Chapter 04-Dynamic Response of Buildings PDF

Chapter 4
Dynamic Response of Structures
James C. Anderson, Ph.D.

Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
Key words: Dynamic, Buildings, Harmonic, Impulse, Single-Degree-of –Freedom, Earthquake, Generalized Coordinate,
Response Spectrum, Numerical Integration, Time History, Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom, Nonlinear,
Pushover, Instrumentation
Abstract: Basic principles of structural dynamics are presented with emphasis on applications to the earthquake
resistant design of building structures. Dynamic characteristics of single degree of freedom systems are
discussed along with their application to single story buildings. The response of these systems to harmonic
and impulse loading is described and illustrated by application to simple structures. Consideration of the
earthquake response of these systems leads to the concept of the elastic response spectrum and the
development of design spectra. The use of procedures based on a single degree of freedom is extended to
multiple degree of freedom systems through the use of the generalized coordinate approach. The
determination of generalized dynamic properties is discussed and illustrated. A simple numerical integration
procedure for determining the nonlinear dynamic response is presented. The application of matrix methods
for the analysis of multiple degree of freedom systems is discussed and illustrated along with earthquake
response analysis. A response spectrum procedure suitable for hand calculation is presented for elastic
response analyses. The nonlinear static analysis for proportional loading and the nonlinear dynamic analysis
for earthquake loading are discussed and illustrated with application to building structures. Finally, the use
of the recorded response from buildings containing strong motion instrumentation for verification of
analytical models is discussed.
183
184 Chapter 4
4. Dynamic Response of Structures 185
4.1 Introduction where p is the applied force, k is the stiffness

resistance, and v is the resulting displacement.
The main cause of damage to structures If the statically applied force is now replaced by
during an earthquake is their response to ground a dynamic or time-varying force p(t), the
motions which are input at the base. In order to equation of static equilibrium becomes one of
evaluate the behavior of the structure under this dynamic equilibrium and has the form
type of loading condition, the principles of
structural dynamics must be applied to p(t ) = mv&&(t ) + cv&(t ) + kv (t ) (4-2)
determine the stresses and deflections, which
are developed in the structure. Structural where a dot represents differentiation with
engineers are familiar with the analysis of respect to time.
structures for static loads in which a load is A direct comparison of these two equations
applied to the structure and a single solution is indicates that two significant changes, which
obtained for the resulting displacements and distinguish the static problem from the dynamic
member forces. When considering the analysis problem, were made to Equation 4-1 in order to
of structures for dynamic motions, the term obtain Equation 4-2. First, the applied load and
dynamic simply means “time-varying”. Hence the resulting response are now functions of
the loading and all aspects of the response vary time, and hence Equation 4-2 must be satisfied
with time. This results in possible solutions at at each instant of time during the time interval
each instant during the time interval under under consideration. For this reason it is usually
consideration. From an engineering standpoint, referred to as an equation of motion. Secondly,
the maximum values of the structural response the time dependence of the displacements gives
are usually the ones of particular interest, rise to two additional forces which resist the
specially in the case of structural design. applied force and have been added to the right-
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce hand side.
the principles of structural dynamics with The equation of motion represents an
emphasis on earthquake response analysis. expression of Newton’s second law of motion,
Attention will initially be focused on the which states that a particle acted on by a force
response of simple structural systems, which (torque) moves so that the time rate of change
can be represented in terms of a single degree of its linear (angular) momentum is equal to the
of freedom. The concepts developed for these force (torque):
systems will then be extended to include
generalized single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) d dv
systems using the generalized-coordinate p( t ) = (m ) (4-3)
approach. This development in turn leads to the dt dt
consideration of the response of structures
having multiple degrees of freedom. Finally, where the rate of change of the displacement
concepts and techniques used in nonlinear with respect to time, dv/dt, is the velocity, and
dynamic-response analysis will be introduced. the momentum is given by the product of the
mass and the velocity. Recall that the mass is
equal to the weight divided by the acceleration
4.2 Dynamic Equilibrium of gravity. If the mass is constant, Equation 4-3
becomes
The basic equation of static equilibrium
used in the displacement method of analysis has
d dv
the form, p( t ) = m ( ) = mv&&(t ) (4-4)
dt dt
p = kv (4-1)
186 Chapter 4
which states that the force is equal to the which in turn is a function of time. Geometric
product of mass and acceleration. According to nonlinearity is caused by the gravity loads
d’Alembert’s principle, mass develops an acting on the deformed position of the structure.
inertia force, which is proportional to its If the lateral displacements are small, this
acceleration and opposing it. Hence the first effect, which is often referred to as P-delta, can
term on the right-hand side of Equation 4-2 is be neglected. However, if the lateral
called the inertia force; it resists the displacements become large, this effect must be
acceleration of the mass. considered. In order to define the inertia forces
Dissipative or damping forces are inferred completely, it would be necessary to consider
from the observed fact that oscillations in a the accelerations of every mass particle in the
structure tend to diminish with time once the structure and the corresponding displacements.
time-dependent applied force is removed. These Such a solution would be prohibitively time-
forces are represented by viscous damping consuming. The analysis procedure can be
forces, that are proportional to the velocity with greatly simplified if the mass of the structure
the constant proportionality referred to as the can be concentrated (lumped) at a finite number
damping coefficient. The second term on the of discrete points and the dynamic response of
right-hand side of Equation 4-2 is called the the structure can be represented in terms of this
damping force. limited number of displacement components.
Inertia forces are the more significant of the The number of displacement components
two and are a primary distinction between static required to specify the position of the mass
and dynamic analyses. points is called the number of dynamic degrees
It must also be recognized that all structures of freedom. The number of degrees of freedom
are subjected to gravity loads such as self- required to obtain an adequate solution will
weight (dead load) and occupancy load (live depend upon the complexity of the structural
load) in addition to dynamic base motions. In system. For some structures a single degree of
an elastic system, the principle of superposition freedom may be sufficient, whereas for others
can be applied, so that the responses to static several hundred degrees of freedom may be
and dynamic loadings can be considered required.
separately and then combined to obtain the total
structural response. However, if the structural 4.3 SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-
behavior becomes nonlinear, the response FREEDOM SYSTEMS
becomes load-path-dependent and the gravity
loads must be considered concurrently with the
dynamic base motions. 4.3.1 Time-Dependent Force
Under strong earthquake motions, the
structure will most likely display nonlinear The simplest structure that can be
behavior, which can be caused by material considered for dynamic analysis is an idealized,
nonlinearity and/or geometric nonlinearity. one-story structure in which the single degree
Material nonlinearity occurs when stresses at of freedom is the lateral translation at the roof
certain critical regions in the structure exceed level as shown in Figure 4-1. In this
the elastic limit of the material. The equation of idealization, three important assumptions are
dynamic equilibrium for this case has the made. First, the mass is assumed to be
general form concentrated (lumped) at the roof level. Second,
the roof system is assumed to be rigid, and
p(t ) = mv&&(t ) + cv&(t ) + k (t )v (t ) (4-5) third, the axial deformation in the columns is
neglected. From these assumptions it follows
in which the stiffness or resistance k is a that all lateral resistance is in the resisting
function of the yield condition in the structure, elements such as columns, walls, and diagonal
braces located between the roof and the base. fd = damping (dissipative) force= cv&
Application of these assumptions results in a fs = elastic restoring force = kv
discretized structure that can be represented as p(t ) = time-dependent applied force
shown in either Figure 4-lb or 4-1c with a time-
dependent force applied at the roof level. The u&& is the total acceleration of the mass, and
total stiffness k is simply the sum of the & v are the velocity and displacement of the
v,
stiffnesses of the resisting elements in the story mass relative to the base. Writing Equation 4-6
level. in terms of the physical response parameters
The forces acting on the mass of the results in
structure are shown in Figure 4-1d. Summing
the forces acting on the free body results in the mu&& + cv& + kv = p(t ) (4-7)
following equation of equilibrium, which must
be satisfied at each instant of time: It should be noted that the forces in the
damping element and in the resisting elements
f i + f d + f s = p (t ) (4-6) depend upon the relative velocity and relative
displacement, respectively, across the ends of
where these elements, whereas the inertia force
depends upon the total acceleration of the mass.
fi = inertia force = mu&& The total acceleration of the mass can be
Figure 4-1. single-degree-of-freedom system subjected to time-dependent force.

188 Chapter 4
expressed as 4.3.2 Earthquake Ground Motion
u&&(t ) = g&&(t ) + v&&(t ) (4-8) When a single-story structure, shown in

Figure 4-2a, is subjected to earthquake ground
where motions, no external dynamic force is applied at
the roof level. Instead, the system experiences
v&&(t ) = acceleration of the mass relative to an acceleration of the base. The effect of this on
the idealized structure is shown in Figure 4-2b
the base
and 4-2c. Summing the forces shown in Figure
g&&(t ) = acceleration of the base
4-2d results in the following equation of
In this case, the base is assumed to be fixed dynamic equilibrium:
with no motion, and hence g &&(t ) = 0 and
fi + fd + f s = 0 (4-10)
u&&(t ) = v&&(t ) . Making this substitution for
the acceleration, Equation 4-7 for a time-
dependent force becomes Substituting the physical parameters for fi, fd
and fs in Equation 4-10 results in an equilibrium
equation of the form
mv&& + cv& + kv = p(t ) (4-9)
mu&& + cv& + kv = 0 (4-11)
Figure 4-2. Single-degree-of-freedom system subjected to base motion.

This equation can be written in the form of

Equation 4-9 by substituting Equation 4-8 into
Equation 4-11 and rearranging terms to obtain
mv&& + cv& + kv = pe (t ) (4-12)
where
pe (t ) = effective time-dependent force

= − mg&&(t )
Hence the equation of motion for a structure
subjected to a base motion is similar to that for
a structure subjected to a time-dependent force
if the base motion is represented as an effective
time-dependent force which is equal to the
product of the mass and the ground
acceleration.
Figure 4-3. Rotating particle of mass.
4.3.3 Mass and Stiffness Properties
where
Most SDOF models consider structures,
which experience a transactional displacement
of the roof relative to the base. In this case the I = mr 2 = mass moment of inertia
translational mass is simply the concentrated
weight divided by the acceleration of gravity For a rigid body, the mass moment of inertia
(32.2 ft/sec2 or 386.4 in./sec2). However, cases can be obtained by summing over all the mass
do arise in which the rotational motion of the particles making up the rigid body. This can be
system is significant. An example of this might expressed in integral form as
be the rotational motion of a roof slab which
has unsymmetrical lateral supports. Newton’s I = ∫ ρ 2 dm (4-15)
second law of motion states that the time rate of
change of the angular momentum (moment of
where ρ is the distance from the axis of
momentum) equals the torque. Considering a
rotation to the incremental mass dm. For
particle of mass rotating about an axis o, as
dynamic analysis it is convenient to treat the
shown in Figure 4-3, the moment of momentum
rigid-body inertia forces as though the
can be expressed as
translational mass and the mass moment of
inertia were concentrated at the center of mass.
dθ
L = rmv&(t ) = mr 2 (4-13) The mass and mass moment of inertia
dt of several common rigid bodies are summarized
in Figure 4-4.
The torque N is then obtained by taking the
time derivative: Example 4-1 (Determination of Mass
Properties)
dL Compute the mass and mass moment of
N= = I&θ& (4-14)
dt inertia for the rectangular plate shown in Figure
4-5.
• Translational mass:
190 Chapter 4
Figure 4-4. Rigid-body mass and mass moment of inertia.
dm = µdV = µtdxdy
m = µν = µabt a/2 b/2
I = ∫ ρ 2 dm = 4µt ∫ ∫ ( x 2 + y 2 )dxdy
where 0 0
µ = mass density = mass per unit volume b 3 a + a 3b b2 + a 2

V = total volume
I = 4µt = µabt
48 12
• Rotational mass moment of inertia:
a +b
2 2
I =m
12
I = ∫ ρ 2 dm , Where ρ 2 = x 2 + y 2
force—displacement (stiffness) relationships of

several of the more common lateral force
members used in building structures. As
indicated previously, the assumptions used in
developing the SDOF model restrict lateral
resistance to structural members between the
roof and base. These might include such
members as columns, diagonal braces, and
walls. Stiffness properties for these elements
are summarized in Figure 4-6.
4.3.4 Free Vibration

Figure 4-5. Rectangular plate of example 4-1.
Free vibration occurs when a structure
In order to develop dynamic models of oscillates under the action of forces that are
SDOF systems, it is necessary to review the inherent in the structure without any externally
Figure 4-6. Stiffness properties of lateral force resisting elements.

192 Chapter 4
applied time-dependent loads or ground 2π m 1

motions. These inherent forces arise from the T= = 2π = (4-20a)
initial velocity and displacement the structure ω k f
has at the beginning of the free-vibration phase.
Undamped Structures The equation of The amplitude of motion is given as:
motion for an undamped SDOF system in free
vibration has the form 2
. 
v(0)
p=  + [v(0 )]
2
(4-20b)
mv&&(t ) + kv (t ) = 0 (4-16)  w 
 
which can be written as
v&&(t ) + ω2 v (t ) = 0 (4-17)
where ω2 = k / m . This equation has the

general solution
v (t ) = A sin ω t + B cos ω t (4-18)
in which the constants of integration A and B

depend upon the initial velocity v&(0) and initial
displacement v(0). Applying the initial
conditions, the solution has the form
v&(0)
v (t ) = sin ωt + v (0) cos ωt (4-19)
ω
This solution in time is represented
graphically in Figure 4-7.
Several important concepts of oscillatory Figure 4-7. Free-vibration response of an undamped
motion can be illustrated with this result. The SDOF system.
amplitude of vibration is constant, so that the
vibration would, theoretically, continue It can be seen from these expressions that if
indefinitely with time. This cannot physically two structures have the same stiffness, the one
be true, because free oscillations tend to having the larger mass will have the longer
diminish with time, leading to the concept of period of vibration and the lower frequency. On
damping. The time it takes a point on the curve the other hand, if two structures have the same
to make one complete cycle and return to its mass, the one having the higher stiffness will
original position is called the period of have the shorter period of vibration and the
vibration, T. The quantity ω is the circular higher frequency.
frequency of vibration and is measured in
radians per second. The cyclic frequency f is Example 4-2 (Period of undamped free
defined as the reciprocal of the period and is vibration)
measured in cycles per second, or hertz. These Construct an idealized SDOF model for the
three vibration properties depend only on the industrial building shown in Figure 4-8, and
mass and stiffness of the structure and are estimate the period of vibration in the two
related as follows: principal directions. Note that vertical cross
bracings are made of 1-inch-diameter rods, North—south:

horizontal cross bracing is at the bottom chord
of trusses, and all columns are W8 × 24. k 231.6
•Weight determination: ω= = = 21.8 rad/sec
Roof level: m 0.485
Composition roof 9.0 psf 2π 2π
T= = = 0.287 sec.
Lights, ceiling, mechanical 6.0 psf ω 21.8
Trusses 2.6 psf 1
Roof purlins, struts 2.0 psf f = = 3.48 Hz
Bottom chord bracing 2.1 psf T
Columns (10 ft, 9 in.) 0.5 psf
Total 22.2 psf
Walls:
Framing, girts, windows 4.0 psf
Metal lath and plaster 6.0 psf
Total 10.0 psf
Total weight and mass:
W = (22.2)(100)(75) + (10)(6)(200 + 150)

W = 187,500 lb = 187.5 kips
W 187.5
m= = = 0.485 kips-sec2/in.
g 386.4
•Stiffness determination:
North—south (moment frames):
12 EI (12)( 29000)(82.8)
ki = =
L3 (144) 3
k i = 9.6 kips/in.
24
k = ∑ k i = 24(9.6) = 231.6 kips/in.
i =1
East—west (braced frames): Figure 4-8. Building of Example 4-2.
AE East—west:
ki = cos 2 θ
L
A = πd 2 / 4 = 0.785 k 358.7
ω= = = 27.2 rad/sec
L = 12 2 + 20 2 = 23.3 ft = 280 in. m 0.485
2π 2π
θ = tan −1 (12 / 20) = 31o , Cos(31o ) = 0.585 T= = = 0.23 sec.
ω 27.2
(0.785)( 29000)(0.858) 2 1
ki = = 59.7 kips/in. f = = 4.3 HZ
280 T
6
k = ∑ k i = 6(59.7) = 358.7 kips/in.
i =1
Damped Structures In an actual structure
• Period determination: which is in free vibration under the action of
internal forces, the amplitude of the vibration
194 Chapter 4
tends to diminish with time and eventually the defined as 2mω and is the least amount of
motion will cease. This decrease with time is damping that will allow a displaced oscillator to
due to the action of viscous damping forces return to its original position without
which are proportional to the velocity. The oscillation. For most structures, the amount of
equation of motion for this condition has the viscous damping in the system will vary
form between 3% and 10% of critical. Substituting
an upper value of 20% into the above
mv&&(t ) + cv&(t ) + kv (t ) = 0 (4-21) expression for the damped circular frequency
gives the result that ω d = 0.98ω . Since the two
This equation has the general solution values are approximately the same for values of
damping found in structural systems, the
 sin ωd t  undamped circular frequency is used in place of
v (t ) = e −λωt  [v&(0) + v (0)λω] + v (0) cos ωd t  the damped circular frequency. In this case the
 ωd  amplitude of motion is given as:
(4-22a)
2
. 
where v(0) + v(0)λw 
p=  + [v(0)] (4-22b)
2
 wD 
C C  
λ= = = percentage of critical
Ccr 2mω
damping One of the more useful results of the free-
vibration response is the estimation of the
damping characteristics of a structure. If a
structure is set in motion by some external
ωd = ω 1 − λ2 = damped circular force, which is then removed, the amplitude
frequency will decay exponentially with time as shown in
Figure 4-9. It can further be shown that the ratio
between any two successive amplitude peaks
can be approximated by the expression
v (i )
= e 2 πλ (4-23)
v (i + 1)
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides

results in
v (i )
δ = ln = 2 πλ (4-24)
v (i + 1)
where the parameter δ is called the

Figure 4-9. Free vibration response of a damped SDOF
system. logarithinic decrement. Solving for the
percentage of critical damping, λ, gives
The solution to this equation with time is
shown in Figure 4-9. The damping in the δ
λ≈ (4-25)
oscillator is expressed in terms of a percentage 2π
of critical damping, where critical damping is
The above equation provides one of the can be represented as g&&0 sin pt , the
more useful means of experimentally estimating
equivalent force amplitude as poe = mg&&o
the damping characteristics of a structure.
and the frequency ratio β = p/ω. The
4.4 Response to Basic Dynamic solution for the time dependent
displacement has the form
Loading
mg&&o 1
v (t ) = × (sin pt − β sin ωt )
4.4.1 Introduction k (1 − β 2 )
(3-26b)
Time histories of earthquake accelerations
are in general random functions of time. where
However, considerable insight into the response
of structures can be gained by considering the mg&&o / k = poe / k = the static displacement
response characteristics of structures to two
1
basic dynamic loadings; harmonic loading and = dynamic amplification factor
impulse loading. Harmonic loading idealizes 1 − β2
the earthquake acceleration time history as a sin pt = steady state response
train of sinusoidal waves having a given
amplitude. These might be representative of the βsin ω t = transient response induced
accelerations generated by a large, distant by the initial conditions
earthquake in which the random waves
generated at the source have been filtered by From equation (4-26b) it can be seen that for
the soil conditions along the travel path. lightly damped systems, the peak steady state
Impulse loading idealizes the earthquake response occurs at a frequency ratio near unity
accelerations as a short duration impulse when the exciting frequency of the applied load
usually having a sinusoidal or symmetrical equals the natural frequency of the system. This
(isosceles) triangular shape. The idealization is the condition that is called resonance. The
may be a single pulse or it may be a pulse train result given in Equation (4-26b) implies that the
containing a limited number of pulses. This response of the undamped system goes to
loading is representative of that which occurs in infinity at resonance, however, a closer
the near fault region. examination in the region of β equal to unity,
This section will present a brief overview of Clough and Penzien (4-4) , shows that it only
the effects of harmonic loading and impulse tends toward infinity and that several cycles are
loading on the response of building structures. required for the response to build up. A similar
analysis for a damped system shows that at
4.4.2 Harmonic Loading resonance, the dynamic amplification
approaches a limit that is inversely proportional
For an undamped system subjected to to the damping ratio
simple harmonic loading, the equation of
motion has the form 1
DA = (4-26c)
2λ
mv&& + kv = p0 sin pt (3-26a)
For both the undamped and the damped
where P0 is the amplitude and p is the cases, the response builds up with the number
circular frequency of the harmonic load. of cycles as shown in Figure 4-10a.
For a ground acceleration, the acceleration
196 Chapter 4
4.4.3 Impulse Motion
Much of the initial work on impulse loads

was done during the period of 1950-1965 and is
discussed by Norris et al.(4-15). The force on
structures generated by a blast or explosion can
be idealized as a single pulse of relatively short
duration. More recently it has become
recognized that some earthquake motions,
particularly those in the near fault region, can
be idealized as either a single pulse or as a
simple pulse train consisting of one to three
pulses. The accelerations recorded in Bucharest,
Romania during the Vrancea, Romania
earthquake (1977), shown in Figure 4-10b, are a
good example of this type of motion. It is of
interest to note that this site is more than 100
miles from the epicenter, indicating that this
Figure 4-10a. Resonance response.
type of motion is not limited to the near fault
region.
The required number of cycles for the damped
case can be estimated as 1/λ. The condition of
resonance can occur in buildings which are
subjected to base accelerations having a
frequency that is close to that of the building
and having a long duration. The duration of the
ground shaking is an important factor in this
type of response for the reasons just discussed.
The Mexico City earthquakes (1957, 1979,
1985) have produced good examples of
harmonic type ground motions which have a
strong resonance effect on buildings. Ground
motions having a period of approximately 2
seconds were recorded during the 1985
earthquake and caused several buildings to
collapse in the upper floors.
It must be recognized that as the response
tends to build up, the effective damping will Figure 4-10b. Bucharest (1977) ground acceleration.
increase and as cracking and local yielding
occur the period of the structure will shift. Both The maximum response to an impulse load
of these actions in the building will tend to will generally be attained on the first cycle. For
reduce the maximum response. Since the this reason, the damping forces do not have
dynamic amplification and number of cycles to time to absorb much energy from the structure.
reach the maximum response are both inversely Therefore, damping has a limited effect in
proportional to the damping, the use of controlling the maximum response and is
supplemental damping in the building to usually neglected when considering the
counter this type of ground motion is attractive. maximum response to impulse type loads.
The rectangular pulse is a basic pulse shape.
This pulse has a zero (instantaneous) rise time
and a constant amplitude, po, which is applied displacement ductility ratio which is defined as
to the structure for a finite duration td. During the ratio of the maximum displacement to the
the time period when the load is on the structure displacement at yield.
(t < td) the equation of motion has the form
v max
µ= (4-26g)
mv&& + kv = po (4-26d) v yield
which has the general solution
p0
v (t ) = (1 − cos ω t ) (4-26e)
k
When the impulse load is no longer acting

on the structure, the system is responding in
free vibration and the equation of motion
becomes
v&(t d )
v (t ) = sin ω t + v (t d ) cos ω t (4-26f)
ω Figure 4-10c. Maximum elastic response, rectangular and
triangular load pulses.[4-16]
where
t = t − td
The displacement, v(td) and the velocity
v&(t d ) at the end of the loading phase
become the initial conditions for the free
vibration phase. It can be shown that the
dynamic amplification, DA, which is
defined as the ratio of the maximum
dynamic displacement to the static
displacement, will equal 2 if td ≥ T/2 and
will equal 2sin(π td /T) if t d ≤ T / 2 . For
elastic response, the dynamic amplification
is a function of the shape of the impulse
load and the duration of the load relative to
the natural period of the structure as shown
in Figure 4-10c.
For nonlinear behavior, the equation of
motion becomes more complex, requiring the
use of numerical methods for solution. Results
Figure 4-10d. Maximum elasto-plastic response,
of initial studies for basic pulse shapes were
rectangular load pulse.[4-16]
presented in the form of response charts(4-15)
such as the one shown in Figure 4-10d which It can also be seen that the single curve
can be thought of as a constant strength representing the elastic response becomes a
response spectra. For nonlinear response, the family of curves for the inelastic response.
dynamic amplification factor is replaced by the
198 Chapter 4
These curves depend upon the ratio of the For a W10 × 54 column, I = 303 in4 and Z
maximum system resistance, Rm, to the = 66.6 in3 The lateral stiffness of an individual
maximum amplitude of the impulse load. Note column is calculated as
that the bottom curve in Figure 4-10d which has 3EI 3( 29000) × 303 kip
a resistance ratio of 2 represents the elastic ki = = = 4.5
response curve with the ductility equal to or L3
(15 × 12) 3
in
less than unity for all values of td /T. It can also and the total stiffness becomes
be seen that as the resistance ratio decreases, kip
the ductility demand increases. K = ∑ k i = 4 × 4.5 = 18.0
in
4.4.4 Example 4-3 (Analysis for Impulse The mass is the weight divided by the
Base Acceleration) acceleration of gravity,
W 100 kips kips − sec 2
The three bay frame shown in Figure 4-10e m= = = 0 . 26
is assumed to be pinned at the base. It is g 386.4 in2 in
sec
subjected to a ground acceleration pulse which The period of vibration of the structure can
has an amplitude of 0.5g and a duration of 0.4 now be calculated as
seconds. It should be noted that this
acceleration pulse is similar to one recorded at m 0.26
the Newhall Fire Station during the Northridge T = 2π = 2π = 0.75 sec .
k 18.0
earthquake (1994). The lateral resistance at
ultimate load is assumed to be elasto-plastic. and the duration ratio becomes
The columns are W10 × 54 with a clear height
td 0.4
of 15 feet and the steel is A36 having a nominal = = 0.53
yield stress of 36 ksi. Estimate the following: T 0.75
The effective applied force, Pe is given as
Pe = mg&&o = m × 0.5g = 0.5W = 50 kips
The ultimate lateral resistance of the
structure occurs when plastic hinges form at
the tops of the columns and a sway mechanism
is formed. The nominal plastic moment
capacity of a single column is
M P = Fy Z = 36. × 66.6 = 2400 in - kips
and the shear resistance is
M P 2400
Vi = = = 13.33 kips.
h 180
The total lateral resistance is
Figure 4-10e. Building elevation, resistance and loading, R = 4Vi = 53.33 Kips
Example 4-3.
The resistance to load ratio, is then given as
(a) the displacement ductility demand, (b) the R 53.3
maximum displacement and (c) the residual = = 1.1
displacement.
Pev 50
Figure 4-10f. Computed displacement time history
Using this ratio and the duration ratio, td that structure reaches the maximum
/T and entering the response spectrum given displacement on the first cycle and that from
in Figure 4-10d, the displacement ductility this time onward, it oscillates about a deformed
demand is found to be 2.7. The position of 5.6 inches which is the plastic
displacement at yield can be obtained as displacement. This can also be seen in a plot of
R 53.3 the force versus displacement, shown in Figure
vy = = = 3.0 in. 4-10g which indicates a single yield excursion
K 18
followed by elastic oscillations about the
and the maximum displacement is residual displacement of 5.6 inches.
v max = µ × lc y = 2.7 × 3.0 = 8.1in.
The residual or plastic deformation is the
difference between the maximum displacement
and the displacement at yield.
v( residual ) = v p = 8.1 − 3.0 = 5.1inches
More recently, these calculations have been

programmed for interactive computation on
personal computers. The program NONLIN (4-
14)
can be used to do this type of calculation and
to gain additional insight through the graphics
that are available. Using the program, the
maximum displacement ductility is calculated
to be 2.85, the maximum displacement is 8.4
inches, and the plastic displacement is 5.6 in. A
plot of the calculated time history of the Figure 4-10g. Computed force versus displacement.
displacement, shown in Figure 4-10f, indicates
200 Chapter 4
4.4.5 Approximate resopnse to impulse Equation 4-19 becomes

loading
1 t1
mω ∫0
v (t − t1 ) = p (t ) dt sin ω (t − t1 ) (4-27)
In order to develop a method for evaluating
the response of a structural system to a general For a damped structural system, the free-
dynamic loading, it is convenient to first vibration response is given by Equation 4-22
consider the response of a structure to a short- Applying the above initial conditions to
duration impulse load as shown in Figure 4- Equation 4-22 results in the following equation
10h, If the duration of the applied impulse load, for the damped response:
t, is short relative to the fundamental period of
vibration of the structure, T, then the effect of 1 t1
the impulse can be considered as an incremental

v (t − t1 ) =
m ωd ∫0
p (t ) dt e −λ ω( t −t1 )
(4-28)
change in velocity. Using the impulse-
momentum relationship, which states that the
× sin ωd (t − t1 )
impulse is equal to the change in momentum,
the following equation is obtained: 4.4.6 Response to General Dynamic
1 t Loading
m ∫0
v&(t ) = p(t )dt (4-26)
The above discussion of the dynamic
Following the application of the short- response to a short-duration impulse load can
duration impulse load, the system is in free readily be expanded to produce an analysis
vibration and the response is given by Equation procedure for systems subjected to an arbitrary
4-19. Applying the initial conditions at the loading time history. Any arbitrary time history
beginning of the free vibration phase, can be represented by a series of short-duration
impulses as shown in Figure 4-11. Consider one
1 t1 of these impulses which begins at time ℑ after
m ∫0
v&(t1 ) = p (t )dt , v (t1 ) negligible
the beginning of the time history and has a
duration dτ. The magnitude of this differential
impulse is p(τ) dτ, and it produces a differential
response which is given as
p ( τ) sin ω t ′dτ
dv ( τ) = (4-29)
mω
The time variable t ′ represents the free-

vibration phase following the differential
impulse loading and can be expressed as
t′ = t − τ (4-30)
Substituting this expression into Equation 4-
29 results in
p ( τ) sin ω(t − τ) dτ
dv ( τ) = (4-31)
mω
The total response can now be obtained by
superimposing the incremental responses of all
Figure 4-10h. Short duration rectangular impulse. the differential impulses making up the time
history. Integrating Equation 4-31, the total the integral will require the use of numerical
displacement response becomes methods. For these two reasons, the use of a
direct numerical integration procedure may be
1 t
mω ∫0
v (t ) = p( τ) sin ω(t − τ) dτ (4-32) preferable for solving for the response of a
dynamic system subjected to general dynamic
which is known as the Duhamel integral. When load. This will be addressed in a later section on
considering a damped structural system, the nonlinear response analysis. However, the
differential response is given by Equation 4-28 Duhamel-integral result can be applied in a
and the Duhamel integral solution becomes convenient and systematic manner to obtain a
solution for the linear elastic structural response
for earthquake load.
t
p(τ ) e − λω (t −τ ) sin ω d (t − τ ) dτ
v(t ) = ∫ (4-33)
o
mω d 4.4.7 Earthquake Response of Elastic
Structures
Time-History Response The response to

earthquake loading can be obtained directly
from the Duhamel integral if the time-
dependent force p(t) is replaced with the
effective time-dependent force Pe(t), which is
the product of the mass and the ground
acceleration. Making this substitution in
Equation 4-33 results in the following
expression for the displacement:
V (t )
v (t ) = (4-34)
ω
where the response parameter V(t) represents

the velocity and is defined as
t
V (t ) = ∫ g&&( τ) e −λ ω( t − τ ) sin ωd (t − τ) dτ (4-35)
0
The displacement of the structure at any

instant of time during the entire time history of
the earthquake under consideration can now be
obtained using Equation 4-34. It is convenient
to express the forces developed in the structure
during the earthquake in terms of the effective
inertia forces. The inertia force is the product of
the mass and the total acceleration. Using
Figure 4-11. Differential impulse response. Equation 4-11, the total acceleration can be
expressed as
Since the principle of superposition was c k
used in the derivation of Equations 4-32 and 4- u&&(t ) = − v&(t ) − v (t ) (4-36)
33, the results are only applicable to linear m m
structural systems. Furthermore, evaluation of
202 Chapter 4
If the damping term can be neglected as An examination of Equation 4-34 indicates

contributing little to the equilibrium equation, that the maximum velocity response can be
the total acceleration can be approximated as approximated by multiplying the spectral
displacement by the circular frequency. This
u&&(t ) = −ω 2 v(t ) (4-37) response parameter is defined as the spectral
pseudovelocity and is expressed as
The effective earthquake force is then given as S pv = ω S d (4-43)
Q (t ) = mω2 v (t ) (4-38) In a similar manner, Equation 4-37 indicates

that the maximum total acceleration can be
The above expression gives the value of the approximated as the spectral displacement
base shear in a single-story structure at every multiplied by the square of the circular
instant of time during the earthquake time frequency. This product is defined as the
history under consideration. The overturning spectral pseudoacceleration and is expressed as
moment acting on the base of the structure can S pa = ω2 S d (4-44)
be determined by multiplying the inertia force
by the story height: A plot of the spectral response parameter
against frequency or period constitutes the
M (t ) = hmω2 v (t ) (4-39) response spectrum for that parameter. A
schematic representation of the computation of
Response Spectra Consideration of the the displacement spectrum for the north-south
displacements and forces at every instant of component of the motion recorded at El Centro
time during an earthquake time history can on May 18, 1940 has been presented by
require considerable computational effort, even Chopra(4-1) and is shown in Figure 4-12.
for simple structural systems. As mentioned Because the three response quantities are
previously, for many practical problems and related to the circular frequency, it is
especially for structural design, only the convenient to plot them on a single graph with
maximum response quantities are required. The log scales on each axis. This special type of plot
maximum value of the displacement, as is called a tripartite log plot. The three response
determined by Equation 4-34, will be defined as parameters for the El Centro motion are shown
the spectral displacement plotted in this manner in Figure 4-13. For a
SDOF system having a given frequency
(period) and given damping, the three spectral
S d = v(t ) max (4-40)
response parameters for this earthquake can be
read directly from the graph.
Substituting this result into Equations 4-38 Two types of tripartite log paper are used for
and 4-39 results in the following expressions plotting response spectra. Note that on the
for the maximum base shear and maximum horizontal axis at the bottom of the graph in
overturning moment in a SDOF system: Figure 4-13, the period is increasing from left to
right. For this reason, this type of tripartite log
Qmax = mω2 S d (4-41) paper is often referred to as period paper. A
similar plot of the response spectra for the El
Centro N-S ground motion is shown in Figure
M max = hmω2 S d (4-42) 4-14. Here it can be seen that frequency, plotted
on the horizontal axis, is increasing from left to
right. This type of tripartite paper is referred to
as frequency paper.
Figure 4-12. Computation of deformation (or displacement) response spectrum. [After Chopra (4-1)].
204 Chapter 4
Figure 4-13. Typical tripartite response-spectra curves.

Figure 4-14. Response spectra, El Centro earthquake, May 18,1940, north-south direction.
Figure 4-15. Site-specific response spectra.

206 Chapter 4
4.4.8 Design Response Spectra (Figure 4-13), while suitable for purposes of
analysis, is not suitable for purposes of design.
Use of the elastic response spectra for a single The design response spectra for a particular site
component of a single earthquake record should not be developed from a single
Figure 4-16. Smoothed site-specific design spectra.

acceleration time history, but rather should be normalized to 1.0g. The maximum ground
obtained from the ensemble of possible velocity is taken as 48 in./sec, and the
earthquake motions that could be experienced maximum ground displacement is taken as 36
at the site. This should include the effect of in. It should be noted that these values represent
both near and distant earthquakes. Furthermore, motions which are more intense than those
a single earthquake record has a particular normally considered for earthquake-resistant
frequency content which gives rise to the design; however, they are approximately in the
jagged, sawtooth appearance of peaks and correct proportion for earthquakes occurring on
valleys shown in Figure 4-13. This feature is competent soils and can be scaled for
also not suitable for design, since for a given earthquakes having lower ground acceleration.
period, the structure may fall in a valley of the
response spectrum and hence be underdesigned Table 4-1. Relative values of spectrum amplification
for an earthquake with slightly different factors (4-3).
Percentage
response characteristics. Conversely, for a small Amplification factor for
of critical
change in period, the structure might fall on a Damping Displacement Velocity Acceleration
peak and be overdesigned. To alleviate this 0 2.5 4.0 6.4
problem the concept of the smoothed response 0.5 2.2 3.6 5.8
spectrum has been introduced for design. 1 2.0 3.2 5.2
Statistics are used to create a smoothed 2 1.8 2.8 4.3
spectrum at some suitable design level. The 5 1.4 1.9 2.6
mean value or median spectrum can generally 10 1.1 1.3 1.5
be used for earthquake-resistant design of 20 1.0 1.1 1.2
normal building structures. Use of this spectrum
implies there is a 50% probability that the Three principal regions of the response
design level will be exceeded. spectrum are identified, in which the structural
Structures that are particularly sensitive to response can be approximated as a constant,
earthquakes or that have a high risk may be amplified value. Amplification factors are
designed to a higher level such as the mean plus applied to the ground motions in these three
one standard deviation, which implies that the regions to obtain the design spectrum for a
probability of exceedance is only 15.9%. SDOF elastic system. Based on a large data
Structures having a very high risk are often base of recorded earthquake motions,
designed for an enveloping spectrum which amplification factors which give a probability
envelopes the spectra of the entire ensemble of of exceedance of about 10% or less are given in
possible site motions. Response spectra which Table 4-1 for various values of the structural
are representative of a magnitude-6.5 damping. The basic shape of the Newmark—
earthquake at a distance of 15 miles, developed Hall design spectrum using the normalized
by the Applied Technology Council (4-2), are ground motions and the amplification factors
shown in Figure 4-15. The corresponding given in Table 4-1 for 5% damping is shown in
smoothed design spectra are shown in Figure 4- Figure 4-17. The displacement region is the
16. low-frequency region with frequencies less than
Newmark and Hall (4-3) have proposed a 0.33 Hz (periods greater than 3.0 sec). The
method for constructing an elastic design maximum displacement of the SDOF system is
response spectrum in which the primary input obtained by multiplying the maximum ground
datum is the anticipated maximum ground displacement by the displacement amplification
acceleration. The corresponding values for the factor given in Table 4-1. The velocity region is
maximum ground velocity and the maximum in the mid-frequency region between 0.33 Hz
ground displacement are proportioned relative (3.0 sec) and 2.0 Hz (0.5 sec). Maximum
to the maximum ground acceleration, which is velocities in this region are obtained by
208 Chapter 4
multiplying the maximum ground velocity by acceleration and the amplified acceleration
the amplification factor for the velocity (Table region.
4-1). An amplified acceleration region lies Similar design spectra corresponding to the
between 2.0 Hz (0.5 sec) and 6.0 Hz (0.17 sec). postulated ground motion presented in Figures
The amplified response is obtained in the same 4-15 and 4-16 are shown in Figure 4-18. In
manner as in the previous two cases. Structures order to further define which response spectrum
having a frequency greater than 30 Hz (period should be used for design, it is necessary to
less than 0.033 sec) are considered to be rigid estimate the percentage of critical damping in
and have an acceleration which is equal to the the structure. A summary of recommended
ground acceleration. In the frequency range damping values for different types of structures
between 6 Hz (0.17 sec) and 30 Hz (0.033 sec) and different stress conditions is given in Table
there is a transition region between the ground 4-2 as a guideline.
Figure 4-17. Basic New mark-Hall design spectrum normalized to 1.0g for 5% damping (4-3).
Figure 4-18. A New mark-Hall design spectra.
Example 4-4 (Construction of a Newmark- velocity = (9.6)(1.9) = 18.2 in./sec

Hall Design Spectrum) displacement = (7.2)(1.4) = 10.0 in.
Construct a Newmark-Hall design spectrum
for a maximum ground acceleration of 0.2g, The constructed design spectrum is shown
and use it to estimate the maximum base shear in Figure 4-19.
for the industrial building of Example 4-1. From Example 4-1:
Assume the damping is 5 percent of critical. N-S:
•Determine ground motion parameters: T = 0.287 sec.
ground acceleration = (1.0)(0.2) = 0.2g ω = 21.8 rad/sec,
ground velocity = (48.0)(0.2)=9.6in./sec. f = 3.48 HZ
ground displacement=(36.0)(0.2)=7.2 in.
From the design spectrum for f = 3.48 Hz:
•Amplified response parameters: Sd=v(t)max =0.42 in.
acceleration = (0.2)(2.6) = 0.52g
210 Chapter 4
Table 4-2 Recommended Damping Values (4-3)

Stress level Type and condition of Percentage Stress level Type and condition of Percentage
structure of critical structure of critical
damping damping
Working Vital piping 1-2 At or just Vital piping 2-3
stress,<1/2 Welded steel, prestressed 2-3 below yield Welded steel, prestressed 5-7
yield point concrete, well-reinforced point concrete(without complete
concrete(only slight cracking) loss in prestress)
Reinforced concrete with 3-5 Prestressed concrete with 7-10
considerable cracking no prestress left
Bolted and / or riveted steel, 5-7 Bolted and / or riveted 10-15
wood structures with nailed steel, wood structures with
or bolted joints. nailed or bolted joints.
Wood structures with 15-20
nailed joints
From Equation 4-42:

4.4 GENERALIZED-
Qmax = (0.485)(21.8)2(0.42) = 96.8 kips COORDINATE APPROACH
E-W:
T = 0.23 sec, Up to this point, the only structures which
ω = 27.2 rad/sec, have been considered are single-story buildings
From the design spectrum for f = 4.3 Hz: which can be idealized as SDOF systems. The
analysis of most structural systems requires a
Sd = 0.28 in. more complicated idealization even if the
response can be represented in terms of a single
From Equation 4-42: degree of freedom. The generalized-coordinate
approach provides a means of representing the
Qmax=(0.485)(21.8)2(0.28) = 64.5 kips response of more complex structural systems in
terms of a single, time-dependent coordinate,
known as the generalized coordinate.
Displacements in the structure are related to
the generalized coordinate as
v ( x, t ) = φ( x )Y (t ) (4-45)
Where Y(t) is the time-dependent

generalized coordinate and φ(x ) is a spatial
shape function which relates the structural
degrees of freedom, v(x, t), to the generalized
coordinate. For a generalized SDOF system, it
is necessary to represent the restoring forces in
the damping elements and the stiffness
elements in terms of the relative velocity and
relative displacement between the ends of the
element:
Figure 4-19. Response spectrum of Example 4-3.
∆v&( x, t ) = ∆φ( x )Y& (t ) (4-46)
∆v( x, t ) = ∆φ( x )Y (t ) (4-47)

Applying this principle to Equation 4-6
Most structures can be idealized as a vertical results in an equation of virtual work in the
cantilever, which limits the number of form
displacement functions that can be used to
represent the horizontal displacement. Once the f i δv + f d δ∆v + f s δ∆v − p (t ) δv = 0 (4-48)
displacement function is selected, the structure
is constrained to deform in that prescribed where it is understood that v = v ( x, t ) and that
manner. This implies that the displacement the virtual displacements applied to the
functions must be selected carefully if a good damping force and the elastic restoring force
approximation of the dynamic properties and are virtual relative displacements. The virtual
response of the system are to be obtained. This displacement can be expressed as
section will develop the equations for
determining the generalized response δv ( x, t ) = φ( x )δY (t ) (4-49)
parameters in terms of the spatial displacement
function and the physical response parameters. and the virtual relative displacement can be
Methods for determining the shape function written as
will be discussed, and techniques for
determining the more correct displacement δ∆v ( x, t ) = ∆φ( x )δY (t ) (4-50)
function for a particular structure will be
presented.
where
4.4.1 Displacement Functions and
Generalized Properties ∆v ( x, t ) = φ( xi ) Y (t ) − φ( x j ) Y (t ) = ∆φ( x )Y (t )
Formulation of the equation of motion in The inertia, damping and elastic restoring
terms of a generalized coordinate will be forces can be expressed as
restricted to systems which consist of an
assemblage of lumped masses and discrete
elements. Lateral resistance is provided by f i = mv&& = mφY&&
discrete elements whose restoring force is
proportional to the relative displacement f d = c∆v& = c∆φY&& (4-51)
between the ends of the element. Damping f s = k∆v = k∆φY
forces are proportional to the relative velocity
between the ends of the discrete damping Substituting Equations 4-49, 4-50, and 4-51
element. Formulation of the equation of motion into Equation 4-48 results in the following
for systems having distributed elasticity is equation of motion in terms of the generalized
described by Clough and Penzien. (4-4) The coordinate:
general equation of dynamic equilibrium is
given in Equation 4-6, which represents a
system of forces which are in equilibrium at
m *Y&& + c *Y& + k *Y = p * (t ) (4-52)
any instant of time. The principle of virtual
work in the form of virtual displacements states where m*, c*, k*, and p* are referred to as the
that generalized parameters and are defined as
If a system of forces which are in
equilibrium is given a virtual displacement
which is consistent with the boundary
conditions, the work done is zero.
212 Chapter 4
Figure 4-20. Generalized single-degree-of-freedom system.
Where ω represents the circular frequency

m = ∑ mi φ = generalized mass
* 2
i
of the generalized system and is given as
i
c = ∑ ci ∆φi2 = generalized damping

*
k*
ω= (4-57)
i
(4-53) m*
k * = ∑ k i ∆φi2 = generalized stiffness
i
The effect of the generalized-coordinate
p = ∑ pi φi = generalized force
*
approach is to transform a multiple-degree-of-
i freedom dynamic system into an equivalent
single-degree-of-freedom system in terms of the
For a time-dependent base acceleration the generalized coordinate. This transformation is
generalized force becomes shown schematically in Figure 4-20. The degree
to which the response of the transformed
p * = g&&L (4-54)
system represents the actual system will depend
where upon how well the assumed displacement shape
represents the dynamic displacement of the
L = ∑ mi φi actual structure. The displacement shape
i (4-55) depends on the aspect ratio of the structure,
which is defined as the ratio of the height to the
= earthquake participation factor
base dimension. Possible shape functions for
high-rise, mid-rise, and low-rise structures are
It is also convenient to express the summarized in Figure 4-21. It should be noted
generalized damping in terms of the percent of that most building codes use the straight-line
critical damping in the following manner: shape function which is shown for the mid-rise
system. Once the dynamic response is obtained
c * = ∑ ci ∆φ(i ) 2 = 2λm * ω (4-56) in terms of the generalized coordinate, Equation
i 4-45 must be used to determine the
displacements in the structure, and these in turn
Figure 4-21. Possible shape functions based on aspect ratio.
can be used to determine the forces in the (a) φ( x ) = sin( πx / 2 L) and (b)
individual structural elements. φ( x ) = x / L .All beams are 12in. × 20 in.,
In principle, any function which represents
the general deflection characteristics of the and all columns are 14 in × 14 in. f c′ =4000
structure and satisfies the support conditions psi, and the modulus of elasticity of
could be used. However, any shape other than concrete is 3.6 × 10 6 psi. Reinforcing steel
the true vibration shape requires the addition of is made of grade-60 bars. Floor weights
external constraints to maintain equilibrium. (total dead load) are assumed to be 390 kips
These extra constraints tend to stiffen the at the roof, 445 kips at the fourth and third
system and thereby increase the computed levels, and 448 kips at the first level. Live
frequency. The true vibration shape will have loads are 30 psf at the roof and 80 psf per
no external constraints and therefore will have typical floor level.
the lowest frequency of vibration. When
choosing between several approximate
deflected shapes, the one producing the lowest
frequency is always the best approximation. A
good approximation to the true vibration shape
can be obtained by applying forces representing
the inertia forces and letting the static
deformation of the structure determine the
spatial shape function.
Example 4-5 (Determination of generalized

parameters)
Considering the four-story, reinforced-
concrete moment frame building shown in
Figure 4-22, determine the generalized mass, Figure 4-22. Building of Example 4-5.
generalized stiffness, and fundamental period of
vibration in the transverse direction using the Assuming beams are rigid relative to
following shape functions: columns (Figure 4-23),
214 Chapter 4
(a) Assuming φ( x ) = sin( πx / 2 L) :
Level K M φi ∆φi M φi2 K ∆φi2
4 0.252 1.000 0.252

209 0.071 1.054
3 0.288 0.929 0.249
209 0.203 8.613
2 0.288 0.726 0.152
209 0.306 19.570
1 0.290 0.420 0.051
140 0.420 24.696
M* = 0.704 K* = 53.933
k* 53.93
ω = *
= = 8.75 rad/ sec
m 0.704
and Ta = 0.72 sec
(b) Assuming φ( x ) = x / L
Figure 4-23. Assumed shape of column deformation.
Level K M φi ∆φi M φi2 K ∆φi2
12 EI∆
V= 4 0.252 1.000 0.252
L3 209 0.241 12.139
3 0.288 0.759 0.166
209 0.242 12.240
V 12 EI 2 0.288 0.517 0.077
Ki = = 3
∆ L 209 0.241 12.139
1 0.290 0.276 0.022
140 0.276 10.665
3 M* = 0.517 K* = 47.183
14(14)
I col = = 3201in. 4
12
k* 47.183
ω= *
=
12( 20) 3 m 0.517
I beam = = 8000 in. 4
12 = 9.55 rad/sec and Tb = 0.66 sec .
3 Since Ta > Tb , φ( x ) = sin( πx / 2 L) is a

K story = ∑ K i = 3K i (one frame) better approximation to the deflected shape
i =1
than φ( x ) = x / L
(3)(12)(3.6 × 10 3 )(3201) kips 4.4.2 Rayleigh’s Method

K 4 , 3, 2 = 3
= 209
(126) in.
Rayleigh’s method is a procedure developed
by Lord Rayleigh (4-5) for analyzing vibrating
(3)(12)(3.6 × 10 3 )(3201) kips
K1 = 3
= 140 systems using the law of conservation of
(144) in. energy. Its principal use is for
determining an accurate approximation of the
Calculating generalized properties (see
natural frequency of a structure. The success of
Figure 4-24):
Figure 4-24. Development of a generalized SDOF model for building of Example 4-4.
the technique in accomplishing this has been Equation 4-58 to Equation 4-59 results in the
recognized by most building codes, which have following expression for the circular frequency:
adopted the procedure as an alternative for
estimating the fundamental period of vibration. p*
In addition to providing an estimate of the ω= (4-60)
fundamental period, the procedure can also be m *Y
used to estimate the shape function φ (x).
In an undamped elastic system, the Substituting this result into Equation 4-20
maximum potential energy can be expressed in for the period results in
terms of the external work done by the applied
m *Y
forces. In terms of a generalized coordinate this T = 2π (4-61)
expression can be written as p*
Multiplying the numerator and denominator
Y p *Y
( PE ) max =
2
∑ pi φi = 2 (4-58) of the radical by Y and using Equation 4-45
results in the expression for the fundamental
period:
Similarly, the maximum kinetic energy can
be expressed in terms of the generalized
T = 2π
∑w vi
2
i i
(4-62)
coordinate as g∑ p v i i
ω 2Y 2 ω 2Y 2 m * which is the expression found in most building

( KE ) max =
2
∑ mi φi2 =
i 2
(4-59) codes.
The forces which must be applied laterally
to obtain either the shape function φ (x) or the
According to the principle of conservation
displacement v(x) represent the inertia forces,
of energy for an undamped elastic system, these
which are the product of the mass and the
two quantities must be equal to each other and
acceleration. If the acceleration is assumed to
to the total energy of the system. Equating
vary linearly over the height of a building with
216 Chapter 4
uniform weight distribution, a distribution of the deflected shape given by applying the static
inertia force in the form of an inverted triangle loads is a better approximation than either of
will be obtained, being maximum at the top and the two previous deflected shapes.
zero at the bottom. This is similar to the
distribution of base shear used in most building
codes and can be a reasonable one to use when
applying the Rayleigh method. The resulting
deflections can be used directly in Equation 4-
62 to estimate the period of vibration or they
can be normalized in terms of the generalized
coordinate (maximum displacement) to obtain
the spatial shape function to be used in the
generalized-coordinate method.
Example 4-6 (Application of Rayleigh’s
Method)
Use Rayleigh’s method to determine the
spatial shape function and estimate the
fundamental period of vibration in the
transverse direction for the reinforced-concrete
building given in Example 4-4.
We want to apply static lateral loads that are
representative of the inertial loads on the
Figure 4-25.Frame of Example 4-5.
building. Since the story weights are
approximately equal, it is assumed that the
accelerations and hence the inertial loads vary 4.4.3 Earthquake Response of Elastic
linearly from the base to the roof (see Figure 4- Structures
25).
Note that the magnitude of loads is Time-History Analysis Substituting the
irrelevant and is chosen for ease of generalized parameters of Equations 4-53 and
computation. The following computations (on 4-54 into the Duhamel-integral solution,
the bottom of this page) are a tabular solution of Equation 4-33, results in the following solution
Equation 4-61. for the displacement:
m *Y
T = 2π , or φ( x ) L V (t )
p* v ( x, t ) = (4-63)
m*ω
(0.666)(0.3343)
T = 2π = 0.712 sec
16.912 Using Equation 4-37, the inertia force at any
Note that since T = 0.721 is greater than position x above the base can be obtained from
either of the periods calculated in Example 4-5,
Level K m P V ∆=V/k v φ mi φi2 Pi φi
4 0.252 8.0 0.3343 1.000 0.252 8.000
209 8 0.0383
3 0.288 6.0 0.2960 0.886 0.226 5.316
209 14 0.0670
2 0.288 4.0 0.2290 0.685 0.135 2.740
209 18 0.0861
1 0.288 2.0 0.1429 0.428 0.053 0.856
140 20 0.1429 0.000 0.000 0.666 16.912
q( x, t ) = m( x )v&&( x, t ) = m( x )ω2 v ( x, t ) (4-64) Of considerable interest to structural

engineers is the determination of the base shear.
This is a key parameter in determining seismic
which, using Equation 4-63, becomes
design forces in most building codes. The base
shear Q can be obtained from the above
m( x )φ( x ) L ωV (t )
q( x, t ) = (4-65) expression by simply summing the inertia
m* forces and using Equation 4-55:
The base shear is obtained by summing the L 2 S pa

distributed inertia forces over the height H of Qmax = (4-70)
the structure: m*
It is also of interest to express the base shear

L2
Q (t ) = ∫ q( x, t )dx = ωV (t ) (4-66) in terms of the effective weight, which is
m* defined as
( ∑iwi φi ) 2
The above relationships can be used to
determine the displacements and forces in a W* = (4-71)
generalized SDOF system at any time during ∑w φ
i i
2
i
the time history under consideration.
Response-Spectrum Analysis The expression for the maximum base shear
The maximum value of the velocity given becomes
by Equation 4-35 is defined as the spectral
pseudovelocity (Spv), which is related to the
spectral displacement (Sd) by Equation 4-43. Qmax = W * S pa / g (4-72)
Substituting this value into Equation 4-63
results in an expression for the maximum This form is similar to the basic base-shear
displacement in terms of the spectral equation used in the building codes. In the code
displacement: equation, the effective weight is taken to be
equal to the total dead weight W, plus a
φ( x ) L S d percentage of the live load for special
v ( x ) max = (4-67) occupancies. The seismic coefficient C is
m*
determined by a formula but is equivalent to the
spectral pseudoacceleration in terms of g. The
The forces in the system can readily be
basic code equation for base shear has the form
determined from the inertia forces, which can
be expressed as Qmax = CW (4-73)
q( x ) max = m( x )v&&( x ) max = m( x )ω2 v ( x ) max The effective earthquake force can also be
determined by distributing the base shear over
(4-68)
the story height. This distribution depends upon
the displacement shape function and has the
Rewriting this result in terms of the spectral form
pseudo-acceleration (Spa) results in the
following: mi φi
qi = Qmax (4-74)
L
φ( x )m( x ) L S pa
q( x ) max = (4-69) If the shape function is taken as a straight
m* line, the code force distribution is obtained. The
overturning moment at the base of the structure
218 Chapter 4
can be determined by multiplying the inertia From Equation 4-66,

force by the corresponding story height above
the base and summing over all story levels: (0.827) 2 (0.185)(386.4)
Qmax = = 88.84 kips
M O = ∑ hi qi (4-75) 0.666
i
The overturning moment is: (see Fig, 4-27)
Example 4-7 (Spectrum Analysis of
Generalized SDOF System)
Using the design spectrum given in Figure
4-26, the shape function determined in Example
4-6, and the reinforced-concrete moment frame
of Example 4-5, determine the base shear in the
transverse direction, the corresponding
distribution of inertia forces over the height of
the structure, and the resulting overturning
moment about the base of the structure.
T = 0.721 sec., f = 1 / T = 1.39 Hz,
ω = 8.715 rad/sec.
From the design spectrum Spa = 0.185g.
Level mi φi mi φi2 miφi miφi/L qmax Vmax
4 0.252 1.000 0.252 0.252 0.305 27.10

27.10
3 0.288 0.866 0.226 0.255 0.308 27.36
54.46
2 0.288 0.685 0.135 0.197 0.238 21.14

75.60
1 0.288 0.428 0.053 0.123 0.149 13.24
0.666 0.827 88.84
Figure 4-27. Story shears and overturning moment

(Example 4-6)
M o = 27.10(43.5) + 27.36(33) +
21.14( 22.5) + 13.24(12)
= 2716 ft − kips
The displacement is
v max = φ (ϕ / m*) S d = φ α S d
where
Figure 4-26. Design spectrum for Example 4-6.

S d = S pa / ω2 and α = ϕ / m* velocity and displacement computed at the end

(0.185)( 386.4) of one time interval become the initial
Sd = = 0.941 conditions for the next time interval, and hence
(8.715) 2
the process may be continued step by step.
0.827
α= = 1.242
0.666
4.5.1 Numerical Formulation of
vi = (1.242)(0.941)φi = 1.168φi
Equation of Motion
v 4 = 1.168 in. v3 = 1.035 in.
v 2 = 0.80 in. v1 = 0.50 in. This section considers SDOF systems with
properties m, c, k(t) and p(t), of which the
applied force and the stiffness are functions of
4.5 RESPONSE OF time. The stiffness is actually a function of the
NONLINEAR SDOF yield condition of the restoring force, and this
SYSTEMS in turn is a function of time. The damping
coefficient may also be considered to be a
In an earlier section it was shown that the function of time; however, general practice is to
response of a linear structural system could be determine the damping characteristics for the
evaluated using the Duhamel integral. The elastic system and to keep these constant
approach was limited to linear systems because throughout the complete time history. In the
the Duhamel-integral approach makes use of inelastic range the principle mechanism for
the principle of superposition in developing the energy dissipation is through inelastic
method. In addition, evaluation of the Duhamel deformation, and this is taken into account
integral for earthquake input motions will through the hysteretic behavior of the restoring
require the use of numerical methods in force.
evaluating the integral. For these reasons it may The numerical equation required to evaluate
be more expedient to use numerical integration the nonlinear response can be developed by first
procedures directly for evaluating the response considering the equation of dynamic
of linear systems to general dynamic loading. equilibrium given previously by Equation 4-6.
These methods have the additional advantage It has been stated previously that this equation
that with only a slight modification they can be must be satisfied at every increment of time.
used to evaluate the dynamic response of Considering the time at the end of a short time
nonlinear systems. Many structural systems will step, Equation 4-6 can be written as
experience nonlinear response sometime during f i (t + ∆t ) + f d (t + ∆t ) + f s (t + ∆t ) = p(t + ∆t )
their life. Any moderate to strong earthquake (4-76)
will drive a structure designed by conventional
methods into the inelastic range, particularly in where the forces are defined as
certain critical regions. A very useful numerical f i = mv&&(t + ∆t )
integration technique for problems of structural
dynamics is the so called step-by-step f d = cv&(t + ∆t )
integration procedure. In this procedure the n
time history under consideration is divided into f s = ∑ k i (t )∆vi (t ) = rt + k (t ) ∆v (t ) (4-77)

a number of small time increments ∆ t. During i =1
a small time step, the behavior of the structure ∆v ( t ) = v ( t + ∆t ) − v ( t )

is assumed to be linear. As nonlinear behavior n −1
occurs, the incremental stiffness is modified. In rt = ∑ k i (t )∆vi (t )
this manner, the response of the nonlinear i =1
system is approximated by a series of linear and in the case of ground accelerations

systems having a changing stiffness. The
220 Chapter 4
p(t + ∆t ) = pe (t + ∆t ) = − mg&&(t + ∆t ) (4-78)
Substituting Equations 4-77 and 4-78 into

Equation 4-76 results in an equation of motion
of the form
mv&&(t + ∆t ) + cv&(t + ∆t ) + ∑ k ∆v
i i = −mg&&(t + ∆t )
(4-79)
It should be noted that the incremental

stiffness is generally defined by the tangent
stiffness at the beginning of the time interval
df s
ki = (4-80)
dv
In addition, the dynamic properties given in

Equations 4-77 and 4-78 can readily be
exchanged for the generalized properties when
considering a generalized SDOF system.
4.5.2 Numerical Integration
Many numerical integration schemes are

available in the literature. The technique Figure 4-28. Increment motion (constant acceleration).
considered here is a step-by-step procedure in
which the acceleration during a small time
increment is assumed to be constant. A slight ∆t ∆t
variation of this procedure, in which the v&(t + ∆t ) = v&(t ) + v&&(t + ∆t ) + v&&(t ) (4-81)
2 2
acceleration is assumed to vary linearly during
a small time increment, is described in detail by
Clough and Penzien.(4-4). Both procedures have
v (t + ∆t ) = v (t ) + v&(t )∆t
been widely used and have been found to yield
good results with minimal computational effort. ∆t 2 ∆t 2 (4-82)
If the acceleration is assumed to be constant
+ v&&(t + ∆t ) + v&&(t )
4 4
during the time interval, the equations for the
constant variation of the acceleration, the linear Solving Equation 4-82 for the acceleration
variation of the velocity and the quadratic v&&(t + ∆t ) gives
variation of the displacement are indicated in
Figure 4-28. Evaluating the expression for
4 4
velocity and displacement at the end of the time v&&(t + ∆t ) = ∆v − v&(t ) − v&&(t ) (4-83)
interval leads to the following two expressions ∆t 2
∆t
for velocity and displacement:
4  4  2 
v&&(t + ∆t ) = ∆v + A(t ) (4-84) m ∆v + A(t ) + αm  ∆v + B (t ) + R(t ) + k∆v
∆t 2  ∆t 2   ∆t 
= mg&&(t + ∆t ) (4-89)
where
∆v = v ( t + ∆t ) − v ( t ) Moving terms containing the response

conditions at the beginning of the time interval
4 to the right-hand side of the equation results in
A(t ) = − v&(t ) − v&&(t )
∆t the following so-called pseudo-static form of
the equation of motion:
Note that this equation expresses the
acceleration at the end of the time interval as a k t ( ∆v ) = p ( t + ∆t ) (4-90)
function of the incremental displacement and
the acceleration and velocity at the beginning of
where
the time interval. Substituting Equation 4-83
into Equation 4-81 gives the following
4m 2αm
expression for the velocity at the end of the kt = + + kt
time increment: ∆t 2 ∆t
p(t + ∆t ) = −mg&&(t + ∆t ) − R(t )
2
v&(t + ∆t ) = ∆v − v&(t ) (4-85) − m[ A(t ) − αB(t )]
∆t
The solution procedure for a typical time
step is as follows:
2
v&(t + ∆t ) = ∆v + B(t ) (4-86) 1. Given the initial conditions at the beginning
∆t of the time interval, calculate the
coefficients A(t) and B(t).
where 2. Calculate the effective stiffness.
3. Determine the effective force.
B(t ) = − v&(t ) 4. Solve for the incremental displacement
It is convenient to express the damping as a v = p /kt (4-91)

linear function of the mass:
5. Determine the displacement, velocity and
c = αm = λCcr = 2mωλ (4-87) acceleration at the end of the time interval:
Use of this equation allows the v (t + ∆t ) = v (t ) + ∆v

proportionality factor α to be expressed as 2
v&(t + ∆t ) = + B (t ) (4-92)
α = 2λω (4-88) ∆t
4
v&&(t + ∆t ) = 2 + A(t )
Substituting Equations 4-85, 4-86, and 4-88 ∆t
into Equation 4-79 results in the following form
of the equation for dynamic equilibrium: 6. The values given in Equation 4-92 become
the initial conditions for the next time
increment, and the procedure is repeated.
222 Chapter 4
diagonal matrix of mass properties in which

The above algorithm can be easily either the translational mass or the mass
programmed on any microcomputer. If it is moment of inertia is located on the main
combined with a data base of recorded diagonal.
earthquake data such as EQINFOS,(4-6) it can be
used to gain considerable insight into the linear m1   v1 
and nonlinear response of structures that can be  m2  v 
modeled as either a SDOF system or as a   2 
generalized SDOF system. It also forms the  m3   v3 
background material for later developments for   
{ fi } =  .  . 
multiple-degree-of-freedom systems.
An important response parameter that is  .  . 
  
unique to nonlinear systems is the ductility
 .  . 
mn  vn 
ratio. For a SDOF system, this parameter can be 
defined in terms of the displacement as
v (max) v ( plastic) (4-94)

µ= = 1.0 + (4-93)
v ( yield) v ( yield) It is also convenient for building structures
to develop the structural stiffness matrix in
As can be seen from the above equation, the terms of the stiffness matrices of the individual
ductility ratio is an indication of the amount of story levels. The simplest idealization for a
inelastic deformation that has occurred in the multistory building is based on the following
system. In the case of a SDOF system or three assumptions: (i) the floor diaphragm is
generalized SDOF system the ductility obtained rigid in its own plane; (ii) the girders are rigid
from Equation 4-93 usually represents the relative to the columns and (iii) the columns are
average ductility in the system. The ductility flexible in the horizontal directions but rigid in
demand at certain critical regions, such as the vertical. If these assumptions are used, the
plastic hinges in critical members, may be building structure is idealized as having three
considerably higher. dynamic degrees of freedom at each story level:
a translational degree of freedom in each of two
4.6 MULTIPLE-DEGREE-OF- orthogonal directions, and a rotation about a
FREEDOM SYSTEMS vertical axis through the center of mass. If the
above system is reduced to a plane frame, it
In many structural systems it is impossible will have one horizontal translational degree of
to model the dynamic response accurately in freedom at each story level. The stiffness
terms of a single displacement coordinate. matrix for this type of structure has the
These systems require a number of independent tridiagonal form shown below:
displacement coordinates to describe the For the simplest idealization, in which each
displacement of the mass of the structure at any story level has one translational degree of
instant of time. freedom, the stiffness terms ki in the above
equations represent the translational story
4.6.1 Mass and Stiffness Properties stiffness of the ith story level. As the
assumptions given above are relaxed to include
In order to simplify the solution it is usually axial deformations in the columns and flexural
assumed for building structures that the mass of deformations in the girders, the stiffness term ki
the structure is lumped at the center of mass of in Equation 4-95 becomes a submatrix of
the individual story levels. This results in a stiffness terms, and the story displacement vi
 k1 − k2   v1 
  
k 2 k1 + k 2 − k3   v2 
 − k3 k2 + k3 − k4  v 
  3 
 . . .   . 
{ fs} =    (3 − 95)
 . . .  . 
 . . .  . 
  
 . . − k n  v n −1 
  
 − kn k n −1 + k n   v n 
becomes a subvector containing the various

displacement components in the particular story ([ K ] − ω [ M ]){v} = {0}
2
(4-99)
level. The calculation of the stiffness
coefficients for more complex structures is a The classical solution to the above equation
standard problem of static structural analysis. derives from the fact that in order for a set of
For the purposes of this chapter it will be homogeneous equilibrium equations to have a
assumed that the structural stiffness matrix is nontrivial solution, the determinant of the
known. coefficient matrix must be zero:
4.6.2 Mode Shapes and Frequencies
det([ K ] − ω2 [ M ]) = {0} (4-100)
The equations of motion for undamped free
vibration of a multiple-degree-of-freedom Expanding the determinant by minors
(MDOF) system can be written in matrix form results in a polynomial of degree N, which is
as called the frequency equation. The N roots of
the polynomial represent the frequencies of the
[ M ]{v&&} + [ K ]{v} = {0} (4-96) N modes of vibration. The mode having the
lowest frequency (longest period) is called the
first or fundamental mode. Once the
Since the motions of a system in free
frequencies are known, they can be substituted
vibration are simple harmonic, the displacement
one at a time into the equilibrium Equation 4-
vector can be represented as
99, which can then be solved for the relative
amplitudes of motion for each of the
{v} = {v} sin ω t (4-97) displacement components in the particular
mode of vibration. It should be noted that since
Differentiating twice with respect to time the absolute amplitude of motion is
results in indeterminate, N-1 of the displacement
components are determined in terms of one
{v&&} = − ω2 {v} (4-98) arbitrary component.
This method can be used satisfactorily for
Substituting Equation 4-98 into Equation 4- systems having a limited number of degrees of
96 results in a form of the eigenvalue equation, freedom. Programmable calculators have
programs for solving the polynomial equation
and for doing the matrix operations required to
determine the mode shapes. However, for
224 Chapter 4
problems of any size, digital computer ω2

programs which use numerical techniques to B1 = 0.089 = 1 , ω1 = 8.438 , T1 = 0.744 sec
solve large eigenvalue systems(4-7) must be 800
used. ω22
B2 = 0.830 = , ω2 = 25.768 , T1 = 0.244 sec
Example 4-8 (Mode Shapes and Frequencies) 800
It is assumed that the response in the ω2
transverse direction for the reinforced-concrete B3 = 2.039 = 3 , ω3 = 40.388 , T3 = 0.155 sec
moment frame of Example 4-4 can be 800
represented in terms of four displacement ω24
degrees of freedom which represent the B4 = 3.225 = , ω4 = 50.800 , T4 = 0.124 sec
horizontal displacements of the four story 800
levels. Determine the stiffness matrix and the
•Mode shapes (see Figure 4-29) are
mass matrix, assuming that the mass is lumped
obtained by substituting the values of Bi, one at
at the story levels. Use these properties to
a time, into the equations
calculate the frequencies and mode shapes of
the four-degree-of-freedom system.
•Stiffness and mass matrices: The stiffness ([ K ] − ω2 [ M ]){v} = {0}
coefficient kij is defined as the force at
coordinate i due to a unit displacement at and determining N-1 components of the
coordinate j, all other displacements being zero displacement vector in terms of the first
(see Figure 4-29): component, which is set equal to unity. This
results in the modal matrix
where B = ω2/800
•Characteristic equation: 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 
 0.91 0.20 − 1.07 − 1.78 
[ K ] − ω2 [ M ] = 0 [Φ ] =  
0.74 − 0.78 − 0.75 1.75 
B 4 − 6.183B 3 + 11.476 B 2 − 6.430 B + 0.486 = 0
 
0.47 − 1.05 1.24 − 0.92
Solution: Solution of the above problem using the
computer program ETABS (4-12) gives the
following results:
 209 − 209 0 0 
 − 209 418 − 209 0 
[K ] =  
 0 − 209 418 − 209
 
 0 0 − 209 349 
1.01 0 0 0 
 0 
1 0 1.15 0
[M ] =  
4 0 0 1.15 0 
 
 0 0 0 1.16
1.05 − 1.01B − 1.05 0 0 
 − 1.05 2. 09 − 1.15 B − 1 .05 0 
[ K ] − ω2 [ M ] = 200  
 0 − 1.05 2.09 − 1.15B − 1.05 
 
 0 0 − 1.05 1.74 − 1.16 B 
0.838 4.6.3 Equations of Motion in Normal

0.268 Coordinates
 
{T } =  
0.152  Betti’s reciprocal work theorem can be used
0.107  to develop two orthogonality properties of
vibration mode shapes which make it possible
to greatly simplify the equations of motion. The
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00  first of these states that the mode shapes are
 0.91 0.20 − 1.07 − 1.78  orthogonal to the mass matrix and is expressed
[Φ ] =   in matrix form as
0.74 − 0.78 0.75 1.75 
 
0.47 − 1.05 1.24 − 0.92 {φn }T [ M ]{φm } = {0} ( m ≠ n ) (4-101)
This program assumes the floor diaphragm Using Equations 4-99 and 4-101, the second
is rigid in its own plane but allows axial property can be expressed in terms of the
deformation in the columns and flexural stiffness matrix as
deformations in the beams. Hence, with these
added degrees of freedom (fewer constraints)
{φn }T [ K ]{φm } = {0} (m ≠ n ) (4-102)
the fundamental period increases. However,
comparing the results of this example with
those of Example 4-5, it can be seen that for which states that the mode shapes are
this structure a good approximation for the first- orthogonal to the stiffness matrix. It is further
mode response was obtained using the assumed that the mode shapes are also
generalized SDOF model and the static orthogonal to the damping matrix:
deflected shape.
{φn }T [C ]{φm } = {0} (m ≠ n) (4-103)
Sufficient conditions for this assumption

have been discussed elsewhere.(4-8) Since any
MDOF system having N degrees of freedom
also has N independent vibration mode shapes,
it is possible to express the displaced shape of
the structure in terms of the amplitudes of these
shapes by treating them as generalized
coordinates (sometimes called normal
coordinates). Hence the displacement at a
particular location, vi, can be obtained by
summing the contributions from each mode as
N
vi = ∑ φinYn (4-104)
n =1
Figure 4-29. Stiffness determination and mode In a similar manner, the complete
shape(Example 4-8). displacement vector can be expressed as
226 Chapter 4
N
M n* = generalized mass = {φn }T [ M ]{φn }
{v} = ∑ {φn }Yn = [Φ ]{Y } (4-105)
n =1 C n* = generalized damping
It is convenient to write the equations of = {φn }T [C ]{φn } = 2λ n ωn M n*

motion for a MDOF system in matrix form as K n* = generalized stiffness
[ M ]{v&&} + [C ]{v&} + [ K ]{v} = {P(t )} (4-106) = {φn }T [ K ]{φn } = ω2n M n*

Pn* (t ) = generalized loading = {φn }T {P(t )}
which is similar to the equation for a SDOF (4-110)
system, Equation 4-9. The differences arise
because the mass, damping, and stiffness are The above relations can be used to further
now represented by matrices of coefficients simplify the equation of motion for the nth
representing the added degrees of freedom, and mode to the form
the acceleration, velocity, displacement, and
applied load are represented by vectors
P * (t )
containing the additional degrees of freedom. Y&&n + 2λ n ωnYn + ωn2Yn = n * (4-111)
The equations of motion can be expressed in Mn
terms of the normal coordinates by substituting
Equation 4-105 and its appropriate derivatives The importance of the above
into Equation 4-106 to give transformations to normal coordinates has been
summarized by Clough and Penzien,(4-4) who
[ M ][Φ ]{Y&&} + [C ][Φ ]{Y& } + [ K ][Φ ]{Y } = {P (t )} state that
(4-107) The use of normal coordinates serves to
transform the equations of motion from a set of
Multiplying the above equation by the N simultaneous differential equations which are
transpose of any modal vector {φn} results in coupled by off diagonal terms in the mass and
the following: stiffness matrices to a set of N independent
normal coordinate equations.
It should further be noted that the
{φn }T [ M ][Φ ]{Y&&} + {φn }T [C ][Φ ]{Y& } expressions for the generalized properties of
(4-108)
+ {φn }T [ K ][Φ ]{Y } = {φn }T {P (t )} any mode are equivalent to those defined
previously for a generalized SDOF system.
Hence the use of the normal modes transforms
Using the orthogonality conditions of
the MDOF system having N degrees of freedom
Equations 4-101, 4-102, and 4-103 reduces this
into a system of N independent generalized
set of equations to the equation of motion for a
SDOF systems. The complete solution for the
generalized SDOF system in terms of the
system is then obtained by superimposing the
generalized properties for the n th mode shape
independent modal solutions. For this reason
and the normal coordinate Yn:
this method is often referred to as the modal-
superposition method. Use of this method also
M n*Y&&n + C n*Y&n + K n*Y = Pn* (t ) (4-109) leads to a significant saving in computational
effort, since in most cases it will not be
where the generalized properties for the nth necessary to use all N modal responses to
mode are given as accurately represent the response of the
structure. For most structural systems the lower
modes make the primary contribution to the
total response. Therefore, the response can
usually be represented to sufficient accuracy in time t can be obtained by the Duhamel integral
terms of a limited number of modal responses expression
in the lower modes.
ϕ nVn (t )
4.6.4 Earthquake-Response Analysis Yn ( t ) = (4-115)
M n* ωn
Time-History Analysis As in the case of
SDOF systems, for earthquake analysis the where Vn(t) represents the integral
time-dependent force must be replaced with the t
effective loads, which are given by the product Vn (t ) = ∫ g&&( τ)e −λ n ωn ( t − τ ) sin ωn (t − τ)dτ (4-116)
0
of the mass at any level, M, and the ground
acceleration g(t). The vector of effective loads
The complete displacement of the structure
is obtained as the product of the mass matrix
at any time is then obtained by superimposing
and the ground acceleration:
the contributions of the individual modes using
Equation 4-105
Pe (t ) = [ M ]{Γ}g&&(t ) (4-112)
N
where {Γ} is a vector of influence coefficients {v (t )} = ∑ {φn }Yn (t ) = [Φ ]{Y (t )} (4-117)

of which component i represents the n =1
acceleration at displacement coordinate i due to

a unit ground acceleration at the base. For the The resulting earthquake forces can be
simple structural model in which the degrees of determined in terms of the effective
freedom are represented by the horizontal accelerations, which for each mode are given
displacements of the story levels, the vector by the product of the circular frequency and the
{Γ} becomes a unity vector, {1}, since for a displacement amplitude of the generalized
unit ground acceleration in the horizontal coordinate:
direction all degrees of freedom have a unit
horizontal acceleration. Using Equation 4-108, ϕ ω V (t )
Y&&ne (t ) = ωn2Yn (t ) = n n *n (4-118)
the generalized effective load for the nth mode Mn
is given as
The corresponding acceleration in the
Pen* (t ) = L n g (t ) (4-113) structure due to the n th mode is given as
{v&&ne (t )} = {φn }Y&&ne (t ) (4-119)

Where L n = {φn } [ M ]{Γ}
T
and the corresponding effective earthquake

Substituting Equation 4-113 into Equation force is given as
4-111 results in the following expression for the
earthquake response of the nth mode of a {qn (t )} = [ M ]{v&&n (t )}
MDOF system: (4-120)
= [ M ]{φn }ωn ϕ nVn (t ) / M n*
Y&&n + 2λ n ωnY&n + ωn2Yn = ϕ n g&&(t ) / M n* (4-114)
The total earthquake force is obtained by
superimposing the individual modal forces to
In a manner similar to that used for the obtain
SDOF system, the response of this mode at any
228 Chapter 4
N
[ M ]{φn }Qn (t )
q(t ) = ∑ qn (t ) = [ M ][Φ ]ω2Y (t ) (4-121) {qn (t )} = (4-125)
n =1 Ln
The base shear can be obtained by summing

the effective earthquake forces over the height 4.6.5 Response-Spectrum Analysis
of the structure:
The above equations for the response of any
H mode of vibration are exactly equivalent to the
Qn (t ) = ∑ qin (t ) = {1}T {qn (t )} expressions developed for the generalized
i =1 (4-122)
SDOF system. Therefore, the maximum
= M en ωnVn (t ) response of any mode can be obtained in a
manner similar to that used for the generalized
where M en = L n2 / M n* is the effective mass for SDOF system. By analogy to Equations 4-34
the nth mode. and 4-43 the maximum modal displacement can
be written as
The sum of the effective masses for all of
the modes is equal to the total mass of the
Vn (t ) max
structure. This results in a means of Yn (t ) max = = S dn (4-126)
determining the number of modal responses ωn
necessary to accurately represent the overall
structural response. If the total response is to be Making this substitution in Equation 4-115
represented in terms of a finite number of results in
modes and if the sum of the corresponding
modal masses is greater than a predefined Yn max = ϕ n S dn / M n* (4-127)
percentage of the total mass, the number of
modes considered in the analysis is adequate. If
this is not the case, additional modes need to be The distribution of the modal displacements
considered. The base shear for the nth mode, in the structure can be obtained by multiplying
Equation 4-122, can also be expressed in terms this expression by the modal vector
of the effective weight,Wen, as
{φn }L n S dn
{vn }max = {φn }Yn max = (4-128)
Wen M n*
Qn (t ) = ωnVn (t ) (4-123)
g
The maximum effective earthquake forces
where can be obtained from the modal accelerations as
given by Equation 4-120:
Wen =
(∑ H
Wφ
i =1 i in
)2
(4-124) [ M ]{φn }ϕ n S pan

{qn }max = (4-129)
∑
H
i =1
Wi φ
2
in M n*
The base shear can be distributed over the Summing these forces over the height of the
height of the building in a manner similar to structure gives the following expression for the
Equation 4-74, with the modal earthquake maximum base shear due to the nth mode:
forces expressed as
Qn max = ϕ 2n S pan / M n* (4-130)
which can also be expressed in terms of the Since this combination assumes that the
effective weight as maxima occur at the same time and that they
also have the same sign, it produces an upper-
Qn max = Wen S pan / g (4-131) bound estimate for the response, which is too
conservative for design application. A more
reasonable estimate, which is based on
where Wen is defined by Equation 4-124.
probability theory, can be obtained by using the
Finally, the overturning moment at the base of
square-root-of-the-sum-of-the-squares (SRSS)
the building for the nth mode can be
method, which is expressed as
determined as
M o = h [M ]{φn }L n S pan / M n*
N
(4-132) r≈ ∑r
n =1
n
2
(4-134)
where h is a row vector of the story heights This method of combination has been shown
to give a good approximation of the response
above the base.
for two-dimensional structural systems. For
three-dimensional systems, it has been shown
that the complete-quadratic-combination (CQC)
4.6.6 Modal Combinations method (4-9) may offer a significant
improvement in estimating the response of
Using the response-spectrum method for certain structural systems. The complete
MDOF systems, the maximum modal response quadratic combination is expressed as
is obtained for each mode of a set of modes,
which are used to represent the response. The
N N
question then arises as to how these modal
maxima should be combined in order to get the
r≈ ∑∑ r p r
i =1 j =1
i ij j (4-135)
best estimate of the maximum total response.
The modal-response equations such as where for constant modal damping
Equations 4-117 and 4-121 provide accurate
results only as long as they are evaluated
8λ2 (1 + ζ )ζ 3 / 2
concurrently in time. In going to the response- pij = (4-136)
spectrum approach, time is taken out of these (1 − ζ 2 ) 2 + 4λ2 ζ(1 + ζ) 2
equations and replaced with the modal maxima.
These maximum response values for the and
individual modes cannot possibly occur at the
same time; therefore, a means must be found to ζ = ω j / ωi
combine the modal maxima in such a way as to
approximate the maximum total response. One λ = c / ccr
such combination that has been used is to take
the sum of the absolute values (SAV) of the Using the SRSS method for two-
modal responses. This combination can be dimensional systems and the CQC method for
expressed as either two- or three-dimensional systems will
give a good approximation to the maximum
N earthquake response of an elastic system
r ≤ ∑ rn (4-133) without requiring a complete time-history
n =1 analysis. This is particularly important for
purposes of design.
230 Chapter 4
Table 3-3. Computation of response for model of Example 4-8

Modal Modal Response
Param n=1 2 3 4
eter
ω= 8.44 25.77 40.39 50.80
αn = 1.212 -0.289 0.075 0.010
Sd = 1.190 0.155 0.062 0.039
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.91 0.20 -1.07 -1.78
φ=
Response 0.74 -0.78 -0.75 1.75 Combined Response
Quantity 0.47 -1.05 1.24 -0.92 SAV SRSS CQC
Displacement n=4 1.44 -0.045 0.019 -0.002 1.506 1.441 1.441
vn=φnαnSdn 3 1.31 -0.009 -0.020 0.003 1.342 1.310 1.310
(Eq.3.128) 2 1.07 0.035 -0.014 -0.003 1.122 1.071 1.071
1 0.68 0.047 0.023 0.001 0.751 0.682 0.682
Acceleration n= 4 102.6 -29.9 31.0 -5.1 168.6 111.4 110.7
v&&n = ω 2 3 93.3 -6.0 -32.6 7.7 139.6 99.3 98.9
n vn
2 76.2 23.2 -22.8 -7.7 129.9 83.2 83.3
1 48.4 31.2 37.5 2.6 119.7 68.8 70.0
Inertia force n=4 25.91 -7.54 7.83 -1.30 42.6 28.1 27.9
qn = Mv&&n 3 26.82 -1.72 -9.38 2.23 40.2 28.6 28.4
2 21.91 6.68 -6.56 -2.23 37.4 23.9 23.9
1 14.03 9.05 11.35 0.75 35.2 20.2 20.6
Shear n= 4 25.91 -7.54 7.83 -1.30 42.6 28.1 28.0
Qn=Σqn 3 52.73 -9.26 -1.55 0.93 64.5 53.6 53.5
2 74.64 -2.58 -8.11 -1.30 86.6 75.1 75.1
1 88.67 6.47 3.24 -0.55 98.9 89.0 89.0
Overturning n= 4 272.1 -79.2 82.2 -13.7 447.2 295.4 293.6
Moment 3 825.7 -176.4 65.9 -3.9 1071.9 846.9 845.3
(ft-kips) 2 1609.4 -203.5 -19.2 -17.5 1849.6 1622.4 1621.3
1 2673.4 -125.9 19.7 -24.1 2843.1 2676.5 2675.7
Example 4-9 (Response Spectrum Analysis) 1.01 0 0 0 
Use the design response spectrum given in  0 1.15 0 0 
Example 4-7 and the results of Example 4-8 to 1 
[M ] =
perform a response-spectrum analysis of the 4 0 0 1.15 0 
reinforced concrete frame. Determine the modal  
responses of the four modes of vibration, and  0 0 0 1.16
estimate the total response using the SAV,
SRSS, and CQC methods of modal
combination. Present the data in a tabular form  8.44 
suitable for hand calculation. Finally, compare 25.77
  r
the results with those obtained in Example 4-6 {ω } =  
for a generalized SDOF model. 40.39 sec
50.80 
From Example 4-7,
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00  Response MDOF SDOF

parameter (Example 3-9) (Example 3-7)
 0.91 0.20 − 1.07 − 1.78 
1st
[Φ ] =   0.68 0.50
Inertia force (kips)
0.74 − 0.78 − 0.75 1.75  Roof 28.1 27.1
 
0.47 − 1.05 1.24 − 0.92 3rd 28.6 27.4
2nd 23.9 21.1
1.34  1st 20.2 13.2
  Base shear (kips) 89.0 88.8
ω 4.10 
{f}= =  Hz
Overturning 2678 2716
2π 6.43 moment
(ft-kips)
8.09 
10.0 4.7 NONLINEAR RESPONSE
 4.0  OF MDOF SYSTEMS
 
Sv =  in./sec
 2.5  The nonlinear analysis of buildings modeled
 2.0  as multiple degree of freedom systems (MDOF)
closely parallels the development for single
S dn = S vn / ωn degree of freedom systems presented earlier.
From Equation 4-128, However, the nonlinear dynamic time history
analysis of MDOF systems is currently
{vn }max = {φn }(ϕ n / M n* ) S dn = {φ} αS dn considered to be too complex for general use.
Therefore, recent developments in the seismic
{qn } = [ M ]{v&&n } = [ M ] ω2 {v n } evaluation of buildings have suggested a
N
performance-based procedure which requires
Qn = ∑ qni the determination of the demand and capacity.
i =1
Demand is represented by the earthquake
ground motion and its effect on a particular
For CQC combination,
structural system. Capacity is the structure's
λ = 0.05 = constant for all modes ability to resist the seismic demand. In order to
estimate the structure's capacity beyond the
1.0000 0.0062 .0025 .0017  elastic limit, a static nonlinear (pushover)
0.0062 1.0000 0.0452 0.0193
analysis is recommended (4-17). For more
pij =  
0.0025 0.0452 1.0000 0.1582 demanding investigations of building response,
  nonlinear dynamic analyses can be conducted.
0.0017 0.0193 0.1582 1.0000 
For dynamic analysis the loading time
The computation of the modal and the
combined response is tabulated in Table 4- history is divided into a number of small time
3. The results are compared with those increments, whereas, in the static analysis, the
obtained for the SDOF model in Table 4-4. lateral force is divided into a number of small
force increments. During a small time or force
Table 4-4. Comparison of results obtained from MDOF increment, the behavior of the structure is
and SDOF models. assumed to be linear elastic. As nonlinear
Response MDOF SDOF behavior occurs, the incremental stiffness is
parameter (Example 3-9) (Example 3-7) modified for the next time (load) increment.
Period (sec) 0.744 0.721 Hence, the response of the nonlinear system is
Displacements(in)
approximated by the response of a sequential
Roof 1.44 1.17
3rd 1.31 1.04 series of linear systems having varying
2nd 1.07 0.80 stiffnesses.
232 Chapter 4
approximate the first mode of vibration. These

Static Nonlinear Analysis forces are increased in a proportional manner
Nonlinear static analyses are a subset of by a specified load factor. The lateral loading is
nonlinear dynamic analyses and can use the increased until either the structure becomes
same solution procedure without the time unstable or a specified limit condition is
related inertia forces and damping forces. The attained. The results from this type of analysis
equations of equilibrium are similar to Equation are usually presented in the form of a graph
4-1 with the exception that they are written in plotting base shear versus roof displacement.
matrix form for a small load increment during The pushover curve for a six-story steel
which the behavior is assumed to be linear building (4-18) is shown in Figure 4-29a and the
elastic. sequence of plastic hinging is shown in Figure
4-29b.
[ K ]{∆v} = {∆P} (4-136a)
For computational purposes it is convenient

to rewrite this equation in the following form
[ K t ]{∆v} + {Rt } = {P} (4-136b)
where Kt is the tangent stiffness matrix for

the current load increment and Rt is the
restoring force at the beginning of the load
increment which is defined as
n −1
{Rt } = ∑ [ K ti ]{∆vi }
i =1 Figure 4-29b Sequence of Plastic Hinge Formation, Six
Story Steel Building.
The equations of equilibrium for a multiple

degree of freedom system subjected to base
excitation can be written in matrix form as
[ M ]{v&&} + [C ]{v&} + [ K ]{v}

(Eq.4-137)
= −[ M ]{Γ}g&&(t )
This equation is of the same form as that of

Eq. 4-76 for the single degree of freedom
system. The acceleration, velocity and
displacement have been replaced by vectors
containing the additional degrees of freedom.
The mass has been replaced by the mass matrix
which for a lumped mass system is a diagonal
Figure 4-29a. Pushover Curve, Six Story Steel Building.
matrix with the translational mass and
rotational mass terms on the main diagonal. The
The lateral force distribution is generally
incremental stiffness has been replaced by the
based on the static equivalent lateral forces
incremental stiffness matrix and the damping
specified in building codes which tend to
has been replaced by the damping matrix. This
latter term requires some additional discussion. viscous damping. Therefore, an exact
In the mode superposition method, the damping expresentation of damping is not as important
ratio was defined for each mode of vibration. in a nonlinear system as it is in a linear system.
However, this is not possible for a nonlinear One should be aware of the characteristics of
system because it has no true vibration modes. the damping function to insure that important
A useful way to define the damping matrix for a components of the response are not lost. For
nonlinear system is to assume that it can be instance, if the coefficients are selected to give
represented as a linear combination of the mass a desired percentage of critical damping in the
and stiffness matrices of the initial elastic lower modes and the response of the higher
system modes is important, the higher mode response
may be over damped and its contribution to the
[C ] = α[ M ] + β[ K ] (Eq 4-138) total response diminished.
Where α and β are scaler multipliers which

may be selected so as to provide a given
percentage of critical damping in any two
modes of vibration of the initial elastic system.
These two multipliers can be evaluated from the
expression
 ωj − ωi 
α   ωω λi 
  = 2− 1 1  2i j2   (Eq.4-139)
β
   ω − ωi λ j 
 ω j ωi  j
where ωi and ωj are the percent of critical

damping in the two specified modes. Once the
coefficients α and β are determined, the
damping in the other elastic modes is obtained
from the expression
α βω k
λk = + (Eq. 4-140)
2 ωk 2
A typical damping function which was used

for the nonlinear analysis of a reinforced
Figure 4-30. Damping functions for a framed tube.
concrete frame (4-10) is shown in Figure 4-30.
Although the representation for the damping is
only approximate it is justified for these types Substituting Eq. 4-138 into Eq. 4-137 results
of analyses on the basis that it gives a good in
approximation of the damping for a range of
modes of vibration and these modes can be [ M ]{v&&} + α [ M ]{v&} + β [ K i ]{v&} + [ K ]{v}
selected to be the ones that make the major = −[ M ]{ Γ} g&&(t )
contribution to the response. Also in nonlinear
dynamic analyses the dissipation of energy (Eq. 4-141)
through inelastic deformation tends of
overshadow the dissipation of energy through where Ki refers to the initial stiffness.
234 Chapter 4
Representing the incremental stiffness in where

terms of the tangent stiffness, Kt, and
~
rearranging some terms, results in [ K ] = [C 0 [ M ] + C1 [ K i ] + [ K t ]]
~
{P} = {P(t )} − {Rt }
[ K ]{v} = [ K t ]{∆v} = {Rt } + [ K t ]{∆v} (Eq. 4-142)
− [ M ] {{ At } + α{Bt }} − β [ K i ]{Bt }
where 4 2α
C0 = +
∆t 2
∆t
n −1 2β
{Rt } = ∑ [ K ti ]{∆vi } C1 =
∆t
i =1
The incremental displacement vector can be

Using the step-by-step integration procedure
obtained by solving Eq. 4-147 for {∆v} This
in which the acceleration is assumed to be
result can then be used in Eqs. 4-143, 4-144 and
constant during a time increment, equations
4-144a to obtain the acceleration vector, the
similar to Eqs. 4.84 and 4-86 can be developed
velocity vector and the displacement vector at
for the multiple degree of freedom system
the end of the time interval. These vectors then
which express the acceleration and velocity
become the initial conditions for the next time
vectors at the end of the time increment in
interval and the process is repeated.
terms of the incremental displacement vector
Output from a nonlinear response analysis
and the vectors of initial conditions at the
of a MDOF system generally includes response
beginning of the time increment:
parameters such as the following: an envelope
of the maximum story displacements, an
4
{v&&(t )} = ( ){∆v} + { At } (Eq. 4-143) envelope of the maximum relative story
∆t 2 displacement divided by the story height
(sometimes referred to as the interstory drift
index (IDI), an envelope of maximum ductility
2 demand on structural members such as beams,
{v&(t )} = ( ){∆v} + {Bt } (Eq. 4-144) columns, walls and bracing, an envelope of
∆t
maximum rotation demand at the ends of
members, an envelope of the maximum story
{v (t )} = {v (t − ∆t )} + {∆v} (Eq. 4-144a) shear, time history of base shear, moment
versus rotation hysteresis plots for critical
plastic hinges, time history plots of story
where
displacements and time history plots of energy
demands (input energy, hysteretic energy,
4
{ At } = − {v&(t − ∆t )} − {v&&(t − ∆t )} (Eq. 4-145) kinetic energy and dissapative energy).
∆t For multiple degree of freedom systems, the
definition of ductility is not as straight-forward
as it was for the single degree of freedom
{Bt } = −{v&(t − ∆t )} (Eq. 4-146) systems. Ductility may be expressed in terms of
such parameters as displacement, relative
Substituting Eqs. 4-142 through 4-146 into displacement, rotation, curvature or strain.
Eq. 4-141 and rearranging some terms leads to Example 4-10.Seismic Response Analyses
the pseudo-static form The following is a representative response
analysis for a six story building in which
~ ~ the lateral resistance is provided by moment
[ K ]{∆v} = {P} (Eq. 4-147)
resistant steel frames on the perimeter. The
structure has a rectangular plan with typical represent more than 90% of the participating
dimensions of 228′ × 84′ as shown in mass. In the transverse direction, these modes
Figure 4-31. The building was designed for have periods of vibration of 1.6, 0.6 and 0.35
the requirements of the 1979 Edition of the seconds. In the longitudinal direction, the
Uniform Building Code (UBC) with the periods are slightly shorter.
seismic load based on the use of static Dynamic analyses are conducted using the
equivalent lateral forces. same analytical model and considering an
ensemble of five earthquake ground motions
Elastic Analyses recorded during the Northridge earthquake. A
As a first step in performing the analyses, representative time history of one of these
the members of the perimeter frame will be motions is shown in Figure 4-34. The
stress checked for the design loading conditions corresponding stress ratios in the perimeter
and the dynamic properties of the building will frame are shown in Figure 4-35 for earthquake
be determined. This will help to insure that the motion applied in the transverse direction.
analytical model of the building is correct and Stress ratios in the beams of the transverse
that the gravity loading which will be used for frames range from 2.67 to 4.11 indicating
the nonlinear response analysis is also substantial inelastic behavior. Stress ratios in
reasonable. This will be done using a three excess of 1.12 are obtained in all of the
dimensional model of the lateral force system columns of the transverse frames, however, it
and the ETABS (4-11) computer program. This should be recalled that there is a factor of safety
program is widely used on the west coast for of approximately 1.4 on allowable stress and
seismic analysis and design of building plastic hinging.
systems. An isometric view of the perimeter
frame including the gravity load is shown in Nonlinear Analyses
Figure 4-32. The location of the concentrated In order to estimate the lateral resistance of
and distributed loads depends upon the framing the building at ultimate load, a static, nonlinear
system shown in Figure 4-31. analysis (pushover) is conducted for
Using the post-processor program proportional loading. The reference lateral load
STEELER (4-12), the lateral force system is stress distribution is that specified in the 1979 UBC.
checked using the AISC-ASD criteria. The This load distribution is then multiplied by a
stress ratio is calculated as the ratio of the load factor to obtain the ultimate load. The
actual stress in the member to the allowable nonlinear model is a two dimensional model in
stress. Applying the gravity loads in which the plasticity is assumed to be
combination with the static equivalent lateral concentrated in plastic hinges at the ends of the
forces in the transverse direction produces the members.
stress ratios shown in Figure 4-33. This result The results of the pushover analysis are
includes the effect of an accidental eccentricity usually represented in terms of a plot of the roof
which is 5% of the plan dimension. The displacement versus the base shear as shown in
maximum stress ratio in the columns is 0.71 Figure 4-36. This figure indicates that first
and the maximum in the beams is 0.92. These yielding occurs at a base shear of approximately
values are reasonable based on standard 670 kips and a roof displacement of
practice at the time the building was designed. approximately 7.25 inches. The UBC 1979
Ideally, the stress ratio should be just less than static equivalent lateral forces for this frame
one, however, this is not always possible due to results in a base shear of 439 kips which
the finite number of steel sections that are implies a load factor of 1.52 on first yield. At a
available. roof displacement of 17.5 inches, a sway
Modal analyses indicate that the first three mechanism forms with all girders hinged and
lateral modes of vibration in each direction
Figure 4-31 Typical floor framing plan ~ Fourth & fifth floors
Figure 4-32. Gravity Loading Pattern, ETABS
Figure 4-33. Calculated Stress Ratios, Design Loads, ETABS
Figure 4-34. Recorded Base Acceleration, Sta. 322, N-S
240 Chapter 4
Figure 4-35. Calculated Stress Ratios, Sta. 322 Ground Motion

hinges at the base of the columns. At this
displacement, the pushover curve is becoming
almost horizontal indicating a loss of most of
the lateral stiffness. This behavior is
characterized by a large increase in
displacement for a small increase in lateral load
since lateral resistance is only due to strain
hardening in the plastic hinges. The ultimate
load is taken as 840 kips which divided by the
code base shear for the frame (439 kips) results
in a load factor of 1.91 on ultimate.
Note that the elastic dynamic analysis for
the acceleration shown in Figure 4-34 results in
a displacement at the roof of 16.7 inches.
Comparing this to the pushover curve (Figure
4-36) indicates that the structure should be well
Figure 4-36. Static Pushover Curve into the inelastic range based on the
displacement response.
Figure 4-37. Calculated Nonlinear Dynamic Response.

242 Chapter 4
Figure4-38. Nonlinear Displacement, Roof Level
The nonlinear dynamic response of a The maximum ductility demand for the
structure is often presented in terms of the columns is 1.8 and for the beams it is 3.3. The
following response parameters: (1) envelope of hysteretic behavior of a plastic hinge in a
maximum total displacement, (2) envelope critical beam is shown in a plot of moment
of maximum story to story displacement versus rotation in Figure 4- 37d.
divided by the story height (interstory drift A final plot, Figure 4-38, shows the
index), (3) maximum ductility demand for the nonlinear displacement time history of the roof.
beams and columns, (4) envelopes of maximum This figure illustrates the displacement of a
plastic hinge rotation, (5) moment versus pulse type of input. After some lessor cycles
rotation hysteresis curves for critical members during the first 7 seconds of the time history,
and (6) envelopes of maximum story shear. the structure sustains a strong displacement at
Representative plots of four of these parameters approximately 8 seconds which drives the roof
are shown in Figure 4-37. The lateral to a displacement of 12 inches relative to the
displacement envelope (Figure 4-37a) indicates base. Note the acceleration pulse at this time in
that the maximum displacement at the roof the acceleration time history (Figure 4-34).
level is 12.3 inches which is less than the 16.7 Following this action, the structure begins to
inches obtained from the elastic dynamic oscillate about a new, deformed position at four
analysis. The interstory drift and total beam inches displacement. This is a residual
rotation curves are shown in Figure 4- 37b displacement, which the structure will have
which indicates that the interstory drift ranges following the earthquake and is characteristic of
from 0.01 (1%) to 0.024 (2.4%). The beam inelastic behavior. Additional details of this
rotation can be seen to range between 0.016 and analysis example can be found in the literature
(4-13)
0.025. The curvature ductility demands of the .
beams and columns is shown in Figure 4-37c.
Figure 4-39. Location of Strong Motion Instrumentation
building, shown in Figure 4-40, indicates that

4.8 VERIFICATION OF there are three moment frames in the transverse
CALCULATED RESPONSE (E-W) direction and two moment frames in the
longitudinal (N-S) direction. Note that the
The dynamic response procedures discussed transverse frames at the ends of the building are
in the previous sections must have the ability to not continuous with the longitudinal frames. It
reliably predict the dynamic behavior of is assumed that the floor diaphragms are rigid
structures when they are subjected to critical in their own plane. During the Loma Prieta
seismic excitations. Hence, it is necessary to earthquake the instrumentation recorded
compare the results of analytical calculations thirteen excellent records of building response
with the results of large-scale experiments. The having a duration of more than sixty seconds (4-
19)
best large-scale experiment is when an . Since the response was only weakly
earthquake occurs and properly placed nonlinear, the calculations can be made using
instruments record the response of the building the ETABS program, however, similar analyses
to ground motions recorded at the base. The can also be conducted with a nonlinear response
instrumentation (accelerometers) placed in a program (4-20).
six-story reinforced concrete building by the
California Strong Motion Instrumentation
Program (CSMIP) is indicated in Figure 4-39.
The lateral force framing system for the
244 Chapter 4
repeated until the end of the time history record.

This results in a “moving window Fourier
amplitude spectra” (MWFAS) which indicates
the changes in period of the building response
during the time history as shown in Figure 4-41.
In this example a ten-second window was used
with a five-second shift for the first sixty
seconds of the recorded response. In general,
the length of the “window” should be at least
2.5 times the fundamental period of the
structure.
If the connections (offsets) are assumed to be
rigid, the initial stiffness of the building prior to
any cracking of the concrete can be estimated
using the analytical model with member
properties of the gross sections. This results in a
Figure 4-40. ETABS Building Model period of 0.71 seconds in the E-W direction and
0.58 seconds in the N-S direction. This
To improve the evaluation of the recorded condition can also be evaluated by the results
response, spectral analyses are conducted in obtained from the initial window of the
both the time domain (response spectra) and MWFAS. An examination of Figure 4-41
frequency domain (Fourier spectra). A further indicates an initial period of 0.71 in the E-W
refinement of the Fourier analysis can be direction and 0.58 seconds in the N-S direction.
attained by calculating a Fourier amplitude Identical results were also obtained from
spectra for a segment (window) of the recorded ambient vibration tests conducted by Marshall,
time history. The fixed duration window is then et al. (4-21).
shifted along the time axis and the process is
Figure 41. Variation of Building Period with Time

Figure 4-42. Time History Comparisons of Acceleration, Displacement
indicate 1.0 E-W and 0.90 N-S. It can be

During the strong motion portion of the concluded that for this building, all of these
response, cracking in the concrete and limited values are in good agreement. The MWFAS
yielding of the tension steel will cause the also indicate an increase in period of
period of vibration to lengthen. In order to approximately fifty percent in both principal
represent this increased flexibility in the elastic directions during the earthquake. This amount
analytical model, the flexibility of the of change is not unusual for a reinforced
individual members can be reduced to an concrete building (4-22), however, it does indicate
effective value or the rigid offsets at the cracking and possible limited yielding of the
connections (4-13) can be reduced in length. For reinforcement. The time histories of the
this example, the rigid offsets were reduced by acceleration and displacement at the roof level
fifty percent. This results in a period of 1.03 are shown in Figure 4-42. This also shows a
seconds in the E-W direction and 0.89 seconds good correlation between the measured and the
in the N-S direction which are in the range of calculated response.
values obtained from the MWFAS. Considering
the entire duration of the recorded response, the
Fourier amplitude spectra indicates a period of
1.05 seconds in the E-W direction and 0.85 in
the N-S direction. Corresponding values
obtained from a response spectrum analysis
246 Chapter 4
REFERENCES 4-16 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Design of Structures

to Resist the Effects of Atomic Weapons, EM 1110-
4-1 Chopra, A, K., Dynamics of Structures, A Primer, 345-415, 1957.
Earthquake Engineering Research institute, 4-17 Applied Technology Council, “Seismic Evaluation
Berkeley, CA, 1981. and Retrofit of Concrete Buildings”, ATC-40,
4-2 Applied Technology Council, An Evaluation of a Applied Technology Council, Redwood City,
Response Spectrum Approach to Seismic Design of California, 1991.
Buildings, ATC-2, Applied Technology Council, 4-18 Anderson, J.C. and Bertero, V.V., “Seismic
Palo Alto, CA, 1974. Performance of an Instrumented Six Story Steel
4-3 Newmark, N. M., and Hall, W. J., "Procedures and Building”, Report No. UCB/EERC-91/111,
Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design", Building Earthquake Engineering Research Center,
Practices for Disaster Mitigation, U. S. Department University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley,
of Commerce, Building Science Series 46, 1973. California, 1991.
4-4 Clough, R. W., and Penzien, J., Structural 4-19 California Division of Mines and Geology, “CSMIP
Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY, Strong-Motion Records from the Santa Cruz
1975. Mountains (Loma Prieta) California Earthquake of
4-5 Rayleigh, Lord, Theory of Sound, Dover October 17, 1989”, Report OSMS 89-06.
Publications, New York, NY, 1945. 4-20 Anderson, J.C. and Bertero, V.V., “Seismic
4-6 Lee, V. W., and Trifunac, M. D., "Strong Performance of an Instrumented Six Story Steel
Earthquake Ground Motion Data in EQINFOS, Part Building”, Report No. UCB/EERC-93/01,
I," Report No.87-01, Department of Civil Earthquake Engineering Research Center,
Engineering, USC, Los Angeles, CA, 1987. University of California at Berkeley.
4-7 Bathe, K. J., and Wilson, E. L., Numerical Methods 4-21 Marshall, R.D., Phan, L.T. and Celebi, M., “Full
in Finite Element Analysis, Prentice Hall, Inc., Scale Measurement of Building Response to
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1976. Ambient Vibration and the Loma Prieta
4-8 Caughy,T. K., "Classical Normal Modes in Damped Earthquake”, Proceedings, Fifth National
Linear Dynamic systems," Journal of Applied Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vol. II,
Mechanics, ASME, Paper No. 59-A-62, June, 1960. Earthquake Engineering Research Institute,
4-9 Wilson, E. L., Der Kiureghian, A.Rand Bayo, E. P., Oakland, California, 1994.
"A Replacement for the SRSS Method in Seismic 4-22 Anderson, J.C., Miranda, E. and Bertero, V.V.,
Analysis", Earthquake Engineering and Structural “Evaluation of the Seismic Performance of a Thirty-
Dynamics, Vol. 9, 1981. Story RC Building”, Report No. UCB-EERC-93/01,
4-10 Anderson, J. C., and Gurfinkel, G., "Seismic Earthquake Engineering Research Center,
Behavior of Framed Tubes," International Journal of University of California, Berkeley.
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics,
Vol. 4, No. 2, October-December, 1975.
4-11 Habibullah, A., "ETABS, Three Dimensional
Analysis of Building Systems," User's Manual,
Version 6.0, Computers & Structures, Inc. Berkeley,
California, 1994.
4-12 Habibullah, A., "ETABS Design Postprocessors,"
Version 6.0, Computers & Structures, Inc. Berkeley,
California, 1994.
4-13 Anderson, J. C., "Moment Frame Building",
Buildings Case Study Project, SSC 94-06, Seismic
Safety Commission, State of California,
Sacramento, California, 1996.
4-14 Charney, F.A., NONLIN, Nonlinear Dynamic Time
History Analysis of Single Degree of Freedom
Systems, Advanced Structural Concepts, Golden,
Colorado, 1996.
4-15 Norris, C.H., Hansen, R.J., Holley, M.J., Biggs,
J.M., Namyet, S., and Minami, J.K., Structural
Design for Dynamic Loads, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, New York, 1959.

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Chapter 4

Dynamic Response of Structures

James C. Anderson, Ph.D.

4.1 Introduction where p is the applied force, k is the stiffness

Figure 4-1. single-degree-of-freedom system subjected to time-dependent force.

expressed as 4.3.2 Earthquake Ground Motion

u&&(t ) = g&&(t ) + v&&(t ) (4-8) When a single-story structure, shown in

Figure 4-2. Single-degree-of-freedom system subjected to base motion.

This equation can be written in the form of

mv&& + cv& + kv = pe (t ) (4-12)

pe (t ) = effective time-dependent force

Figure 4-4. Rigid-body mass and mass moment of inertia.

µ = mass density = mass per unit volume b 3 a + a 3b b2 + a 2

force—displacement (stiffness) relationships of

4.3.4 Free Vibration

Figure 4-6. Stiffness properties of lateral force resisting elements.

applied time-dependent loads or ground 2π m 1

where ω2 = k / m . This equation has the

v (t ) = A sin ω t + B cos ω t (4-18)

in which the constants of integration A and B

bracings are made of 1-inch-diameter rods, North—south:

W = (22.2)(100)(75) + (10)(6)(200 + 150)

East—west (braced frames): Figure 4-8. Building of Example 4-2.

Taking the natural logarithm of both sides

where the parameter δ is called the

4.4.3 Impulse Motion

Much of the initial work on impulse loads

which has the general solution

When the impulse load is no longer acting

Figure 4-10f. Computed displacement time history

v( residual ) = v p = 8.1 − 3.0 = 5.1inches

More recently, these calculations have been

4.4.5 Approximate resopnse to impulse Equation 4-19 becomes

the impulse can be considered as an incremental

The time variable t ′ represents the free-

Time-History Response The response to

where the response parameter V(t) represents

The displacement of the structure at any

If the damping term can be neglected as An examination of Equation 4-34 indicates

Q (t ) = mω2 v (t ) (4-38) In a similar manner, Equation 4-37 indicates

Figure 4-13. Typical tripartite response-spectra curves.

Figure 4-15. Site-specific response spectra.

Figure 4-16. Smoothed site-specific design spectra.

Figure 4-18. A New mark-Hall design spectra.

Example 4-4 (Construction of a Newmark- velocity = (9.6)(1.9) = 18.2 in./sec

Table 4-2 Recommended Damping Values (4-3)

From Equation 4-42:

Where Y(t) is the time-dependent

∆v( x, t ) = ∆φ( x )Y (t ) (4-47)

Figure 4-20. Generalized single-degree-of-freedom system.

Where ω represents the circular frequency

c = ∑ ci ∆φi2 = generalized damping

Figure 4-21. Possible shape functions based on aspect ratio.

Example 4-5 (Determination of generalized

(a) Assuming φ( x ) = sin( πx / 2 L) :

Level K M φi ∆φi M φi2 K ∆φi2

4 0.252 1.000 0.252

3 Since Ta > Tb , φ( x ) = sin( πx / 2 L) is a

(3)(12)(3.6 × 10 3 )(3201) kips 4.4.2 Rayleigh’s Method