Doc.: IEEE 802.

11-06/0333r0
Error Analysis

1. Systematic and random errors

2. Determining random errors.

3. What is the range of possible values?

4. Relative and Absolute Errors

5. Propagation of Errors and basic rules

Submission
 March 2006 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
Overview
• Systematic Vs Random errors
• Determining Random errors
 Instrument limit of error, least count
 Estimation
 Average Deviation
• Standard deviation
a) Conflicts
b) Standard Error in the Mean
• What does uncertainty tell me? Range of possible values
• Relative and Absolute error
• Propagation of errors (add/ subtract, multiply/divide, powers, combination of (+-*/) and
other functions)
• Rounding answers properly
• Significant figures
• Summary

Submission
 Systematic and random errors
 Systematic Errors – cause the measured result to deviate by a fixed amount in one
direction from the correct value. The distribution of multiple measurements with
systematic error contributions will be centered some fixed value away from the correct
value.
 Some Examples:
 Mis-calibrated instrument
 Unaccounted cable loss
 Measuring technique which always makes the
measured value larger (or smaller) than the "true" value.
Systematic Errors
Random Errors – cause the measured result to deviate randomly
from the correct value. The distribution of multiple measurements with
only random error contributions will be centered around the correct
value.
Random Errors - should help you to develop a working methodology
for treating errors.

Some Examples
• Noise (random noise)
• Careless measurements
• Low resolution instruments
• Dropped digits Random Errors
 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

2. Determining random errors

Several approaches are used to estimate the uncertainty of a measured
quantity.
(a) Instrument Limit of Error (ILE) and Least Count
• Least count: the smallest division that is marked on the instrument.
-- A meter stick will have a least count of 1.0 mm,
-- A digital stop watch might have a least count of 0.01 s.
• Instrument limit of error (ILE):
the precision to which a measuring device can be read, and is always equal
to or smaller than the least count.
-- Very good measuring tools are calibrated against standards maintained by
the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

Submission
 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

Instrument Limit of Error, ILE

• Be generally taken to be the least count or some fraction (1/2, 1/5, 1/10) of the
least count.
 Which to choose, the least count or half the least count, or something else.
 No hard and fast rules are possible, instead you must be guided by common
sense.
 If the space between the scale divisions is large, you may be comfortable in
estimating to 1/5 or 1/10 of the least count.
 If the scale divisions are closer together, you may only be able to estimate to the
nearest 1/2 of the least count, and
 if the scale divisions are very close you may only be able to estimate to the least
count.
• For some devices the ILE is given as a tolerance or a percentage.
• -- Example Resistors may be specified as having a tolerance of 5%, meaning that
the ILE is 5% of the resistor's value.
Submission
 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
• Problem: to determine the least Least ILE Length
count, the ILE, and read the length Count (cm) (cm) (cm)
of the gray rod for each of the
following scales (all in centimeters). (a) 1 0.2 9.6
(b) 0.5 0.1 8.5
(c) 0.2 0.04 11.90

Submission
 (b) Estimated Uncertainty
Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
• Problem: I measure your height while you are standing by using a tape
measure with ILE of 0.5 mm. Estimate the uncertainty? Include the effects of
not knowing whether you are "standing straight" or slouching.

• There are many possible correct answers to this.

• However the answer Δh = 0.5 mm is certainly wrong.
• Here are some of the problems in measuring.
• As you stand, your height keeps changing. You breath in and out, shift from
one leg to another, stand straight or slouch, etc. I bet this would make your
height uncertain to at least 1.0 cm.
• Even if you do stand straight, and don't breath, I will have difficulty measuring
your height.
• The top of your head will be some horizontal distance from the tape measure,
making it hard to measure your height.
• I could put a book on your head, but then I need to determine if the book is
level.
• I would put an uncertainty of 1cm for a measurement of your height.

So, there must be standard to measure uncertainty.

Submission
 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
Average Example 1
Problem Find the average, and average deviation for the 5
following data on the length of a pen, L.

Length (cm) |

12.2 0.02 0.0004

12.5 0.28 0.0784
11.9 0.32 0.1024
12.3 0.08 0.0064
12.2 0.02 0.0004
Sum 61.1 Sum 0.72 Sum 0.1880

Average Average
61.1/5 = 12.22 0.14
Submission
 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
• To get the average <L>:
sum the values and divide by the number of measurements.
• To get the average deviation ΔL,
1. Find the absolute values of the deviations, |L - Lave|
2. Sum the absolute deviations,
3. Get the average absolute deviation by dividing by the number of
measurements
• To get the standard deviation
1. Find the deviations and square of them
2. Sum the squares
3. Divide by (N-1), (here it is 4)
4. Take the square root.
 The pen has a length of
 (12.22 + 0.14) cm or (12.2 + 0.1) cm [use average deviations]
Or (12.22 + 0.22) cm or (12.2 + 0.2) cm [use standard deviations].
Submission
 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
Average Example 2
• Problem: Find the average and the average deviation of the following
measurements of a mass.
• This time there are N = 6 measurements, so for the standard deviation we divide
by (N-1) = 5.
Mass (grams)
The mass is 4.32 0.0217 0.000471
(4.342 + 0.022) g or 4.35 0.0083 0.000069
(4.34 + 0.02) g [using 4.31 0.0317 0.001005
average deviations] 4.36 0.0183 0.000335
or 4.37 0.0283 0.000801
(4.342 + 0.023) g or 4.34 0.0017 0.000003
(4.34 + 0.02) g [using Sum 26.05 0.1100 0.002684
standard deviations]. Average Average
Sum=
4.3417 0.022
Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

(c) Average Deviation

- Statistical method: Estimated Uncertainty by Repeated
Measurements
• repeating the measurement several times will give many data hence finding
the average, average deviation or the standard deviation is mandatory to
find uncertainty.
• We can then find the average value, here denoted by a symbol between
angle brackets, <t>, and use it as our best estimate of the reading.
• How can we determine the uncertainty? Let us use the following data as an
example. Column 1 shows a time in seconds.

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

Table 1
Values showing the determination of average, average deviation, and standard
deviation in a measurement of time. Notice that to get a non-zero average
deviation we must take the absolute value of the deviation.

Time, t, sec (t - <t>), sec |t - <t>|, sec (t - <t>)2, sec2

7.4 -0.2 0.2 0.04

8.1 0.5 0.5 0.25
7.9 0.3 0.3 0.09
7.0 -0.6 0.6 0.36

<(t - <t>)2> = 0.247

< t > = 7.6 <t - <t>>= 0.0 <|t - <t>|>= 0.4
Std. dev = 0.50

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

• Average: the sum of all values (7.4+8.1+7.9+7.0) divided by the number of

readings (4), which is 7.6 sec.
• Column 2 of Table 1 shows the deviation of each time from the average, (t
- <t>). A simple average of these is zero, and does not give any new
information.
• Average deviation, Δt: To get a non-zero estimate of deviation we take the
average of the absolute values of the deviations, as shown in Column 3.
• Standard deviation: Column 4 has the squares of the deviations from
Column 2, making the answers all positive. The sum of the squares is
divided by 3, (one less than the number of readings), and the square root is
taken to produce the sample.
• The sample standard deviation is slightly different than the average
deviation, but either one gives a measure of the variation in the data.

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
Built-in Functions in Excel
• Use a spreadsheet such as Excel there are built-in functions that help you to
find these quantities.

=SUM(A2:A5) Find the sum of values in the range of cells A2 to A5.

Count the number of numbers in the range of cells

=COUNT(A2:A5)
A2 to A5.
Find the average of the numbers in the range of cells
=AVERAGE(A2:A5)
A2 to A5.
Find the average deviation of the numbers in the
=AVEDEV(A2:A5)
range of cells A2 to A5.
Find the sample standard deviation of the numbers
=STDEV(A2:A5)
in the range of cells A2 to A5.

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

Table 2. Finding an average length and an average deviation in length. To

round the values, these values to have an excess of significant figures.
Measured results of the length :
(15.5 ± 0.1) m or (15.47 ± 0.13) m using average dev.
(15.5 ± 0.2) m or (15.47 ± 0.18) m with standard deviation

Length, x, m |x - <x>|, m
15.4 0.06667 0.004445
15.2 0.26667 0.071112
15.6 0.13333 0.017777
15.7 0.23333 0.054443
15.5 0.03333 0.001111
15.4 0.06667 0.004445
±0.133333 m St. dev. ±0.17512 m
Average 15.46667 m
±0.13 m (Rounded) ±0.18 m (Rounded)
Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
• To round the uncertainty to one or two significant figures , and
• To round the average to the same number of digits relative to the decimal
point.
• Thus the average length with average deviation is either (15.47 ± 0.13) m
or (15.5 ± 0.1) m.
• If we use standard deviation we report the average length as (15.47±0.18)
m or (15.5±0.2) m.

Submission
 October 2018 (d) Conflicts in the above Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
• In some cases we will get an ILE, an estimated uncertainty, and an average deviation
and we will find different values for each of these.
Be pessimistic and take the largest of the three values as our uncertainty.
For example we might measure a mass required to produce standing waves in a
string with an ILE of 0.01 grams and an estimated uncertainty of 2 grams.
Using 2 grams as the uncertainty is correct.
The proper way to write the answer is
• Choose the largest of (i) ILE, (ii) estimated uncertainty, and (iii) average or
standard deviation.
• Round off the uncertainty to 1 or 2 significant figures.
• Round off the answer so it has the same number of digits before or after the
decimal point as the answer.
• Put the answer and its uncertainty in parentheses,
• Then put the power of 10 and unit outside the parentheses.
Problem: I measure a length with a meter stick with a least count of 1 mm. I
measure the length 5 times with results (in mm) of 123, 123, 123, 123, 123. What is
the average length and the uncertainty in length?
Submission
 October 2018
Example Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
One make several measurements on the mass of an object.
The balance has an ILE of 0.02 grams.
The average mass is 12.14286 grams,
the average deviation is 0.07313 grams.
What is the correct way to write the mass of the object including its uncertainty? What is the mistake in each incorrect
one? Answer
– 12.14286 g
– (12.14 ± 0.02) g
– 12.14286 g ± 0.07313 (lack of unit)
– 12.143 ± 0.073 g
– (12.143 ± 0.073) g
– (12.14 ± 0.07)
– (12.1 ± 0.1) g
– 12.14 g ± 0.07 g
•The correct answer is (12.14 ± 0.07) g.
(e) Why make many measurements? Standard Error in the Mean (SEM)
• Is there any point to measuring a quantity more often than this?
• Based on statistics, the standard error in the mean is affected by the number of measurements
made.
It is defined as the standard deviation divided by the square root of the number of measurements.
• Notice that the average and standard deviation do not change much as the number of measurements
change.
But that the standard error does dramatically decrease as N increases.
Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

Finding Standard Error in the Mean

Number of Standard Standard
Average
Measurements, N Deviation Error

5 15.52 cm 1.33 cm 0.59 cm

25 15.46 cm 1.28 cm 0.26 cm

625 15.49 cm 1.31 cm 0.05 cm

10000 15.49 cm 1.31 cm 0.013 cm

For this introductory course and most cases, we will not worry about the
standard error, but only use the standard deviation, or estimates of the
uncertainty.
Submission
 3. What is the range of possible
October 2018 Doc.:values?
IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

• When a number is reported as (7.6 ± 0.4) sec.

 One’s first thought might be that all the readings lie between 7.2 sec (=7.6-
0.4) and 8.0 sec (=7.6+0.4).
 A quick look at the data in the Table 1 shows that this is not the case: only 2
of the 4 readings are in this range.
• Statistically we expect 68% of the values to lie in the range of <x> ± Δx, but
that 95% lie within <x> ± 2Δx.
 In the first example all the data lie between 6.8 (= 7.6 - 2*0.4) and 8.4 (= 7.6
+ 2*0.4) sec.
 In the second example, 5 of the 6 values lie within two deviations of the
average.
• As a rule of thumb for this course we usually expect the actual value of a
measurement to lie within two deviations of the mean.
• Based on statistics you will talk about confidence levels.

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

Table 1
Values showing the determination of average, average deviation, and standard
deviation in a measurement of time. Notice that to get a non-zero average
deviation we must take the absolute value of the deviation.

Time, t, sec (t - <t>), sec |t - <t>|, sec (t - <t>)2, sec2

7.4 -0.2 0.2 0.04

8.1 0.5 0.5 0.25
7.9 0.3 0.3 0.09
7.0 -0.6 0.6 0.36

<(t - <t>)2> = 0.247

< t > = 7.6 <t - <t>>= 0.0 <|t - <t>|>= 0.4
Std. dev = 0.50

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
Gaussian Distribution – A Normal Distribution
• The vertical axis represents the fraction of measurements that have a
given value z.
• Average, <z> = 5.5 cm, Standard deviation is Δz = 1.2.

<z> = 5.5 cm (<z> ± Δz):

Δz = 1.2 67%

(<z> ± 2Δz):
95%

Submission
 October 2018 Contd…. Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
• Problem

• How do we use the uncertainty?

• Suppose you measure the density of calcite as (2.65 ± 0.04) g/cm3.

• The textbook value is 2.71 g/cm3. Do the two values agree?

• Since the text value is within the range of two deviations from the average
value you measure you claim that your value agrees with the text.

• If (2.65 ± 0.01) g/cm3 is measured, you would be forced to admit your value
disagrees with the text value.

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
• Problem:
You measure a time to have a value of (9.22 ± 0.09) s.
Your friend measures the time to be (9.385 ± 0.002) s.
The accepted value of the time is 9.37 s.
Does your time agree with the accepted?
Does your friend's time agree with the accepted?

• Problem:

Are the following numbers equal within the expected range of

values? Answer
(1) (3.42 ± 0.04) m/s and 3.48 m/s?
(2) (13.106 ± 0.014) grams and 13.206 grams?
(3) (2.95 ± 0.03) x m/s and 3.00 x m/s
Submission
 October 2018 4. Relative and Absolute
Doc.: Errors
IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
• The quantity Δz is called the absolute error.
• while Δz/z is called the relative error or fractional uncertainty.
Percentage error is the fractional error multiplied by 100%, Δz/z x 100%.
• In practice, either the percentage error or the absolute error may be provided.
• Thus in machining an engine part the tolerance is usually given as an absolute error, while
electronic components are usually given with a percentage tolerance.
Problem: You are given a resistor with a resistance of 1200 ohms and a tolerance of 5%. What is the
absolute error in the resistance?

5. Propagation of Errors, Basic Rules

• Suppose two measured quantities x and y have uncertainties, x and y to report
(x ± x), and (y ± y).
• From the measured quantities a new quantity, z, is calculated from x and y. What
is the uncertainty, z, in z?
• Use a simplified version of the proper statistical treatment.
• The guiding principle in all cases is to consider the most pessimistic situation.
• The examples included in this section also show the proper rounding of answers,
which is covered in more detail in Section.
Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
(a) Addition and Subtraction:
z = x + y or z = x - y
• Derivation: Assume that the uncertainties are arranged so as to
make z as far from its true value as possible.
• Average deviations z = |x| + |y| in both cases.
• With more than two numbers added or subtracted we continue
to add the uncertainties.
1. Using simpler average errors
z  x  y  .....
2. Using standard deviations
z  (x)  (y)  ....
2 2

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

Example
w =(4.52 ± 0.02)cm, x = ( 2.0 ± 0.2)cm, y = (3.0 ± 0.6)cm.
Find z = x + y - w and its uncertainty.
(1) z = x + y - w = 2.0 + 3.0 - 4.5 = 0.5 cm
(2) z = x + y + w = 0.2 + 0.6 + 0.02 = 0.82  0.8 cm
So z = (0.5 ± 0.8) cm with average errors
(3) Solution with standard deviations, z = 0.633 cm,
So z = (0.5 ± 0.6) cm
• Notice that we round the uncertainty to one significant
figure and round the answer to match.
Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
For multiplication by an exact number
-- Multiply the uncertainty by the same exact number
• Example:
The radius of a circle is x = (3.0 ± 0.2) cm. Find the circumference and its
uncertainty.
C = 2x = 18.850 cm
C = 2x = 1.257 cm
--The factors of 2 and  are exact.
C = (18.8 ± 1.3) cm
Rounding the uncertainty to two figures since it starts with a 1, and round
the answer to match.

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

Example
x = (2.0 ± 0.2) cm, y = (3.0 ± 0.6) cm.
Find z = x - 2y and its uncertainty.
(1) z = x - 2y = 2.0 - 2(3.0) = -4.0 cm
(2) z = x + 2 y = 0.2 + 1.2 = 1.4 cm
So z = (-4.0 ± 1.4) cm (average error).
z = (-4.0 ± 0.9) cm (standard deviation)

The 0 after the decimal point in 4.0 is significant and must be written in
the answer.

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
(b) Multiplication and Division:
z = x y or z = x/y
• Derivation: derive the relation for multiplication easily. Take the largest
values for x and y, that is
z + z = (x + x)(y + y) = xy + x y + y x + x y
• Usually x << x and y << y  x y << 0
so that the last term x y is much smaller than the other terms and can be
neglected.
 Since z = xy, z = y x + x y
• which we write more compactly by forming the relative error, that is the
ratio of z/z, namely

z x y
   ....
z x y
Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
The same rule holds, namely add all the relative errors to get the relative error in the result.
z x y
   .... Using simpler average errors
z x y
2
z  x   y 
2 Using standard deviations
       ....
Example z  x   y 
w = (4.52 ± 0.02) cm, x = (2.0 ± 0.2) cm.
Find z = wx and its uncertainty.
(1) z = wx = (4.52) (2.0) = 9.04 cm2
(2) Average error:
 z = 0.1044 (9.04 cm2) = 0.944  round to 0.9 cm2,
 z = (9.0 ± 0.9) cm2.
(3) Standard deviation: z = 0.905 cm2
 z = (9.0 ± 0.9) cm2
• The uncertainty is rounded to one significant figure and the <z> is rounded to match.
• To write 9.0 cm2 rather than 9 cm2 since the 0 is significant.

Submission
 October 2018
Example Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
x = ( 2.0 ± 0.2) cm, y = (3.0 ± 0.6) sec.
Find z = x/y with a dimension of velocity.
(1) z = 2.0/3.0 = 0.6667 cm/s.
(2) Average error:
z = 0.3 (0.6667 cm/sec) = 0.2 cm/sec
(3) Using average error: z = (0.7 ± 0.2) cm/sec
(4) Using standard deviation: z = (0.67 ± 0.15) cm/sec
• Note that in this case we round off our answer to have no more decimal places than our
uncertainty.
(c) Products of powers: z =xmyn
• Using simpler average errors

• Using standard deviations

Submission
 October 2018 Example Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

w = (4.52 ± 0.02) cm, A = (2.0 ± 0.2) cm2, y = (3.0 ± 0.6) cm.,

Find z = wy2/A0.5 and Δz .

wy 2 4.5 cm  (3.0 cm) 2

z   28.638 cm 2
A 2.0 cm 2
z 0.02 cm 0.6 cm 0.2 cm 2
2
  2  0.5  2
 0.49
28.638 cm 4.52 cm 3.0 cm 2.0 cm

 The second relative error, (y/y), is x 2 because y2.

 The third relative error, (A/A), is 0.5 since A0.5.
 z = 0.49 (28.638 cm2) = 14.03 cm2  rounded to 14 cm2
 z = (29 ± 14) cm2 (for AE) or z = (29 ± 12) cm2 (SD)

Submission
 (d) Mixtures of multiplication, division, addition,
October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
subtraction, and powers
-- This is best explained by means of an example.
Example: w=(4.52 ± 0.02)cm, x=(2.0 ± 0.2) cm, y=(3.0 ± 0.6)cm
Find z = w x +y2, z = wx +y2 = 18.0 cm2
Solution:
(1) compute v = wx to get v = (9.0 ± 0.9) cm2.
y 2 2y 2(0.6 cm)
(2) compute y 2  y  3.0 cm  0.40

y 2  0.40  9.00 cm 2  3.6 cm 2

(3) compute Δz = Δv + Δ(y2) = 0.9 + 3.6 = 4.5 cm2  4 cm2
 z = (18 ± 4) cm2 for considering average error.
• For standard deviation, to have v = wx = (9.0 ± 0.9) cm2.
The calculation of the uncertainty in y2 is the same as above.
 get z = 3.7 cm2, z = (18 ± 4) cm2.

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

(e) Other Functions: e.g.. z = sin x

The simple approach:
• For other functions of our variables such as sin(x) we will not give formulae.
• However you can estimate the error in z = sin(x) as being the difference
between the largest possible value and the average value.
• Using the similar techniques for other functions.
  z = (sin x) = sin(x + x) - sin(x)
  z = (cos x) = cos(x - x) - cos(x)

Submission
 October 2018
ExampleDoc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
Consider S = wcos() for w = (2.0 ± 0.2) cm, =53 ± 2°.
Find S and its uncertainty.
Solution:
(1) S = (2.0 cm)cos 53° = 1.204 cm
(2) To get the largest possible value of S:
 make w larger, (w + w) = 2.2 cm, and
  smaller, ( - ) = 51°.
 The largest value of S, namely (S + S), is
(S + S) = (2.2 cm) cos 51° = 1.385 cm.
(3) The difference between these numbers is
S = 1.385 - 1.204 = 0.181 cm round to 0.18 cm.
Result: S = (1.20 ± 0.18) cm
Problem
Consider S = wcos() + wsin() for w = (5.0 ± 0.4) cm, =28 ± 2°.
Find S and its uncertainty.
Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
(f) Other Functions:
Getting formulas using partial derivatives
• The general method of getting formulas for propagating errors involves
the total differential of a function.
• Suppose that z = f(w, x, y, ...) where the variables w, x, y, etc. must be
independent variables!
• The total differential is then
 f   f   f 
dz   dw   dx   dy  ...
 w   x   y 
• Treat the dw = w as the error in w, and likewise for the other
differentials, dz, dx, dy, etc.
• The numerical values of the partial derivatives are evaluated by using the
average values of w, x, y, etc.

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
• The numerical values of the partial derivatives are evaluated by using
the average values of w, x, y, etc.
• The general results are
Using simpler average errors

f f f
z  w  x  y  ...
w x y

Using standard deviations

2
 f   f   f 
2 2

z    w    x    y  ...
2 2 2 2

 w   x   y 

Submission Dr. Dawit Gudeta

 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
Example
Question: Consider S = xcos () for x = (2.0 ± 0.2) cm,
 = (53 ± 2)°= (0.9250 ± 0.0035) rad.
 Find S and its uncertainty.
 Note: the uncertainty in angle must be in radians!
Solution: (1) S = (2.0 cm)(cos 53°) = 1.204 cm

(2)
S = (1.20 ± 0.13) cm
(average deviation)

(3)
S = (1.20 ± 0.12) cm
(standard deviation)

Submission
 6. Rounding
October 2018 off answers in regular and scientific
Doc.: IEEE notation
802.11-06/0333r0
A. In regular notation
(1) Be careful to round the answers to an appropriate number of significant figures.
 The uncertainty should be rounded off to one or two significant figures.
 If the leading figure in the uncertainty is a 1, we use two significant figures,
 otherwise we use one significant figure.
(2) Then the answer should be rounded to match.
Example
• Round off z = 12.0349 cm & z = 0.153 cm.
• Since z begins with a 1
 round off z to two significant figures:
 z = 0.15 cm
• Hence, round z to have the same number of decimal places:
 z = (12.03 ± 0.15) cm.
Submission
 B. In scientific
October 2018 notation Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0
• When the answer is given in scientific notation, the uncertainty should be given
in scientific notation with the same power of ten.
• If z = 1.43 x 106 s and z = 2 x 104 s,
 The answer should be as
z = (1.43± 0.02) x 106 s
• This notation makes the range of values most easily understood.
• The following is technically correct, but is hard to understand at a glance.
z = (1.43 x 106 ± 2 x 104) s. Don't write like this!
Problem
Express the following results in proper rounded form, x ± x.
(1) m = 14.34506 grams, m = 0.04251 grams.
(2) t = 0.02346 sec, t = 1.623 x 10-3 sec.
(3) M = 7.35 x 1022 kg, M = 2.6 x 1020 kg.
(4) m = 9.11 x 10-33 kg, m = 2.2345 x 10-33 kg
Submission
 October 2018 Significant Figures
Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

• The rules for propagation of errors hold true for cases when
we are in the lab, but doing propagation of errors is time
consuming.
• The rules for significant figures allow a much quicker
method to get results that are approximately correct even
when we have no uncertainty values.
• A significant figure is any digit 1 to 9 and any zero which is
not a place holder.
1. 1.350 -- 4 significant figures: since the zero is not needed to
make sense of the number.
2. 0.00320 -- 3 significant figures: the first three zeros are just
place holders.

Submission
 How many significant figures
October 2018
is 1350?
Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

• You cannot tell if there are 3 significant figures --the 0 is only used to
hold the units place – or if there are 4 significant figures and the zero
in the units place was actually measured to be zero.
• How do we resolve ambiguities that arise with zeros when we need to
use zero as a place holder as well as a significant figure?
• Suppose we measure a length to three significant figures as 8000 cm.
Written this way we cannot tell if there are 1, 2, 3, or 4 significant
figures.
• To make the number of significant figures apparent we use scientific
notation,
 8 x 103 cm - 1 significant figure, or
 8.00 x 103 cm - 3 significant figures), or
 whatever is correct under the circumstances.

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

• Start then with numbers each with their own number of significant
figures and compute a new quantity.
• How many significant figures should be in the final answer? In doing
running computations we maintain numbers to many figures, but we
must report the answer only to the proper number of significant
figures.
• Addition and subtraction: explain with an example
• If one object is measured to have a mass of 9.9 gm and a 2nd object is
measured on a different balance to have a mass of 0.3163 gm. What is
the total mass?
Write the numbers with “?” marks at places where we lack
information. What is 9.9???? gm + 0.3163? gm ?
09.9????
+00.3163?
10.2???? = 10.2 gm.
Submission
October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

• Multiplication or Division:
use the same idea of unknown digits.
Thus 3.413? x 2.3? can be written in long hand as
3.413?
x 2.3? .
?????
10239?
+ 6826? .
7.8????? = 7.8

Submission
 October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

Short rule for multiplication & division

• The answer will contain a number of significant figures equal to the
number of significant figures in the entering number having the least
number of significant figures.
 How many significant figures is 2.3 x 3.413 = ?
 2.3 had 2 significant figures while 3.413 had 4,
 so the answer is given to 2 significant figures.
• It is important to keep these concepts in mind as you use calculators with
8 or 10 digit displays if you are to avoid mistakes in your answers and to
avoid the wrath of physics instructors everywhere.
• A good procedure: is to use all digits (significant or not) throughout
calculations, and only round off the answers to appropriate "sig fig."

Submission
October 2018 Doc.: IEEE 802.11-06/0333r0

Problem
• How many significant figures are there in each of
the following?
(1) 0.00042
(2) 0.14700
(3) 4.2 x 106
(4) -154.090 x 10-27

Problems on Uncertainties and Error Propagation.

Submission
Thank you