the best option and connects to
the point made in lines 5859.
Context questions are easily understood but
not so easily dealt with. They ask you to determine the source of the statement or the text that
either precedes or succeeds the statement. It is
very difficult to determine context from a few
paragraphs, but comparing and contrasting are
often helpful techniques.
(A) A plea bargain made by a public

prosecutor with an indicted defendant
(B) A pardon given by a governor to a
convicted felon
(C) A fine paid by a traffic violator to a
magistrate
(D) A holiday turkey given by a vendor
to a city purchasing agent
(E) A donation given by a landowner to
a senator running for reelection
5. Which of the following law review articles

is the most likely source of this passage?
(A) The Private Enforcement of Law
(B) Public Monopoly of Law Enforcement
(C) Comparing Bribery and Blackmail
(D) A Critique of Out-of-Court Settlements
(E) Bounties as a Means of Law
Enforcement
This a could question. The perfectly lawful

bribery referred to in lines 5962 is a variation of
the process described in lines 5455: payment
in exchange for not enforcing the law. The
payment described in answer option (C) is made
as a result of the enforcement of the law, the
opposite of bribery. Thus, this answer is wrong.
The payments described in options (B), (D), and
(E) are not made in exchange for nonenforcement of the law. They too are wrong. Answer
option (A) is the best answer. By accepting a
plea bargain (payment in exchange) for not
pursuing the indictment (not enforcing the
law), the public prosecutors action parallels
that of accepting a settlement for not pursuing a
negligence claim in court.
Evidence-assessment questions take various
forms in the Passages section-test. All ask you to
select the answer option that strengthens,
weakens, criticizes, or distinguishes between fact
and opinion in the statement. The format for
evidence-assessment questions varies slightly, but
it is direct.
This is another could question. Answer

options (C), (D), and (E) are not likely candidates
when contrasted with (A) and (B). They deal
narrowly with specific matters considered in the
statement. The statement provides the context
for these answer options, not vice versa as the
question requires. By comparing answer options
(A) and (B) to the statement, it becomes clear
that the focus of the statement is on private law
enforcement, of which blackmail and bribery are
examples and to which the public law enforcement monopoly is antagonistic. Because the
passage concentrates on private enforcement,
option (B) does not satisfy the statement
conditions and is a wrong answer. Answer (A) is
the best option.
Pattern questions ask you to identify
answer options that are structurally or logically
analogous to a point or concept expressed in the
statement. These questions are sometimes
obscure. Use the answer options to bring clarity
to the question.
LSAT Success
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SUCCESS SESSION 9
7. Which of the following, if true, most
strengthens the authors position on the
legality of blackmail?
Once again, this is a could question. If answer choice (A) were true, it would weaken the
authors position, not strengthen it. It cannot satisfy the question and statement conditions and is
wrong. Answer options (C), (D), and (E) do not
satisfy the required conditions, since they refer to
matters not included in the statement. Use of the
contrast technique makes it clear that there is no
practical difference between answer options (C)
and (D), and, consequently, each is wrong. This
leaves answer option (B) as the best answer.
The techniques used to work through the
seven examples of Passages questions are applicable to all versions of those questions. If you
found yourself attracted to a wrong-answer option
as you worked through the questions, you might
benefit from returning to that option and identifying the disguise that made it attractive. By becoming familiar with the disguises that attract you, you
can avoid being misled by them in the future.
(A) Blackmail is not a crime in all

countries where law enforcement is a
public monopoly.
(B) Bribery flourishes in countries where
public law enforcement is weak or
nonexistent.
(C) Blackmail of such private dispute
resolution professionals as labor
arbitrators is very rare.
(D) Bribery of such public dispute
resolution professionals as judges is
very rare.
(E) Blackmail is a crime in all countries
where people can choose between
private and public law enforcement.
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LSAT Success
Success Session 10
RELATIONSHIPS PROBLEMS AND THE 9-12-18 SYSTEM
HOW
DOES THE
APPLY TO YOUR
TRAINING?
9-12-18 SYSTEM
RELATIONSHIPS
HOW DO YOU DEVELOP YOUR

RELATIONSHIPS SECTION-TEST PLAN?
Suppose that your initial Relationships questionanswer set (in Red Alert 3) indicated that you
would achieve optimal performance by completing three of the four question sets in a sectiontest (and only guessing on the fourth). Working
with the Relationships training techniques
described in the previous sessions, you will apply
the 9-12-18 process to the Relationships questionanswer sets presented in the LSATs in this book
and update your performance record (page 75)
with the results.
After working through these techniques a
number of times, you may notice that your test
results suggest that you make a change in your
plan for balancing speed and accuracy. It now
may be clear that completing all four sets of
questions on the Relationships section-test would
yield a better score than completing only three
and guessing on one.
In Red Alert 3 (pp. 7175), you learned and

applied the techniques of the 9-12-18 testplanning system to a Relationships question set.
You will recall that the 9-12-18 system is based
on two concepts. First, your performance is
maximized by identifying and planning on
achieving your optimal balance between speed
and accuracy.
This will probably mean that you achieve
your goal of selecting fewer wrong-answer
options by planning to work on fewer question
sets than the number available in the section-test.
(Remember, always guess on the question-answer
sets that you do not work on.) Second, you use a
process similar to the LSATs to find your optimal
speed and balance on each section-test.
UTILIZING THE 9-12-18 PLANNING SYSTEM,
YOU WILL DETERMINE WHETHER IT
MAXIMIZES YOUR SECTION-TEST SCORE TO
COMPLETE FOUR, THREE, OR TWO
QUESTION SETS IN THE 35 MINUTES
ALLOWED.
CHANGE YOUR TEST PLAN ONLY WHEN

THE RESULTS OF THE 9-12-18 PROCESS
INDICATE IT.
Having arrived at this point does not mean that
you should put your Relationships training aside
and concentrate on other aspects of the test. You
must maintain your level of familiarity and
proficiency by working through the Relationships
sessions regularly and monitoring your performance with 9-12-18 system as you work through
the various Relationships question-answer sets in
the simulated LSATs in this book.
As you apply the techniques presented in the

previous Relationships success sessions, they will
become familiar and easy to use. As they do, you
will probably experience a change in your
optimal balance between speed and accuracy,
and the familiarity you gain will give you a
greater sense of control over the LSAT, and you
will experience reduced anxiety. Familiarity will
also improve your proficiency with the question
sets. The combination of greater control and
improved proficiency will result in more accurate
answer selection. You will identify wrong
answers and, consequently, best answers more
efficiently. And with this increase in efficiency,
you may have to adjust your test plan.
HOW
DO YOU USE
SECTION-TESTS?
RELATIONSHIPS
This session closes by describing how you can

use the twenty-four Relationships questionanswer sets that appear on the three complete
LSATs in this book. They are to be used one at a
time. Each time you review Sessions 5 and 7,
take one of the Relationships question-answer
sets on an LSAT and update your performance
129
SUCCESS SESSION 10
the answers you selected during this 3-minute
period. If you did not change an answer, simply
place a box beside the circled answer. If you did,
place the box beside the new selection. The
boxed answers are your 12-minute set.
In the final 6 minutes, go back and answer
any questions you did not get to during the first
12 minutes, or review and change answers if you
wish. Be flexible. Concentrate on questions
about which you are uncertain, and take care not
to rethink previously selected answers about
which you are confident. Place an asterisk
beside each of the answers you selected during
this 6-minute period, without erasing or changing
the circles and boxes you made during the first
12 minutes. If you did not change an answer,
place an asterisk beside the boxed answer. If you
did, place an asterisk beside the new selection.
The answers identified with asterisks are your
12-minute set.
After you have completed the pretest, turn
to the Answer Keys for the question-answer set
you completed at the back of the book. For each
set, determine the number of best answers you
selected during the 9-minute set (circled),
12-minute set (boxed), and 18-minute set
(asterisked). Apply the numbers to the following
formula, and complete the calculations indicated.
The largest total indicates the optimal
number of question sets (two, three, or four)
that you transfer to the Pretest Performance
Tracking Worksheet (page 75). As you develop
this record, it will clearly indicate the number of
Relationships question sets you should plan to
complete when taking the LSAT. Completing this
number will yield the highest test score for you.
record. You should work through the Relationships training techniques at least six times and
complete at least six question-answer sets.
Working on more question-answer sets could
result in continued improvement. If it does, keep
going. If you become consistent in your performance, stop.
Upon completion of at least six training and
update sessions, your performance record is
likely to have stabilized, and your plan for the
Relationships section-test will be set. Your plan
will indicate the number of question-answer sets
you should complete and the number you should
guess on the Relationships section-test at any
sitting of the LSAT.
HOW
RELATIONSHIPS
SETS?
DO YOU TAKE
QUESTION-ANSWER
To reiterate the process, first you read the

statement and scan the questions until you are
satisfied that you understand the general focus of
the questions. Then you complete your visualization. For your visualization to be effective, it
must represent all of the conditions set out in
the facts and rules of the statement. It should be
the sole reference you need for the efficient and
accurate identification of the wrong and best
answers to every question. Thus, time spent on
your visualization is time well spent. Depending
upon your reading speed, you can comfortably
allocate 3 to 5 of the first 9 minutes you spend
on a question set reading the statement, scanning
the questions, and preparing your visualization.
After completing the visualization, select
answers to the number of questions you can
comfortably handle in the remainder of the first
9 minutes allocated to the pretest set. It is
important that you not push your pace beyond
your comfort level.
At the end of the 9-minute period, you will
have selected an answer for each of the six
questions in the set through your own combination of considering and guessing. Place a circle
around these answer choices, which constitute
your 9-minute set.
Next, take an additional 3 minutes (for a
total of 12) to reconsider questions and answer
selections. You can be flexible, either focusing
on questions you did not have time to consider
in the first 9 minutes or reviewing questions
about which you were uncertain. Without
erasing or changing the circles you made during
the first 9 minutes, place a box beside each of
www.petersons.com
Relationships Set
Circles ______________ 5 + 0 = ________
Boxes _______________ 4 + 1 = ________
Asterisks_____________ 3 + 2 = ________
To repeat, every time you work quickly
through Sessions 5 and 7, reviewing the main
points, you complete one of the question-answer
sets. This process will take about 30 minutes.
Dont be tempted to complete a set without
working through the techniques; it is familiarity
with and proficiency in the use of the techniques
that will have the greatest impact on your
performance. Conversely, working through a
series of question-answer sets without first
working through the techniques is the least
130
LSAT Success
RELATIONSHIPS PROBLEMS AND THE 9-12-18 SYSTEM

may want to work with additional Relationships
question-answer sets.
There are three good sources of additional
sets. The first is this guidethe simulated LSATs
can be used as a source of question sets. Also,
Law School Admission Services sells disclosed
tests. And finally, there are a number of preparation books that contain little more than simulated
tests. (If you use these, take care that the
questions use only the same specifications as the
LSAT itself. It is not helpful to work with
questions that employ different structures.)
You can use test materials that are not
presented as question-answer sets by converting
them into sets. This is exactly what you do when
taking the LSAT. You isolate a question-answer
set and think of it as the test until you have
completed it. Then you move on to the next set.
By breaking the test down into its components,
you gain maximum control over it and are in the
best position to execute your test plan.
effective way of making an impact on your

performance. You want high impact, not low
impact or no impact.
TRAINING WITH THE TECHNIQUESTHEN
UPDATING YOUR PERFORMANCE RECORD
WITH THE RESULTS OF A QUESTIONANSWER SETIS THE KEY TO THE
DEVELOPMENT OF YOUR TEST PLAN.
As your performance improves, your test plan
reflects the changes. Upon the completion of at
least six or seven sets provided in this book, you
will have a performance record that is stable.
You will know whether your optimal performance will result from completing two, three, or
four question sets. You will have a test plan for
the Relationships section-test of the LSAT.
Only after your performance and test plan
have stabilized will practicing question-answer
sets serve to maintain your achievements. Now
your challenge becomes having the discipline to
stick to your plan during the actual LSAT.
WHAT
SHOULD
SETS?
Complete a question-answer set only after you

have worked through the Relationships training
techniques in Sessions 5 and 7. The directions
are the same for each of the Relationships
question sets you choose from the Diagnostic
Test or Practice Tests 1 and 2. Each set of
questions is based on a number of conditions. A
diagram is helpful in the answer selection
process. Choose the best answer to each
question from the five options presented, and
mark your answers as described in the text.
YOU DO MORE QUESTION-
ANSWER SETS?
Once you have completed six training workthroughs, you probably will have realized the highimpact gain that you were looking for before taking the LSAT. For most, further workthroughs and
sets will have much less impact, if any. But it is
important to maintain familiarity and proficiency,
and some people find they can also maintain control through regular practice. In any event, you
LSAT Success
ARE THE DIRECTIONS FOR
COMPLETING THE QUESTION-ANSWER
ONLY BY FOLLOWING YOUR PLAN CAN

YOU MAXIMIZE YOUR TEST PERFORMANCE
AND SCORE.
131
www.petersons.com
Success Session 11
ARGUMENTS PROBLEMS AND THE 9-12-18 SYSTEM
HOW
9-12-18
PROBLEMS?
plained previously, so feel free to skim the next

few paragraphs if you are already comfortable
with the process.
Suppose your initial Arguments questionanswer set (in Red Alert 3) indicated that you
would achieve your optimal performance by
completing three of the four question sets in a
section-test (and guessing on the fourth set).
Working with the training techniques explained
in the previous two sessions, you will use the
9-12-18 process to update your performance
record with the results. After you have worked
through a number of question-answer sets, your
performance record may dictate making a change
in your plan of optimal performance. For
instance, the results may now make it clear that
you will achieve a better score by completing all
four sets of questions on the Arguments sectiontest than you would by completing only three
question sets and guessing on one.
DO YOU APPLY THE
SYSTEM TO
ARGUMENTS
You completed an Arguments question-answer

set in Red Alert 3 (pp. 7175), where you
learned the techniques of the 9-12-18 testplanning system. The system uses questionanswer sets to help you identify your optimal
balance between speed and accuracy on each
section-test. With this information you can plan
your total test performance.
The LSAT rewards working smart rather than
working hard. You maximize your performance by
selecting best answers, not by rushing through
questions and answers. In the Arguments sectiontest, most people select fewer wrong answers as
best when they plan on working with less than all
the available question sets.
YOU DECIDE TO MAXIMIZE YOUR SECTIONTEST SCORE BY COMPLETING FOUR, THREE,
OR TWO QUESTION SETS IN THE 35
MINUTES ALLOTTED.
YOU WILL CHANGE YOUR TEST PLAN ONLY

WHEN THE RESULTS OF THE 9-12-18
PROCESS INDICATE IT.
The techniques presented in the previous

Arguments sessions will become familiar and easy
to apply to Arguments problems as you work
with them. As you apply them, you may find that
your optimal balance between speed and
accuracy changes. The familiarity you have
developed will give you a greater sense of
control and reduce your anxiety. Familiarity will
also improve your proficiency with the questionanswer sets. The combination of greater control
and improved proficiency will result in more
accurate answer selection. You will identify
wrong answers more efficiently and, consequently, select more of the best answers. This
increase in efficiency may lead to a change in
your test plan.
Even after you have arrived at a stable balance between speed and accuracy, working through Arguments question-answer sets will maintain and enhance your level of familiarity and proficiency.
Always work through the technique sessions first,
and then monitor your performance with 9-12-18
question-answer sets that appear in the simulation
LSATs that appear in this book.
HOW
DO YOU USE
QUESTION-ANSWER
ARGUMENTS
SETS?
This session ends suggesting that you complete

at least six Arguments question-answer sets.
Identify them on the simulation LSATs and
complete them one at a time. Each time you
work through all of the techniques in Sessions 6
and 8, complete one of the question-answer sets.
Use the results to update your performance
record. This means you should review the
Arguments training techniques at least six times
and complete at least six question-answer sets.

ARGUMENTS SECTION-TEST PLAN?
You are probably becoming very familiar with
the process of using ongoing practice information to revise your test plan. It has been ex-
133
SUCCESS SESSION 11
UPON COMPLETION OF THE SIX TRAINING
AND UPDATE SEQUENCES, YOU SET YOUR
PLAN FOR THE ARGUMENTS SECTION-TESTS.
change an answer, place an asterisk beside the

boxed answer; if you did, place the asterisk
beside your new selection. The answers identified with asterisks are your 18-minute set. Again,
be sure not to erase or change the circles or
boxes you placed on the question sheet during
the first 12 minutes of working on the questionanswer set.
After the question-answer set is completed,
refer to the Quick-Score Answers at the back of
the book. Determine the number of best answers
you selected during the 9-minute (circled),
12-minute (boxed), and 18-minute (asterisked)
question-answer sets. Complete the calculations
called for below. The results of these calculations
are transferred to your Pretest Performance
Tracking Worksheet (page 75). Enter the number
of question sets that represent your optimal
balance between speed and accuracy. As you
work through the question-answer sets and
develop your performance record, the pattern of
your greatest efficiency will emerge.
This pattern will indicate the number of
Arguments question sets you should plan to
complete on the actual LSATthe number that
will yield the highest test score for you.
After six times through the sequence, your

performance record is likely to have stabilized,
and your plan can be set. It will indicate the
number of question-answer sets you should
complete and the number you should guess on
the Arguments section-test of the LSAT.
HOW
ARGUMENTS
SETS?
DO YOU TAKE
QUESTION-ANSWER
On question-answer sets you should follow the

procedure of reading the question first and then
the statement, looking for and noting key words,
concepts, and the conclusion, if any. Next, select
your answer options. Repeat this procedure for
the number of questions you can comfortably
cover in the first 9 minutes allocated to the
pretest set. It is important that your pace not
exceed your comfort level. At the end of the
9-minute period, you will have selected an
answer for each of the six questions in the
Arguments set. Depending upon your pace, some
of your answers may have been selected by
guessing. Circle your answer choices. These
constitute your 9-minute set.
Next, use an additional 3 minutes to
reconsider the questions and the answers you
selected in the 9-minute period. Your use of the
additional time will vary depending on the work
you completed during the first 9 minutes: You
can work through questions you did not have
time to consider in the first 9 minutes or review
questions about which you are uncertain. Place a
box beside each of the answers you select during
this 3-minute period. If you did not change an
answer, place a box beside the circled answer. If
you changed an answer, place a box beside the
new selection. The boxed answers are your
12-minute set. Do not erase or change the circles
you placed on the question sheet during the first
9 minutes of the pretest.
The next step is to use an additional 6
minutes. Go back to the set and answer questions you did not get to during the first 12
minutes, or review and change answers as
necessary. Be flexible in using this period.
Concentrate on questions about which you are
uncertain, but avoid reworking previously
selected answers about which you are confident.
Place an asterisk beside each of the answers you
select during this 6-minute period. If you did not
www.petersons.com
Circles ______________ 5 + 0 = ________

Boxes _______________ 4 + 1 = ________
Asterisks_____________ 3 + 2 = ________
This largest total figure indicates the
optimal number (2, 3, or 4) of question sets you
will enter on your Performance Tracking
Worksheet.
For the 9-12-18 process to work most
effectively, you should complete a questionanswer set only after you have reviewed the
Arguments test-training techniques in Sessions 6
and 8. Do this before each pretest. It will take
about 30 minutes. The familiarity and proficiency
you gain with the techniques through this
procedure will have the greatest impact on your
performance and your test score. Going through
a series of question-answer sets without first
working through the training techniques is the
least effective way of having an impact on your
performance. And your objective is high impact,
not low or no impact.
134
LSAT Success
ARGUMENTS PROBLEMS AND THE 9-12-18 SYSTEM

ONCE YOUR PERFORMANCE ON
ARGUMENTS QUESTION-ANSWER SETS IS
STABILIZED, SO IS YOUR TEST PLAN.
tests in this book, Law School Admission Services

sells disclosed tests. And there are a number of
preparation books containing little more than
simulated tests. (If you use such books, make
certain that the problems are constructed to the
same specifications as the real LSAT questions.)
When practicing with test materials, first
convert them into question sets. This is exactly the
same process you will use when taking the LSAT.
You identify a question set, view that set as the
test until you have completed it, then move on to
the next set or test. By segmenting the section-test
into its four component sets, you gain maximum
control over the test, which puts you in the best
position to execute your test plan.
After six or more question-answer sets have been

completed, your performance record should be
sufficiently comprehensive to provide you with
stable information. You will develop your test
plan for the Arguments section-tests on the basis
of this performance record. You will plan to
complete two, three, or four question sets,
depending on the optimal balance you have
discovered between your speed and accuracy.
Then your challenge is having the self-discipline
to stick to your plan during the actual LSAT.
FOLLOW YOUR PLAN TO MAXIMIZE YOUR
TEST PERFORMANCE AND SCORE.
SHOULD
WHAT
YOU DO MORE QUESTION-
SETS?
ANSWER SETS?
In each of the Arguments question-answer sets

you choose from the three tests in this book,
evaluate the reasoning contained in the brief
statements, and select the best answer. The best
answer is a conceivable solution to the particular problem posed by the question and does not
require you to make what are, by commonsense
standards, implausible, superfluous, or incompatible assumptions.
Complete each question-answer set only
after you have worked through the Arguments
training techniques in Sessions 6 and 8.
Once the high-impact gain you wanted before

taking the LSAT is realized, further workthroughs
and question-answer sets will have much less, if
any, impact on your score. But it is important to
maintain familiarity and proficiency with Arguments, and practice with question-answer sets
provides a positive maintenance regimen for
many prospective test-takers. For others, regular
workthroughs of the techniques in Sessions 6
and 8 will maintain readiness.
If you want to practice with additional
Arguments problems, there are three good
sources of additional sets. Besides the simulated
LSAT Success
135
www.petersons.com
Success Session 12
PASSAGES PROBLEMS AND THE 9-12-18 SYSTEM
HOW
9-12-18
PASSAGES TRAINING?
ing three of the four question sets on a sectiontest (and guessing on the fourth set). Working
with the Passages training techniques you have
learned, you will use the 9-12-18 process to
update your performance record with the results.
After you have worked through a number of
question-answer sets, your performance record
may suggest making a change in your plan for
optimal performance. For instance, your efficiency may have improved so that your performance record shows you will achieve a better
score by completing all four sets of questions on
the Passages section-test rather than by completing only three question-answer sets and guessing
on one. This calls for a change in your test plan
for the section-test.
DO YOU APPLY THE
SYSTEM TO YOUR
In Red Alert 3 (pp. 7175) you learned the

9-12-18 test-planning system, including its
application to a Passages problem. The system
uses question-answer sets to help you identify
your optimal balance between speed and
accuracy. This information is then used to
develop your plan for the Passages section-test.
Remember that working through fewer question
sets than are available on a Passages section-test
usually produces more best answers than rushing
through all of the questions.
QUESTION-ANSWER SETS HELP YOU DETERMINE WHETHER YOU WILL MAXIMIZE YOUR
SECTION-TEST SCORE BY COMPLETING
FOUR, THREE, OR TWO QUESTION SETS IN
THE 35 MINUTES ALLOTTED.
CHANGE YOUR TEST PLAN ONLY WHEN

INFORMATION FROM THE 9-12-18
QUESTION-ANSWER SET PROCESS
INDICATES THAT A CHANGE IS DUE.
Passages test-taking techniques will become

familiar and easy to apply as you work with
them. Familiarity will give you a sense of control
over and reduce your anxiety about the questions. It will also improve your proficiency with
the question-answer sets. The combination of
greater control and improved proficiency will
result in more accurate answer selection. You
will be able to identify wrong answers more
efficiently and, consequently, select more of the
best answers. As this happens your balance
between speed and accuracy may change, and
your test plan will change accordingly.
HOW DO YOU DEVELOP

PASSAGES SECTION-TEST
Avoid the temptation to stop working through the

Passages techniques and question-answer sets at the
point where your Passages performance record
indicates that completing all four question sets will
yield your best score. The workthroughs maintain
and enhance your familiarity and proficiency.
HOW
DO YOU USE
QUESTION-ANSWER
PASSAGES
SETS?
There are twelve Passages question-answer sets

in the three simulation LSATs in this book. After
you have completed working through all of the
Passages techniques in Sessions 6 and 9, complete one of the question-answer sets. Then use
the results to update your performance record.
Work through the Passages test-training techniques at least six times and complete at least six
question-answer sets.
After you have been through the sequence
six times, your performance record is likely to
have stabilized. Your performance record can then
be translated into a plan for the number of question sets you will complete and the number you
will guess on the Passages section-test of the LSAT.
YOUR
PLAN?
Once again, we will go through the process of

using question-answer set information to revise
the test plan. It is the same process that has been
explained previously, so, if you are comfortable
with the question-answer set process, skim the
next paragraphs.
Suppose your initial Passages questionanswer set (in Red Alert 3) indicated that your
optimal performance would result from complet-
137
SUCCESS SESSION 12
HOW
PASSAGES
SETS?
place the asterisk beside your new selection. The

answers identified with asterisks are your
18-minute set. Again, do not erase or change the
circles or boxes you placed on the question
sheet during the first 12 minutes of the questionanswer set.
After the question-answer set is completed,
refer to the Quick-Score Answers at the back of
the book. Determine the number of best answers
you selected during the 9-minute (circled),
12-minute (boxed), and 18-minute (asterisked)
question sets. Complete the calculations called
for, and then transfer the results of these
calculations onto your question-answer set
Pretest Performance Tracking Worksheet
(page 75). Enter the number of question sets that
represents your optimal balance between speed
and accuracy. As you work through the questionanswer sets and develop your performance
record, the pattern of your greatest efficiency
will emerge. This pattern will indicate the
number of Passages question sets you plan to
completethe number that will yield the highest
score for you.
DO YOU TAKE
QUESTION-ANSWER
On Passages question-answer sets you should

begin by reading the first sentence of each
paragraph in the statement. Then scan the
questions, noting the types of questions, key
words and concepts, and any references to line
numbers in the statement. Next, read the
statement carefully, looking for elements of the
six-part pattern. Underline or highlight the point
or purpose, key words or concepts, unusual
words or phrases, authorities, enumerations, and
competing perspectives. All other information in
the statement is extraneous.
Now you are ready to work through the
questions and answer options. Complete the
number of questions you can comfortably
address in the first 9 minutes allocated to the
question-answer set. Maintain your pace at the
comfort level. At the end of the 9-minute period,
you will have selected an answer for each of the
six questions in the Passages set. Depending
upon your pace, some of your answers may have
been selected by guessing. Circle your 9-minute
answer choicesthis is your 9-minute set.
Next, take an additional 3 minutes to
reconsider the questions and the answers you
selected in the 9-minute period. Vary your use of
the additional time according to the work you
completed during the first 9 minutes. First work
through questions you did not have time to
consider in the first 9 minutes. Then review
questions about which you were uncertain. Place
a box beside each of the answers you selected
change an answer, place a box beside the circled
answer. If you did, place the box beside the new
selection. The boxed answers are your 12-minute
set. Do not erase or change the circles you
placed on the question sheet during the first 9
minutes of the question-answer set.
The next step is to use an additional 6
minutes. Return to the set and answer questions
you did not get to during the first 12 minutes, or
review questions and answers, making changes
as necessary. Concentrate on questions about
which you are still uncertain, but avoid reworking previously selected answers about which you
are confident.
Place an asterisk beside each of the
answers you selected during this 6-minute
period. If you did not change an answer, place
an asterisk beside the boxed answer. If you did,
www.petersons.com
Circles ___________________ 5 + 0 = ________

Boxes ____________________ 4 + 1 = ________
Asterisks _________________ 3 + 2 = ________
This largest total figure indicates the
optimal number (2, 3, or 4) of question sets you
will enter on your Performance Tracking
Worksheet.
For the question-answer set process to
work effectively, you should complete a question-answer set only after you have reviewed the
Passages test-training techniques in Sessions 6
and 9. Do this before each question-answer set.
This should take you about 30 minutes. The
familiarity and proficiency you will gain through
this process will produce the greatest impact on
your performance and your test score. Going
through a series of question-answer sets or
question sets without first working through the
training techniques will have little, if any, impact
on your performance. And your objective, as you
know, is high impact.
After the six plus question-answer sets have
been completed (one in Red Alert 3), your
performance record should be sufficiently
comprehensive to provide you with stable
information. You will develop your test plan for
the Passages section-test on the basis of this
performance record. You will plan to complete
138
LSAT Success
PASSAGES PROBLEMS AND THE 9-12-18 SYSTEM

Admission Services sells disclosed tests, and there
are a number of preparation books containing
little more than simulated tests. (If you use these,
be sure the problems are constructed to the
same specifications as the real LSAT questions.)
When practicing with test materials, break
down the section-tests into question-answer sets.
This is exactly the same process you will use
when taking the LSAT. You identify a questionanswer set, viewing it as the test until you have
completed it, and then move on to the next set
or test. By dividing the section-test into its four
component sets, you gain maximum control over
your practice and test-taking, which puts you in
the best position to execute your test plan.
two, three, or four question sets, depending on

the optimal balance between your speed and
accuracy. Then your challenge is having the
self-discipline to stick to your plan during the
actual LSAT.
FOLLOW YOUR PLAN TO MAXIMIZE YOUR
TEST PERFORMANCE AND SCORE.
HOW
MANY QUESTION-ANSWER SETS
SHOULD YOU COMPLETE?
Once the high-impact gain you wanted before

taking the LSAT is realized, further workthroughs
and question-answer sets will have much less, if
any, impact on your score. But it is important to
maintain familiarity and proficiency with Passages, and practice with question-answer sets
meets this objective for many prospective
test-takers. Others maintain their efficiency by
regular workthroughs of Sessions 6 and 9.
If you want to work with additional
Passages question sets, there are three good
sources. The first is this guideif you choose,
you can use the simulated tests included here as
a source of additional question sets. Law School
LSAT Success
WHAT

SETS?
For each of the Passages question-sets you

choose to practice with, select the best answer
option to the question on the basis of what is
stated or implied in the statement.
139
www.petersons.com
Success Session 13
THE WRITING SAMPLE
THERE IS NO EVIDENCE THAT LAW SCHOOLS
USE THE WRITING SAMPLE TO IDENTIFY
APPLICANTS WITH GREAT POTENTIAL AS
LAW STUDENTS OR LEGAL WRITERS.
There is one Writing Sample on the LSAT. It is

important to understand the various objectives
and uses of the Writing Sample, as well as the
mechanics of completing it successfully.
WHAT
LSATS OBJECTIVES
WRITING SAMPLE?
WHAT ARE THE OBJECTIVES

WRITING SAMPLE?
ARE THE
FOR THE
The LSAT declares four objectives for the Writing

Sample. The first is to elicit a clear expression of
your position on the assigned topic. The second
is to determine the care with which you support
your position. The third is to secure information
about your skills in organization, vocabulary, and
grammar. The last is to determine how well you
write.
This is a heavy burden for a 30-minute
Writing Sample to carry, especially since testtakers have no information about the topic in
advance. As a practical matter, a 30-minute
Writing Sample cannot achieve the formidable
objectives set for it. But this does not mean that
these objectives can be ignored. A realistic plan
for the Writing Sample must take the objectives
into account.
HOW DO LAW SCHOOLS

WRITING SAMPLE?
FOR THE
Both the nature and use of the Writing Sample

dictate your single objective: to ensure that it
cannot be used in any way to disqualify you for
admission.
Given its limitations, the Writing Sample
certainly gives you no opportunity to impress
anyone with your writing skill. What it does give
you is the opportunity to demonstrate one or
more serious failings, such as illegible handwriting, not addressing the assigned topic, not
following directions, not producing a cogent
sample, and using inappropriate vocabulary or
grammar.
A GOOD PLAN IS CRUCIAL TO PRODUCING A
WRITING SAMPLE THAT WILL NOT DISQUALIFY YOUR LAW SCHOOL APPLICATION.
You will develop a plan for reaching your
objective that takes into account organization,
vocabulary, and the mechanical aspects of
writing. It will include the preparation of an
outline on scratch paper provided at the test
center exclusively for use on the Writing Sample.
USE YOUR
A copy of your Writing Sample accompanies

each report of your LSAT score. Law schools use
this in various ways. The vast majority of them
file the Writing Sample and make no other use of
it. Some use a deficient Writing Sample to
disqualify applicants. A few use it to identify
students who might benefit from writing
instruction in the law school context. Infrequently the Writing Sample is used to differentiate between applicants who present otherwise
indistinguishable admission credentials.
WHAT IS YOUR TASK

WRITING SAMPLE?
ON THE
As with other aspects of the LSAT, the Writing

Sample is not what it seems. As we have seen, it
cannot meet fully the objectives set for it, nor
does it meet the expectations raised by your
academic conditioning. The Writing Sample is no
term paper or exam essay. It does not require
journalistic or creative writing. The type of
writing required resembles the completion of
forms more than anything else.
141
SUCCESS SESSION 13
AVOID PRODUCING A WRITING SAMPLE
THAT IS HARD TO READ.
THE REAL TASK IS TO GIVE A ONE-SENTENCE

RESPONSE TO EACH OF THE DEMANDS OF
THE WRITING SAMPLE.
If you need to be convinced, imagine a law

professor on the admission committee who is
faced with a choice between reading your
illegible exam papers for three or four years or
your competitors perfectly legible ones.
The directors provide you with an advantage. You are told exactly how to produce your
Writing Sample. Follow the directions, and you
will satisfy the LSATs expectations and complete
a Writing Sample that cannot be used to disqualify your law school application.
It is most important that you avoid the temptation to extemporize or be inventive. This can
best be ensured by sticking to the directions.
WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS

WRITING SAMPLE?
OF THE
The Directions
The Writing Sample directions tell you that how
well you write is more important than how
much you write. Law schools are mainly interested in how clearly you express the position
you take on the topic; how carefully you support
that position; and your organization, vocabulary,
and writing mechanics.
You are told to write on the assigned topic
only. Under no circumstances should you write
on a topic of your choosing. Why prepare a
writing sample in advance on your own topic
when you can use the LSATs topic and satisfy
the expectations exactly? No special knowledge
about the topic is expected or required, but you
are expected to write on the topic assigned.
You are also advised that there is no right
or wrong answer to the topic. The LSAT does
not evaluate the position you take, nor are the
law schools provided with model answers or
model Writing Samples. As with all LSAT
questions, the LSAT uses the Writing Sample
topic to elicit a response. There is no interest in
your knowledge of the topic.
Time is short. You are told that you have
30 minutes to plan, organize, and write your
sample. This places a premium on your plan for
completing the Writing Sample. Remember
coloring books and being told to color inside the
lines? The Writing Sample is like that: Only the
writing on the lined area in the booklet is
reproduced and sent to the law schools. The
space provided is more than enough to accommodate your sample, provided you follow your
plan. Just be sure that you limit your writing to a
reasonable size that fits easily between the lines.
Use the black pen provided by the LSAT so that
your Writing Sample will reproduce clearly.
Legible handwriting is imperative. If your
writing is not entirely legible, print. If your printing is not entirely legible, draw. Make certain that
your writing sample can be read easily.
www.petersons.com
The Topic
All Writing Sample topics have a similar, predictable layout. They are made up of three componentspositions, conditions, and evidence. In
the following example, the components are
spelled out. These headings do not appear on the
LSAT, but the components are obvious and
cannot be confused.
There are two positions and two conditions
in each topic. The positions are stated first, the
conditions follow, and then comes the evidence.
Positions
As a trustee of Whistler College, you will
soon vote on how a recent donation of
$1 million will be used. Write an argument
in support of applying the donation to the
development of either the Art Department
or the Economics Department. Two considerations guide your decision:
Conditions
Enrollments at Whistler have been
decreasing in the last few years.
Disharmony between faculty and
students has been increasing in the last
few years.
Evidence
For years, the Art Department has had an
inadequate staff and limited course
offerings, and what has been offered has
not been of good quality. This gift would
enable the college to hire four excellent
people, including an artist-in-residence.
One or two could round out the course
offerings in art history, and others could
do something about the lack of courses in
studio art. That should change the
departments image. It should also attract
some new art majors or at least keep
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LSAT Success
THE WRITING SAMPLE

students from leaving. Quite a few
potential art majors have been lost in
recent years because of the poor quality
of the department. The best that could be
expected from the improvement is a
decent Art Department.
In contrast, the money could make the
already strong Economics Department
more than excellent. Its expansion would
result in its being the best in Whistlers
part of the country. But such an expansion
presents some risk. The Economics
Department is already causing problems.
The economists think one way politically;
the majority of the student body thinks
another way. Healthy disagreement in an
academic setting is acceptable, but
out-and-out rebellion is very problematic.
Whistler is a small, tightly knit community,
and it is important that harmony be
maintained.
Under the positions heading, two points are

noted. The first is the position or perspective
from which you will write. In this instance, the
topic is to be viewed from the perspective of a
college trustee. The LSAT will always indicate
this perspective. It is there for you to use.
The second point is the position that you
will advocate. It makes no difference which
position you choose, as long as you choose one.
Any ambivalence, however, will make a differenceit wastes time and introduces confusion.
To avoid ambivalence, select the position you
will advocate before you go to the test center to
take the LSAT. In fact, decide right now!
Determine whether you will always advocate
position one or position two for any Writing
Sample topic. Then, be disciplined enough to
consistently advocate the position you selected.
PREPARATION OF THE WRITING SAMPLE

OUTLINE IS COMPLETED IN 5 TO 7 MINUTES.

WRITING SAMPLE OUTLINE?
Even before you read the topic, you should take
the first step in your Writing Sample plan. Write
down the following outline on the scratch paper
provided.
I. Positions
II. Condition 1
A. Evidence item 1
B. Evidence item 2
III. Condition 2
A. Evidence item 3
B. Evidence item 4
IV. Summary
Decreasing enrollment is the first condition to be

addressed. The first item of evidence is drawn
directly from the topic as presented; the second
is not drawn directly from the topic but is
consistent with it.
As you read the Writing Sample topic,

extract the information called for by the outline
and place it in the appropriate place in the
outline format. All of the information you need is
provided in the topic. The outline uses the
information and organization of the topic to
establish the structure of the Writing Sample. An
example based on the preceding topic follows.
LSAT Success
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SUCCESS SESSION 13
Faculty-student disharmony is the second
condition to be addressed. Evidence item 3 is
drawn directly from the topic, while item 4 is an
extension of material given in the topic.
In paragraph two, use one or two sentences to

present an item of evidence that meets the first
condition, using the topic material. Then use a
second sentence or two to support the position
you chose or oppose the position you did not
choose. If you opt for the latter, be sure to
explain the position you oppose.
Responding to the first condition by
supporting your position with two items of
evidence is sufficient for the second paragraph.
Some test-takers feel compelled to write more in
paragraph two. If you must, use another sentence or two to support the position you chose
or oppose the position you did not choose.
The summary statement reiterates how the

conditions will be answered by the position
selected.
HOW DO YOU PRODUCE

WRITING SAMPLE?
YOUR
You will organize your Writing Sample in much

the same way that a lawyer makes a jury
presentation. Advocate the position you selected,
writing positively and confidently in support of
it. Avoid weighing the pros and cons of the
competing positions, and steer clear of improvisations, inspirations, and uncertainties.
SPEND ABOUT 15 MINUTES COMPLETING
YOUR WRITING SAMPLE.
The necessary steps can be summarized as
follows:
1. State your position and what you will
prove.
2. Select and support your position with
available proof.
Paragraph three has the same structure as

paragraph two. Use one or two sentences to
present an item of evidence that meets the
second condition, using the topic material. Then
write a sentence or two to support the position
you chose or oppose the position you did not
choose. Again, support of your position on the
second condition with two items of evidence is
sufficient to complete the third paragraph,
though, if you must write more, it is all right to
use another sentence or two to support the
position you chose or oppose the position you
did not choose.
3. Summarize what you have proved.

Based upon the outline, your Writing Sample
should be structured into four paragraphs. In
paragraph one, you use one sentence to state
your position and a second sentence to state
what you will establish.
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THE WRITING SAMPLE
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In paragraph four, summarize how the position

you selected will satisfy the topic conditions.
This paragraph should be briefno more than
two sentences.
Upon completion of the Writing Sample,

proofread your work and correct the vocabulary,
grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
BY STRICT ADHERENCE TO YOUR PLAN,

YOU WILL BE ABLE TO PRODUCE WITH
EFFICIENCY A WRITING SAMPLE THAT SATISFIES THE LSATS OBJECTIVES AND YOURS.
MAKE SURE YOU LEAVE 5 MINUTES TO

PROOFREAD YOUR WRITING SAMPLE.
WHAT
Do not vary this structure. It applies to every

Writing Sample.
Suppose that you selected the second
position. As noted earlier, the position you
choose makes no difference with respect to the
Writing Sample. You would follow the same plan
and produce a similar Writing Sample.
LSAT Success
PRINCIPLES OF VOCABULARY,
GRAMMAR, PUNCTUATION, AND
MECHANICS ARE IMPORTANT TO YOUR
WRITING SAMPLE
PERFORMANCE?
For the same reason that the LSAT uses the

same-language disguise on the LSAT, you should
use the same language as is used in the topic.
Not only does this sound convincing, but it helps
you avoid misusing words. Misuse will not be a
problem if you use only words that are familiar
and have clear meaning for you.
Avoid cliches or idiomatic expressions:
They invariably offend someone. Never use a
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SUCCESS SESSION 13
pronoun other than I. It, they, and the like
often have unclear referents. Avoid legalese in
any form.
You should already be familiar with the
rules of grammar required to produce a Writing
Sample. The following alerts are reminders of a
few matters of particular importance: Sentences
must be complete; adjectives modify nouns and
adverbs modify verbs or adjectives; parallel
construction is required; and double negatives
should be avoided.
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Use only two forms of punctuation on your

Writing Samplethe period and the comma.
Avoid the need to use any other form of punctuation. Keep it simple, correct, and safe from
mistake.
There are three mechanical items that are
of concern. Paragraphs should be indented. The
passive voice should be avoided; it is difficult to
use properly, especially under pressure. And last,
avoid contractions. They make a less powerful
presentation.
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LSAT Success
Success Session 14
WRITING SAMPLES
WRITING
Upon completion of the sample, go

through and criticize your performance, sentence
by sentence. Be certain that you have executed
all aspects of your plan. If you have, you will
have produced a legible and cogent writing
sample. If you can identify a weakness or
omission, review all of the techniques in Session
13. Only after this review, complete another
sample, and repeat your critique.
PRACTICE SESSIONS
The Writing Sample practice sessions differ from

those involving Relationships, Arguments, and
Passages. The 9-12-18 planning system is not
applicable to the Writing Sample, in which there
is no need to balance speed and accuracy. The
objective is to complete the Writing Sample with
a cogent argument that responds clearly to the
assigned topic by taking one of the given
positions and satisfying the stated conditions.
HOW
WHAT IS YOUR WRITING

SAMPLE PLAN?
MANY SAMPLES SHOULD
YOU COMPLETE?
Complete one to five writing samples. Once you
complete a Writing Sample that satisfies your
plan, there is no improvement to be realized by
completing additional samples. You can use any
remaining sample topics to maintain your
familiarity with the Writing Sample techniques.
While there is little reason to seek out
further Writing Samples, the disclosed tests
offered by Law School Admission Services
include a Writing Sample topic. Some LSAT
preparation books also provide topics, but if you
use such preparation books, you must make
certain that the topics are constructed to the
same specifications as those of the LSAT.
The techniques you worked through in Session

13 provide the basis for your plan, which is
designed to take advantage of the predictability
of the Writing Sample. Except for the specific
words, you should have the structure and all the
structural details of your Writing Sample fixed in
advance of the test.
As with all sections of the LSAT, time is a
critical factor. The plan permits you to take
maximum advantage of the 30 minutes available
for the Writing Sample. Your objective is to use
the 30 minutes to connect your predetermined
structure to the test topic and complete the
required writing. First you fill in the outline,
which is used to structure the components of
your Writing Sample, and then you write the
actual sample.
WHAT ARE THE DIRECTIONS

WRITING SAMPLE?
FOR THE
The general directions for the Writing Sample,

which were discussed in Session 13, apply to the
practice exercises as well. Your are to complete
a short writing exercise on the assigned topic.
You have only 30 minutes to plan, organize, and
write the sample. You must write only on the
topic specified.
There is no right or wrong answer to the
topic. No special knowledge is expected or
required. Law schools are interested in how
clearly you express the position you take on the
topic and how carefully you support that
position. They are interested in organization,
vocabulary, and writing mechanics. How well
you write is more important than the amount
you write. The schools understand that you will
HOW DO YOU USE THE WRITING

SAMPLES IN THIS SESSION?
There are three Writing Sample pretests at the
end of this session. They are to be used to
familiarize yourself with the process you will
follow in completing the actual LSAT Writing
Sample. After you have completed working
through all of the techniques in Session 13,
complete one of the practice samples. Take no
more than 30 minutes.
147
SUCCESS SESSION 14
be writing under pressure and are limited to a
short time in which to produce the finished
sample.
Your writing should be confined to the
lined area in the booklet, since only this area will
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be reproduced for the law schools. You will have

enough space in the booklet if you plan carefully, write on every line, avoid margins, and
limit your writing to a reasonable size. Be certain
that you write legibly.
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LSAT Success
WRITING SAMPLES
WRITING SAMPLE TOPIC 1

The First Church of Newhope, having outgrown its 150-year-old building, has moved into a new facility
and is trying to decide what to do with the old building. As a member of the committee charged with
making the decision, you must write an article in support of selling the old building to Newhope University or renting it to the Lutheran Church. Two considerations guide your decision:
There is a high risk of vandalism in the area where the old church building is located.
First Church income has been steadily declining over the past three years.
The real estate market is depressed at the present time, and the Universitys offer to buy the church for
$200,000 is 40 percent greater than any other offer received. The University will use the building as a
student rathskeller, selling beer and snacks as well as holding dances and parties. The University needs an
immediate answer, because it is committed to opening a rathskeller within six months to overcome
student and community concerns about the problems caused by the lack of such a facility. Many church
members object to the use planned by the University, and some residents of the neighborhood in which
the church is located are very upset about the noise and traffic that would result from the Universitys
purchase.
The Lutherans are remodeling their Sunday school and want to rent the old church for about a year.
They can only pay rent of $400 per month, and minimal upkeep on the building is $5,000 a year. The use
by a church satisfies those who object to the use planned by the University, but others are concerned
because the building will only be occupied on Sunday. Some church members feel that the real estate
market will be stronger in a year and there will be more options then, while others feel that property in
the area is depreciating in value and the church will have to find another tenant, which will be very
difficult.
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SUCCESS SESSION 14
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LSAT Success
WRITING SAMPLES

As the director of the Atreeta State Park, you must write in support of one of two staff recommendations
to the state Parks Department on how to alleviate the crowded conditions in and damage to the natural
character of Atreeta that has resulted from a recent increase in wilderness hiking and camping. One
recommendation is to reduce the number of trails and designated camping areas and install a booking
system to limit the number of visitors using the park at any one time. The other recommendation is to
increase the number of trails and designated camping areas and charge a fee for the use of the park. Two
Parks Department policies guide your decision:
Encouraging more people to enjoy wilderness backpacking and camping.
Preserving the natural wilderness environment for public enjoyment.
By decreasing the number of trails and campsites, damage would be confined to specific small areas of the
park, and the enforcement of rules designed to prevent damage would be made easier. The reservation
system would eliminate overcrowding and, by designating trails and campsites, ensure that hikers and
campers enjoy the solitude of the wilderness. But, by confining park users and requiring reservations, the
park objectives of spontaneity and freedom to enjoy the natural environment would be destroyed.
By increasing the number of trails and campsites in the park, more people would be able to hike and
camp comfortably, while damage would be less concentrated and easier to repair. The fee would provide
funds to make any needed repairs. But the fee would tend to reduce the number of people using the park,
and more trails and campsites would make it more difficult to enforce park rules.
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
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1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
LSAT Success
151
www.petersons.com
SUCCESS SESSION 14
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
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1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
www.petersons.com
152
LSAT Success
WRITING SAMPLES

As the conductor of the Ventara Symphony Orchestra, you must give your decision on whether to try to
offset a serious operating deficit for the coming year by increasing ticket prices or by lengthening the
concert schedule and including a greater number of more popular programs in the schedule. Two considerations guide your decision:
Most of the orchestras grant support depends upon its maintaining its very strong artistic reputation.
For the past three years, orchestra ticket sales have averaged only 70 percent of capacity.
Increasing ticket prices by 35 percent would produce sufficient revenue to meet the projected operating
deficit, provided that ticket sales increased to 85 percent of capacity. Some advisers have indicated that
higher ticket prices would result in reduced attendance, and that there is some risk that a price increase
would alienate some of those who now provide grants to the orchestra.
The orchestras income should increase with the presentation of more concerts, but the musicians
contract does not permit more concerts, and, despite the financial problems, the musicians are likely to
demand increased salaries for additional work. Also, while scheduling more popular concerts should
increase attendance, such concerts do not enhance the orchestras reputation and, in the eyes of many,
detract from it.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
LSAT Success
153
www.petersons.com
SUCCESS SESSION 14
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
2345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121 2
1
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123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
www.petersons.com
154
LSAT Success
Success Session 15
FINISH WITH A FLOURISH
In this final session, you will put the finishing
touches on your LSAT training techniques. The
first part of the session briefly reviews the critical
test performance factors you have been concentrating on. If you are uncertain about any of the
test-taking techniques as you work through the
review, stop and go back to the session that deals
with the subject. Work through the techniques
until your uncertainty is put to rest.
The second part of the session alerts you to
a variety of minor factors that also influence your
test performance and discusses quick-and-easy
techniques for controlling them.
The Basic Reasoning Task
WHAT
Good techniques yield optimal LSAT performance.

The right techniques ensure that you perform the
basic reasoning task effectively and consistently.
They neutralize the test-makers strategy of obfuscation. The test-maker uses unfamiliar contexts,
varied structures, ambiguities, illusions, distractions, complexities, and multiple formats to obfuscate the basic reasoning task. Various disguises
same language, too-little-too-much, true but,
and false assertionare also used. Your techniques consistently and expeditiously guide you
through the jungle of obfuscation directly to the
familiar reasoning task.
The basic reasoning task, which is required by

every LSAT question, can be characterized as conditional reasoning. Each of the three types of LSAT
questions presents the conditional reasoning task
in a different format, but every one asks you to
determine which evidence or conclusion satisfies
the conditions presented in the statement and
question. More specifically, you are asked to determine the evidence or conclusion that must,
could, or cannot satisfy the given conditions.
The Techniques
ARE THE CRITICAL TEST
PERFORMANCE FACTORS?
Anxiety
Preparation anxiety and test anxiety influence
your performance. Control is the key to managing them. You gain control by choosing to take
the test, familiarizing yourself with it, thinking
positively, and worrying constructively. You
choose to accept the LSAT challenge and all of
the baggage that travels with it. You make
yourself familiar with the test and its use in every
practical detail. You develop techniques that
allow you to have a positive response to every
aspect of the LSAT. You recognize worry as the
sign of a loss of control, which triggers a
response that will work to regain that control.
Discipline
Discipline is required for you to develop your
section-test plan. Maintaining the discipline of
working through the LSAT by question sets is the
keystone of your performance. The discipline of
completing the pretest question sets provides
you with the information upon which you base
your plan for optimum performance (highest
score). Having the discipline to consistently
execute the techniques within the context of
your plan maximizes your performance.
Conditioning
Conditioning is even more important to your test
performance than anxiety. Nearly all of your
former academic and test-taking conditioning is
potentially detrimental to your LSAT performance. You have neither the time nor reason to
alter it. Your strategy is to avoid your conditioning and, as a consequence, minimize its influence
on your performance. Learning specific techniques for handling every aspect of the test
renders your conditioning irrelevant to the LSAT.
WHAT
SHOULD YOU DO WHEN THE
TEST IS IMMINENT?
The Date
You choose the date on which you will take the
LSAT. The most important factor to consider
when making the choice is readiness. Use the
155
SUCCESS SESSION 15
WHAT
fact that the LSAT is administered four times a

year to your advantage. Unlike performance on
many other standardized tests, LSAT performance
does not improve clearly with educational level.
Aside from specific test preparation, there seems
to be no significant improvement in test performance after the completion of two years of
college. So you have many test dates from which
to choose. After you are ready, choose the test
date that makes you most comfortable. For
example, June may be most comfortable for
students, teachers, or people in the ski-resort
business.
TEST IS TOMORROW?
The Tools
You will need some obvious and not-so-obvious
tools to take the LSAT. Get them together early
on the day before the test. The No. 2 pencil is
tool number one, as answer sheets must be
completed in pencil. Prepare and take four
pencils to the testthey should have full erasers
and not be needle sharp. (Needle-sharp pencils
lacerate answer sheets, and their points splinter.
Slightly blunted points are best.) The Writing
Sample must be completed in pen, and pens are
provided at the test. Though it is not explicitly
sanctioned, many test-takers prefer to use their
own pens. They should have black ink and be
erasable, which eliminates the need for crossing
out. The resulting neat look is a plus in ensuring
that your Writing Sample does not disqualify you.
If you wish to use a highlighter for marking
Passages or Arguments problems, bring at least
two in the colors of your choice.
A reliable watch or equivalent time-minder
is essential to your performance. Before you
begin to work through a section-test, calculate
and write at the starting point of each question
set within it the exact time you have planned to
be at that point. This makes your time checks
easy to perform as you track your pace through
each question set.
The test-maker discourages the ingestion of
food at the test center, but the test is long, and
administrative procedures at some centers make
the testing time even longer. How does a conscientious test-taker reconcile a desire not to transgress by eating with the equally strong desire not
to have a growling stomach disturb the test center? Those who have resolved this dilemma successfully strongly advise against the crunchy, the
smelly, and the gooey. Pretzels, potato chips, or
celery sticks crunch noisily when eaten. Worse
still are beef jerky, pepperoni, and cheese. Their
capacity for olfactory offense is nearly limitless.
Avoid fudge, toffee, nougat, and the like, since
they are sticky and endanger neat paperwork. Otherwise, it is the test-takers choicecookies and
candy work well. During cool weather, jacket
pockets are good for holding food. The marsupial
sweatshirt with the pouch in the front carries a
lot, is comfortable, and gives convenient access to
your food. Make sure you snack between, not during, question sets.
The Site
Register to take the test at a site that gives you
an advantage. For many, the home-court
advantage is a major performance plus. Others
trade familiarity for small size. A huge test site
with central check-in, room assignments, and
other complexities can trash a large reserve of
control in short order, whereas a small center
sometimes provides the advantages of informality
and low tension. Find out about the location and
size of test centers from Law School Admission
Services if you think that either might give you
an advantage.
Wherever you choose to take the LSAT,
familiarize yourself with the site in advance.
Know exactly how you will travel there and
what you will do with your car when you arrive.
Many a person has lost test-taker control to
campus parking, rearranged for a homecoming
football game. If you cannot visit the site before
the test date, get there early and check it out.
Then leave the test area and return just before
test time.
Locate the rest room at the test site and the
most direct route to it from the test room. This is
important since, if you have to use the rest room
during the test, it is on your time. There is
usually a 15-minute break between the second
and third section-tests.
Light is also a matter of concern. Trying to
concentrate on the LSAT when you are sitting in
a dark corner of an auditorium or staring into the
sun is not advantageous. If the light at your
assigned seat is inadequate, seek out the proctor
and insist, politely but firmly, that you be moved.
Avoid distractions. If you are easily distracted, you should not sit at the back of a room
of 200 people, each of whom will provide you
with at least one distraction in the course of the
test. For you, its down in front.
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LSAT Success

indigestion, and drinking twelve cups of coffee
to make sure you stay awake will probably make
you hyperactive in more ways than one. Stick
with the familiar.
If you take medication, be sure that you

have a supply with you. Aspirin or some alternative form of medicine may prevent a distracting
headache. Smoking is not permitted at LSAT test
centers. If it will help, get your nicotine gum
prescription filled before the test. The test is not
a good time to go cold turkey.
The Test Administration

Travel to the test site on a schedule that leaves
you feeling unhurried. Make sure you have built
in enough flexibility to allow for unexpected
holdups. Once you reach the test center, find a
place where you can stay relaxed until the time
for check-in. Milling about the test center with
other test-takers for an hour or two before the
exam is not constructive.
After check-in, make certain that there is no
problem with your seat assignmentcheck that
you have the light and work space that you
require. Then be prepared for a full dose of
hurry up and wait.
After all test-takers are seated, the supervisor will read the test instructions. Listen carefully. You will be told exactly how to mark your
answer sheet, the amount of warning you will be
given before the end of each section-test (usually
5 minutes), the timing of the break (usually 15
minutes between the second and third sections),
and what the housekeeping arrangements are.
The test may begin with the 30-minute
Writing Sample, or this may appear at the end.
Upon its completion, you will work through two
of the 35-minute section-tests. The order of the
section-tests is scrambled, so not all test-takers
are working through the same section-tests at the
same time. Next comes a break, and, after that,
the last three section-tests are administered. As
you begin each section-test, remember to mark at
the start of each question set the time at which
your plan calls for you to start that set.
Work your way through the question sets,
identifying and dumping as many wrong-answer
options as you can. Use comparison and contrast
to analyze the answer options that remain. If all
fails, and you have not been able to identify
some of the wrong-answer options, guess.
Believe it or not, statistics gathered over the
years favor answer options other than (A) and (E)
as the best selections, so when guessing, avoid
these two options. In fact, it is a good practice to
always guess the same answer option(B), (C),
or (D). Do not try to hit the test-makers choice;
let the test-maker hit yours.
Plan on the unexpected when you take the
LSAT. Babies have been born, bands have played
outside the test-room window, people have
The Run-Up
Two basic strategies are advocated for the time
just before the test. Advocates of the Jell-O
strategy believe that it is best to sit back and let
your plan and techniques gel during this period.
Ben-Gay advocates claim that a little warm-up
working one last set of questions is the best way
to spend it. Studies have shown that neither
strategy has a greater impact than the other on
performance.
What is significant is that you avoid either
zoom or doom and gloom. Extremes of
emotion and activity can have a negative impact
on your performance. Maintaining emotional
equilibrium and your typical level of activity will
ensure that you are in the best position to
concentrate during the test. Follow a regimen
that encourages a sense of relaxation. If a good
party the night before is a shortcut to relaxation
for you, try to avoid relaxing too far. There is no
evidence that a roaring hangover leads to poor
test performance, but the LSAT is hard enough
without helping it along.
Adjust your personal schedule to the hour
of the test. If you are not a morning person and
are scheduled to take the LSAT in the morning,
set your alarm to give you sufficient time to
come out of your morning fog before the test
starts.
WHAT
TEST IS NOW?
The Routines
On the day of the test, proceed as normally as
possible, especially with respect to your schedule, level of activity, and intake of food and
liquid. Staying as close as possible to your regular
schedule supports you in carrying out your
planned response to the predictability of the
LSAT. Changing all of your routines in honor of
test day is counterproductive, since it disrupts
your plan. Eating a lumberjacks breakfast on the
morning of the test in order to avoid the risk of
midmorning burnout is more likely to give you
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SUCCESS SESSION 15
enhance your identification of wrong answers
and your test performance.
The first alert relates to the test-makers use
of absolutes and qualifiersalways, never, some,
few, all, none, every, many, and similar terms
usually flag a pivotal or decisive condition. When
you encounter an absolute or a qualifier in a
statement or answer option, focus your full
attention on its implications within the question
context. It is not coincidentalthe use of an
absolute or qualifier is intentional and significant.
The test-makers use of negatives and
exceptions is frequently an obfuscation strategy.
Be alert to NOT, EXCEPT, and their progeny and
relatives (they are usually capitalized, as shown
here). The rate of best-answer selection falls
substantially for many test-takers when negatives
and exceptions are involved. Because the large
majority of LSAT statements, questions, and
answer options involve positives, you anticipate a
positive and often overlook a negative. So, when
you first see a negative or an exception in a
statement, question, or answer option, note it
boldly to keep yourself alert to the point as you
work through the question.
When a double negative appearsa NOT in
the statement and a CANNOT in the question, or a
CANNOT in the question and a NOT in an answer
optiona double alert is called for. A similar
double alert applies to the combination of a negative and an exception. For example, such questions as All of the following are not true EXCEPT.
. . . require redoubled concentration for you.
The mismatched answer-option structure
also deserves an alert. When you encounter an
answer-option set in which four of the options
present a similar word pattern and the fifth is totally different, your eye is drawn to the different
one as a possible answer. It usually is not.
Be alert to questions and answer options that
appear later in a series based on a single statement. You may often be attracted to an answer
because your thinking has been influenced by the
preceding questions and answer options. If you
find yourself falling prey to this phenomenon, try
considering questions and answer options out of
the sequence in which they appear. Work through
the last first or the middle last.
Be especially alert to the multiple-option
format. Recall that it appears to be more difficult
because more than one of the Roman numeral
options can satisfy the required conditions. For
most test-takers, performance suffers on questions employing this format.
walked out and passed out, blizzards have blown,

power has failed, plumbing has broken, supervisors have mistimed, fire alarms have sounded, and
mysterious smells have wafted across the room.
Anticipate the unexpected, and stay relaxed during a crisis. It will pass, and, when order is restored and the test resumes, you do not want to be
too distracted to perform at your best.
To be perfectly realistic, you will be
distracted from time to time during the manyhour test. You will lose your concentration.
When you do, take a short break. Then take
three deep breaths, exhaling slowly after each
one. Your concentration will be restored, and
you will return to maximum performance power.
If you lose all control and panic, freeze,
choke, or go blank, stop. Get up and ask
permission to leave the test room. Get a drink of
water, take a number of deep breaths, and give
yourself a chance to regroup outside the test
room. Most people quickly regain their composure, return to the test, and complete it without
further bother. If you do not regain yours, cancel
your score and go. (The cancellation process is
described later in this session.) Avoid sitting
through the test, waiting for a picture to come
onto your screen. If there is no signal from the
tower, there can be no picture on the screen.
Try again another day.
There is one overarching rule for test-takers:
conformjust for a few hours. Do not fight the
process, your plan, your techniques, the questions,
or the answer options. Forget tricks, quibbles, creativity, or proving the test-maker wrong.
Avoid leaving stray marks and incomplete
erasures on your answer sheet. Always mark
every correct answer in the test book, and write
your name on it. If your answer sheet were to be
lost, having every answer marked in a test book
with your name on it could save you from having
to retake the test. Are answer sheets lost?yes.
Often?rarely.
Assorted Alerts
As your work in previous sessions has shown
you, the techniques designed to neutralize the
test-makers obfuscation patterns and strategies
simultaneously facilitate wrong-answer identification and superior test performance. There are
also a number of patterns and strategies that the
test-maker uses episodically with all LSAT
question types. Being alert to these further
patterns and strategies while applying the other
test-taking techniques you have learned will
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LSAT Success
HOW
In addition to your name and your Social

Security (USA), Social Insurance (Canada), or
LSAS identification number, your request to
cancel must also include the test date, test
center, and test center code of the administration
involved. The score you would have received is
not reported to you or to the law schools.
DO YOU MAKE POSTTEST
DECISIONS?
Debriefing
Immediately upon completion of the test and
before you leave the test center, take a few
minutes to note particulars of the test and the
administration that you are able to remember.
For future reference, record the order of the
section-tests, the number of question sets you
completed, special difficulties encountered,
surprises, uncertainties, and the like. At some
point during the next 24 hours, review these
notes. It is desirable to conduct this debriefing
with someone elsepreferably someone familiar
with the LSAT.
The objectives of this debriefing are to
ascertain any significant discrepancies between
your test plan and your actual performance and
to identify any factors that had a negative impact
on your performance. If you deviated significantly from your test plan or encountered a
problem that you are convinced means you did
not perform well on the test, the possibility of
canceling your test score arises.
Postmortems
Reviewing test questions, answer selections, and
the like with fellow test-takers seldom provides
any reliable information about your performance.
In fact, the typical LSAT postmortem tends to
confound posttest decision making. The prospect
of getting any benefit from a postmortem is so
slight that you should make every effort to avoid
such after-test comparisons. Stick with the
debriefing as the most effective way of making
informed posttest decisions.
Retakes
There is no restriction on the number of times
you may take the LSAT. Of course, totally
different questions are used at each administration of the test. And the average of an applicants
test scores is reported to law schools in addition
to the scores themselves.
Studies done over a period of many years
show that mostbut certainly not allpeople
who retake the LSAT do score higher on the
retake. The same studies show that the increase
is small for the majority, and the score increase
appears to be even smaller when averaged. For
example, a score improvement of four points on
a retake results in an averaged score increase of
only two points.
Only when your pretest data indicate that a
large score improvement could be realized is a
retake recommended. From the perspective of
most admission committees, the reflection of a
very small or nonexistent score increase seems to
cast a shadow rather than a glow on an applicant.
Cancellation
Once the test administration has begun, your
options with respect to the test score are to do
nothing or to cancel your score. If you do
nothing, your answer sheet is scored and the
score reported. If you cancel your score, it is not
reported, but the fact that the score was
canceled is reported. Thus, you cancel your
score only when the debriefing produces solid
information that an informed person other than
yourself interprets as a significant deviation from
your test plan or a serious problem. A mere
sense of unease about your performance or a
feeling that you did not perform as well as you
might have does not constitute a clear and
convincing reason to cancel your score.
You have five working days to cancel your
test score. There is no reason to rush to cancel
with less than full information and an informed
perspective to guide your decision. If you do
decide to cancel, you must do so in writing to
LSAS, Box 2000-T, Newtown, PA 18940. A
mailgram, telegram, or letter requesting that your
score be canceled is sufficient. (At the time of
this writing, a request by fax does not meet the
stated requirements of LSAS.) You do not need to
explain your decision, so dont.
LSAT Success
WHAT
ABOUT TEST RESULTS?
The Wait
The wait for test results is relatively long. It
generally takes between four and six weeks for
results to be reported. The test-maker waits for
nearly all answer sheets to be received, processed, and checked before issuing scores. There
is no way to hurry the process along.
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SUCCESS SESSION 15
The Check
The Response
Your test score is issued on an LSAT Candidate

Report form. The report is accompanied by a
photocopy of your answer sheet and a copy of
all scored test questions.
Your LSAT answer sheet is scored by a
machine that reads the blackened bubbles and
produces a score report reflecting what was
seen. The score report also includes your
answer selection and the best selection for each
question on the test. When the two failed to
match, your perfect score was reduced by one.
Check every answer on your score report against
your answer sheet.
What the scoring machine sees is what
you get. The machine can mistakenly interpret a
stray mark, incomplete erasure, or similar
phenomenon and not give you proper credit. If
you have misplaced a series of answers, the
machine does not know. By checking your
answer sheet for any discrepancies, you can
identify problems.
The most direct way to resolve a problem
of this nature is the hand-scoring process. Upon
your request and the payment of a fee, your
answer sheet will be scored by hand, but this
will take place only after machine scoring and
score reporting are completed. Write to LSAS at
Box 2000, Newtown, PA 18940, and describe the
problem fully. Include exhibits with your
description. If, for example, you misplaced a
series of responses on your answer sheet, specify
where the misplacement started and stopped,
and indicate the misplacement on a photocopy
of the photocopy of your answer sheet. Any
verifiable problem will be resolved and a revised
score report issued.
It is very important that you complete this
checking process immediately upon receipt of
your score report.
Your test results ought to reflect your test plan.

If there is a substantial difference between the
expected and actual results, carefully review your
performance, and determine the nature and
extent of the differences. Based upon your
review, decide whether a retake of the test is
warranted.
Your test results will provide you with
options and choices. Law school admission is not
quite as predictable as the LSAT, but with some
well-guided research and counseling, realistic
options and choices can be defined clearly and
quickly acted upon. Just as you balanced your
speed and accuracy to achieve optimal performance on the LSAT section-tests, you should
balance your prospects and objectives for
admission to develop an optimal list of law
schools to which you should apply. Based upon
this list, complete your plan by applying to the
law schools that suit you.
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ARE
THERE ANY LAST WORDS OF
ADVICE?
Now that you have reached this point, you know

that there is a better way to prepare for the
LSAT. If you consistently apply the techniques
acquired through the fifteen success sessions and
three Red Alerts in this book and assiduously
avoid the reflexes developed through your many
years of academic conditioning, you will put the
LSAT in its placeworking for you.
May you take advantage of the LSAT in
every way on your test day!
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LSAT Success
LSAT Practice Tests

LAW SCHOOL ADMISSION TEST SIMULATIONS
On the following pages are two examples of what a real LSAT is like. According to the
test-taking strategies you have developed during the course of your training, you may
use these tests in one of two ways.
First, you could work only on those sections of the tests that you feel require additional practice. Use the individual section-tests of this simulation as if each is a pretest,
employing the 9-12-18 system to sharpen your test-taking techniques (Sections 1 and 3
contain Relationships problems, Sections 2 and 5 contain Arguments problems, and
Section 4 contains Passages problems). Review the sessions on the particular question
type before beginning, and be sure to follow the instructions for each section-test
carefully.
The second way to approach these simulated tests is to treat them as if you were
taking an actual LSAT. In this case, you would spend 35 minutes on each of the five
section-tests (remember the experimental section?), in effect putting the 9-12-18 system
through a dry run in preparation for this 3-hour-and-25-minute test. Work only on one
section during the 35 minutes allowed, and do not work on or review other sections.
Take a 15-minute break between Sections 3 and 4 of the test. After Section 5, spend
30 minutes on the Writing Sample.
Whichever method of working through the questions you choose, mark the best
answers in the book, and, when you have finished a question set, transfer your choices
to the answer sheet (page 162 for Practice Test 1; page 200 for Practice Test 2). For
ease of use, you might want to photocopy the answer sheet before working on the
questions.
Quick-Score Answers to Practice Test 1 are on page 191, the Explanatory Answers for
Practice Test 1 begin on page 192.
Quick-Score Answers to Practice Test 2 are on page 229, the Explanatory Answers for
Practice Test 2 begin on page 230.
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LAW SCHOOL ADMISSION TEST SIMULATIONS
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LSAT Success
Practice Test 1
SECTION 1
TIME35
(A) Vermont, Wyoming, Maine, Ohio,

Kansas
(B) Wyoming, Ohio, Kansas, Vermont,
Maine
(C) Maine, Kansas, Ohio, Vermont,
Wyoming
(D) Kansas, Maine, Wyoming, Ohio,
Vermont
(E) Ohio, Wyoming, Vermont, Kansas, Maine
Questions 16
A student is preparing a report on statehood. The
source material is incomplete, but the following
is known.
Wyoming became a state before Ohio.
Kansas became a state before Wyoming.
Ohio became a state after Maine.
5. If Utah became a state before Ohio, and

Florida became a state after Wyoming,
which of the following CANNOT be true if
Maine became a state after Utah and before
Florida?

Kansas was a state before Maine.
Maine was a state before Wyoming.
Ohio was a state before Kansas.
Wyoming was a state before Maine.
Kansas was a state before Ohio.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Kansas was a state before Maine.

Wyoming was a state before Kansas.
Maine was a state before Kansas.
Ohio was a state before Maine.
Kansas was a state before Ohio.
Utah was a state before Wyoming.

Florida was a state before Ohio.
Florida was a state before Kansas.
Maine was a state before Ohio.
Wyoming was a state before Florida.
6. If Alaska became a state after Iowa and Wyoming, which of the following must be true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
3. If Texas was a state before Maine, which of

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
24 QUESTIONS
4. If Kansas became a state before Maine,

Wyoming became a state after Maine, and
Vermont was last to become a state, which
of the following must be the order of
statehood, first to last?

best answer to each question, and mark the
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
MINUTES
Texas was a state first.

Texas was a state before Kansas.
Wyoming was a state before Texas.
Texas was a state before Ohio.
Maine was a state before Texas.
163
Alaska was a state before Maine.

Iowa was a state before Wyoming.
Iowa was a state before Ohio.
Alaska was a state before Ohio.
Kansas was a state before Alaska.
PRACTICE TEST 1
12. If the number of males related to T equals
the number of females related to T, which
of the following can be true?
Questions 712
T lives in a smaller house than her brother.
T lives in a larger house than her parents.
Ts children live with T.
T has no other relatives.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
7. If four females and two males live in smaller

houses than Ts brother, how many of Ts
children are boys and girls, respectively?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
1,
0,
2,
1,
2,
father to son
mother to daughter
daughter to mother
grandfather to grandson
son to father
children.
children.
child.
children.
children.
13. Which of the following groups consists of

riders who CANNOT take bus 1 to work on
the same day?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
S is Us son
S is Us mother
U is younger than S
S is younger than U
U and S are both female
A, D, G
D, E, F
D, E, G
E, F, G
B, D, G
14. Traveling together to work, B, C, and G

could take which of the same busses on a
given day?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
grandson
uncle
nephew
son
granddaughter
1 only
2 only
3 only
2 and 3 only
1, 2, and 3
15. The maximum number of riders who could

take bus 2 to work on a given day must be
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
11. If, of all Ts relatives who could possibly be

either older or younger than T, none are the
same age or older, how many of Ts
relatives must be younger than T?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
4
3
1
6
2
Neither E nor G takes bus 1 on a day when B

does.
G does not take bus 2 on a day when D does.
When A and F take the same bus, it is always
bus 3.
C always takes bus 3.
10. If Ts relative U is not as old as T, who is

not as old as her relative V, what relationship can U NOT be to V?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
exactly
exactly
exactly
exactly
exactly
Busses 1, 2, and 3 make one trip each day, and

they are the only ones that riders A, B, C, D, E,
F, and G take to work.
9. If Ts relative U lives in a larger house than

Ts relative S, all of the following may be
true EXCEPT
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
has
has
has
has
has
Questions 1318
0
1
1
2
0
8. If Ts relative U lives in a larger house than her

relative S, and both U and S are the same sex,
what relationship could U be to S?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
T
T
T
T
T
3
4
5
6
7
less than 2
2
2 or 3
3
more than 3
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LSAT Success
SECTION 1
16. Traveling together to work, B, D, E, F, and

G could take which of the same busses on a
given day?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
1
2
3
1
2
(A) The distance between Elmers and Bruces

houses is greater than the distance between Coras and Angelas houses.
(B) The distance between Bruces and Elmers
houses is shorter than the distance between Coras and Doras houses.
(C) Of the group, Dora lives farthest from
Cora.
(D) Cora lives closer to Dora than she
does to Angela.
(E) Elmer lives closer to Cora than Angela
does.
only
only
only
and 3 only
and 3 only
17. On a day when each of the riders takes one

of the three busses to work, exactly how
many riders CANNOT take any bus other
than bus 2?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
0
1
2
3
4
21. Which of the following statements must be

FALSE?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
18. Which of the following could be a group of

riders that takes bus 1 to work on a given day?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
A, C, E, G
A, D, E, G
A, E, F, G
B, D, E, F
B, D, E, G
22. If Bruce and Dora live east of Cora, which

of the following must be the distance
between Bruces and Doras houses?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Questions 1924
Angela, Bruce, Cora, Dora, and Elmer live at
different points along a straight east-west
highway.
(A) Dora lives closer to Elmer than Cora

does to Bruce.
(B) Cora lives closer to Dora than Elmer
does to Bruce.
(C) Elmer lives closer to Cora than Bruce
does to Elmer.
(D) Bruce lives closer to Elmer than Cora
does to Dora.
(E) Angela lives closer to Bruce than Cora
does to Elmer.

Dora lives 9 miles from Elmer.
Dora lives 2 miles from Bruce.
Angela lives 5 miles from Cora.
Elmer lives 2 miles from Bruce.
Angela lives 18 miles from Dora.
24. If Cora, starting from her house, visits Dora,

Bruce, and Elmer in that order and then
returns home, what is the smallest number
of miles she walks?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
LSAT Success
10 miles
8 miles
5 miles
4 miles
2 miles
23. If Bruce and Elmer live east of Cora, and

Dora lives west of Cora, which of the
Angela lives 5 miles away from Bruce.

Cora lives 7 miles away from Dora.
Elmer lives 2 miles away from Cora.
Bruce lives 3 miles away from Cora.
The distance between houses is measured by
straight line only.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Angela and Cora live 12 miles apart.

Angela and Dora live 5 miles apart.
Bruce and Dora live 10 miles apart.
Elmer and Dora live 9 miles apart.
Elmer and Bruce live 5 miles apart.
165
14
15
16
17
18
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PRACTICE TEST 1
SECTION 2
TIME35
24 QUESTIONS
3. A mother told her daughter, You lie too

much. You cannot be believed. When you
start telling me the truth, I will start
believing you.

Which of the following is assumed by the

mothers statement?
(A) The mother has explained what is
wrong about lying.
(B) The mother has determined that her
daughter knows what a lie is.
(C) The mother knows when the daughter
has been truthful.
(D) The mother is routinely truthful with
her daughter.
(E) The mother believes her daughter
ultimately will tell the truth.
1. Well-designed clothing was once described

as the hallmark of a stylish person. We
agree, and our clothing is designed for
stylish people. Their lifestyles are welldefined. They do everything in good taste.
And they search out well-designed clothing
as the guarantee of good workmanship.
This advertisement is intended to suggest
which of the following conclusions?
4. Manufacturing products using glass made

from sand rather than materials made from
other natural resources can save energy,
despite the fact that the initial cost is high.
(A) Well-designed clothing defines a

lifestyle.
(B) Good taste is important in clothing
design.
(C) Workmanship guarantees good design.
(D) Purchasers of this brand of clothing
will be stylish.
(E) Appearance is the hallmark of purchasers of this brand of clothing.
Which of the following, if true, does NOT

support the above argument?
(A) Manufacturing wood and metal
products requires energy that could
have been more efficiently used to
make glass.
(B) Unlike metal and wood products,
those made from glass must be
discarded rather than repaired when
they break.
(C) Aluminum products require much
more energy to produce than do those
made of glass.
(D) Fiberglass insulation is much more
energy efficient than insulation made
with other materials.
(E) Glass cookware transfers heat more
efficiently than that made from metal.
2. Native American tribes seeking monetary

reparations from the government are often
told, There is neither wealth nor wisdom
enough in the world to compensate in
money for all the wrongs in history.
Which of the following most weakens the
argument above?
(A) Prior wrongs should not be permitted
as a justification for present wrongs.
(B) Even though all wrongs cannot be
compensated for, some wrongs can
be.
(C) Since most people committed wrongs,
the government should compensate
for wrongs with money.
(D) Monetary reparations upset social
order less than other forms of reparation.
(E) Since money is the basic cause of the
wrongs, should it not be the cure?
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MINUTES
166
LSAT Success
SECTION 2
5. The United States gets 5 percent of its oil
from Mexico. If Mexico raises the price of
its oil by 20 percent, that will result in an
increase of 1 percent (5 percent times 20
percent) in the price of oil products in the
United States.
7. The policy of equal pay for women continues to erode the importance of the mothers
role in society.
The above argument can be criticized for
which of the following reasons?
(A) The importance of a role is not related
to the pay for that role.
(B) Equal pay for women is unrelated to
motherhood.
(C) All women are not mothers.
(D) Society continues to devalue motherhood.
(E) When someone gains in a society,
someone else loses.
Which of the following is an assumption

upon which the above argument depends?
(A) Oil prices in the United States are not
affected by inflation in Mexico.
(B) Other countries will not increase oil
exports to the United States.
(C) The price increase will not result in a
decrease in the sales of Mexican oil
products.
(D) People will not substitute other
products for those made from Mexican
oil.
(E) A 1 percent price increase in oil
products will not be recognized by the
buying public.
8. The Earth receives energy in the form of

heat from the sun and discharges heat
energy into space by its own emissions. The
heat energy received undergoes many
transformations. But in the long run, no
significant amount of heat energy is stored
on the Earth, and there is no continuing
trend toward higher or lower temperatures.
6. Historians, by trade, describe events that are

confused as to motive and significance.
Therefore, historians, however wellintentioned, primarily traffic in half-truths
and lies. But novelists are free from such
burdens. Even though they relate many
things that are untrue, their characterizations are not offered as true and, therefore,
are not half-truths or lies.
Which of the following sentences provides

the most logical continuation of this
paragraph?
(A) It is obvious, therefore, that much of
the heat energy that reaches the Earth
is transformed by some means not yet
understood.
(B) Thus, it is imperative that we develop
a way to use solar energy before it is
dissipated into outer space.
(C) As a result, the amount of heat energy
lost by the Earth must closely approximate the amount gained from the sun.
(D) The Earth would become as hot as the
sun without the many transformations
of heat energy.
(E) The Earths slow but persistent
receding from the sun prevents it from
overheating.
Which of the following, if true, would be an

extension of the argument above?
(A) Historians and novelists, by trade,
characterize events and, therefore, are
required to deal in half-truths and lies.
(B) Poets offer their writing as truth in
perception and, thus, do not deal in
half-truths and lies.
(C) Journalists report on motives and the
significance of events and, like
historians, traffic primarily in halftruths and lies.
(D) Nonfiction writers select information
to support their point and, thus, deal
in half-truths.
(E) Economists characterize statistics and,
therefore, do not deal in half-truths
and lies.
LSAT Success
167
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PRACTICE TEST 1
11. Which of the following can be inferred
from the paragraph above?
Questions 910
Lecturer: On average, the majority of Americans
enjoy the highest standard of living of any people
in the world.
(A) No film affects any 2 individuals in the

same way.
(B) The causal connection between
specific acts and exposure to specific
films is not established.
(C) We cannot anticipate the abuses to
which censorship may lead.
(D) People not exposed to morally
offensive works will commit socially
offensive acts.
(E) There can be no relationship between
a general principle and specific
practices.
Critic: There are thousands of Americans who have

annual incomes of less than $3,000 per year.
critics response?
(A) It is not inconsistent with the lecturers statement.
(B) It cites data confirming the lecturers
statement.
(C) It fails to distinguish between cause
and effect.
(D) It generalizes from too small a number
of cases.
(E) It resorts to emotional language.
12. The paragraph questions the position that

censorship is wrong in principle by
(A) pointing out the ambiguity of a key
term
(B) rehearsing facts that are not generally
known
(C) questioning the truth of a factual
generalization
(D) exposing a logical inconsistency
(E) presenting a hypothetical case
10. A logical criticism of the lecturers statement would focus on the existence of
(A) a country in which the majority of
people enjoy a higher standard of
living than that of the American
people
(B) a country with a higher level of
employment than America
(C) poor Americans who receive federal
aid
(D) a higher level of inflation in America
than in other countries
(E) many poor American families that are
so isolated that they are not included
in statistical surveys
13. No Vikings carried watches. Some Vikings

were explorers. Therefore, some explorers
did not carry watches.
Which of the following is logically most
similar to the argument above?
(A) Everyone who eats too much candy
will be sick. I do not eat too much
candy and will, therefore, probably
avoid sickness.
(B) All dogs are excluded from this motel,
but many dogs are friendly. Therefore,
some friendly animals are kept out of
this motel.
(C) People who want to avoid the pain of
dental work will see the dentist twice
a year. My children refuse to have
their cavities filled. Therefore, my
children like pain.
(D) Some who are athletic are young
people, and all young people can run.
Therefore, everyone who can run is
young.
(E) Hawaii is a beautiful place. Some Hawaiians emigrate to California. Therefore,
California is a beautiful place.
Questions 1112
The position that the prohibition of morally
offensive works is wrong in principle is hardly
tenable. There certainly are circumstances in
which censorship could be desirable. If it were
shown that all or most people of a certain type
who saw a film thereafter committed a burglary
or murder that they would not otherwise have
committed, no one would deny that public
exhibition of the film should be prohibited. To
admit this is to admit that censorship is not
wrong in principle. But to approve the principle
of censorship on these grounds does not, of
course, commit one to approve censorship in
every form.
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168
LSAT Success
SECTION 2
14. Many people confuse reasons and causes.
Any justification for performing an action is
a reason. Anything that makes performing
an action necessary is a causefor example,
a strong urge, hunger, an intense desire,
social pressure, or some brain disorder.
Those people who believe that the same
thing may be both a reason for performing
an action and its cause are clearly mistaken.
16. Doctor: The law of genetics holds that if

both parents have brown eyes, then they
can have only brown-eyed children.
Patient: That is not true; my mother has
blue eyes, and I have brown eyes.
The patient has misinterpreted the doctors
statement to mean that
(A) only brown-eyed people can have
blue-eyed children
(B) brown-eyed people cannot have
blue-eyed children
(C) people with blue eyes invariably have
blue-eyed children
(D) parents with the same eye color have
children with a different eye color
(E) parents with different eye colors have
children with the same eye color
Which of the above examples of a cause

that makes an action necessary best fits the
description of a cause of an action rather
than a justification for it?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
hunger
some brain disorder
social pressure
a strong urge
an intense desire
17. Certain similarities between prehistoric art

and the art of children has led some people
to the mistaken conclusion that either early
humans had the mentality of children or
that they were as unskilled as children.
These conclusions assume which of the
following?
15. One form of reasoning holds that by

eliminating all possible explanations until
only one remains, that one should be
accepted. Critics argue that the flaw in this
form of reasoning is that one cannot know
about all possible explanations.
Which of the following examples best
supports this criticism?
(A) Art that is considered sophisticated

today must always have been considered sophisticated.
(B) What is easy for humans today must
always have been easy.
(C) The significance of art is consistent
over time.
(D) Prehistoric humans painted in the
same way that children now paint.
(E) Modern humans have learned from
prehistoric man.
(A) the possible causes of heart disease

(B) the possible results of rolling dice
(C) the possible family members who left
the house unlocked
(D) the possible candidates running for
mayor of Atlanta, Georgia
(E) the possible countries with nuclear
weapons
LSAT Success
169
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PRACTICE TEST 1
18. During the cultural revolution in China
under Chairman Mao, thousands of enemies of the republic were killed. When
Maos critics accused him of confusing his
personal enemies with enemies of the
republic, he responded, I deny the
accusation, and the proof is that you are
still alive.
20. In his latest book, John does some clever

writing, but even he might have been
encouraged to use more everyday language.
Which of the following has a logical
structure most like that of the above
statement?
(A) The fertilizer serves some valuable
purposes, but the smell of it when it is
used is offensive.
(B) The latest sermon was effective as
inspirational writing, but it did not
offer the path to realizing the objectives it outlined.
(C) The stars last movie contained the
usual bit of impressive acting, but her
director should have advised her to act
more like an average person.
(D) The chef at the resort makes wonderful desserts, but the manager should
explain how to portion them more
reasonably.
(E) Cage was a brilliant composer, but
only a few people are able to understand his music.
Which of the following assumptions was

Mao making?
(A) All the enemies of the republic are
dead.
(B) His critics are his personal enemies.
(C) Some personal enemies are also
enemies of the republic.
(D) Enemies of the republic are not
personal critics.
(E) Those killed were personal enemies.
19. Today, neither scientists nor the pharmaceutical companies for which they work are
willing to run the risk of being wrong. In
the past, these scientists were encouraged
to experiment with imaginative hypotheses
that had a high probability of failure. If this
situation continues, the countrys drugdevelopment work will come to a standstill.
21. The end of overcrowding at colleges and

universities provides them with the opportunity to improve the quality of the educational services they offer. As enrollment
declines, services and campus facilities
should better serve student needs.
The point of the argument above is that

(A) scientists are too concerned about
failure
(B) scientists are not concerned about the
outcome of experimentation
(C) risk should be an issue in experimental research
(D) scientific advances repay extensive
experimentation
(E) support for drug research is vanishing
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If true, which of the following statements

most weakens the above conclusion?
(A) The quality of educational services
does not depend on the variety of
services offered.
(B) Fees paid by students are the major
source of funding for educational
services.
(C) Educational services are a critical
factor in a students choice of school.
(D) As campus facilities grow older, their
maintenance becomes more expensive.
(E) Student needs are different than they
were when colleges and universities
were overcrowded.
170
LSAT Success
SECTION 2
22. When pregnant laboratory rats are given
caffeine equivalent to the amount a human
would consume by drinking six cups of
coffee per day, an increase in the incidence
of birth defects results. When asked if the
government would require warning labels
on products containing caffeine, a spokesperson stated that it would not, because if
the finding of these studies were to be
refuted in the future, the government would
lose credibility.
24. Sam: Olive oil can help prevent heart

attacks, according to physicians.
Betty: It cannot. My mother cooked with
olive oil her entire life, and she died of a
heart attack last year.
Bettys statement can best be countered by
pointing out that
(A) Bettys mother was an exception
(B) other factors could have nullified the
influence of the olive oil
(C) Betty does not know that her mother
always cooked with olive oil
(D) It has never been scientifically proven
that olive oil causes heart attacks
(E) Bettys mother might have used olive
oil irregularly
Which of the following is most strongly

suggested by the governments statement
above?
(A) A warning that applies to a small
population is inappropriate.
(B) Very few people drink as many as six
cups of coffee a day.
(C) There are doubts about the conclusive
nature of studies on animals.
(D) Studies on rats provide little data
about human birth defects.
(E) The seriousness of birth defects
involving caffeine is not clear.
23. The Mercers are avid sailors. They have a
child who will never be able to accompany
them sailing because he is afraid of water.
Upon which of the following assumptions
does the conclusion above depend?
(A) The Mercers will not take their child
sailing.
(B) Avid sailors are not afraid of water.
(C) The Mercers child will never want to
sail.
(D) Sailors cannot be afraid of water.
(E) The Mercers child may overcome his
fear of water.
LSAT Success
171
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PRACTICE TEST 1
SECTION 3
TIME35
2. If F is located due north of the Central

Office, which of the following could be
true?

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Questions 16
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
A is northwest of the Central Office.

B is northeast of the Central Office.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
D is south (but not necessarily due south)

of the Central Office.
E is southwest of the Central Office.
A is farther north than C and farther west
than D.
located
located
located
located
located
due north of G.
west of E.
east of B.
due west of C.
due north of E.
farther east than B

north of the Central Office
farther south than B
farther south than A
south of the Central Office
southwest of A
northeast of C
southeast of E
southeast of G
northwest of G

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
E is farther west than A.

G is southeast of the Central Office and
farther east than B.
1. If a delivery truck travels in a straight line
from E to the Central Office and continues
in exactly the same direction, it could pass
directly by which of the following?
B is precisely midway between E and G.

B is precisely midway between C and D.
B is precisely midway between C and E.
G is precisely midway between C and E.
D is precisely midway between C and E.
6. If G is southeast of D, and D is farther east

than B, which of the following must be
true?
(A) The Central Office is closer to D than
to G.
(B) E is closer to D than to G.
(C) E is closer to G than to D.
(D) E is closer to the Central Office than
to G.
(E) C is closer to D than to G.
northwest corner of D
southeast corner of G
northwest corner of A
west side of A
east side of G
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is
is
is
is
is
4. Which of the following CANNOT be the

location of D?
C is northeast of the Central Office, but C

is located farther east than B.
the
the
the
the
the
F
F
F
F
F
3. A restaurant located precisely midway

between C and G must be
A restaurant franchise has several locations in

Ames County that are designated by the letters A,
B, C, D, etc. The restaurants have the following
relationships to the Central Office and one
another:
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
24 QUESTIONS
MINUTES
172
LSAT Success
SECTION 3
9. If J, the secretary, must sit across from one
of the trustees, how might the officers be
arranged clockwise in order to satisfy all
conditions?
Questions 712
Six college officersH, I, J, K, L, and Mare
seated at equal distances around a circular table
according to a list of personal preferences
submitted by each officer.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
The secretary and the treasurer have no

preference as to where they sit.
The president must be seated directly
opposite the vice president.
10. If the president has M to her right and H to

her left, which is NOT an acceptable
arrangement for the other three officers,
assuming that their order starts with H and
goes around the table clockwise?
The 2 trustees cannot sit together.

H must sit next to either J or K.
While it is unclear who occupies which
office, M is neither the president nor a
trustee.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
The vice president is either L or J.

Either H or I or both are trustees.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
J is the vice president

H is a trustee
I is the president
K is the treasurer
M is the secretary
I and K
H and J
H and K
I and J
H and L
12. If the officers are seated around the table

clockwise in the order H, J, K, L, M, and I,
all of the following must be true EXCEPT
8. If H is seated between K and L, and M is

seated opposite H, what is a complete and
accurate listing of every officer who could
be sitting next to M?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(A) president, vice president

(B) president, vice president, secretary
(C) president, vice president, trustee,
secretary, treasurer
(D) trustee, secretary, treasurer
(E) vice president, trustee, secretary,
treasurer
LSAT Success
J, K, L
I, J, L
K, J, I
K, L, I
L, J, K
11. If the officers are seated around the table

clockwise in the order J, H, I, K, M, and L,
and I is the treasurer, who are the 2
trustees?
7. If, in satisfying all of the above conditions,

the officers are seated around the table in
the order K, I, J, H, L, and M, all of the
following may be true EXCEPT
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
L, M, I, K, J, H
K, M, J, L, H, I
J, K, L, H, M, I
K, I, H, J, M, L
I, J, K, M, H, L
173
M is the secretary
H is not the treasurer
J is not the vice president
I is a trustee
either J or K is a trustee
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PRACTICE TEST 1
16. Which of the following is NOT a possible
order in which the vehicles are washed?
Questions 1318
Holly Hauling has six vehicles. The Kenworth,
Mack, and White are trucks; the Chevrolet,
Dodge, and Ford are vans.
(A) Kenworth, White, Mack,

Chevrolet, Dodge
(B) Mack, Kenworth, White,
Chevrolet
(C) Mack, White, Kenworth,
Chevrolet, Ford
(D) White, Kenworth, Mack,
Ford, Dodge
(E) White, Mack, Kenworth,
Chevrolet
Holly always fuels and washes the trucks

before the vans.
Within the respective groups, Holly fuels
the vehicles that hold comparatively more
fuel before she fuels those that hold
comparatively less.
Holly washes the vehicles in their respective groups in the opposite order of their
fueling.
Dodge,
Chevrolet,
Ford, Dodge,
(A) the Kenworth immediately before the

Chevrolet
(B) the Chevrolet immediately before the
White
(C) the White immediately before the Ford
(D) the Dodge immediately before the
Mack
(E) the Ford immediately before the
Dodge
The Dodge holds more than the Mack, and

no vehicle holds both less than the Dodge
and more than the Mack.
Only the Ford and the Kenworth hold the
same amount of fuel.
13. If the Kenworth is fueled first and the
White third, which of the following must be
true?
The
The
The
The
The
Dodge, Ford,
17. Suppose Holly does not wash the trucks

first but alternates by washing a van and
then a truck. If the Mack is fueled first, it
would NOT be possible for which pair of
vehicles to be washed sequentially?
The White holds more fuel than the

Chevrolet, and no vehicle holds both more
than the Chevrolet and less than the White.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Ford,
18. If Holly fuels the trucks after the vans on a

day the White is washed second and the
Dodge is washed fourth, the order of
fueling must be
Ford is fueled fifth.

Ford is fueled last.
Chevrolet is fueled fifth.
Chevrolet is fueled last.
Dodge is fueled fourth.
(A) Chevrolet, Dodge, Ford,

Kenworth
(B) Chevrolet, Ford, Dodge,
Kenworth, Mack
(C) Ford, Chevrolet, Dodge,
White, Mack
(D) Ford, Dodge, Chevrolet,
Mack, White
(E) Dodge, Chevrolet, Ford,
Kenworth
14. If the White is washed first, which of the

following could NOT be possible?
(A) The Kenworth is fueled before the
White.
(B) The Mack is fueled before the Kenworth.
(C) The Chevrolet is fueled before the
Ford.
(D) The Dodge is fueled after the Ford.
(E) The Ford is fueled before the Chevrolet.
White, Mack,
White,
Kenworth,
Kenworth,
Mack, White,
15. If the Mack is fueled first and the White

third, which of the following must be true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
The
The
The
The
The
Ford is washed first.

Dodge is washed second.
Kenworth is washed second.
White is washed third.
Chevrolet is washed third.
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174
LSAT Success
SECTION 3
21. If Group 1 is concrete, Group 3 must be
which of the following?
Questions 1924
There are six distinct building groups in a large
office complex. From smallest to largest,
respectively, the groups are constructed of
aluminum, brick, concrete, glass, stone, and
wood. The building groups are designated
Groups 1 through 6.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Group 1, which is not stone, is larger than

Group 3.
22. Which of the following CANNOT be a

possible arrangement of the groups from
smallest to largest?
Group 2 is larger than Group 5 and

Group 6.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Group 2 is smaller than Group 4.

Group 3 is larger than Group 6.
19. What material must Group 6 be made of if
Group 3 is smaller than Group 5?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
aluminum
brick
concrete
glass
stone
5,
6,
6,
6,
6,
LSAT Success
3,
3,
3,
3,
5,
6,
1,
1,
5,
3,
1,
5,
2,
2,
2,
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
2,
2,
5,
1,
1,
5,
5,
6,
6,
6,
6,
6,
5,
5,
5,
3,
3,
2,
3,
4,
1,
2,
4,
1,
3,
2,
4,
3,
2,
2,
4
1
1
4
1
23. If Group 5 is glass, Group 2 could be made

of which of the following materials?
20. From smallest to largest, which of the

following is a possible arrangement of the
groups?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
aluminum
brick
glass
stone
wood
concrete
stone
wood
brick
aluminum
24. If Group 4 is stone, Group 1 could be made

of which of the following materials?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
4
4
4
4
4
175
concrete
glass
brick
aluminum
wood
www.petersons.com
PRACTICE TEST 1
SECTION 4
TIME35

sheet.
MINUTES
45
50
Line
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
A. L. Macfie makes the distinction between

what he calls the Scottish method, characteristic of Adam Smiths approach to
problems of social policy, and the scientific
or analytical method, which is more familiar
to modern social scientists. In the former,
the center of attention lay in the society as
observed rather than in the idealized
version of the society considered as an
abstraction. Smith did have an underlying
model or paradigm for social interaction; he
could scarcely have discussed reforms
without one. But his interest was in making
the existing social structure work better,
in terms of the norms that he laid down,
rather than in evaluating the possible
limitations of the structure as it might work
ideally if organized on specific principles.
Frank Knight suggested that critics of
the free-enterprise system are seldom clear
as to whether they object to the system
because it does not work in accordance
with its idealized principles or because it
does, in fact, work in some approximation
to these principles. There is no such
uncertainty with respect to Adam Smith. He
was critical of the economic order of his
time because it did not work in accordance
with the principles of natural liberty. He
was not, and need not have been, overly
concerned with some ultimate evaluation of
an idealized structure.
Smiths methodology has been turned
on its head by many modern scientists. The
post-Pigovian theory of welfare economics
has largely, if not entirely, consisted of a
search for conceptual flaws in the working
of an idealized competitive economic order,
conceived independently of the flawed and
imperfect order that may be observed to
exist. Partial correctives are offered in both
the theory of the second-best and in the
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70
28 QUESTIONS
still-emerging theory of public choice, but

the perfect-competition paradigm continues
to dominate applied economic policy
discussions.
This methodological distinction is
important in our examination of Smiths
conception of justice. In one sense, John
Rawlss efforts in defining and delineating
a theory of justice are akin to those of the
neoclassical economists who first described
the idealized competitive economy. By
contrast, Adam Smith saw no need for
defining in great detail the idealized
operation of a market system and for
evaluating this system in terms of strict
efficiency criteria. Similarly, he would have
seen no need for elaborating in detail a
complete theory of justice for defining
those principles that must be operative in a
society that would be adjudged to be just.
In comparing Smith with Rawls, therefore,
we must somehow bridge the contrasting
methodologies. We can make an attempt to
infer from Smiths applied discussion of real
problems what his idealized principles of
justice might have embodied. Or we can
infer from John Rawlss treatment of
idealized principles what his particular
application of these might be in an
institutional context.

passages objective?
(A) distinguishing between the Scottish
and Pigovian theories of justice
(B) supporting Adam Smiths concept of
justice
(C) comparing Smiths and Rawlss views
of a just society
(D) supporting John Rawlss theory of
justice
(E) analyzing the contrasting methodologies of Smith and Rawls
176
LSAT Success
SECTION 4
2. According to the passage, all of the following are methods used to explain social
policy EXCEPT
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
the
the
the
the
the
6. Which of the following is most likely to be

the next sentence of the passage?
(A) Since Smith planned a book on
jurisprudence, there is a reason to
develop his theory of justice.
(B) The practical application of theories of
what is just is guided by principles
of natural justice.
(C) In what follows, both of these routes
will be explored.
(D) Neither Rawls nor Smith was successful in dealing with real problems.
(E) Rawlss theory of justice is difficult
to apply to questions of natural liberty.
Scottish method
theory of welfare economics
perfect-competition paradigm
scientific method
principles of natural liberty
3. According to the passage, John Rawlss

theory of justice is similar to which of the
following?
(A) the description of the free-enterprise
system
(B) the description of the efficiency of the
market system
(C) the description of the idealized
structure of natural liberty
(D) the description of the idealized
competitive economy
(E) the description of the society considered as an abstraction
7. The authors purpose in finding a bridge

between the Rawls and Smith methodologies (lines 6365) is to
(A) facilitate understanding of their
philosophies
(B) identify principles that each feels are
just
(C) explore their views toward an
idealized market system
(D) permit comparison of their concepts
of justice
(E) support their attempts to reform
society
4. It can be inferred from the passage that

Adam Smith was
(A) not interested in achieving a just
society
(B) concerned with improving the
operation of society
(C) not worried about efficiency in the
(D) indifferent to the economic operation
of society
(E) anxious to achieve an idealized
Line
5. The author of the passage is presenting

10
(A) a recitation of methods of approaching

social problems
(B) an analysis of various economic
systems
(C) a comparison of the theories of
Knight, Rawls, and Smith
(D) an exposition of various theories of
justice
(E) an argument supporting idealized
versions of social order
15
20
25
LSAT Success
177
Many, perhaps most, well-disposed,

practical people would, if they had to
designate a philosophy that comes closest
to expressing their unstated principles, pick
utilitarianism. The philosophy that proclaims as its sovereign criterion the
procuring of the greatest good for the
greatest number has indeed served as a
powerful engine of legal reform and
rationalization. And it is a crucial feature of
utilitarianism that it is consequences that
count. Now it is interesting that some
judgments that are actually made in the law
and elsewhere do not appear to accord
with this thoroughgoing consequentialism.
For instance, both in law and morals there
are many instances of a distinction being
made between direct and indirect intentioni.e., the distinction between, on the
one hand, the doing of evil as an end in
itself or, on the other hand, bringing about
the same evil result as a consequence of
ones direct ends or means. So also the
distinction is drawn between the consequences that we bring about by our actions
www.petersons.com
PRACTICE TEST 1
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
8. The authors point in the passage is

primarily that
and consequences that come about through

our failures to act. Also, when bad consequences ensue from our actions and what
was done was in the exercise of a right or
privilege, the law is less likely to lay those
bad consequences at our doorstep. And,
finally, if the only way to prevent some
great harm would be by inflicting a lesser
harm on ourselves or on others, then too
the law is inclined to absolve us of responsibility for that avoidable greater harm. It is
as if the net value of the consequences
were not crucial, at least where net benefit
is procured by the intentional infliction of
harm.
Not only are these distinctions drawn
in some moral systems, but there are
numerous places in the law where they are
made regularly. Since in utilitarianism and
consequentialism in general the ultimate
questions must always be whether and to
what extent the valued end-state (be it
happiness or possession of true knowledge)
is obtained at a particular moment, it is
inevitable that the judgments on the human
agencies that may affect this end-state must
be wholly instrumental: Human actions can
be judged only by their tendency to
produce the relevant end-states.
Indeed, it may well be that even the
point and contents of normative judgmentswhether legal or moralare
concerned not just with particular endstates of the world but also with how
end-states are brought about. These kinds
of substantive judgments take the form:
There are some things one should just
never dokill an innocent person, falsely
accuse a defendant in a criminal proceeding, engage in sex for pay. These are to be
contrasted to judgments that this or that is
an unfortunate, perhaps terrible, result that
(other things being equal) one would want
to avoid. The former arevery generally
judgments of right and wrong. It is wrong
to do this or that, even if the balance of
advantages favors it; a person is right to do
some particular thing (help a friend, protect
his clients interests) even though more
good will come if he does not.
www.petersons.com
(A) law and utilitarianism are not always

compatible
(B) utilitarianism is the operating philosophy of most people
(C) consequentialism is the basis for legal
reform
(D) direct and indirect intentions lead to
different end-states
(E) judgments about human actions can
be made only by the resulting endstates
9. Which of the following is NOT a feature of
utilitarianism?
(A) Results are considered important.
(B) Consequences are considered important.
(C) The valued end-state is considered
important.
(D) The means of achieving results are
considered important.
(E) The net value of consequences is
considered important.
10. Which of the following is an example of
judgments that may conflict with the
utilitarian philosophy?
(A) It is legally acceptable to base judgements on the net consequences of
acts.
(B) It is legally acceptable to act for the
greatest good to the greatest number.
(C) It is legally acceptable for human
actions that produce more harm than
good to be punished.
(D) It is legally acceptable for bad consequences to flow from the exercise of
an individuals right or privilege.
(E) It is not legally acceptable to avoid a
small harm to oneself, even if the
result is a great harm to another.
178
LSAT Success
SECTION 4
15
11. The point of the last paragraph is to

(A) explain the differences between
utilitarianism and consequentialism
(B) contrast judgments of right and wrong
with other types of judgments
(C) discuss the role of intention in both
law and words
(D) distinguish between the results of
actions and inaction
(E) develop a rationale upon which to
judge human actions
20
25
12. It can be inferred from the passage that the

author is concerned with which of the
following?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
30
legal reform
false accusations
results of human inaction
means used to produce results
aspirations producing human action
35
13. The passage suggests that utilitarianism

(A) explains all legal and moral judgments
(B) explains only judgments of right and
wrong
(C) explains some judgments in law and
morals
(D) explains judgments of direct and
indirect intentions
(E) explains judgments of right and
privilege
40
45
14. The authors attitude about utilitarianism as

a philosophy is best described as
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Line
10
somewhat critical
generally supportive
mostly accepting
totally convinced
nearly convinced
50
55
Although lawyers frequently reason in

terms of models, they tend to reason, in
Henry Steiners terms, in prose models. I
think there are some real advantages of the
symbolic-logic type of reasoning in the law.
Although lawyers pride themselves on their
method of argumentation and on being
logicians, actually a lot of their arguments
are very flabby. One way of teasing them is
to say, Well, lets write this problem down
in formal terms and abstract systems; lets
agree on a rigorous abstract definition of
this concept or behavioral principle and
derive its logical implications. And then
LSAT Success
60
65
179
you allege that two situations they consider

as absolutely distinct are really formally
identical. That is what the model says. And
if they are not formally identical, what
really is the distinction? How has the model
been misspecified? You ask them whether
they may be making a distinction without a
difference.
I think that the benefit of formal logic
is that it sets out very nakedly, with all of
its warts and pimples exposed, whatever
difficulties there are in the argumentation.
By using prose, a lot of that is swept under
the carpet. Lawyers invoke the forces of
equity and fairness on both sides of
precisely the same set of facts. Two
arguments produce equity and fairness
clearly or obviously, as they put it, while
pointing in different directions.
Formal models can be built assuming
that all people act in accord with the
Kantian categorical imperativeor pick any
principle you want. The desirable thing is
to write it down, to define your terms as
well as you can, say what you mean, and
then argue about it.
Those of us who have been making
models for a long time realize that all
models are bad, but some models are worse
than others. Part of the seduction of
mathematical models is that they look
much more rigorous than they are. They
are always abstractions; there is always
something wrong with them, something left
out of consideration. But I think that this is
no less true in the physical sciences, where
the models are supposed to be very good.
My chemist friends tell me that the
fundamental laws of chemistry are contradicted every day in the laboratory. In the
last analysis, I think the way one ought to
look at this is as a method of argumentation. I feel that for a lot of uses in the law,
it will demonstrate to you problems you did
not think existed, inconsistencies, and
incidences of illogic. Although we are never
going to get all of the answers from formal
models, we would be foolish not to take
them for what they are worth.
And if the Landes and Posner thesis
stimulated this argument, that is precisely
what writing it down is supposed to
accomplish.
www.petersons.com
PRACTICE TEST 1
15. The passage can best be summarized as
20. The passage indicates that models are used

as all of the following EXCEPT
(A) an analysis of law as a social science

(B) a comparison of formal and flabby
models
(C) an argument for the use of formal
models by lawyers
(D) a criticism of the method of argumentation of lawyers
(E) a challenge to the value of models in
the sciences
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
as a method of argumentation
as a source of answers to problems
as a form of reasoning used by lawyers
as a method to identify problems with
logic
(E) as a technique to ensure equity

weakens the authors argument about
formal models?

following applies to both prose models and
formal models?
(A) Abstract symbols are the same as words.

(B) Behavioral principles are hard to
reduce to abstract symbols.
(C) Models are regularly contradicted by facts.
(D) Formal models are as illogical as prose
models.
(E) Prose models are routinely used by
scientists.
(A) expose all imperfections

(B) require precise definition of terms
(C) appear to be more rigorous than they
are
(D) not demonstrably useful in the law
(E) a method of argumentation
17. The author contends that all of the following are benefits of using formal models
EXCEPT
22. Which of the following is implied by the

author of the passage?
(A) Symbols are inefficient expressions of
behavioral principles.
(B) A lawyer should not use an argument
on both sides of a set of facts.
(C) Prose is not a useful form of argumentation.
(D) Omissions are a problem with formal
models.
(E) Mathematical inconsistencies are a
problem with formal models.
(A) determining that an argument is

making a distinction without a
difference
(B) locating something left out of consideration
(C) demonstrating inconsistencies in an
argument
(D) setting out difficulties with the form of
argumentation
(E) assisting in the derivation of the
logical implications of an argument
Line
18. The author defines a flabby argument (line

9) as one that
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
is
is
is
is
is
not internally contradicted

presented in prose
too abstract
not logically rigorous
formally identical to another
10
19. According to the passage, the primary

purpose of writing it down is to
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
avoid contradictions in arguments

pick the principle for the model
provide the basis for argumentation
determine the worth of an argument
identify distinctions without differences
15
20
www.petersons.com
180
Applying communications theory to legal

discourse has foundered on a lack of clear
conception of what the theory means in
the context of law and can tell attorneys
about the legal process. Communications
theory is not a unified body of thought. It
has three quite distinct branches. The first,
syntactics, is concerned with the logical
arrangement, transmission, and receipt of
signals or signs. The second is semantics,
which is concerned with the meaning of
signals to people. The third is pragmatics,
which is the study of the impact of signal
transmission on human behavior.
The key concepts of syntactics are
information, redundancy, and feedback, of which the first two are best
discussed together. For the telegraphic
engineer, information is the content of the
signal that could not have been predicted
LSAT Success
SECTION 4
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
23. The passage can best be characterized as
by the receiver; it is a probability concept.

The more probable the transmission of a
given sign, the less information its actual
transmission conveys. Redundancy is the
opposite of information. It is the introduction of repetition or pattern into the
message. If the telegrapher sends each
message twice, his second sending is
redundant and contains less information
than his first.
The ideal transmission, then, in terms
of pure information, would contain no
repetition and no pattern. The engineer
finds it wise, however, to introduce
redundancy at the cost of reducing the
information content of the message,
because otherwise, any loss of information
due to malfunctions in the transmission
system would be undetectable and irremediable. It is only when we can predict, at
least partially, what message we are going
to receive that we can spot an erroneous
transmission or substitution in the message
and call for its correction. The ideal
message, then, will contain the highest
proportion of information and the lowest
proportion of redundancy necessary to
identify and correct errors in transmission.
Thus it will be seen that redundancy
and information, in syntactic terms, are
reciprocals of each other. But the situation
is more complicated when we consider the
semantic dimension of communication, for
both information and redundancy convey
meaning. And the line is even more blurred
when we consider the pragmatics of
communication. Weakland has said, There
is no redundancy, his point being, of
course, that repetitions and patterns in
messages do have significance to participants in the communication process. Such
redundancies carry a freight of meaning,
knowledge, and stimuli to the receiver and
in this important sense are not redundant.
In the law, the strongest argument
that an attorney can make is that the
current case is on all fours with many
previous cases, all of which were decided
by repeatedly applying the same legal
principle. So it is that, in terms of communications theory, the rules of legal discourse
seem to require attorneys to suppress as
much information and transmit as much
redundancy as possible.
LSAT Success
(A) an explanation of the principles of

communications theory
(B) a description of conflict between
information and redundancy
(C) an interpretation of syntactics applied
to aspects of legal discourse
(D) an exposition of redundancy
(E) a review of the branches of thought in
following describes an ideal transmission in
terms of pure information?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
A, 2, #, +, s, ?, c, p, %, $
A, C, A, E, A, G, A, I, A, K
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
@, %, &, @, %, &, @, %, &
8, 1, 9, 1, 7, 1, 6, 1, 5, 1, 4, 1

following is an unambiguous example of
syntactic redundancy?
(A) the transmission of the dash in
dot-dot-dash
(B) the transmission of the dash in
dot-dot-dash when two dots are always
followed by a dash
(C) the transmission of a dot in dot-dotdash
(D) the transmission of a dot when two
dashes are never followed by a dot
(E) the transmission of the dash in
dot-dot-dash when two dots are never
followed by a dash
26. In the context of the passage, on all fours
(line 67) most likely refers to
(A) a type of information in terms of
(B) a legal principle that is applied to
many different cases
(C) the most recent example in a series of
cases
(D) a type of argument lawyers use to
distinguish one case from another
(E) a case that is exactly the same as
previous cases
181
www.petersons.com
PRACTICE TEST 1
following is NOT true?
28. Which of the following best reflects the

authors view about the application of
communications theory to legal discourse?
(A) Patterns in messages are significant to

communicating.
(B) Legal discourse requires maximum
redundancy.
(C) Information in a message can be
predicted by a telegraphic engineer.
(D) Redundancy in a message reduces the
information transmitted.
(E) Information is the opposite of redundancy.
www.petersons.com
(A) Syntactics tell lawyers very little about

the legal process.
(B) Redundancy accounts for the difference between strong and weak legal
arguments.
(C) Engineering, not law, has been the
profession making use of communications theory.
(D) Communications theory is too difficult
for lawyers to understand clearly.
(E) Legal discourse is dominated by the
attempt to present pure information.
182
LSAT Success
SECTION 5
SECTION 5
TIME35 MINUTES
3. Some psychologists believe that humans,

like porpoises, are benevolent creatures by
nature. These psychologists assume that
human nature is essentially disposed to
benevolent conduct. To account for social
evils, psychologists have to blame institutions that corrupt the native disposition of
humans.

The psychologists argument described

above would be most strengthened if it
were to explain how
1. There are no great writers in Largo because

freedom of expression does not exist there.
The conclusion above depends upon which
of the following assumptions?
(A) a way of life consistent with benevolent ideals is possible in the modern
world
(B) people can be persuaded to abandon
technology, urbanization, and mass
production
(C) benevolent conduct can result from
humans living in accordance with
their own natural dispositions
(D) benevolent dispositions give rise to
evil institutions
(E) corrupt institutions can be eliminated
or reformed
(A) In the absence of freedom of expression, great writers do not develop.

(B) If there is freedom of expression,
there will be many great writers.
(C) Where there is no freedom of expression, great writers turn to politics.
(D) Great writers leave places that do not
have freedom of expression.
(E) Great writers must express themselves
freely.
2. Archaeologists have determined that the
bison was the primary source of meat for
the cave dwellers, but their caves also
contained the bones of birds, snakes, and
fish, which indicates that they also liked to
eat these animals.
4. Whenever the sky is cloudy and rain is

falling, Bob wears his slicker. Whenever the
sky is cloudy and rain is not falling, Bob ties
his slicker around his waist. Sometimes rain
falls when the sky is not cloudy.
If the statements above are true, and it is
true that Bob is not wearing his slicker,
which of the following must also be true?
Which of the following, if true, would

weaken the conclusion reached in the
statement above?
(A) Bob has tied his slicker around his

waist.
(B) The sky is not overcast.
(C) The sky is not cloudy, and rain is not
falling.
(D) The sky is cloudy, and/or rain is not
falling.
(E) The sky is not cloudy, and/or rain is
not falling.
(A) Drawings of snakes and fish were

made by cave dwellers.
(B) Cave dwellers were not always able to
eat what they liked.
(C) Birds, rather than cave dwellers, may
have brought snakes and fish to the
caves to eat.
(D) Cave dwellers ate grains and berries.
(E) The bones of birds, snakes, and fish
found in the caves were from small
animals.
LSAT Success
24 QUESTIONS
183
www.petersons.com
PRACTICE TEST 1
5. Only excellent musicians can be professors at
Juilliard. No insensitive people are great lovers of poetry. No one who is not sensitive
can be a lover. There are no excellent musicians who are not great lovers of poetry.
Therefore, all Juilliard professors are lovers.
8. Because coal is a nonrenewable resource,

states that produce coal will experience
problems that will never be faced by the
lumber-processing industry.
weakens this argument?
Which of the following inferences leading

to the conclusion above is NOT valid?
(A) The resources required to log forests

cannot be replenished.
(B) States with economies dominated by
coal are trying to develop forest
products.
(C) Lumber-producing states must secure
much of the food they require from
other states.
(D) Renewable resources are a significant
part of the economies of coalproducing states.
(E) Coal-producing states depend on
money from coal sales to buy lumber.
(A) All Juilliard professors are excellent

musicians.
(B) Juilliard professors are sensitive people.
(C) Sensitive people are lovers.
(D) Great lovers of poetry are sensitive
people.
(E) Excellent musicians are great lovers of
poetry.
6. Since plaznium evaporates in air, and this
cube did not evaporate when it was
exposed to air, it is not plaznium.
9. A criminal justice study has found that 82

percent of people presented with eyewitness testimony regarding a crime were
willing to convict the accused. However,
only 58 percent of the same people were
willing to convict the accused when
presented with lie-detector, fingerprint, and
handwriting evidence from experts.
Which of the following is most like the

argument above?
(A) Since no cats have hooves, and Fifi is a
cat, Fifi does not have hooves.
(B) Since owls feed only at night, the bird
feeding in daylight is not an owl.
(C) Since this box is made of brass, and
boxes not made of brass are better
than brass boxes, this brass box is not
as good as a box not made of brass.
(D) Since chicks are never furry, and this
animal is not furry, it is not a chick.
(E) Since every Canarbik dog is black or
white, and Fido is a Canarbik, Fido
cannot be gray.
Which of the following conclusions is most

reasonably supported by the above study
results?
(A) Most crimes do not involve eyewitness
and expert testimony.
(B) An accused can only be convicted by
evidence that eliminates all reasonable
doubt.
(C) Most people do not understand expert
evidence.
(D) Prosecutors can ensure conviction by
presenting both eyewitness and expert
testimony.
(E) Jurors think eyewitness testimony
leaves less room for doubt than does
expert testimony.
7. Some ocean-liner captains are alcoholics.

Ocean-liner captains who are alcoholics are
dangerous. Every captain of an ocean liner
is responsible for the care of the passengers.
The above leads to which of the following
conclusions?
(A) All ocean-liner passengers are in the
care of an alcoholic.
(B) Some ocean-liner passengers are
dangerous when they drink.
(C) Some ocean-liner passengers are in the
care of a dangerous person.
(D) All ocean-liner captains are dangerous
when they drink.
(E) Some ocean-liner captains are dangerous when they drink.
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184
LSAT Success
SECTION 5
10. By 1997, the number of 18-year-olds will be
dramatically lower than it was in 1961,
when population growth in the United
States reached its highest point. This decline
in the number of potential college students
will result in large enrollment decreases at
colleges in the United States.
Questions 1213
Critics who claim that the sale of U.S. military
equipment to other countries is destabilizing and
leads to war take a narrow view of history. War
occurs when one country gains a military
advantage over another. By selling arms, the
United States can ensure that the military balance
among countries is maintained and war avoided.
If true, which of the following would most

weaken the conclusion of the above
argument?
12. The above argument depends on which of

the following assumptions?
(A) Colleges prospered in the 1950s with

lower enrollments than there are
today.
(B) By 1997, there will be more colleges
than there are today.
(C) Colleges will compete more aggressively for students when the number
of 18-year-olds declines sharply.
(D) In the future, more older students will
enter college than ever before.
(E) College enrollments in the 1960s were
inflated by students avoiding the draft.
(A) Arms sales by the United States do not

lead to wars between countries.
(B) Critics do not understand military
history.
(C) Countries can accurately determine
one anothers military strength.
(D) Arms imbalances stimulate conflict
between countries.
(E) Critics misunderstand the principle of
military balance between countries.
11. The contemporary film is a form of mass

entertainment rather than an important art
form. It fascinates, amuses, and distracts but
fails to elevate the human spirit and deepen
awareness. Film can be ignored if one is
looking for art rather than escape.
(A) Military equipment is usually used to

intimidate rather than to actually
conduct war.
(B) A countrys military strength depends
on military equipment rather than on
the expertise of military commanders.
(C) The sale and delivery of military
equipment is usually known only by
the two countries involved.
(D) The military advantages of all countries
are well known by the United States.
(E) Military equipment sold by the United
States to other countries is less
sophisticated than the equipment it
produces for itself.
Which of the following is NOT implied by

the argument above?
(A) When looking for art, film can be
ignored.
(B) Contemporary film is not an important
art form.
(C) Film is an amusement.
(D) In the past, film was an important art
form.
(E) Film is a form of escape.
LSAT Success
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PRACTICE TEST 1
16. Which of the following best expresses the
underlying point of the above argument?
14. A study by the motor-vehicle bureau shows

that only 3 percent of all cars fail the annual
safety inspection because of defective lights.
Consequently, the bureau has decided to
discontinue inspecting lights, because the
benefit is not worth the expense involved.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
Public welfare is the greatest good.

A justification is not a reason.
Personal privacy is an important right.
The common good is an insufficient
justification.
(E) Public rights supersede individual
privacy.
Which of the following, if true, is the greatest

weakness in the decision of the bureau?
(A) Studies in other states show that a
larger percentage of cars have
defective lights.
(B) Cars with defective lights often have
safety problems that are not part of
the inspection.
(C) Lights are maintained in good working
order because of the inspection
requirement.
(D) Most cars fail inspection for more than
one defect.
(E) Inspecting for defective lights costs
less than 2 percent of the annual
budget of the motor-vehicle bureau.
17. A study shows that there is a strong positive

relationship between voting and political
involvement.
Which of the following CANNOT be
inferred from this finding?
(A) Political involvement and voting
appear to be interrelated.
(B) People who are not involved in
politics are less likely to vote than
those who are involved.
(C) After people become involved in
politics, they vote more frequently
than before.
(D) People who vote are more likely to be
involved in politics.
(E) Voting is a form of political involvement.
Questions 1516
The publics right to know is an inadequate
justification for exposing peoples private lives to
public scrutiny. Only when the public welfare is
involved does the public have a right to know
information about a persons private life.
Questions 1819
A survey of students concludes that some
students prefer physics to history; all students
prefer history to geometry; no students prefer
history to economics; and all students prefer
biology to history.

weakens the position taken in the above
argument?
(A) The public seldom knows which
activities promote its welfare.
(B) The public seldom wants much of the
information exposed to it.
(C) It is seldom possible to discover the
most intimate details of someones
personal life.
(D) The public seldom understands the
implications of the information
exposed to it.
(E) It is seldom possible to determine
which information involves the public
welfare.
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18. Based on the survey results, which of the following must represent students preferences?
(A) Some students
physics.
(B) Some students
geometry.
(C) Some students
economics.
(D) Some students
economics.
(E) Some students
economics.
186
prefer geometry to
prefer physics to
prefer biology to
prefer geometry to
prefer physics to
LSAT Success
SECTION 5
19. Based on the survey results, which of the
following CANNOT represent students
preferences?
(A) Some students
physics.
(B) Some students
geometry.
(C) Some students
economics.
(D) Some students
biology.
(E) Some students
economics.
22. The sculpture of the woman was carved

during the early Greek period. The shape of
the fingers, the style of hair, and the design
of her sandals indicate the early period. The
tilt of the chin and the closed eyes are
frequently found in early Greek sculpture.
prefer geometry to
prefer physics to
Which of the following is an assumption

upon which this argument is based?
prefer biology to
(A) The period of a work of art can be

established with certainty.
(B) Certain attributes of works of art are
typical of specific periods.
(C) Tilted chins and closed eyes always
appear together in Greek sculpture.
(D) Sculptures of women first appeared in
the early Greek period.
(E) Closed eyes are characteristic of early
art.
prefer economics to
prefer physics to
20. Voters who complain about a trusted

politicians betrayal remind me of the tale of
the man who nursed a starving snake back
to health. Afterward, the snake bit the man,
who then complained about the snakes
ingratitude. The snake responded to the
complaint by saying, You knew I was a
snake when you saved me.
23. The village is overrun by poisonous snakes.

The mayor argues that paying a $10 bounty
for each dead snake turned in by a villager
will result in ridding the village of snakes.
Which of the following can be derived from

the argument above?
Which of the following does NOT weaken

the mayors argument?
(A) Dont cut off your nose to spite your

face.
(B) Things are not always what they seem.
(C) Chickens always come home to roost.
(D) Nature cannot be changed.
(E) Take the bitter with the sweet.
(A) The bounty ensures that breeding the

snakes is in the economic interest of
the villagers.
(B) Village taxes will triple if the mayors
proposal is implemented.
(C) The villagers do not trust the mayor.
(D) The snakes control the rat population,
so the villagers will not kill the snakes.
(E) A drug company pays villagers $15 for
each live snake delivered to it.
21. Representatives of dairy producers say that

government subsidies are needed to ensure
that milk processors produce sufficient
amounts for children. If there are no
milk-price subsidies, processors will attempt
to meet the demand for cheese and butter
before producing milk.
Which of the following can be inferred
from the above argument?
(A) The demand for milk is volatile, often
leading to underproduction and
shortages.
(B) Processors have produced sufficient
milk in the past because they understood the needs of hungry children.
(C) Cheese and butter produce greater
profits for processors than does milk.
(D) Representatives of dairies have a lobby
that is powerful enough to ensure the
passage of favorable subsidies.
(E) Dairy representatives are trying to
avoid a surplus of cheese and butter.
LSAT Success
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PRACTICE TEST 1
24. Spring Lake does not appear to be good for
sailing. I have gone to the lake many times
this year, and each time the water was too
rough for sailing.
Which of the following most closely
parallels the above argument?
(A) It appears that we will move to Spring
Lake this year. The city is simply too
rough for safe living.
(B) Economy-grade gasoline apparently
does not prevent my car from running
rough. It appears that a good grade of
fuel is required.
(C) It appears that the cost of housing at
Spring Lake is prohibitive. I looked at
a number of houses last month, and
they cost much more than I could
afford.
(D) I am withdrawing from Spring Lake
College. Two months at school was
sufficient to prove that college was
too rough for me.
(E) It appears that I will never play the
clarinet. I began lessons many times,
but each time, I quit.
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188
LSAT Success
LSAT WRITING SAMPLE TOPIC

broadcast. Because the station is small, has a very
stable staff, and has limited growth prospects,
Alices chances for advancement are not good.
WANDs owner is a former network executive
who purchased the station in order to get away
from the pressures of broadcasting in major
markets. Alice would get only a modest salary at
WAND, and she would have to supplement her
income with outside work.
KBSC is one of three television stations
located in the state capital. The station has
offered Alice a job as a production assistant in
the news department. She would primarily do
background research and check facts and sources
for the producers and reporters. Production
assistants who work hard are promoted to
positions as special-assignment reporters in about
two years. There are many special-assignment
reporters competing for assignments, most of
which involve covering minor events such as
political dinners, award ceremonies, and concerts
and writing human-interest stories. Most specialassignment reporters spend at least five years
covering minor events before moving into a
position as a general report-anchorperson. KBSC
would pay Alice a salary in excess of the amount
she would need to live comfortably in the city.
Complete the short writing exercise on the

topic that follows. You have only 30 minutes
to plan, organize, and write your sample.
WRITE ONLY ON THE TOPIC SPECIFIED.
Alice Anderson is a senior at John Paul Jones

University. She has been offered two positions as
a result of her outstanding record in her major,
television and radio broadcasting. As her counselor, you are to write an argument favoring one of
the two offers. Two considerations guide your
decision:
Alice has a large student-loan debt that
she has to begin to repay immediately
upon graduation.
Alice has as her career goal a position as
a network-news anchorperson.
WAND is the only television station serving a
large area located some 250 miles north of the
capital of the state. The station has offered Alice
a job as a reporter whose principal assignments
would be to cover the activities of local governments, politics, and business. In addition to her
assigned stories, Alice would have the opportunity to independently prepare stories for possible
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PRACTICE TEST 1
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LSAT Success
QUICK-SCORE ANSWERS
QUICK-SCORE ANSWERS
Section 1
1. C
2. E
3. D
4. D
5. C
6. E
7. D
8. E
9. A
10. B
11. D
12. B
13. E
14. C
15. B
16. C
17. A
18. B
19. A
20. B
21. A
22. D
23. D
24. A
LSAT Success
Section 2
1. D
2. B
3. C
4. B
5. C
6. C
7. C
8. C
9. A
10. A
11. E
12. E
13. B
14. C
15. A
16. C
17. C
18. A
19. A
20. C
21. B
22. C
23. D
24. B
Section 3
1. A
2. D
3. A
4. B
5. A
6. A
7. A
8. C
9. D
10. A
11. E
12. A
13. C
14. C
15. C
16. E
17. E
18. C
19. A
20. B
21. B
22. E
23. B
24. E
Section 4
1. C
2. B
3. D
4. B
5. A
6. C
7. D
8. E
9. E
10. D
11. B
12. D
13. C
14. A
15. C
16. E
17. B
18. D
19. C
20. E
21. D
22. D
23. C
24. A
25. B
26. E
27. D
28. B
191
Section 5
1. A
2. C
3. B
4. C
5. C
6. B
7. C
8. A
9. E
10. D
11. D
12. C
13. C
14. C
15. E
16. C
17. E
18. A
19. A
20. D
21. C
22. B
23. C
24. C
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EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
Questions 712

responses appear in bold type and the visualizations that make the credited response clear
appear before the answers to each question set.
Use the visualization to guide you in determining
the credited answer.
Houses
Smaller
SECTION 1
Questions 16
Statehood
T
T's Children
Brother
Parents
Larger
A, F, K, O, T, V, W
Earlier
Later
7. The correct answer is (D). 1, 2
8. The correct answer is (E). son to father
9. The correct answer is (A). S is Us son.

10. The correct answer is (B). uncle
11. The correct answer is (D). 3
1. The correct answer is (C). Ohio was a

state before Kansas.
12. The correct answer is (B). T has exactly 3

children.
2. The correct answer is (E). Kansas was a

state before Ohio.
Questions 1318
3. The correct answer is (D). Texas was a

state before Ohio.
RidersA, B, C, D, E, F, G
4. The correct answer is (D). Kansas, Maine,

Wyoming, Ohio, Vermont
Busses1, 2, 3
Bus
5. The correct answer is (C). Florida was a

state before Kansas.
1 if B then no E or G
6. The correct answer is (E). Kansas was a

state before Alaska.
2 if D then no G
3 C always
4 when A and F take the same bus
13. The correct answer is (E). B, D, G
14. The correct answer is (C). 3 only
15. The correct answer is (B). 4
16. The correct answer is (C). 3 only
18. The correct answer is (B). A, D, E, G
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192
LSAT Success
PRACTICE TEST 1
Questions 1924
W
B
D
E
B
3. The correct answer is (C). The mother

knows when the daughter has been
truthful.
PointTell the truth and I will believe you.
E
5
7
2
3
A
C
C
C
5
7
2
3
4. The correct answer is (B). Unlike metal

and wood products, those made from glass
must be discarded rather than repaired
when they break.
PointProducts made from glass can save
energy.
D
E
B
evidence
19. The correct answer is (A). Dora lives 9

miles from Elmer.
5. The correct answer is (C). The price

increase will not result in a decrease in the
sales of Mexican oil products.
PointRaising oil prices 20 percent will
cause a 1 percent increase in the
U.S.
20. The correct answer is (B). The distance

between Bruces and Elmers houses is
shorter than the distance between Coras
and Doras houses.
21. The correct answer is (A). Angela and
Cora live 12 miles apart.
22. The correct answer is (D). 4 miles
6. The correct answer is (C). Journalists

report on motives and the significance of
events and, like historians, traffic primarily
in half-truths and lies.
23. The correct answer is (D). Bruce lives

closer to Elmer than Cora does to Dora.
PointThose who try to describe events

engage in half-truths and lies.
SECTION 2

within the answer-choice context. The first
7. The correct answer is (C). All women are

not mothers.
PointEqual pay for women detracts from
motherhood.
evidence
1. The correct answer is (D). Purchasers of

this brand of clothing will be stylish.
PointStylish people wear well-designed
clothing.
8. The correct answer is (C). As a result, the

amount of heat energy lost by the Earth
must closely approximate the amount
gained from the sun.
PointThe Earth does not store energy.
2. The correct answer is (B). Even though
all wrongs cannot be compensated for,
some wrongs can be.
PointMoney cannot compensate for
historic wrongs.
9. The correct answer is (A). It is not

inconsistent with the lecturers statement.
PointAll Americans do not enjoy a high
standard of living.
IssueDescription question/nature of
response
LSAT Success
193
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EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
10. The correct answer is (A). a country in
which the majority of people enjoy a higher
standard of living than that of the American
people
PointAll Americans do not enjoy a high
standard of living.
evidence
17. The correct answer is (C). The significance of art is consistent over time.
PointSimilar results connote similar
causes, regardless of context.
18. The correct answer is (A). All the
enemies of the republic are dead.
PointAny living critic proves that Mao did
not have personal enemies killed.
11. The correct answer is (E). There can be

no relationship between a general principle
and specific practices.
PointCensorship is appropriate in some
circumstances.
19. The correct answer is (A). scientists are
too concerned about failure
PointRisking failure is no longer tolerated
in drug development.
12. The correct answer is (E). presenting a
hypothetical case
PointCensorship is appropriate in some
circumstances.
20. The correct answer is (C). The stars last

movie contained the usual bit of impressive
acting, but her director should have advised
her to act more like an average person.
PointThose producing exceptional work
should use more common devices.
13. The correct answer is (B). All dogs are

excluded from this motel, but many dogs
are friendly. Therefore, some friendly
animals are kept out of this motel.
PointAll have one attribute, some have
another attribute; therefore, some
have both attributes.
IssueExtension question/same point, new
context
IssueExtension question/same point, new

context
21. The correct answer is (B). Fees paid by
students are the major source of funding for
educational services.
PointAs demands on resources decrease,
services and facilities should
improve.
evidence
14. The correct answer is (C). social pressure

PointCauses require actions; reasons
justify actions.
22. The correct answer is (C). There are

doubts about the conclusive nature of
studies on animals.
PointIf the government acts prematurely,
it loses credibility.
15. The correct answer is (A). the possible

causes of heart disease
PointAccepting the only explanation does
not take all possible explanations
into account.
IssueDescription question/example
23. The correct answer is (D). Sailors cannot

be afraid of water.
PointThe Mercer child will not sail
because of his fear of water.
16. The correct answer is (C). people with

blue eyes invariably have blue-eyed children
PointChildren have the same color eyes as
their parent(s)
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194
LSAT Success
PRACTICE TEST 1
Questions 712
24. The correct answer is (B). other factors

could have nullified the influence of the
olive oil
Seating
PointOlive oil did not prevent heart attack

in Bettys mother.
evidence
H, I, J, K, L, M
Pres
Pres/VP= L or J
Secretary
Treasurer

appear before the answers to each question set.
Use the visualization to guide you in determining
the credited answer.
VP
Trustee 1 H and/or I
Trustee 2
SECTION 3
opposite
T-1
not next to
J
or
K
T-2
7. The correct answer is (A). J is the vice

president
8. The correct answer is (C). president, vice
president, trustee, secretary, treasurer
Questions 16
North
9. The correct answer is (D). K, I, H, J, M, L

W
10. The correct answer is (A). J, K, L
11. The correct answer is (E). H and L
Location
A, B, C, D, E, G
(N of C)
(W of D) A
12. The correct answer is (A). M is the secretary
Questions 1318
B
C (E of B)
Trucks - K, M, W
O - central
Vans - C, D, F
G (E of B)
Fuel and wash - trucks before vans

Fuel larger tanks before smaller
Wash smaller before larger
Tank Size
Larger
(W of A)E
Small
D
K
1. The correct answer is (A). the northwest

corner of D
equals
W more than C
2. The correct answer is (D). F is located

due west of C.
13. The correct answer is (C). The Chevrolet

is fueled fifth.
3. The correct answer is (A). farther east

than B
4. The correct answer is (B). northeast of C
14. The correct answer is (C). The Chevrolet

is fueled before the Ford.
5. The correct answer is (A). B is precisely

midway between E and G.
15. The correct answer is (C). The Kenworth

is washed second.
6. The correct answer is (A). The Central

Office is closer to D than to G.
16. The correct answer is (E). White, Mack,

Kenworth, Ford, Dodge, Chevrolet
17. The correct answer is (E). the Ford
immediately before the Dodge
18. The correct answer is (C). Ford, Chevrolet, Dodge, Kenworth, White, Mack
LSAT Success
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EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
Questions 1924
Smallest
6. The correct answer is (C). In what

follows, both of these routes will be
explored.Paragraph 4/Sentence 7
Largest
Alum, Brick, Concrete, Glass, Stone, Wood
7. The correct answer is (D). permit

comparison of their concepts of justice
Paragraph 4/Sentences 6 and 7
Groups 1- 6
8. The correct answer is (E). judgments

about human actions can be made only by
the resulting end-statesParagraph 2/Sentence 2
5
2 4
6 3 1 - not stone
9. The correct answer is (E). The net value

of consequences is considered important.
Only (A), (B), (C), and (D) are mentioned as
features of utilitarianism. See the importance of (A) results, 3/3; (B) consequences,
1/3; (C) valued end-state, 2/2; and (D)
means of achieving results, 3/1.
19. The correct answer is (A). aluminum

20. The correct answer is (B). 6, 3, 1, 5, 2, 4
21. The correct answer is (B). brick
22. The correct answer is (E). 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
23. The correct answer is (B). stone
10. The correct answer is (D). It is legally

acceptable for bad consequences to flow
from the exercise of an individuals right or
privilege.Paragraph 1/Sentence 8
24. The correct answer is (E). wood
SECTION 4
11. The correct answer is (B). contrast judgments of right and wrong with other types of
judgmentsParagraph 4/Sentence 5
12. The correct answer is (D). means used to
produce resultsParagraph 3/Sentence 1
and Paragraph 2/Sentence 2
13. The correct answer is (C). explains some
judgments in law and moralsParagraph
1/Sentence 2
14. The correct answer is (A). somewhat
criticalParagraph 1/Sentence 4
1. The correct answer is (C). comparing

Smiths and Rawlss views of a just society
15. The correct answer is (C). an argument

for the use of formal models by lawyers
2. The correct answer is (B). the theory of

welfare economics. For (A) the Scottish
method and (D) the scientific method, see
1/1; for (C) the perfect-competition paradigm, see 3/3; and for (E) the principles of
natural liberty, see 2/3.
16. The correct answer is (E). a method of

argumentationParagraph 1/Sentence 6
17. The correct answer is (B). locating
something left out of consideration. Only
(A), (C), (D), and (E) are benefits of using
formal models. For (A) determining that an
argument is making a distinction without
a difference, see 1/8; for (C) demonstrating
inconsistencies in an argument, see 4/7;
for (D) setting out difficulties with the
form of argumentation, see 2/1; and for
(E) assisting in the derivation of the logical
implications of an argument, see 1/4.
3. The correct answer is (D). the description of the idealized competitive economy
4. The correct answer is (B). concerned
with improving the operation of society
5. The correct answer is (A). a recitation of
methods of approaching social problems
Most inclusive of the five answer choices
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196
LSAT Success
PRACTICE TEST 1
SECTION 5
18. The correct answer is (D). is not logically

rigorousParagraph 1/Sentence 4

19. The correct answer is (C). provide the

basis for argumentationParagraph 3/
Sentence 2
20. The correct answer is (E). as a technique
to ensure equity. Only (A), (B), (C), and (D)
describe uses for models as argued in the
passage. For models used (A) as a method
of argumentation, see 4/7; (B) as a source
of answers to problems, see 4/8; (C) as a
form of reasoning used by lawyers, see
1/1; and (D) as a method to identify
problems with logic, see 4/7.
1. The correct answer is (A). In the absence

of freedom of expression, great writers do
not develop.
PointNeither great writers nor freedom of
expression exist in Largo.
2. The correct answer is (C). Birds, rather
than cave dwellers, may have brought
snakes and fish to the caves to eat.
PointCavemen ate bison, birds, snakes,
and fish.
evidence
21. The correct answer is (D). Formal models

are as illogical as prose models.Paragraph
2/Sentences 1 and 2
22. The correct answer is (D). Omissions are
a problem with formal models.Paragraph
4/Sentence 3
23. The correct answer is (C). an interpretation of syntactics applied to aspects of legal
discourseParagraph 1/Sentence 1
3. The correct answer is (B). people can be

persuaded to abandon technology, urbanization, and mass production
PointThe natural benevolence of people is
corrupted by institutions.
24. The correct answer is (A). A, 2, #, +, s, ?,

c, p, %, $ Paragraph 3/Sentence 1
25. The correct answer is (B). the transmission of the dash in dot-dot-dash when two
dots are always followed by a dash
evidence
4. The correct answer is (C). The sky is not
cloudy, and rain is not falling.
PointBob is not in the slicker he wears
when it is cloudy and rainy.
26. The correct answer is (E). a case that is

exactly the same as previous cases
27. The correct answer is (D). Redundancy in
a message reduces the information transmitted.Paragraph 4/Sentence 4
5. The correct answer is (C). Sensitive

people are lovers.
PointExcellent musicians love poetry.
28. The correct answer is (B). Redundancy

accounts for the difference between strong
and weak legal arguments.Paragraph
5/Sentence 2
IssueDescription question/Sensitivity not

involved in argument
6. The correct answer is (B). Since owls
feed only at night, the bird feeding in
daylight is not an owl.
PointReasoning from properties of
plaznium to a conclusion.
IssueDescription question/structure of
argument
LSAT Success
197
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EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
7. The correct answer is (C). Some oceanliner passengers are in the care of a
dangerous person.
13. The correct answer is (C). The sale and

delivery of military equipment is usually
known only by the two countries involved.
PointU.S. can assure military balance of
power by selling arms to other
countries.
evidence
PointCaptains who care for passengers

may be dangerous alcoholics.
8. The correct answer is (A). The resources
required to log forests cannot be replenished.
PointCoal is a nonrenewable resource
trees are a renewable resource.
evidence
14. The correct answer is (C). Lights are

maintained in good working order because
of the inspection requirement.
PointTurn-signal inspection identifies few
defective lights.
evidence
9. The correct answer is (E). Jurors think

eyewitness testimony leaves less room for
doubt than does expert testimony.
PointJurors find expert testimony less
persuasive than eyewitness testimony.
15. The correct answer is (E). It is seldom

possible to determine which information
involves the public welfare.
PointPublic welfare is the only justification for exposing peoples private
lives.
evidence
10. The correct answer is (D). In the future,
more older students will enter college than
ever before.
PointCollege enrollment will decline
when the number of 18-year-olds
declines.
evidence
16. The correct answer is (C). Personal

privacy is an important right.
PointPublic welfare is the only justification for exposing peoples private
lives.
11. The correct answer is (D). In the past,

film was an important art form.
PointContemporary film is not an art
form.
IssueExtension question/unsupported
conclusion
17. The correct answer is (E). Voting is a

form of political involvement.
PointVoting and political involvement
have a strong relationship.
12. The correct answer is (C). Countries can

accurately determine one anothers military
strength.
PointU.S. can assure military balance of
power by selling arms to other
countries.
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18. The correct answer is (A). Some students

prefer geometry to physics.
PointAll prefer history to geometrysome
prefer physics to history.
19. The correct answer is (A). Some students
prefer geometry to physics.
PointAll prefer history to geometrysome
prefer physics to history.
198
LSAT Success
PRACTICE TEST 1
20. The correct answer is (D). Nature cannot
be changed.
PointA snake will bite a hand that fed it.
23. The correct answer is (C). The villagers

do not trust the mayor.
PointBy paying a bounty for snakes, the
mayor will rid the town of them.
IssueExtension question/NOT weakening
evidence
21. The correct answer is (C). Cheese and

butter produce greater profits for processors
than does milk.
PointWithout government subsidies, more
milk would be used for cheese and
butter.
24. The correct answer is (C). It appears that

the cost of housing at Spring Lake is
prohibitive. I looked at a number of houses
last month, and they cost much more than I
could afford.
PointSpring Lake is too rough for sailing.
IssueDescription question/structure of
argument
22. The correct answer is (B). Certain

attributes of works of art are typical of
specific periods.
PointMany characteristics differentiate
early Greek period sculpture.
LSAT Success
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EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
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200
LSAT Success
Practice Test 2
SECTION 1
TIME35
3. If D finishes third, which of the following

must be true?

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Five golfers, C, D, E, F, and G, play a series of

matches in which the following are always true
of the results.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Either C is last and G is first or C is first

and G is last.
D finishes ahead of E.
Every golfer plays in and finishes every
match.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
1. If exactly 1 golfer finishes between C and

D, which of the following must be true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)

finishes
finishes
finishes
finishes
finishes
C finishes ahead of D.
D finishes ahead of F.
F finishes ahead of D.
D finishes behind G.
G finishes behind F.
6. If a sixth golfer, H, enters a match and

finishes ahead of F and behind D, which of
the following CANNOT be true?
C finishes first.
G finishes first.
F finishes third.
D finishes fourth.
E finishes fourth.
E
F
F
E
F
1
2
3
4
5
5. Which of the following additional conditions makes it certain that F finishes second?
There are no ties in any match; that is, no 2

players ever finish in the same position in a
match.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
G finishes first.
C finishes first.
E finishes ahead of F.
F finishes ahead of E.
F finishes behind D.
4. If C finishes first, in how many different

orders is it possible for the other golfers to
finish?
Questions 16
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
24 QUESTIONS
MINUTES
second.
second.
third.
ahead of F.
ahead of D.
201
D finishes ahead of G.
H finishes ahead of E.
E finishes third.
F finishes fourth.
H finishes fifth.
PRACTICE TEST 2
10. If the Vermont president is younger than
the Maine president, the Wyoming president
is older than the Maine president, and the
Ohio president is the youngest, which of
the following is the second-oldest president?
Questions 712
The state presidents of the Half Century Club are
comparing ages at the Clubs annual meeting.
The Kansas president is older than the
Wyoming president.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
The Ohio president is younger than the

Maine president.
7. If the president from Ohio is younger than
the president from Wyoming, which of the
Vermont
Wyoming
Maine
Kansas
Ohio
11. If the Utah president is older than the Ohio

president and the Florida president is
younger than the Wyoming president,
which of the following CANNOT be true if
the age of the Maine president is between
the ages of the Utah and Florida presidents?
(A) The Kansas president is younger than

the Maine president.
(B) The Maine president is younger than
the Wyoming president.
(C) The Ohio president is younger than
the Kansas president.
(D) The Wyoming president is younger
than the Maine president.
(E) The Kansas president is younger than
the Ohio president.
(A) The Utah president is older than the

Wyoming president.
(B) The Florida president is older than the
Ohio president.
(C) The Florida president is older than the
Kansas president.
(D) The Maine president is older than the
Ohio president.
(E) The Wyoming president is older than
the Florida president.
8. If the president from Wyoming is older than

the president from Ohio, which of the
(A) The Kansas president is older than the
Maine president.
(B) The Wyoming president is older than
the Kansas president.
(C) The Maine president is older than the
Kansas president.
(D) The Wyoming president is older than
the Maine president.
(E) The Kansas president is older than the
Ohio president.
12. If the Alaska president is older than the

Iowa, Maine, and Wyoming presidents,
(A) The Iowa president is older than the
Maine president.
(B) The Iowa president is older than the
Wyoming president.
(C) The Iowa president is older than the
Ohio president.
(D) The Alaska president is older than the
Ohio president.
Alaska president.
9. If the Texas president is older than the

Maine president, which of the following
must be true?
(A) The Texas president is the oldest
president.
(B) The Texas president is older than the
Kansas president.
(C) The Wyoming president is older than
the Texas president.
(D) The Texas president is older than the
Ohio president.
Texas president.
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202
LSAT Success
SECTION 1
16. Train Q, a northbound express; train R, a
round-trip express coming from the south;
train S, a northbound metroliner; and trains
T and U, both southbound locals, are
arriving at the station, though not necessarily in that order.
Questions 1318
There are four parallel train tracks at a railroad
station, numbered 1 through 4 from left to right.
Tracks 1 and 2 are northbound, tracks 3 and 4
are southbound. A train coming from the north
will arrive on a southbound track. A train coming
from the south will arrive on a northbound track.
In what order and on what track can each

train arrive?
A round-trip train must arrive on a track

adjacent to a track going the other direction.
(A) S on track 1, U on track 4, Q on track

2, T on track 4, R on track 3
(B) R on track 2, T on track 3, S on track
1, Q on track 1, U on track 4
(C) R on track 2, U on track 3, S on track
1, T on track 3, Q on track 2
(D) Q on track 2, T on track 4, R on track
3, U on track 4, S on track 1
(E) T on track 3, Q on track 2, S on track
1, U on track 4, R on track 2
A local train can only arrive immediately

after either an express or a metroliner.
Two consecutive trains cannot use the
same track.
13. If three trains, P,Q, and R, arrive at the
station on tracks 2,4, and 1, respectively,
and in that order, what could be true about
the trains?
17. If six trains arrive on tracks 1,2,1,3,4,3, in

that order, and there are two locals, what
are the maximum and minimum numbers,
respectively, of trains that could be expresses?
I. P is an express.
II. P and R are metroliners.
III. Q and R are locals.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
I only
II only
III only
I and II only
I, II, and III
18. If four trains arrive at the station, and none

of them arrives on track 3, what must be
true about the trains?
14. If two northbound locals, a southbound

express, and a round-trip metroliner coming
from the north are all approaching the
station, what is the order in which the
tracks can be used, from first to last?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(A) None are round-trip trains.

(B) Two of the trains are not northbound
locals.
(C) The number of locals equals the
number of southbound trains.
(D) There are more northbound trains
than there are southbound trains.
(E) The greatest number of locals cannot
exceed the greatest number of express
trains.
2,3,4,1
1,2,3,4
3,2,1,4
1,3,2,4
4,1,3,2
15. If five trains arrive on tracks 1,3,1,4, and 2,

in that order, and the second train to arrive
is not a local, what is the maximum number
of trains that could be locals?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
3,0
3,2
4,2
2,1
4,0
1
2
3
4
5
LSAT Success
203
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PRACTICE TEST 2
21. If Walt brings the food, Rick CANNOT
Questions 1924
Five friends, Carol, Ed, Jenny, Rick, and Walt, go
to the beach. Each person either brings something (food, blankets, or umbrella) or does
something for the trip (drives or pays the tolls
along the route).
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Two people are brother and sister. They

are the only two of the group of friends
who are related to each other.
22. If Carol brings the umbrella, which of the

(A) Carol is Ricks sister.
(B) Ed pays no tolls.
(C) Jenny brings neither blankets nor
food.
(D) Ed brings the food.
(E) Jenny does not bring the blankets.
One person meets the others on the beach

when they arrive. This person brings the
umbrella. The driver of the group that
meets the person on the beach is male.
When Ed brings the food, Walt does not
drive.
23. If Ed brings the food, Rick must
The brother pays the tolls.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
When Carol or Jenny brings the blankets,

Rick drives.
19. If Ed brings the food, which of the following must be true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
drive
be Jennys brother
bring the umbrella
be Carols brother
pay the tolls
drive
pay tolls
bring the blankets
bring the umbrella
be someones brother
24. If Jenny brings the blankets, which two

people CANNOT be related?
Carol brings the blankets.

Rick drives.
Jenny does not bring the blankets.
Carol does not bring the umbrella.
Jenny meets the others at the beach.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Carol and Ed
Carol and Rick
Jenny and Walt
Carol and Walt
Jenny and Ed
20. If Rick drives, what CANNOT be true?

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Jenny brings the umbrella.

Ed pays the tolls.
Ed brings the food.
Walt is Jennys brother.
Carol is Ricks sister.
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204
LSAT Success
SECTION 2
SECTION 2
TIME35
MINUTES
24 QUESTIONS
3. Arthritis specialists understand that effective

treatment must do more than relieve pain.
So, the medicine arthritis specialists
prescribe most has both an anti-pain and
anti-inflammation ingredient. These same
ingredients are found in Arthrelief. Use
Arthrelief to combat arthritic pain.

The advertisement above does NOT assume

1. All quiet people are harmless.
(A) Arthritis specialists provide authoritative information on effective medication for arthritis.
(B) Arthritis specialists use Arthrelief because
it contains anti-inflammation medicine.
(C) A medicine containing ingredients prescribed for arthritis will be effective.
(D) Arthrelief only combats arthritic pain.
(E) Arthritis specialists prescribe Arthrelief
most.
No harmless people are easily identified.

The premises above lead to which of the
following conclusions?
(A) Quiet people are not easily identified.
(B) Most people who are easily identified
are harmless.
(C) No harmless people are quiet.
(D) Some easily identified people are
quiet.
(E) All quiet people are easily identified.
4. Testing the reasoning abilities of illiterate

people has proven to be particularly
challenging to psychologists. When illiterate
people are given tasks that are designed to
require them to reason to a conclusion, they
are relatively successful when the mechanical devices used in the test are familiar
ones. But if the devices used in the test are
unfamiliar to the illiterate person, they are
relatively unsuccessful at performing
analogous tasks.
2. I dont believe that ambitious people are

good parents. Of course, there are some
parents who have successful careers and
well-raised children. But these parents are
not really ambitious. Were they ambitious,
they could not devote the necessary time
and energy to raising their children well.
Which of the following best explains the
flawed reasoning in the authors argument?
Which of the following conclusions can be reasonably drawn from the information above?
(A) It relies on a word with two different

meanings.
(B) It bases an absolute conclusion upon
relative evidence.
(C) It assumes the conclusion.
(D) It generalizes from inappropriate
specifics.
(E) It depends on a false analogy.
LSAT Success
(A) Reasoning abilities of illiterate people

should not be tested using tasks that
do not involve familiar devices.
(B) Literacy is required in order to test the
reasoning abilities of people through
the use of mechanical devices.
(C) Testing illiterate people for reasoning
abilities is relatively unsuccessful.
(D) Mechanical devices are a poor
substitute for words in reasoning to a
conclusion.
(E) Unfamiliar tasks provide a better
measure of reasoning ability than do
familiar tasks.
205
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PRACTICE TEST 2
5. Japanese workers exercise each day in their
workplaces. American employers do not
require daily exercise, and, as a result,
American workers are more overweight and
much less fit and suffer more sickness and
injuries than their Japanese counterparts.
American workers will only become as
productive as the Japanese if they are
required to exercise on a daily basis.
7. Which is the most logical arrangement of

the sentences?
I. By reducing its standard of living the
United States can conserve energy.
II. Yet, the United States aspires to
energy independence.
III. Studies confirm that the only certain
path to energy independence is
through conservation.
IV. More than 20 percent of the energy
consumed by the United States is
imported.

(A) Daily exercise does not reduce or
prevent incidents of sickness.
(B) Daily exercise does not reduce the
severity of on-the-job injuries.
(C) Daily exercise does not contribute
greatly to Japanese worker fitness.
(D) Daily exercise does not contribute
greatly to Japanese worker productivity.
(E) Daily exercise does not result in
significant weight loss.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
8. Dr. Bartels concludes that governments

waste the money they spend in support of
higher education. His argument is based on
longitudinal research that shows that fewer
than 20 percent of persons with college
degrees are working in the field of their
training five years after receiving their
degrees.
6. Dictatorships or centralized governments

result from the political indifference of a
countrys people. If people were not
politically indifferent, all governments
would be democratic or decentralized.
Dr. Bartels makes the assumption that
Which of the following could NOT be

inferred from the above argument?
(A) higher education in a field is valuable

training only for that field
(B) what is desirable at one time will
continue into another
(C) higher education can be valued only in
degrees awarded
(D) work areas are directly related to
college-degree areas
(E) higher education should not be a
governmental concern
(A) Democratic governments result from

politically active people.
(B) Dictatorships only exist in countries
whose people are politically indifferent.
(C) Politically active people are responsible for decentralized governments.
(D) A country with a democratic government must have politically active
people.
(E) Centralized governments are the
responsibility of the politically
indifferent.
www.petersons.com
I, II, III, IV
I, III, IV, II
II, III, IV, I
III, IV, I, II
IV, II, III, I
206
LSAT Success
SECTION 2
9. Ninety percent of the students taking as few
as two Alert tablets daily got better grades in
school. Improve your grades, get Alert today!
12. Computers have been programmed to play

poker. Because of the way they are programmed, computers reproduce human
strategies, such as bluffing. Apparently, they
make decisions for the same reasons as
human players.
Which of the following could be offered as

a valid criticism of the advertisement above?
(A) It does not state that Alert tablets
cause grade improvement.
(B) Using medication to get good grades is
cheating.
(C) Taking more Alert will result in greater
grade improvement.
(D) It suggests that only 10 percent of
students do not use Alert daily.
(E) Being alert in school does not always
result in improved grades.
The author of this note

(A) uses scientific evidence to support the
conclusion
(B) proposes a common cause for similar
effects
(C) grounds the argument on the double
meaning of the word reason
(D) states a conclusion and then explains
how it was reached
(E) argues from an analogy to reconcile an
apparent contradiction
10. According to dog lovers, the principal virtue

of the dog is its general friendliness toward
all people. According to cat lovers, the
principal virtue of the cat is its exclusive
friendliness toward its provider.
13. The Department of Agriculture will stop

inspecting milk processing plants because
no citations have been issued in the past
two years.
Which of the following is true of the claims

of both dog and cat lovers?

strengthens the decision?
(A) Pet friendliness toward a provider is

unworthy.
(B) They come from sources that apply
the same standard.
(C) Animals cannot be judged by standards
for human behavior.
(D) Animal lovers are friendly.
(E) Friendliness is a virtue.
(A) Processors will cut corners if the

threat of inspection is removed.
(B) Milk processing is very automated.
(C) The source of milk is known, so
compensation can be had for any
problem that occurs.
(D) The Department budget has been cut
by 30 percent.
(E) The industry association has standards
that exceed the legal requirements.
11. In Canada, a family can stay overnight in a

litter-free public campground on a clear lake
for less than it costs to spend a day at a
filthy public beach in the United States.
Why must public beaches in the United
States be so expensive and dirty?
14. Rites of adulthood are more frequently

found in societies where the differences
between adults and children are not clear.
The purpose of such rites is to formally
impose adult responsibilities on participants.

The above argument would be most

strengthened if it were found that
(A) Campgrounds in Canada are little used.

(B) Beaches in the United States are
intensely used.
(C) There are more public campgrounds
in Canada than there are public
beaches in the United States.
(D) There are more public beaches in the
United States than there are public
campgrounds in Canada.
(E) Public beaches in Canada are no
cleaner or cheaper than those in the
United States.
LSAT Success
(A) children do not generally behave as

adults prior to the rites
(B) children generally accept the rites
without question
(C) adults generally approve of the rites
(D) formal rites are prevalent in such
societies
(E) children do not generally accept adult
responsibilities prior to the rites
207
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PRACTICE TEST 2
16. Which of the following is assumed by the
above argument?
15. Attempts to make public-transportation

facilities accessible to physically challenged
people are misguided. Only the most
athletic of the physically challenged are able
to get to the stops and stations where it is
possible for them to take advantage of
special devices installed on buses and trains.
(A) Business would have no way to make

credit decisions without credit
bureaus.
(B) Risk of nonpayment is difficult for
most businesses to assess.
(C) Purchasers attempt to secure more
credit than they can afford.
(D) Credit bureaus seldom make errors in
their reports about individuals
financial histories.
(E) Financial histories are complex and
difficult to develop and maintain.
Which of the following most strengthens

the argument above?
(A) It is extremely expensive to install
special devices on buses and trains to
accommodate the physically challenged.
(B) More physically challenged people
have access to motorized wheelchairs
than ever before.
(C) Very few physically challenged people
use facilities in the places where they
have been installed.
(D) Special-access facilities to public
buildings have increased their use by
physically challenged people.
(E) Physically challenged people on buses
and trains are at greater safety risk
than others.
17. According to the above argument, harm that

results from the use of credit bureaus by
businesses is
(A) offset by the need for individual
financial histories
(B) minimal, because so few errors are
made in their reports
(C) acceptable, because business requires
financial histories
(D) justified by the economic value to
business and society
(E) essential to the effective extension of
credit to individuals
Questions 1617
Every time a business grants financial credit to an
individual, the business assumes the risk of the
individual not being able to make all the agreedupon payments. Credit bureaus assist businesses
in their efforts to evaluate the risks involved with
the extension of credit to individual purchasers.
The financial history of individuals is maintained
and reported on by credit bureaus. Credit
bureaus assist debtors as well as creditors by
preventing them from assuming greater debt
resulting from the work of credit bureaus, which
holds losses and prices down and, thus, benefits
consumers generally. The few concerns for
individual privacy that have been raised about
credit bureaus hardly offset their financial value
to business and consumer alike.
www.petersons.com
18. Harold is a better writer of short stories

than Stan and a better novelist, too. Thus,
Harold is indubitably a better playwright as
well.
Given the information in the passage, which
of the following is a belief about Harold that
can be most justifiably attributed to the
speaker?
(A) Harold is more versatile than Stan.
(B) Harold is a better writer than Stan.
(C) Harold is altogether more effective
than Stan.
(D) Harold is more cultivated than Stan.
(E) Harold is more artistically talented
than Stan.
208
LSAT Success
SECTION 2
19. The average salary of a college graduate is
only 22 percent greater than that of a high
school graduate. In 1969, the difference was
55 percent. In addition, college graduates
salaries have not kept up with inflation. For
most, the rewards of a college education
will not justify the cost of tuition and lost
income while getting a degree.
Questions 2122
There is an inherent fallacy in the reasoning of
Shea, who suggests that all of his readers ought
to attend the retrospective of Beatles music
offered by the Springfield Pops because the
Beatles have had as great an influence on the
musical development of our day as Beethoven
had on his. Stalin had great influence on the
political development of his time, but no one
suggests that people should rush to Moscow to
pay homage at his tomb.

(A) Since 1969, the incomes of few groups
have kept pace with inflation.
(B) Since 1969, college education costs
have outpaced inflation by nearly 100
percent.
(C) Since 1969, more high school graduates have decided to seek a college
degree.
(D) Since 1969, the unemployment rate
for college graduates is lower than that
for high school graduates.
(E) Since 1969, there has been a steady
decline in the number of high school
graduates in the job market.
21. The point of the above argument is that

(A) Shea confuses influence with merit
(B) Shea confuses politics with music
(C) Shea confuses the Beatles with
Beethoven
(D) Shea confuses honor with attendance
(E) Shea confuses popularity with
importance
22. Which of the following is analogous to
Stalins tomb in the argument above?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
20. Genetic engineering places the natureversus-nurture argument in stark relief. Not
only will physical qualities (nature) of
individuals be altered by manufacturing
processes, but intellectual, emotional, and
spiritual qualities will be modified as well.
Those who argue that the altering of human
qualities violates the laws of nature ignore
the reality that people are already the result
of engineering in the form of their manufactured education, socialization, and environment (nurture).
Which of the following, if true, supports the
above argument?
23. Ann has vacationed at three different Florida

resorts and has enjoyed each of them very
much. Thus, Ann is confident that she will
enjoy vacationing at the newly opened
resort in the Florida keys.
Which of the following statements does
NOT alter the probability that vacationing at
the new Florida resort will be enjoyable?
(A) All three resorts Ann previously visited
are in north Miami Beach, and the
new resort is in south Miami Beach.
(B) The new resort was unfavorably
reviewed in a national travel magazine.
(C) The manager of the new resort was
trained at the same hotel-management
school as 2 of the 3 managers of the
other three resorts.
(D) The owner of the new resort has been
in the resort business for thirty years.
(E) The architect of the other three
resorts did not design the new resort.
(A) Manufacturing techniques do not alter

spiritual qualities of individuals.
(B) By definition, the laws of nature
cannot be altered.
(C) Manufacturing of education and
intellect are markedly different.
(D) Engineering of genes and environment
are virtually the same.
(E) Qualities of individuals and societies
are virtually the same.
LSAT Success
the Springfield Pops

musical influence
Beethoven
attendance at the Beatles retrospective
Sheas readers
209
www.petersons.com
PRACTICE TEST 2
24. A recent survey has found that the number
of high school students that attend a house
of worship regularly has increased 60
percent in the past decade. This increase in
religious exposure appears to have significantly reduced cheating on tests and
improved class participation.
weakens the inference made above?
(A) Religious leaders frequently speak out
for academic honesty.
(B) Not all students responded to the
survey.
(C) Recently the high school changed
from proctored exams to an honor
system.
(D) Social reasons account for the attendance of most students at services.
(E) Cheating is not considered to be a
major problem by most teachers.
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210
LSAT Success
SECTION 3
SECTION 3
TIME35
4. If L submits the lowest bid, all of the

following must be true EXCEPT

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Six building contractorsL, M, N, O, P, and

Qbid on the construction of a new school.
Each submits one bid stating the total price for
constructing the building. The school board must
award the job to the lowest bidder.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
P bids less than N but more than Q.

O bids less than P but more than M.
No two bids are equal to each other.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
1. Which of the following could be the

ranking of the contractors bids?
N
N
N
N
O
M graduated the year before Q.

P and R graduated together before 1975.
M only
L only
Q or M
M or L
Q or L
Q and N did not graduate in the same year.

S and T graduated together.
7. All of the following are possible orders of
graduation, starting with the 1971 pair of
graduates EXCEPT
N submits the second-highest bid.

L submits the third-lowest bid.
P submits the third-highest bid.
Q submits the fourth-highest bid.
L submits the fourth-lowest bid.
LSAT Success
Q and N
M and Q
Q and L
L and P
Q and M
Ten studentsL, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, and

Ugraduated from Naquapaug High School in
the years 19711975, two students per year.
3. If O submits one of the lowest two bids,

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
N
N
N
N
N
Questions 712
2. If O submits the third-highest bid, which of

the following contractors could get the job?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
L, M, Q, O, P,
Q, M, L, O, P,
O, M, L, Q, P,
L, M, Q, P, O,
L, M, P, O, Q,
6. Which of the following contractors could

submit the lowest bid and the secondlowest bid, respectively?
Q bids less than N but more than L.
M, Q, O, P, L,
M, L, O, Q, P,
L, Q, M, P, O,
Q, M, O, L, P,
L, M, Q, N, P,
M submits a lower bid than O

Q submits a higher bid than M
Q submits a lower bid than P
P submits a higher bid than O
M submits a lower bid than P
5. If M submits the second-lowest bid, which

of the following can be a ranking of the
contractors bids?
Questions 16
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
24 QUESTIONS
MINUTES
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
211
S, T; P, R; M, O; Q, N; L, U
S, T; P, R; M, N; Q, O; L, U
O, U; M, N; Q, L; P, R; S, T
P, R; M, U; Q, L; N, O; S, T
L, U; M, N; Q, O; P, R; S, T
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PRACTICE TEST 2
8. Which of the following could be in the
pairs that graduated in 1971, 1973, and
1975, respectively?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Questions 1318
On any day their schedules permit, Adam, Beth,
Cary, Dana, and Edith each set up a sales table at
a flea market.
O, U, N
O, L, U
L, N, S
S, N, P
L, O, U
Edith will set up only when Cary does not.

Dana will set up only when Adam does not.
Cary will set up only when Dana does.
9. If Q, T, and U graduated in 1972, 1973, and

1975, respectively, and O and M graduated
together, which of the following must be
true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Beth will set up only when Edith does.

Adam will always set up.
13. Who will set up on a day when the
schedules of only Adam, Beth, and Cary
permit them to sell?
L graduated in 1972.
N graduated in 1974.
P graduated two years before N.
R graduated before 1974.
S graduated the year before O.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
10. If O and U graduated together, and Q

graduated in 1974, which of the following
must be true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
14. How many will set up on a day when the

schedules of only Adam, Beth, and Cary
L graduated in 1974.
R graduated in 1972.
T graduated in 1971.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
11. If P graduated in 1973, and L and O

graduated together, which of the following
are the only years in which N could be one
of the pair of graduates?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
1971
1971
1971
1972
1972
and
and
and
and
and
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Adam, Beth, and Cary

Adam, Cary, and Dana
Cary, Dana, and Edith
Beth, Dana, and Edith
Beth, Cary, and Edith
16. If a buyer wanted to be certain that both

Beth and Cary were set up on the same day,
which of the following must be set up also?
P graduated in 1971.
O graduated in 1972.
Q graduated in 1972.
S graduated in 1975.
www.petersons.com
one
two
three
four
five
15. Which of the following groups of people

could set up on the same day?
1972
1974
1975
1974
1975
12. If L, O, and U each graduated in an evennumbered year, which of the following

must be true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Adam only
Beth only
Cary only
Adam and Beth only
Beth and Cary only
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
212
Dana and Edith

Adam
Edith
Adam and Dana
Adam and Edith
LSAT Success
SECTION 3
21. If T and V both are assigned to the same
two dentists, S must work for
17. Which of the following could set up on a

day when the schedules of only Beth, Cary,
and Edith permit them to sell?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Beth only
Cary only
Edith only
Cary and Edith only
Beth and Edith only
22. If U is assigned to B and C, and V is

assigned to B, S must work for
18. How many will set up on a day when the

schedules of only Beth, Cary, and Dana
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Zero
One
Two
Three
Four
A only
B only
C only
both A and B
both A and C
23. Whenever S is assigned to only one dentist

and C is assigned only one hygienist, which
of the following must be true?
Questions 1924
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
A, B, and C are dentists and S, T, U, and V are

hygienists assigned to work for them.
A and B each have exactly two hygienists
assigned to them.
C sometimes is assigned one hygienist and
sometimes two.
S is assigned to C.
V is assigned to two dentists.
U is assigned to only one dentist.
T is assigned to C.
U is assigned to A.
24. If S is assigned to both B and C, which of

T is assigned to A and one other dentist.
(A) T and V are assigned to the same

dentist.
(B) V is assigned to A.
(C) U and V are assigned to the same
dentist.
(D) U is assigned to B.
(E) U is assigned to only one dentist.
Each hygienist is assigned to at least one

dentist.
19. If S and T are assigned to the same two
dentists, V must work for
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
both A and B
both A and C
either A or B
either A or C
either B or C
both A and B
both A and C
either A or B
either A or C
either B or C
20. If V is assigned to both B and C, which of

(A) U is assigned to B.
(B) S is assigned to A.
(C) T and U are assigned to the same
dentist.
(D) S and T are assigned to the same
dentist.
(E) U is assigned to only one dentist.
LSAT Success
213
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PRACTICE TEST 2
SECTION 4
TIME35 MINUTES

sheet.
45
50
Line
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Without a doubt, the role of firearms in

American violence is much greater today
than a decade ago. Rates of gun violence
and the proportion of violent acts that are
committed by guns have increased substantially, even after the Gun Control Act went
into effect. Behind these increases lies the
probability that handgun ownership has
become at least a subcultural institution in
the big cities that are the main arena of
American violence. During this period,
regional differences in gun ownership and
use have been moderated as the large
Northeastern cities that were traditionally
areas of low ownership and use have
experienced large increases in handgun
use.
The special role of the handgun in
urban violence is one of the more obvious
lessons of the data that are reported. Over
the past ten years, rates of handgun
homicide have increased more than three
times as much as homicides by all other
means. The data reported suggest, but do
not compel, other conclusions about
patterns of handgun ownership and
violence in the United States. First, the
sharp rise in the proportion of violence
attributable to handguns in Northeastern
cities may lead to modification of the
hypothesis that general patterns of handgun
ownership determine the extent to which
handguns are used in violent episodes.
While it is still true that those regions with
the highest general levels of gun ownership
have the highest proportion of gun use in
violence, the past decade has produced an
increase in handgun use in the Northeast
that leaves cities in that region closer to but
still below the average handgun share of
violence. This could be due to a substantial
rise in handgun ownership in the general
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55
60
65
70
75
80
85
214
28 QUESTIONS
population in these cities, but that would

mean that a vast Northeastern urban
handgun arsenal has been accumulating
during the past ten years. It is more likely
that handgun ownership increased substantially among subcultural groups disproportionately associated with violence without
necessarily affecting other parts of the
population.
If one adopts a subcultural explanation of the relationship between gun
ownership and violence, hypotheses about
the effect of increases or decreases in
handgun ownership on handgun violence
should take a slightly more complicated
form. One would predict that high levels of
handgun ownership produce high levels of
handgun violence for two reasons: More
handguns are available at a moment of
perceived need, and high ownership rates
necessarily suggest high levels of handgun
availability to all potential consumers. Low
general levels of handgun ownership, on
the other hand, become the necessary but
not sufficient condition of low levels of
handgun violence. If the lower-than-average
general ownership levels are still high
enough to create relatively easy handgun
availability and if both handgun ownership
and propensity for violence are concentrated in discrete subpopulations, lowerthan-average general ownership is an
inadequate insurance policy against
increases in handgun violence. It is only
when ownership levels are low enough to
have an impact on handgun availability that
low aggregate ownership will depress
handgun involvement in rates of subcultural
violence. Efforts to limit handgun supply on
a national basis by limiting legitimate
production, or imports, or both will not
require a large federal street police force.
At the point when market controls make
illicit gun production profitable, some
police work will obviously be needed,
along the lines of controls on illicit liquor
production.
LSAT Success
SECTION 4
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
5. Which of the following may be inferred

from the passage?
(A) criticize the Gun Control Act

(B) describe the role of the handgun in
urban violence
(C) advocate limiting handgun availability
(D) explain the growth of handgun
violence
(E) point out the increase in the urban
handgun arsenal
(A) The rate of growth in gun ownership

in the Northeast is greater than that of
other regions.
(B) Gun ownership in the Northeast is
greater than that of other regions.
(C) There is little data available concerning the growth of gun ownership in
urban areas.
(D) High levels of handgun ownership do
not necessarily result in increased
violence.
(E) High levels of handgun ownership in
urban areas do not necessarily result in
increased violence.
2. If true, the subcultural explanation of gun

ownership and violence means that
(A) all parts of the population own more
guns
(B) general patterns of gun ownership
determine their use in violent episodes
(C) higher levels of gun ownership
produce higher levels of violence
(D) gun ownership by people associated
with violence has greatly increased
(E) guns are now primarily owned by the
violent elements of urban society
6. The passage suggests which of the following?

(A) High levels of handgun ownership are
not related to perceived needs among
consumers.
(B) More violent acts are committed by
means other than handguns.
(C) Urban violence is due to subcultural
differences among residents.
(D) The number of homicides not involving handguns has increased in the past
ten years.
(E) Lower-than-average handgun ownership will result in lower violence.
3. The author refers to the Gun Control Act to

(A) dramatize the increase in gun-related
violence
(B) criticize the government for gunrelated violence
(C) point out the statutes total ineffectiveness
(D) minimize the importance of guncontrol legislation
(E) argue for more enforcement of the
statute
7. The author would likely disagree that which

of the following would reduce handgun
violence?

weaken the authors argument concerning
handgun ownership in Northeastern cities?
(A) regulation of handgun imports

(B) reduction of handgun ownership in
certain subcultural groups
(C) regulation of handgun possession
(D) reduction of handgun ownership levels
(E) regulation of handgun production
(A) Handgun ownership among Boston

drug dealers has increased 300 percent
in the last ten years.
(B) Handgun ownership among organized
crime figures in New Jersey has
increased dramatically in the last ten
years.
(C) Handgun ownership among convicted
criminals has increased in the last ten
years.
(D) Handgun ownership among middleclass New Yorkers has increased
fourfold in the last ten years.
(E) Handgun ownership among middleclass Philadelphians has increased
slightly in the last ten years.
LSAT Success
Line
10
215
Software is like hardware in that it causes

machines to perform tasks. Software is
merely a replacement for hardware
components that could otherwise perform
the same function. Software is often
embedded in hardware and part of an
overall hardware system. Like hardware,
software can often serve as a tool for
creating other items. Like hardware,
software needs maintenance work from
time to time to operate properly.
www.petersons.com
PRACTICE TEST 2
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
Software is unlike hardware, however,

in a great many ways. Software is, for
example, easy and cheap to replicate as
compared with hardware. Once the first
copy has been produced, software can be
almost endlessly replicated at almost no
cost, regardless of how complex it is. One
of the consequences of this characteristic is
that the government tends to think that
additional copies of software ought to be
deliverable at a very low cost, whereas
industry, which is concerned about
recouping its research and development
costs and which tends to regard the sale of
software as the sale of a production facility
(as if one bought a General Motors factory
when one bought a truck produced by
GM), thinks that sales at higher price levels
are necessary to make the software
business viable. A second consequence of
low-cost replicability is that the software
industry, for the most part, tends to make
its products available only on a highly
restrictive licensing basis, rather than
selling copies outright.
Another important difference between
software and hardware is that software may
be wholly subject to a very lengthy lawful
monopoly (i.e., a copyright) as well as
being held as a trade secret, whereas
hardware may be subject to a much shorter
monopoly (i.e., a patent) and most often
cannot be held as a trade secret. Moreover,
quite often hardware is either not patented
at all or only subject to partial patent
protection. A high standard of inventiveness
is required for patent, while copyright
requires only the most minimal originality.
Hardware, unlike software, cannot be
copyrighted at all. As a result, it tends to be
much harder to get competition for
software procurements and maintenance
than for hardware, which means that it is
even easier for the government to find itself
in a sole-source position as to software than
as to hardware. Moreover, because software
engineering is still in the early stages of
development, it is generally more difficult
to specify how software, as opposed to
hardware, should be developed for particular functions and to estimate the cost and
development schedule for it.
Software, which consists of a stream
of electrical impulses, is also virtually
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invisible as compared with hardware,

which means that it is more difficult to
detect if someone delivers very similar or
nearly identical software on a second
development contract. Again, because
software engineering is a developing art,
software is likely to contain many undetected defects that will need to be corrected
while in the users possession.
Unlike hardware, software is readily
changeable; that is, new capabilities can be
added to software without additional plant
or material costs. Often, all that is required
is some intellectual labor. All of these
factors tend to make software maintenance
and enhancement a much bigger part of
computer system life-cycle planning than is
the case with hardware.
8. The passage is primarily concerned with

(A) correcting misimpressions about
hardware and software
(B) explaining the nature of software
(C) minimizing apparent difficulties with
software
(D) comparing hardware and software
(E) describing computer system life-cycle
planning
following is true?
(A) Hardware and software cannot
perform the same functions.
(B) Software can make hardware cheaper.
(C) Software can be located within
hardware.
(D) Software cannot be copyrighted.
(E) Hardware is readily changeable.
10. According to the passage, all of the following is true EXCEPT
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
216
the cost of duplicating software is low

very little software is sold outright
hardware is often not patented
software requires minimal originality
hardware is readily changeable
LSAT Success
SECTION 4
Line

following characteristics does NOT apply to
both hardware and software?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
It
It
It
It
It
can
can
can
can
can
be held as a trade secret.

be copyrighted.
create other items.
be subject to a monopoly.
be maintained.
10

from the passage?
(A) Hardware is more expensive than
software.
(B) It is more profitable to sell copies of
software than hardware.
(C) Software maintenance is a relatively
competitive business.
(D) Procurement of hardware is not a
competitive business.
(E) Software is licensed because it is too
expensive to buy.
15
20

from the passage?
25
(A) Ownership rights in software can be

better protected than those in
hardware.
(B) Copyrighted software requires greater
inventiveness than does hardware.
(C) Ownership rights in hardware can be
better protected than those in
software.
(D) Patented hardware requires greater
inventiveness than does software.
(E) Patented hardware is difficult to
specify for particular functions.
30
35
14. The argument that one purchased the

factory when one purchased a truck made
at the factory (lines 2729) is most like
40
(A) One purchased the typewriter when

one purchased the book that prepared
the manuscript.
(B) One purchased the cruise when one
purchased the cruise ship.
(C) One purchased the restaurant when one
purchased the dinner prepared there.
(D) One purchased the office building
when one leased an office located in
the building.
(E) One purchased the health club when
one purchased a membership to use
the club facilities.
LSAT Success
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50
217
We customarily identify the concept of

status with its conventional indices, such as
wealth, title, and occupation. But there is
nothing sacred about these indices; they are
merely the most convenient and concrete
manifestations in everyday life of different
social positions. If every member of society
routinely tested his strength in court several
times each year instead of once or twice a
lifetime, we would immediately recognize
court performance as a direct measure of
social position, perhaps even more revealing of the pecking order than conventional
indices, such as power.
Of course, in no society, not even a
litigious one like premodern New Haven,
does the court play so vital a role as this in
the life of the community. Nevertheless, if
other societies show the same positive
correlation between status and court
performance found in New Haven, we will
be compelled to admit that individual court
appearancesinfrequent though they
areare revelatory of group status when
treated collectively. Of course, one cannot
assume on the basis of this one study of a
single society that court performance is
always and everywhere a reliable index of
status. Only a considerable accumulation of
confirmatory studies of other communities
and courts could justify the use of the
voluntary appearance ratio as an independent measure of status. But if, as in the case
of New Haven, it can be shown for a given
community that court performance is
strongly correlated with the more conventional indices of status over a long period of
time, then it seems reasonable to treat
court performance itself as an index of
status in that community. Doing so may be
extremely advantageous because, unlike
most indices of status, court performance
can be reconstructed on a year-to-year
basis.
If court performance can be shown to
reflect the static distribution of power and
advantage in the communityas has been
done for New Haventhen by tracing
court performance through time, on a
year-to-year basis, it should be possible to
reveal shifts of power and advantage as
they take place. Court records exploited in
this manner might serve as a weather vane
of social change. The gentry controversy in
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PRACTICE TEST 2
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70

weaken the authors thesis?
English history stands as the classic

illustration of the difficulty of reconstructing an account through time of the relative
position of two classes, using only economic and demographic data. Of all the
kinds of data relating to group status, none
is more likely to be recorded and be
preserved in as complete a form as court
records. A continuous year-by-year account
of group status would be virtually impossible to reconstruct from surviving economic data, but such an account may be
feasible for societies with complete court
records. Such a methodological tool should
be useful to any historian who wants to test
hypotheses postulating the rise or fall of a
class or other large group.
(A) There is an inverse relationship

between wealth and court appearances.
(B) There is a negative relationship
between age and court appearances.
(C) There is a random relationship
between occupation and court
appearances.
(D) There is a positive relationship
between title and court appearances.
(E) There is a direct relationship between
land ownership and court appearances.
19. If true, which of the following would best
support the authors thesis?
15. The author views court records primarily as
(A) There is little correlation between the

New Haven findings and those of
other towns.
(B) There is a positive correlation between
the New Haven findings and those of
other towns.
(C) There is a positive correlation between
wealth and court appearances in New
Haven and those of other towns.
(D) There is little correlation between
occupations and court appearances in
New Haven and those of other towns.
(E) There is a direct relationship between
land ownership in New Haven and ten
surrounding towns.
(A) surviving other available records about

society
(B) a source of more reliable data about
society
(C) reflecting distribution of power in
society
(D) a means of tracing changes in group
status in society
(E) reporting on tests of strength within a
society
16. The term positive correlation in lines
1920 refers to which of the following?
(A) the relationship between individual
and group status
(B) the relationship between group status
and frequency of court appearance
(C) the relationship between individual
court appearance and social position
(D) the relationship between the pecking
order and group status in the community
(E) the relationship between power shifts
and frequency of court appearance
20. Which of the following is most likely the

author of the passage?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
a sociologist
a genealogist
a heraldrist
an anthropologist
a legal historian
17. The passage suggests that which of the

following is an indication of individual
social status?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
wealth
occupation
title
court performance
power
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218
LSAT Success
SECTION 4
40
21. The passage suggests that all of the following would be advantages of using court
records and performance as a means of
social status determination EXCEPT
(A) court records can be reconstructed
over long periods of time
(B) court appearances change with status
within the society
(C) court records are generally preserved
in most jurisdictions
(D) court appearances can be treated
collectively to reflect status
(E) court procedures remain the same
over long periods of time
Line
10
15
20
25
30
35
45
50
55
Much advertising is patently uninformative:

Rational consumers should not care what
sort of breakfast cereal is eaten by famous
baseball players. Nonetheless, advertisers
spend large sums of money on these sorts
of messages as well as many others of equal
value as information. Rational consumers
should not be influenced by such messages,
and rational advertisers should not spend
money on messages without influence.
There are two types of goods: search
goods and experience goods. A search good
is one whose salient characteristics can be
ascertained by presale inspection (e.g., the
comfort of a pair of shoes); experience
goods are those that must be consumed to
be evaluated (e.g., the taste of a candy bar).
The role of advertising differs depending on
which type of good is involved. In the case
of search goods, where the consumer can
and will easily determine for himself
whether the goods are what he wants,
advertisers have little incentive to misrepresent the quality of their goods. Thus,
advertisers simply urge the consumer to
make the inspection, and their message
should be largely informative and truthful.
In the case of the experience good, the
consumer can determine quality only by
purchasing and using the good. The
function of advertising, therefore, is to get
the consumer to try the product. Here,
advertisers might have an incentive to
mislead and make false claims.
With respect to advertising, then, the
characteristics of goods and services form a
continuum, from those in which it is very
easy to detect the truth or falsity of
advertising claims (search goods: The truth
LSAT Success
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65
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75
of the claim can be ascertained before

purchase) through experience goods
(where the truth of the claim can be
detected only after purchase and use)
through credence goods (where the validity
of advertisements may never be determined).
As we move along this continuum
from search to credence characteristics,
misrepresentation becomes relatively more
profitable, since detection by consumers
becomes more expensive. Nonetheless, it is
in the case of credence characteristics that
self-protection becomes most difficult and
in which some legal remedy would seem
most important.
For any one purchase where credence
qualities are involved, the consumer cannot
be sure that he is getting a desirable good;
i.e., there is a low probability of his finding
out whether claims about any one good are
true or false. However, if the consumer
buys many goods from the same source,
the probability of ascertaining that claims
about one of those goods are false would
be increased. In this situation, claims about
individual goods have credence characteristics; but the reputation of the seller of all of
the goods is an experience characteristic. It
may be that consumer trust in the reputation of the intermediary is misplaced in the
situation of mail-order advertisements
carried by magazines. Although the
consumer may rely on the publisher of the
magazine to police their advertisers,
Consumers Union claims that in fact such
policing is minimal or nonexistent.
22. Which of the following best states the

primary objective of the passage?
(A) to point out that advertising reliability
varies by type of good
(B) to contrast advertising purposes for
three types of goods
(C) to differentiate between advertising for
two types of goods
(D) to discuss the role of advertising as
information
(E) to question the trustworthiness of
magazine mail-order advertising
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PRACTICE TEST 2
23. According to the passage, the consumer can
determine the quality of experience goods
by which of the following?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)

authors attitude toward advertising?
(A) Many advertisers and consumers do
not act rationally.
(B) Many advertisers spend too much
money on ads.
(C) Many consumers are influenced by
advertising.
(D) Many advertisers are not interested in
informing consumers.
(E) Many consumers use advertising to
determine the quality of goods.
advertising
inspection
consumption
policing
reputation
24. According to the passage, each of the

following is true EXCEPT which statement?
(A) Search-goods advertising is likely to be
informative and truthful.
(B) Mail-order advertising in magazines is
not likely to be truthful.
(C) Experience-goods advertisers have
incentive to mislead.
(D) Credence-goods advertisements may
never be determined to be valid.
(E) Advertisers spend large sums of money
on informative messages.
28. The author implies which of the following

in the passage?
(A) Search-goods consumers are easily
misled by advertising.
(B) Experience-goods consumers purchase
by mail order.
(C) Credence-goods consumers require
statutory protection.
(D) Experience-goods consumers ascertain
value by inspection.
(E) Credence-goods consumers depend on
seller credibility.
25. Which of the following articles is the most

likely source of the passage?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
The Economics of Advertising

The Law of False Advertising
Advertising by Type of Good
Analysis of the Function of Advertising
(E) Advertising and the Quality of Goods
26. It can be inferred from the passage that

which of the following are credence goods?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
auto transmission oil

vitamin pills
plant fertilizer
eyeglasses
air conditioner
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LSAT Success
SECTION 5
SECTION 5
TIME35
MINUTES
24 QUESTIONS
3. Return my pocket watch!

How did you get it?

My father gave it to me.
How did your father get it?
His father gave it to him.
How did your grandfather get it?
He won it in a poker game.
1. Hitler was born in 1889 and became

chancellor of Germany in 1933. On December 7, 1941, he was 52 years old and had
been in power for 8 years. Hirohito was
born in 1901 and became emperor of Japan
in 1926. On December 7, 1941, he was 40
years old and had been in power for 15
years.
The four underlined figures for each
man total 3,882.
Good, we will play poker for it.

Which of the following is best inferred from
the statement, Good, we will play poker
for it?
(A) Gambling achieves objectives effectively.
(B) Past practice validates future action.
(C) Meaningful customs transcend
generations.
(D) Possession is a privilege not a right.
(E) Wanting anothers possessions is
instinctive.
Which of the following most accurately

describes the total 3,882?
(A) It is significant, but its meaning is not
clear.
(B) It is insignificant and coincidental.
(C) Important leaders share significant
events and figures.
(D) It is politically significant only.
(E) There is more significance in figures
than is usually acknowledged.
4. Kaminskis disparaging reviews of the book

call her abilities as a critic into question
since the book became an immediate
best-seller.
Which of the following, if true, would most
weaken the authors questioning of Kaminskis critical ability?
2. It is acceptable to support one corrupt

faction in a war against another in Nicaragua. And it is acceptable to send troops to
Grenada to oust a Communist leader. But it
is unacceptable to use force to get food to
thousands of isolated and starving people in
Sudan because it would interfere with that
nations internal affairs.
(A) Immediate success of books is quickly

forgotten.
(B) Book critics often disagree with each
other.
(C) Sales of a book are not always
indicative of its value.
(D) The significance of a book is not
known for years.
(E) Critics often change their views about
books.
The author makes a point by

(A) identifying incongruities in the use of
force
(B) analyzing evidence of the use of force
(C) attacking proprieties in the use of
force
(D) complaining about irrationality in the
use of force
(E) arguing for a more pervasive use of
force
LSAT Success
221
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PRACTICE TEST 2
Questions 56
artist who was not actively hostile to his environment and, thus, an indifferent patriot. From
Dante to Tolstoy and from Shakespeare to Mark
Twain, the story is ever the same. Names suggest
themselves instantly: Goethe, Shelley, Byron,
Balzac, Cervantes, Swift, Dostoevsky, Carlyle,
Moliere, and Pope were each a bitter critic of his
time and nation.
If a writer is truly emotional, his writing will

comprise his deepest feelings about the world;
and one would expect such feelings to appear in
his work, if not dominate it. Many societies and
people are very emotional, and their writing has
as its principal function the expression and
integration of deep feeling. This suggests that
writing must be either emotional or trivial, that
only emotional people can be great writers, and
that writing cannot flourish in a technical
society.

strongly refute the authors argument?
(A) Artists are generally honored by their
countries.
(B) Artists best recognize lifes difficulties.
(C) Artists usually escape from their
countries.
(D) Artists generally venerate their
countries.
(E) Artists are best known in their own
countries.
5. The writing of emotional people demonstrates

(A) feelings are not integrated in other
ways
(B) only emotional writing can be great
(C) the expression of deep feeling
(D) writing cannot flourish in a technical
society
(E) one type of writing is better than
another
8. The authors argument most depends upon

which of the following assumptions?
(A) Most people are annoyed by phenomena that make an artist hostile.
(B) Art defines in the abstract events and
sensations that are uncommon.
(C) The purpose of art is to both find fault
with and escape from life.
(D) In order to be an artist of dignity, a
person must be an indifferent patriot.
(E) Life is actively hostile to the artistic
endeavors of most artists.
6. On which of the following assumptions is

the authors position based?
(A) Great writers must be emotional.
(B) Societies must be emotional or
technical.
(C) Feelings dominate an emotional
writers work.
(D) Writing is emotional or trivial.
(E) A writers purpose is to express
emotion.
9. In a recent survey, the majority of respondents answered no to the question,

Should free hypodermic needles be
provided by the government to drug addicts
on welfare?
Questions 78
It is almost as safe to assume that an artist of any
dignity is against his country, i.e., against the
environment in which God hath placed him, as it
is to assume that his country is against the artist.
He differs from the rest of us mainly because he
reacts sharply and in an uncommon manner to
phenomena that leave the rest of us unmoved,
or, at most, merely annoy us vaguely. Therefore,
he takes to artistic endeavor, which is at once a
criticism of life and an attempt to escape from
life.
The more the facts are studied, the more
they bear out these generalizations. In those
fields of art, at all events, which concern
themselves with ideas as well as with sensations,
it is almost impossible to find any trace of an
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The survey results can be best criticized

because the question structure
(A) presented more than one issue to
respondents
(B) presented a choice that suggested a
negative reply
(C) presented respondents an impossible
value judgment
(D) presented an issue to largely unaffected respondents
(E) presented a controversial issue out of
context
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LSAT Success
SECTION 5
11. The author assumes which of the following
to be fact rather than opinion?
10. When it rains, the crops grow; but it hasnt

rained recently, so the crops must not be
growing.
(A) Diverting the Delaware River is a

matter of great concern to people in
the Delaware Valley.
(B) Oil, coal, and fresh water are natural
resources.
(C) The purpose of diverting the Delaware
River is to allow New York City to
continue to grow.
(D) The interests of New York and the
Delaware Valley conflict.
(E) The Delaware River supplies New
York with water.
Which of the following arguments is

logically most similar to the one above?
(A) When people are old, they complain
about their health; but our town has
no health problems, so it must have
no old people.
(B) When a town has health problems, so
it must also have many old people.
(C) When people are old, they complain
about their health; but one can
complain about ones health and yet
not be old.
(D) When people complain about their
health, they get old; but no one is
complaining about their health, so we
must have no people getting old.
(E) When a town has people complaining
about their health, it must also have
old people; our town has many people
complaining about their health, so it
must have many old people.

weaken the authors argument?
(A) New York City is permanently
committed to zero growth.
(B) The diversion will not reduce water
availability to people in the Delaware
Valley.
(C) New York City will pay Pennsylvania
and New Jersey for each gallon of
water diverted.
(D) The diversion will reduce the risk of
flooding in the Delaware Valley.
(E) New York City will get water from
Vermont if the Delaware River is not
diverted.
Questions 1112
The proposal to divert one third of the flow of
the Delaware River to supply New York City
with water ought to be a matter of great concern
to the people who live in the Delaware Valley.
The interests of the people of the Delaware
Valley are being put aside so that growth can
continue in an already overdeveloped area. Fresh
water is a natural resource in the same sense that
oil and coal are natural resources. Do Texas and
Alaska give away their oil? Does West Virginia
give away its coal? Why should Pennsylvania and
New Jersey supply New York or any other place
with fresh water? If the growth of New York is
capped by limited fresh water, so much the
better.
LSAT Success
13. If the present moment contains no living

and creative choice and is totally and
mechanically the product of the matter and
moment of the moment before, so, then,
was that moment the mechanical effect of
the moment that preceded it and so on until
we arrive at a single cause of every later
event, of every act and suffering of man.
Which of the following would NOT be
supported by the above argument?
(A) a theory postulating a mechanistic
origin of the universe
(B) a theory postulating suffering as a
requisite for creativity
(C) a theory postulating a deterministic
explanation of history
(D) a theory postulating that there are no
choices in the present moment
(E) a theory postulating a single cause of
all events
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PRACTICE TEST 2
14. Baxter defends paternal authority and the
preservation of the family in her most
recent work. But other aspects of her
thinking more convincingly demonstrate
that she cannot be considered a feminist.
For example, she fails to appreciate that the
full realization of a womans capacities
depends on her securing the same political,
economic, and civil rights as those afforded
me.
16. A philosopher makes arguments that

frequently are not logical in order to
demonstrate that rationality is not as
valuable as irrationality to us humans.
Consequently, the philosopher should not
be expected to use the same arguments as
those whose positions are rationally based.
The argument above is most similar to
(A) A philosophers arguments focus on
the flaws in logical reasoning of those
who oppose her.
(B) A writer often uses great restraint
when describing mayhem.
(C) A female author was not taken seriously,
so she used a male pseudonym when
establishing her reputation.
(D) A novel is judged to be boring because
it describes a boring situation.
(E) A philosophers reasoning is complicated because he was trained in a
tradition that often uses complicated
reasoning.
Which of the following inferences is NOT

supported by the above argument?
(A) Paternal authority is not generally
supported by feminists.
(B) The family is not generally supported
by feminists.
(C) Baxter feels that women do not need
rights equal to mens.
(D) Womens capacities have not been
fully realized.
(E) Baxter feels that women and men have
unequal capacities.
15. Many children in urban schools are forced
to learn in dilapidated classrooms with few
modern teaching aids. Compared to
children in suburban schools with their
computers, labs, and the latest advances in
educational resources, the urban student is
truly deprived.
Question 1718
United States treaty negotiations with Japan
about trade involve the basic question, Can the
Japanese be trusted? But treaties are based on
self-interest rather than on trust. There would be
no need to have treaties if countries trusted one
another. A treaty is an alternative to trust; one
that formally recognizes that each country finds
an advantage in the agreement.
The point of the authors argument is best

stated by which of the following?
(A) Modern educational aids should be
provided for urban children.
(B) Urban and suburban children should
be educated in the same schools.
(C) Urban schoolchildren should not be
required to compete with suburban
schoolchildren.
(D) Unequal resources for urban and
suburban children should be investigated.
(E) Suburban school resources should be
combined with those of urban schools
if an ideal education is to be achieved.
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17. Which of the following is an argument

made above?
(A) If the Japanese can be trusted, the
United States should negotiate treaties
with Japan.
(B) If the Japanese cannot be trusted, the
United States should not negotiate
treaties with Japan.
(C) If Japan and the United States have
common trade interests, a treaty
between the countries should be
negotiated.
(D) If Japan and the United States sign a
treaty, interests of each will be served
by the agreement.
(E) If Japanese and United States interests
are different, a treaty dealing with
those interests will not be signed.
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LSAT Success
SECTION 5
18. Which of the following is NOT supported
by the authors argument above?
21. The Audubon Society Falcon Watch reports

that there were 2,487 more falcon sightings
in 1988 than there were in 1987. This
proves that an increase in the falcon
population has finally been realized.
(A) Treaties are made only between

countries that trust one another.
(B) Treaties further the self-interest of
countries.
(C) Treaties formally recognize an advantage one country has over another.
(D) Treaties do not serve mutual interests
of countries.
(E) Treaties serve as reasonable alternatives to trust.

(A) Falcons regularly move from area to
area in search of food.
(B) Falcons have been introduced into
urban environments.
(C) Development in falcon nesting areas is
being restricted.
(D) The Society intensified its falcon
sighting program in 1988.
(E) The Society database about falcons
improved in 1988.
19. Tests done on the employees of a chemical

plant showed that 28 percent had abnormal
chromosome patterns. Chemical fumes,
radiation, and airborne particulates are
among the causes of abnormal chromosome
patterns.
22. The following notice was received by Mary

Castle, a scientist.
Which of the following would most support

the conclusion that chemical fumes were
responsible for employees abnormal
chromosome patterns?
We regret that your article cannot be

accepted. Page limitations in the Journal
force the editor to return many worthy and
well-written articles.
(A) Abnormal chromosome patterns can

be altered.
(B) Nonemployees in the area also develop
abnormal chromosome patterns.
(C) Employees of other chemical plants do
not develop abnormal chromosome
patterns.
(D) Abnormal chromosome patterns are
not necessarily harmful.
(E) Employees of most chemical plants develop abnormal chromosome patterns.
All of the following may be inferred from

the above, EXCEPT
(A) only well-written articles were
accepted for publication
(B) Castles article was considered to be
well-written
(C) Castles article was found to be too
long for the Journal
(D) Castles article was considered to be
worthy of publication
(E) writing was not the only factor in
deciding which articles to publish
20. None of the legislators we polled are in

favor of this bill?
That cannot be true. There are six legislators who introduced the bill and support
it.
Which of the following can be inferred
from the above exchange?
(A) Legislators who do not favor the bill
may support it.
(B) The only legislators who favor the bill
are those who introduced it.
(C) Only legislators who do not favor the
bill were polled.
(D) Some legislators refused to participate
in the poll.
(E) Legislators might indicate that they
favor a bill when they do not.
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PRACTICE TEST 2
24. The argument above is most similar to
Questions 2324
The drug Thalidomide caused unforeseen birth
defects in thousands of babies; therefore,
thorough testing of the effects of all new drugs
should be required before release to the public.
(A) Exposure to loud music has been

shown to be harmful to teenage
hearing; therefore, teens should not be
permitted to listen to loud music.
(B) The value of research is hard to
determine; therefore, amounts spent
for research should be reduced.
(C) The Ford Pinto has been found to
have a design defect; therefore, it
should be replaced by the manufacturer.
(D) Teenage drivers have caused some of
the worst auto accidents; therefore,
driving tests for teenagers should be
more rigorous than for others.
(E) Generic drugs are less expensive than
brand-name drugs; therefore, doctors
should prescribe only generic drugs.
23. Which of the following is an assumption

made in the argument above?
(A) Birth defects caused by Thalidomide
could have been prevented by testing.
(B) Thalidomide produced more harmful
birth defects than any drug before it.
(C) The benefits of Thalidomide are not
outweighed by its harmful side effects.
(D) Thalidomide producers acted irresponsibly in putting such a dangerous drug
on the market.
(E) Less harmful drugs were available to
treat the problems treated by Thalidomide.
www.petersons.com
226
LSAT Success

By merging with Lisle & Fish, Ltd., savings would
result from combined sales, advertising, management, and printing, and a strong financial future
would be ensured. Lisle & Fish has an impeccable reputation in the industry, and its taste is
fastidious. If the companies merged, however,
Carthage would lose its autonomy, and Lisle &
Fish policies would control, including the use of
somewhat lower-quality paper, printing, and
binding.
On the other hand, by changing the
Carthage publishing policy and introducing a
series of annotated works of Shakespeare for use
in high school and college courses, a permanently enlarged market would result. Professor
Barth, the series editor, produces popular and
effective material but is not a highly respected
scholar. And the Shakespeare series would
require Carthage to publish in paperback form,
which Carthage has refused to do for decades
because it felt its reputation would suffer.
Complete the short writing exercise on the

topic that follows. You have only 30 minutes
to plan, organize, and write your sample.
WRITE ONLY ON THE TOPIC SPECIFIED.
As the director of the Carthage University Press,

you must recommend to the board of managers a
long-range plan to counteract the Presss financial
decline. You must choose between merging with
a high-quality publisher or changing your
publishing policy in a way that would greatly
increase income. Two considerations guide your
decision:
The plan must provide a relatively
permanent solution to the financial
problems of the Press.
The Press must maintain its tradition of
only publishing work of the highest
quality, using the very best paper,
printing, and binding.
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LSAT Success
227
www.petersons.com
PRACTICE TEST 2
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228
LSAT Success
QUICK-SCORE ANSWERS
QUICK-SCORE ANSWERS
Section 1
1. E
2. A
3. D
4. C
5. C
6. D
7. E
8. E
9. D
10. B
11. C
12. D
13. D
14. E
15. B
16. C
17. E
18. E
19. B
20. E
21. C
22. C
23. A
24. B
LSAT Success
Section 2
1. A
2. C
3. A
4. A
5. D
6. D
7. E
8. D
9. A
10. E
11. E
12. B
13. E
14. E
15. C
16. C
17. D
18. B
19. C
20. D
21. A
22. A
23. A
24. D
Section 3
1. B
2. D
3. B
4. B
5. A
6. C
7. A
8. C
9. A
10. D
11. B
12. E
13. A
14. A
15. D
16. A
17. E
18. C
19. E
20. E
21. E
22. A
23. C
24. E
Section 4
1. C
2. D
3. A
4. D
5. A
6. C
7. C
8. D
9. C
10. E
11. B
12. B
13. D
14. C
15. D
16. B
17. D
18. A
19. B
20. E
21. E
22. A
23. C
24. E
25. D
26. A
27. A
28. C
229
Section 5
1. B
2. A
3. B
4. C
5. C
6. B
7. D
8. C
9. A
10. D
11. B
12. C
13. B
14. E
15. A
16. E
17. D
18. D
19. E
20. C
21. D
22. E
23. A
24. D
www.petersons.com
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
Questions 712
In the following answer guide, the credited responses appear in bold type and the visualization
that makes the credited response clear appears before the answers to each question set. Use the visualization to guide you in determining the credited answer.
Ages
A, F, I, K, M, O, T, U, V, W
Younger
SECTION 1
Older
W
O
Questions 16
Golf
7. The correct answer is (E). The Kansas president is younger than the Ohio president.
C, D, E, F, G
Last
8. The correct answer is (E). The Kansas

president is older than the Ohio president.
First
9. The correct answer is (D). The Texas

C (5)
G (1)
10. The correct answer is (B). Wyoming
or
G (5)
E
C (1)
11. The correct answer is (C). The Florida

president is older than the Kansas president.
No ties - all play
12. The correct answer is (D). The Alaska

1. The correct answer is (E). E finishes

fourth.
Questions 1318
2. The correct answer is (A). E finishes

second.
3. The correct answer is (D). F finishes
ahead of E.
N
5. The correct answer is (C). F finishes

ahead of D.
4
S
Roundtrip tracks
6. The correct answer is (D). F finishes

fourth.
2 consecutive trains cannot use same track

Local after express or metro
13. The correct answer is (D). I and II only

14. The correct answer is (E). 4, 1, 3, 2
15. The correct answer is (B). 2
16. The correct answer is (C). R on track 2,
U on track 3, S on track 1, T on track 3, Q
on track 2
17. The correct answer is (E). 4, 0
18. The correct answer is (E). The greatest
number of locals cannot exceed the greatest
number of express trains.
www.petersons.com
230
LSAT Success
PRACTICE TEST 2
Questions 1924
Beach
4. The correct answer is (A). Reasoning

abilities of illiterate people should not be
tested using tasks that do not involve
familiar devices.
PointTesting results for illiterates vary by
the devices used to test.
C, E, J, R, W
Food, Blankets, Umbrella, Drives, Pays
Brother - Sister
First brings umbrella
Driver = male
Brother pays
When E brings food - W not drive
When C or J brings blankets - R drives
5. The correct answer is (D). Daily exercise

does not contribute greatly to Japanese
worker productivity.
PointAmericans and Japanese vary in
terms of daily exercise and productivity.
evidence
19. The correct answer is (B). Rick drives.

20. The correct answer is (E). Carol is Ricks
sister.
21. The correct answer is (C). bring the
umbrella
6. The correct answer is (D). A country

with a democratic government must have a
politically active people.
PointPolitical indifference is required by
dictators and central governments.
22. The correct answer is (C). Jenny brings

neither blankets nor food.
23. The correct answer is (A). drive
24. The correct answer is (B). Carol and Rick
SECTION 2
7. The correct answer is (E). IV, II, III, I

PointThe path to follow to U. S. energy
independence
IssueExtension question/order of evidence
to conclusion

8. The correct answer is (D). work areas are

directly related to college degree areas
PointIt is wasteful to spend for training
that is little used.
1. The correct answer is (A). Quiet people

are not easily identified.
PointAll people have one attribute. All
with the one attribute have a second
attribute.
9. The correct answer is (A). It does not state

that Alert tablets cause grade improvement.
PointStudents who use Alert get good
grades.
conclusion
2. The correct answer is (C). It assumes the

conclusion.
PointAmbitious people are not good
parents. Good parents are not
ambitious people.
10. The correct answer is (E). Friendliness is

a virtue.
PointDogs and cats express friendliness
differently.
3. The correct answer is (A). Arthritis

specialists provide authoritative information
on effective medication for arthritis.
PointConnect Arthrelief to the most
prescribed medicine.
IssueExtension question/NOT assumption
LSAT Success
231
www.petersons.com
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
17. The correct answer is (D). justified by the
economic value to business and society
11. The correct answer is (E). Public beaches

in Canada are no cleaner or cheaper than
those in the United States.
PointCredit bureaus provide valuable

services with little personal intrusion
by reducing business losses and
preventing consumers from overextending their financial obligations.
PointCanadian public campgrounds

compare favorably with U. S. public
beaches.
evidence
12. The correct answer is (B). proposes a
common cause for similar effects
PointComputers and people play poker in
the same way.
18. The correct answer is (B). Harold is a

better writer than Stan.
13. The correct answer is (E). The industry

association has standards that exceed the
legal requirements.
PointInspections identify no violations.
19. The correct answer is (C). Since 1969,

more high school graduates have decided to
seek a college degree.
PointThe value of a college education has
dropped significantly over time.
evidence
PointHarold writes better short stories

and novels than does Stan.
14. The correct answer is (E). children do

not generally accept adult responsibilities
prior to the rites
PointRites that formally impose adult
responsibilities are found in societies
with unclear differences between
adults and children.
20. The correct answer is (D). Engineering of

genes and environment are virtually the same.
PointEngineering produces change in
many characteristics of people.
evidence
evidence
Questions 2122
15. The correct answer is (C). Very few

physically challenged people use facilities in
the places where they have been installed.
PointDevices to help the physically
impaired use public transportation
help only very athletic people.
evidence
21. The correct answer is (A). Shea confuses

influence with merit
PointSimilar influence requires similar
recognition.
22. The correct answer is (A). the Springfield
Pops
PointSimilar influence requires similar
recognition.
Questions 1617
16. The correct answer is (C). Purchasers
attempt to secure more credit than they can
afford.
IssueExtension question/same structure/

new context
23. The correct answer is (A). All three
resorts Ann previously visited are in north
Miami Beach, and the new resort is in south
Miami Beach.
PointFlorida resorts are enjoyable to Ann.
IssueExtension question/insignificant
evidence
PointCredit bureaus provide valuable

services with little personal intrusion
by reducing business losses and
preventing consumers from overextending their financial obligations.
IssueExtension question/assumption of
behavior
www.petersons.com
232
LSAT Success
PRACTICE TEST 2
24. The correct answer is (D). Social reasons
account for the attendance of most students
at services.
7. The correct answer is (A). S, T; P, R; M,

O; Q, N; L, U
8. The correct answer is (C). L, N, S
PointThere is an inverse relationship

between cheating and religious
exposure.
evidence
9. The correct answer is (A). L graduated in

1972.
10. The correct answer is (D). R graduated in
1972.
11. The correct answer is (B). 1971 and 1974
SECTION 3
12. The correct answer is (E). S graduated in

1975.

appear before each question set. Use the
visualization to guide you in determining the
credited answer.
Questions 1318
Table set-ups
Questions 16
Bids
A, B, C, D, E
B must E
C must D
E not with C
D not with A
A always sets up
L, M, N, O, P, Q
13. The correct answer is (A). Adam only

Lowest
Highest
14. The correct answer is (A). one

15. The correct answer is (D). Beth, Dana,
and Edith
16. The correct answer is (A). Dana and Edith
17. The correct answer is (E). Beth and Edith

only
1. The correct answer is (B). M, L, O, Q, P, N

2. The correct answer is (D). M or L
18. The correct answer is (C). two
3. The correct answer is (B). L submits the

third-lowest bid.
Questions 1924
4. The correct answer is (B). Q submits a

higher bid than M
Dentists - A, B, C
Hygienists - S, T, U, V
Hygienists all assigned
5. The correct answer is (A). L, M, Q, O, P, N

A and B - 2 hygienists each
C - 1 or 2 hygienists
T assign A and B or C
6. The correct answer is (C). Q and L
Questions 712
Graduation
19. The correct answer is (E). either B or C
L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U
20. The correct answer is (E). U is assigned

to only one dentist.
1971 - 1975 - Two per year
1971
21. The correct answer is (E). either B or C
1975
1
22. The correct answer is (A). A only

Q
23. The correct answer is (C). U is assigned

P and Q in '71 to '74

S and T together
24. The correct answer is (E). U is assigned

Q not with N
LSAT Success
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EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
SECTION 4
11. The correct answer is (B). It can be

copyrighted.Paragraph 3/Sentence 1

12. The correct answer is (B). It is more

profitable to sell copies of software than
hardware.Paragraph 2/Sentences 2 and 4
13. The correct answer is (D). Patented hardware requires greater inventiveness than does
software.Paragraph 3/Sentence 3
14. The correct answer is (C). One purchased
the restaurant when one purchased the
dinner prepared there.Production
Capacity/Production Result
1. The correct answer is (C). advocate

limiting handgun availabilityParagraph 3/
Sentence 6
15. The correct answer is (D). a means of

tracing changes in group status in society
2. The correct answer is (D). gun ownership by people associated with violence has
greatly increasedParagraph 2/Sentence 7
16. The correct answer is (B). the relationship between group status and frequency of
court appearanceParagraph 2/Sentence 2
3. The correct answer is (A). dramatize the

increase in gun-related violenceParagraph 1/
Sentence 2
17. The correct answer is (D). court performanceParagraph 2/Sentence 5

18. The correct answer is (A). There is an inverse relationship between wealth and court
appearances.Paragraph 2/Sentence 5
4. The correct answer is (D). Handgun

ownership among middle-class New Yorkers
has increased fourfold in the last ten
years.Paragraph 2/Sentences 6 and 7
19. The correct answer is (B). There is a

positive correlation between the New
Haven findings and those of other towns.
5. The correct answer is (A). The rate of

growth in gun ownership in the Northeast
is greater than that of other regions.
20. The correct answer is (E). a legal

historianParagraph 5/Sentence 6
6. The correct answer is (C). Urban violence

is due to subcultural differences among
residents. Paragraph 1/Sentences 3 and 4
21. The correct answer is (E). court procedures remain the same over long periods of
time. According to the passage, choices (A),
(B), (C), and (D) are all true. For (A), court
records can be constructed over long
periods of time, see 3/5; for (B), court
appearances change with status within the
society, see 3/1; for (C), court records are
generally preserved in most jurisdictions,
see 3/4; and for (D), court appearances can
be treated collectively to reflect status,
see 3/5.
7. The correct answer is (C). regulation of

handgun possessionParagraph 3/Sentence 4
8. The correct answer is (D). comparing
hardware and softwareParagraph 1/
Sentence 1; Paragraph 2/Sentence 1
9. The correct answer is (C). Software can
be located within hardware.Paragraph 1/
Sentence 3
10. The correct answer is (E). hardware is
readily changeable. According to the passage,
choices (A), (B), (C), and (D) are all true. For
(A), the cost of duplicating software is low,
see 2/1; for (B), very little software is sold
outright, see 2/5; for (C), hardware is often
not patented, see 3/2; and for (D), software
requires minimal originality, see 3/3.
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22. The correct answer is (A). to point out

that advertising reliability varies by type of
goodParagraph 2/Sentence 3
23. The correct answer is (C). consumptionParagraph 2/Sentence 2
234
LSAT Success
PRACTICE TEST 2
4. The correct answer is (C). Sales of a book
are not always indicative of its value.
PointAble criticism anticipates the market
reaction.
evidence
24. The correct answer is (E). Advertisers

spend large sums of money on informative
messages. According to the passage, choices
(A), (B), (C), and (D) are all true. For (A),
search goods advertising is likely to be
informative and truthful, see 2/5; for (B),
mail order advertising in magazines is not
likely to be truthful, see 5/4; for (C),
experienced goods advertisers have
incentive to mislead, see 3/1; and for (D),
credence goods advertisements may never
be determined to be valid, see 3/1.
Questions 56
5. The correct answer is (C). the expression
of deep feeling
PointEmotional societies produce better
writing than technical societies.
IssueDescription question/rephrasing
25. The correct answer is (D). Analysis of

the Function of AdvertisingParagraph
1/Sentence 1
6. The correct answer is (B). Societies must

be emotional or technical.
PointEmotional societies produce better
writing than technical societies.
26. The correct answer is (A). auto transmission oilParagraph 3/Sentence 1

27. The correct answer is (A). Many advertisers and consumers do not act rationally.
Questions 78
28. The correct answer is (C). Credencegoods consumers require statutory protection.Paragraph 4/Sentence 2
7. The correct answer is (D). Artists

generally venerate their countries.
SECTION 5
PointArtists oppose their environments.

evidence

8. The correct answer is (C). The purpose

of art is to both find fault with and escape
from life.
PointArtists oppose their environments.
1. The correct answer is (B). It is insignificant and coincidental.

PointSignificant figures in two peoples
lives total the same number.
9. The correct answer is (A). presented

more than one issue to respondents
PointDrug addicts on welfare should not
get free needles.
IssueDescription question/characterize
the number
2. The correct answer is (A). identifying

incongruities in the use of force
PointThe acceptable use of force varies
by context.
10. The correct answer is (D). When people

complain about their health, they get old;
but no one is complaining about their
health, so we must have no people getting
old.
PointIf : thenNot if : not then
new context
3. The correct answer is (B). Past practice

validates future action.
PointPast is prologue
LSAT Success
235
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EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
Questions 1112
Questions 1718
11. The correct answer is (B). Oil, coal, and

fresh water are natural resources.
PointNatural resources should not be
given away by a state.
17. The correct answer is (D). If Japan and

the United States sign a treaty, interests of
each will be served by the agreement.
12. The correct answer is (C). New York City

will pay Pennsylvania and New Jersey for
each gallon of water diverted.
PointNatural resources should not be
given away by a state.
evidence
18. The correct answer is (D). Treaties do

not serve mutual interests of countries.
PointTreaties serve self-interest, not trust.
PointTreaties serve self-interest, not trust.

19. The correct answer is (E). Employees of

most chemical plants develop abnormal
chromosome patterns.
PointPlant environment may produce
abnormal chromosome patterns in
workers.
evidence
13. The correct answer is (B). a theory

postulating suffering as a requisite for
creativity
PointExcluding matters of choice, the
present is the product of past
actions.
20. The correct answer is (C). Only legislators who do not favor the bill were polled.
PointSome legislators support the bills
and some do not.

14. The correct answer is (E). Baxter feels
that women and men have unequal capacities.
PointFor various reasons Baxter is not a
feminist.
21. The correct answer is (D). The Society

intensified its falcon sighting program in
1988.
PointMore sightings result from more
falcons.
evidence

15. The correct answer is (A). Modern
educational aids should be provided for
urban children.
PointSuburban students have more
educational resources than urban
students.
22. The correct answer is (E). writing was

not the only factor in deciding which
articles to publish
PointWorthy and well-written articles are
not always published.
16. The correct answer is (E). A philosophers reasoning is complicated because he

was trained in a tradition that often uses
complicated reasoning.
PointBecause they do not, they should
not be expected to.
new context
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236
LSAT Success
PRACTICE TEST 2
Questions 2324
24. The correct answer is (D). Teenage

drivers have caused some of the worst auto
accidents; therefore, driving tests for
teenagers should be more rigorous than for
others.
PointTesting will detect unforeseen
effects in new drugs.
23. The correct answer is (A). Birth defects

caused by Thalidomide could have been
prevented by testing.
PointTesting will detect unforeseen
effects in new drugs.
LSAT Success

new context
237
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Appendix
PAYING FOR LAW SCHOOL
What financial aid programs are available
at each of the schools to which I am
applying?
If youre considering attending law school but

fear you dont have enough money, dont
despair. Financial support for graduate and
professional study does exist, although, admittedly, the information about support sources can
be difficult to find.
For those of you who have applied for
financial aid as undergraduates, there are some
differences for law students youll notice right
away. For one, most aid to undergraduates is
based primarily on need (although the number of
colleges that now offer undergraduate meritbased aid is increasing). But law school aid is
more often based on academic merit. Second, as
a law student, you are automatically declared
independent for federal financial aid purposes,
meaning your parents income and assets
information is not required in assessing your
need for federal aid. And third, at some law
schools, the awarding of aid may be administered
by the law school itself, not the financial aid
office.
What financial aid programs are available

outside the university, at the federal,
state, or private level?
What financing options do I have if I
cannot pay the full cost from my own
resources and those of my family?
What should I know about the loans I am
being offered?
What impact will these loans have on me
when I complete my program?
Youll find your answers in three guiding
principles: think ahead, live within your means,
and keep your head above water.
THINK AHEAD
The first step in putting together your financial
plan comes from thinking about the future: the
loss of your income while youre attending
school, your projected income after you graduate, the annual rate of inflation, additional
expenses you will incur as a student and after
you graduate, and any loss of income you may
experience later from unintentional periods of
unemployment, pregnancy, or disability. The
cornerstone of thinking ahead is following a
step-by-step process.
FINANCIAL AID MYTHS
Financial aid is just for poor people.

Financial aid is just for smart people.
Financial aid is mainly for minority students.
I have a job, so I must not be eligible for aid.
If I apply for aid, it will affect whether or not
Im admitted.
1. Set your goals. Decide what and where

you want to study, and determine an
appropriate level of debt.
Loans are not financial aid.
BE PREPARED
2. Take inventory. Collect your financial

information and add up your assets
bank accounts, stocks, bonds, real
estate, business and personal property.
Then subtract your liabilitiesmoney
owed on your assets, including credit
card debt and car loansto yield your
net worth.
Being prepared for law school means you have

to put together a financial plan. Before you enter
law school, you should have answers to these
questions:
What should I be doing now to prepare
for the cost of my law education?
What can I do to minimize my costs once
I arrive on campus?
239
APPENDIX
Estimated Loan Repayment Schedule Monthly Payments for Every $1,000 Borrowed
Rate
5
years
10
years
15
years
20
years
25
years
5%
8%
9%
10%
12%
14%
$18.87
20.28
20.76
21.74
22.24
23.27
$10.61
12.13
12.67
13.77
14.35
15.53
$ 7.91
9.56
10.14
10.75
12.00
13.32
$ 6.60
8.36
9.00
9.65
11.01
12.44
$ 5.85
7.72
8.39
9.09
10.53
12.04
3. The interest rate you are being charged
3. Calculate your need. Compare your net

worth with the costs at the schools you
are considering to get a rough estimate
of how much of your assets you can use
for your schooling.
4. Your personal lifestyle and expenses

after graduation
5. Unexpected circumstances that change
your income or your ability to repay
what you owe
4. Create an action plan. Determine how

much youll earn while in school, how
much you think you will receive in
grants and scholarships, and how much
you plan to borrow. Dont forget to
consider inflation and possible life
changes that could affect your overall
financial plan.
To make sure your educational debt is manageable, you should borrow an amount that requires
payments of between 8 and 15 percent of your
starting salary.
The approximate monthly installments for
repaying borrowed principal at 5, 810, 12, and
14 percent are indicated in the chart above.
Use this table to estimate your monthly
payments on a loan for any of the five repayment
periods (5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 years). The
amounts listed are the monthly payments for a
$1000 loan for each of the interest rates. To
estimate your monthly payment, choose the
closest interest rate and multiply the amount of
the payment listed by the total amount of your
loan and then divide by 1,000. For example, for a
total loan of $15,000 at 9 percent to be paid
back over ten years, multiply $12.67 times
15,000 (190,050) divided by 1,000. This yields
$190.05 per month.
If youre wondering just how much of a
loan payment you can afford monthly without
running into payment problems, consult the
chart on page 241.
Of course, the best way to manage your
debt is to borrow less. While cutting your
personal budget may be one option, you also
may wish to investigate asking your family for
help. Although the federal government considers
you independent, your parents and family may
still be willing and able to help pay for your
graduate education. If your family is not open to
just giving you money, they may be open to
making a low-interest (or deferred-interest) loan.
Family loans usually have more attractive interest
5. Review your plan regularly. Measure

the progress of your plan every year and
make adjustments for such things as
increases in salary or other changes in
your goals or circumstances.
LIVE WITHIN YOUR MEANS

The second step in being prepared is knowing
how much you spend now so you can determine
how much youll spend when youre in school.
Use the standard cost of attendance budget
published by your school as a guide. But dont
be surprised if your estimated budget is higher
than the one the school provides, especially if
youve been out of school for a while. Once
youve figured out your budget, see if you can
pare down your current costs and financial
obligations so the lean years of law school dont
come as too large a shock.
KEEP YOUR HEAD ABOVE WATER

Finally, the third step is managing the debt youll
accrue as a law student. Debt is manageable only
when considered in terms of five things:
1. Your future income
2. The amount of time it takes to repay the
loan
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LSAT Success
HOW MUCH CAN YOU AFFORD

Monthly Income
(after taxes)
TO
REPAY?
$4,000
$3,500
$3,000
$2,500
Likely
Payment
Problems
$2,000
$1,500
$1,000
$100
$200
$300
$400
$500
$600
Total Monthly Loan Payments

This graph shows the monthly cash-flow outlook based on your total monthly loan payments in comparison with your
monthly income earned after taxes. Ideally, to eliminate likely payment problems, your monthly loan payment should be
less than 15% of your monthly income.
PLASTIC MANIA
rates and repayment terms than commercial

loans. They may also have tax consequences, so
you may want to check with a tax adviser.
ROLL YOUR LOANS
INTO
Any section on managing debt would be incomplete if it didnt mention the responsible use of
credit cards. Most law students hold one or more
credit cards, and many students find themselves
in financial difficulties because of them. Here are
two suggestions: use credit cards only for
convenience, never for extended credit; and, if
you have more than one credit card, keep only
the one that has the lowest finance charge and
the lowest limit.
ONE
Theres a good chance that as a law student you

will have two or more loans included in your aid
package, plus any money you borrowed as an
undergraduate. That means when you start
repaying, you could be making loan payments to
several different lenders. Not only can the record
keeping be a nightmare, but with each loan
having a minimum payment, your total monthly
payments may be more than you can handle. If
you owe more than $7500 in federal loans, you
can combine your loans into one consolidated
loan at either a flat 9 percent interest rate or a
weighted average of the rates on the loans
consolidated. Your repayment can also be
extended to up to thirty years, depending on the
total amount you borrow, which will make your
monthly payments lower (of course, youll also
be paying more total interest). With a consolidated loan, some lenders offer graduated or
income-sensitive repayment options. Consult
with your lender or the U.S. Department of
Education about the types of consolidation
provisions offered.
LSAT Success
CREDIT: DONT LET YOUR PAST

HAUNT YOU
Many schools will check your credit history
before they process any private educational loans
for you. To make sure your credit rating is
accurate, you may want to request a copy of
your credit report before you start law school.
You can get a copy of your report by sending a
signed, written request to one of the three
national credit reporting agencies at the addresses listed below. Include your full name,
social security number, current address, any
previous addresses for the past five years, date of
birth, and daytime phone number. Call the
agency before you request your report so you
know whether there is a fee for this report. Note
that you are entitled to a free copy of your credit
report if you have been denied credit within the
last sixty days. In addition, Experian currently
241
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APPENDIX
gift aid programs provide the cost of tuition and
fees plus a stipend to cover living expenses.
Some are based exclusively on financial need,
some exclusively on academic merit, and some
on a combination of need and merit. As a rule,
grants are awarded to those with financial need,
although they may require the recipient to have
expertise in a certain field. Fellowships and
scholarships often connote selectivity based on
abilityfinancial need is usually not a factor.
CREDIT REPORTING AGENCIES

Equifax
P.O. Box 105873
Atlanta, Georgia 30348
800-685-1111
Experian
P.O. Box 2002
Allen, Texas 75013
888-397-3742
800-972-0322 (TTY/TDD)
Web site: www.experian.com/product/
consumer/index.html
Federal Support
The provision of free federal money in the form
of grants and scholarships for the training of
future lawyers has never ranked very high as a
national priority. This is especially noticeable
compared with what is available to prospective
doctors, teachers, or scientific researchers. The
only notable federal grant program for lawyers is
the newly enacted Thurgood Marshall Legal
Educational Opportunity Program to aid lowincome, minority, or disadvantaged students
seeking a law school education. The Marshall
program, to be administered by the Department
of Education, provides information, preparation,
and financial assistance to students so they may
gain access to and complete a law school
education. The U.S. Department of Education or
one of the law schools that you are interested in
should have more details about this new
program.
Trans Union Data Corporation

P.O. Box 390
760 Sproul Road
Springfield, Pennsylvania 19064-0390
610-690-4909
provides complimentary credit reports once

every twelve months.
Credit criteria used to review and approve
student loans can include the following:
Absence of negative credit
No bankruptcies, foreclosures, repossessions, charge-offs, or open judgments
No prior educational loan defaults, unless
paid in full or making satisfactory
repayments
State Support
Many states offer grants for graduate study. States
grant approximately $64 million per year to
graduate students. To qualify for a particular
states aid you must be a resident of that state.
Residency is established in most states after you
have lived there for at least twelve consecutive
months prior to enrolling in school. Many states
provide funds for in-state students only; that is,
funds are not transferable out of state. Contact
your state scholarship office to determine what
aid it offers.
Absence of excessive past due accounts;

that is, no 30-, 60-, or 90-day delinquencies
on consumer loans or revolving charge accounts within the past two years
TYPES
OF
AID AVAILABLE
There are three types of aid: money given to you

(grants, scholarships, and fellowships), money
you earn through work, and loans.
Grants, Scholarships, and

Fellowships
Institutional Aid
Educational institutions using their own funds
provide between $2 and $3 billion in graduate
assistance in the form of fellowships, tuition
waivers, and assistantships. In the field of law,
most scholarship aid comes from the institutions
themselves. Consult each schools catalog for
information about their aid programs.
Most grants, scholarships, and fellowships are

outright awards that require no service in return.
The one major exception for law students is
ROTC aid, which can be very generous, but
entails a commitment to serve as an officer in the
military branch providing the aid. Often these
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242
LSAT Success
RESEARCHING GRANTS
FELLOWSHIPS
Aid from Foundations

Certain foundation grants available to other
graduate students, such as the Harry S. Truman
Scholarships, are also open to law school
students. Most foundations provide support in
areas of interest to them. The Association of Trial
Lawyers of America and the Harry A. Blackmun
Scholarly Foundation are a couple of the national
foundations that make awards specifically to law
school students. Addresses for these are: Harry S.
Truman Scholarship Foundation, 712 Jackson
Place, NW, Washington DC 20006; Association of
Trial Lawyers of America, 1050 31st Street, NW,
Washington DC 20007; Harry A. Blackmun
Scholarship Foundation, 118 West Mulberry
Street, Baltimore, MD 21201-3600. The Foundation Center of New York publishes several
reference books on foundation support for
graduate study. For more information, call
212-620-4230 or access their Web site at
http://fdncenter.org.
The books listed below are good sources of

information on grant and fellowship support for
graduate education and should be consulted
before you resort to borrowing. Keep in mind
that grant support varies dramatically from field
to field.
Annual Register of Grant Support: A
Directory of Funding Sources 2000 (R.R.
Bowker, 1999). This is a comprehensive
guide to grants and awards from government agencies, foundations, and business
and professional organizations.
Corporate Foundation Profiles, (Foundation Center, 1998). This is an in-depth,
analytical profile of 195 of the largest
company-sponsored foundations in the
United States. Brief descriptions of an
additional 1,000 company-sponsored
foundations are also included. There is an
index of subjects, types of support, and
geographical locations.
Financial Aid for Minorities and

Women
Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Bureau of Indian
Affairs (BIA) offers aid to students who are at
least one-quarter American Indian or native
Alaskan and from a federally recognized tribe.
Contact your tribal education officer, BIA area
office, or call the Bureau of Indian Affairs at
202-208-3710.
The Foundation Directory (Foundation

Center, 2000). This directory, with a
supplement, gives detailed information on
U.S. foundations with brief descriptions of
the purpose and activities of each.
The Grants Register 2000, 18th ed. Edited
by Ruth Austen (St. Martins, 1999). This
lists grant agencies alphabetically and gives
information on awards available to law
students, young professionals, and scholars
for study and research.
In addition, below are some books available that

describe financial aid opportunities for women
and minorities.
The Directory of Financial Aids for
Women by Gail Ann Schlachter (Reference
Service Press, 1999) lists sources of support
and identifies foundations and other
organizations interested in helping women
secure funding for graduate study.
Petersons Grants for Graduate and

Postdoctoral Study, 5th ed. (Petersons,
1998). This book includes information on
1,400 grants, scholarships, awards, fellowships, and prizes. Originally compiled by
the Office of Research Affairs at the
Graduate School of the University of
Massachusetts at Amherst, this guide is
updated periodically by Petersons.
Books such as Financial Aid for Minorities

(Garrett Park Press, 1998) describe financial
aid opportunities for minority students.
Disabled students are eligible to receive aid
from a number of organizations. Financial
Aid for the Disabled and Their Families by
Gail Ann Schlachter and R. David Weber
(Reference Service Press, 2000) lists aid
opportunities for disabled students. The
Vocational Rehabilitation Services in your
home state can also provide information.
LSAT Success
AND
Graduate schools sometimes publish listings of

support sources in their catalogs, and some
provide separate publications, such as the
Graduate Guide to Grants, compiled by the
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.
For more information, call 617-495-1814.
243
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APPENDIX
THE INTERNET: A NEW SOURCE

FUNDING INFORMATION
Bank and Loan Information on

the Web
OF
Banks and loan servicing centers are creating

pages on the Web, making it easier to access
loan information. Having the information on
screen in front of you instantaneously is more
convenient than being put on hold on the
phone. Any loan information, such as interest
rate variations, descriptions of loans, loan
consolidation programs, and repayment charts,
can be found on the Web.
If you have not explored the financial resources

on the World Wide Web, your research is not
complete. A wealth of information is now
available on the Web, ranging from loan and
entrance applications to minority grants and
scholarships.
Web Mailing Lists

There is a mailing list, or newsgroup, called
GRANTS-L, for announcements of grants and
fellowships of interest to law students. To
subscribe, send mail to [email protected]
with subscribe GRANTS-L YOUR NAME in the
body of the message.
LOANS
Most needy law students borrow to finance their
law programs. There are basically two sources of
student loansthe federal government and
private loan programs. You should read and
understand the terms of these loan programs
before submitting your loan application.
University-Specific Information
on the Web
Universities are now in the process of creating
Web financial aid directories. Applications of
admission can be downloaded from the Web to
start the graduate process. After that, detailed
information can be obtained on financial aid
processes, forms, and deadlines. Universityspecific grant and scholarship information can
also be found, and more may be learned about
financing information by using the Web than by
an actual visit to the school. Questions can be
answered on line.
Federal Loans
Federal Stafford Loans. The Federal Stafford
Loan Program offers government-sponsored,
low-interest loans to students either through the
Department of Education or a private lender,
such as a bank, credit union, or savings and loan
association.
There are two components of the Federal
Stafford Loan program. Under the subsidized
component of the program, the federal government pays the interest accruing on the loan
while you are enrolled in law school on at least a
half-time basis. Under the unsubsidized component of the program, you pay the interest on the
loan from the day proceeds are issued. Eligibility
for the federal subsidy is based on demonstrated
financial need as determined by the financial aid
office from the information you provide on the
Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA).
A cosigner is not required, since the loan is not
based on creditworthiness.
Although Unsubsidized Federal Stafford
Loans may not be as desirable as Subsidized
Federal Stafford Loans from the consumers
perspective, they are a useful source of support
for those who may not qualify for the subsidized
loans or who need additional financial assistance.
Eligible borrowers may borrow up to $8500
per year through the Subsidized Stafford Loan
Program, up to a maximum of $65,500, including
undergraduate borrowing. In addition to loans
through the Subsidized Stafford Loan Program,
law students may borrow up to an additional
Scholarships on the Web

When searching for scholarship opportunities, be
sure to search the Web. Many benefactors and
other scholarship donors are creating pages on
the Web listing pertinent information with regard
to their specific scholarship. You can reach this
information through a variety of methods. For
example, you can find a directory listing minority
scholarships, quickly look at the information on
line, decide if it applies to you, and then move
on. New scholarship pages are being added to
the Web daily.
The Web also lists many services that will
look for scholarships for you. Some of these
services cost money and advertise more scholarships per dollar than any other service. While
some of these might be helpful, surfing the Web
and using the traditional library resources on
available scholarships is often just as productive
and free.
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LSAT Success

$10,000 per year through the unsubsidized
component of the Federal Stafford Loan Program.
You may borrow up to the cost of the school in
which you are enrolled or will attend, minus
estimated financial assistance from other federal,
state, and private sources, with a maximum of
$138,500, including undergraduate borrowing.
Graduate students who borrow the maximum
allowable amounts each year can receive a total
of $18,500; $8500 through the subsidized
program and an additional $10,000 through the
unsubsidized program.
The interest rate for the Federal Stafford
Loans varies annually and is set every July. The
rate during in-school, grace, and deferment
periods is based on the 91-Day U.S. Treasury Bill
rate plus 1.7 percent, capped at 8.25 percent.
The rate in repayment is based on the 91-Day
U.S. Treasury Bill rate plus 2.3 percent, capped at
8.25 percent.
Two fees are deducted from the loan
proceeds upon disbursement: a guarantee fee of
up to 1 percent, which is deposited in an
insurance pool to ensure repayment to the
lender if the borrower defaults, and a federally
mandated 3 percent origination fee, which is
used to offset the administrative cost of the
Federal Stafford Loan Program.
Under the subsidized Federal Loan Program, repayment begins six months after your
last enrollment on at least a half-time basis.
Under the unsubsidized program, repayment of
interest begins within thirty days from disbursement of the loan proceeds, and repayment of the
principal begins six months after your last
enrollment on at least a half-time basis. Some
lenders may require that some payments may be
made even while you are in school, although
most lenders will allow you to defer payments
and will add the accrued interest to the loan
balance. Under both components of the program,
repayment may extend over a maximum of ten
years with no prepayment penalty.
previous Perkins Loans have been repaid). The

interest rate for Federal Perkins Loans is 5 percent, and no interest accrues while you remain
in school at least half-time. There are no guarantee, loan, or disbursement fees. Repayment
begins nine months after your last enrollment on
at least a half-time basis and may extend over a
maximum of ten years with no prepayment
penalty.
Deferring Your Federal Loan Repayments. If
you borrowed under the Federal Stafford Loan
Program or the Federal Perkins Loan Program for
previous undergraduate or graduate study, some
of your repayments may be deferred (i.e.,
suspended) when you return to law school,
depending on when you borrowed and under
which program.
There are other deferment options available
if you are temporarily unable to repay your loan.
Information about these deferments is provided
at your entrance and exit interviews. If you
believe you are eligible for a deferment of your
loan repayments, you must contact your lender
to complete a deferment form. The deferment
must be filed prior to the time your repayment is
due, and it must be refiled when it expires if you
remain eligible for deferment at that time.
Law Access Loan Program

In an effort to ensure that new and continuing
law students have an adequate opportunity to
finance their legal education at the law school of
their choice, the Law School Admission Council
(LSAC), in cooperation with other higher
education and financial institutions, sponsors
student loans. The Law Access program offers a
wide range of services to law students attending
LSAC member schools approved by the American
Bar Association. Through Law Access, students
can obtain five types of loans: Federal Stafford
Loans; Federal Supplemental Loans for Students;
Law Access Loans (LAL); Private Bar Examination
Loans (BEL); and private Federal Consolidation
Loans. For further information, contact the Law
Access Loan Program, Box 2500, Newtown, PA
18940; 800-282-1550.
Federal Perkins Loans. The Federal Perkins

Loan is a long-term loan available to students
demonstrating financial need and is administered
directly by the school. Not all schools have these
funds, and some may award them to undergraduates only. Eligibility is determined from the
information you provide on the FAFSA. The
school will notify you of your eligibility.
Eligible law students may borrow up to
$6,000 per year, up to a maximum of $40,000,
including undergraduate borrowing (even if your
LSAT Success
Supplemental Loans
Many lending institutions offer supplemental loan
programs and other financing plans, such as the
ones described below, to students seeking
assistance in meeting their expected contribution
toward educational expenses.
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APPENDIX
If you are considering borrowing through a
supplemental loan program, you should carefully
consider the terms of the program and be sure to
read the fine print. Check with the program
sponsor for the most current terms that will be
applicable to the amounts you intend to borrow
for graduate study. Most supplemental loan
programs for graduate study offer unsubsidized,
credit-based loans. In general, a credit-ready
borrower is one who has a satisfactory credit
history or no credit history at all. A creditworthy
borrower generally must pass a credit test to be
eligible to borrow or act as a cosigner for the
loan funds.
Many supplemental loan programs have a
minimum annual loan limit and a maximum
annual loan limit. Some offer amounts equal to
the cost of attendance minus any other aid you
will receive for graduate study. If you are
planning to borrow for several years of graduate
study, consider whether there is a cumulative or
aggregate limit on the amount you may borrow.
Often this cumulative or aggregate limit will
include any amounts you borrowed and have not
repaid for undergraduate or previous graduate
study.
The combination of the annual interest rate,
loan fees, and the repayment terms you choose
will determine how much the amount is that you
will repay over time. Compare these features in
combination before you decide which loan
program to use. Some loans offer interest rates
that are adjusted monthly, some quarterly, some
annually. Some offer interest rates that are lower
during the in-school, grace, and deferment
periods, and then increase when you begin
repayment. Most programs include a loan
origination fee, which is usually deducted from
the principal amount you receive when the loan
is disbursed and must be repaid along with the
interest and other principal when you graduate,
withdraw from school, or drop below half-time
study. Sometimes the loan fees are reduced if
you borrow from a qualified cosigner. Some
programs allow you to defer interest and/or
principal payments while you are enrolled in law
school. Many programs allow you to capitalize
your interest payments; the interest due on your
loan is added to the outstanding balance of your
loan, so you dont have to repay immediately,
but this increases the amount you owe. Other
programs allow you to pay the interest as you
go, which will reduce the amount you later have
to repay.
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For more information about supplemental

loan programs or to obtain applications, call the
customer service phone numbers of the organizations listed below, access the sponsors site on
the World Wide Web, or visit your schools
financial aid office.
CitiAssist Loans. An unsubsidized,
credit-based loan for graduate students,
sponsored by Citibank. Telephone:
888-812-5030; Web site:
http://www.studentloan.com.
GradExcel Loan. An unsubsidized,
credit-based loan for credit-ready graduate
and professional students enrolled at least
half-time, sponsored by Nellie Mae.
Telephone: 800-367-8848; Web site:
http://www.nelliemae.com.
LawAchiever Loan. An unsubsidized,
credit-based loan for law students enrolled
at least half-time, sponsored by Key
Education Resources. Telephone:
800-KEY-LEND; Web site:
http://www.keybank.com/educate.
PEP Loan. An unsubsidized, credit-based
loan for credit-ready law students enrolled
at least half-time, sponsored by the Education Resources Institute. Telephone:
800-255-8374; Web site: http://www.teri.org.
Law Access Loan. An unsubsidized,
credit-based loan for creditworthy law
students enrolled at least half-time, sponsored by the Access Group. Telephone:
800-282-1550; Web site:
http://www.accessgroup.org.
LawLoan. An unsubsidized, credit-based
loan for law students enrolled at least
half-time, sponsored by Sallie Mae.
Telephone: 888-239-4269; Web site:
http://www.salliemae.com.
How to Apply
All applicants for federal aid must complete the
Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA).
This application must be completed after
January 1 preceding enrollment in the fall. On
this form you report your income and asset
information for the preceding calendar year and
specify which schools will receive the data. Two
to four weeks later youll receive an acknowledgment on which you can make any corrections.
The schools youve designated will also receive
246
LSAT Success

budgets are generally on the low side of the
norm. So if your expenses are higher because of
graduate bills, higher research travel, or more
costly books, for example, a financial aid
counselor can make an adjustment. Of course,
youll have to document any unusual expenses.
Also, keep in mind that with limited grant and
scholarship aid, a higher budget will probably
mean either more loan or more working hours
for you.
the information and may begin asking you to

send them documents (usually your U.S. income
tax return) that verify what you reported.
In addition to the FAFSA, some law schools
want additional information and will ask you to
complete the CSS Financial Aid PROFILE. If your
school requires this form, it will be listed in the
PROFILE registration form available in college
financial aid offices. Other schools use their own
supplemental application. Check with your
financial aid office to confirm which forms they
require.
If you have already filed your federal
income tax for the year, it will be much easier
for you to complete these forms. If not, use
estimates, but be certain to notify the financial
aid office if your estimated figures differ from the
actual ones once you have calculated them.
Tax Issues
Since the passage of the Tax Reform Act of 1986,
grants, scholarships, and fellowships may be
considered taxable income. That portion of the
grant used for payment of tuition and courserequired fees, books, supplies, and equipment is
excludable from taxable income. Grant support
for living expenses is taxable. A good rule of
thumb for determining the tax liability for grants
and scholarships is to view anything that exceeds
the actual cost of tuition, required fees, books,
supplies related to courses, and required
equipment as taxable.
Application Deadlines
Application deadlines vary. Some schools require
you to apply for aid when applying for admission; others require that you be admitted before
applying for aid. Aid application instructions and
deadlines should be clearly stated in each
schools application material. The FAFSA must be
filed after January 1 of the year you are applying
for aid, but the Financial Aid PROFILE can be
completed earlier, in October or November.
If you are employed by an educational

institution or other organization that
gives tuition reimbursement, you must
pay tax on the value that exceeds $5250.
If your tuition is waived in exchange for
working at the institution, the tuition
waiver is taxable. This includes waivers
that come with teaching or research
assistantships.
Determining Financial Need

Eligibility for need-based financial aid is based on
your income during the calendar year prior to
the academic year in which you apply for aid.
Prior-year income is used because it is a good
predictor of current-year income and is verifiable.
If you have a significant reduction in income or
assets after your aid application is completed,
consult a financial aid counselor. If, for example,
you are returning to school after working, you
should let the financial aid counselor know your
projected income for the year you will be in
school. Aid counselors may use their professional judgment to revise your financial need,
based on the actual income you will earn while
you are in law school.
Need is determined by examining the
difference between the cost of attendance at a
given institution and the financial resources you
bring to the table. Eligibility for aid is calculated
by subtracting your resources from the total cost
of attendance budget. These standard student
LSAT Success
Other student support, such as stipends

and wages paid to research assistants and
teaching assistants, is also taxable
income. Student loans, however, are not
taxable.
If you are an international student you
may or may not owe taxes depending
upon the agreement the United States has
negotiated with your home country. The
United States has tax treaties with more
than forty countries. You are responsible
for making sure that the school you
attend follows the terms of the tax treaty.
If your country does not have a tax treaty
with the United States, you may have as
much as 30 percent withheld from your
paycheck.
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APPENDIX
A FINAL NOTE
matter what your financial situation, if you are

academically qualified and knowledgeable about
the different sources of aid, you should be able
to attend the law school of your choice.
Patricia McWade
Dean of Student Financial Services
Georgetown University
While amounts and eligibility criteria vary from

field to field as well as from year to year, with
thorough research you can uncover many
opportunities for graduate financial assistance. If
you are interested in graduate study, discuss your
plans with faculty members and advisers. Explore
all options. Plan ahead, complete forms on time,
and be tenacious in your search for support. No
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What are the main services provided by Peterson's?

What are the main services provided by Peterson's?

What information is needed to determine financial need for financial aid?

What information is needed to determine financial need for financial aid?

2004

About The Thomson Corporation and Petersons

For more information, contact Petersons, 2000 Lenox Drive,

Red Alert: Preparation Anxiety Brings Us Together. . . . . . . 47

Red Alert: The 9-12-18 Test-Planning System . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

LSAT Question Sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LSAT Practice Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Appendix: Paying for Law School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

The vast majority of the failures of LSAT

Admission tests were first developed by law

Certain factors have a very high impact on LSAT

about the LSAT, you can have a substantial impact

In the academic, or sponge, method of test

AS YOU GAIN CONTROL OVER YOUR

FOR SUPERIOR PERFORMANCE ON THE

LSAT STUDY PLANS

Each of the eighteen training sessions (fifteen

YOU CAN USE EACH SESSION

THE SEVEN-WEEK PROGRAM

THE FIVE-WEEK PROGRAM

THE FOUR-WEEK PROGRAM

QS2 Relationships sets

THE THREE-WEEK PROGRAM

THE ONE-WEEK PROGRAM

The three-week program requires you to work at

This program is cutting it very fine. It includes

This program goes at warp speed. It assumes that

THE ONE-DAY PROGRAM

The two-week program sets a demanding pace. It

10 QS4 Relationships sets

THE TWO-WEEK PROGRAM

tions are required to develop the techniques

The diagnostic test that follows can be used to

ARE THESE POSITIONING

ALWAYS GUESS WHEN YOU DONT KNOW

CREDIT IS GIVEN FOR THE NUMBER OF

(We will refer to best rather than right

THE DIAGNOSTIC ANSWER

A single section answer sheet for use with this

DO YOU MARK THE DIAGNOSTIC

DO YOU COMPLETE THE

The format of the answer grid used with these

These bubbles contain the letters G and T

There are three possible situations that apply to

Recording Best Answers

1. First, decide which of the four options is

1. First, blacken the space that corresponds

What is next? In order to determine your present

BEFORE YOU BEGIN: ESTABLISHING YOUR SUCCESS POSITION

What Is the Next Step?

Now you have the raw materials. Analyzing the

Most people do some guessing on the LSAT. You

On the corresponding lines below, enter the

Total Ys____ 124 100 ____%

It is likely that the amount of guessing you have

To the extent that any of these percentages

Total Ys 124 100 %

Total Ys 48 100%

Total Ys 48 100%

Total Ys 48 100%

Total Ys 48 100%