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Determination of ground water quality of former Lake Haramaya, Oromia

Regional State, Ethiopia

Article  in  Journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment · April 2012

DOI: 10.5897/JENE12.009

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Journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment Vol. 4(7), pp. 194-200, April 2012
Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JENE
DOI: 10.5897/JENE12.009
ISSN 2006-9847©2012 Academic Journals

Full Length Research Paper

Determination of ground water quality of former Lake

Haramaya, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia
Zinabu Tebeje Zewdu
Institute of Technology, Haramaya University, Haramaya, P. O. Box 1069, Code 1110, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: +251 911 383446.
Accepted 10 April, 2012

The assessment of the quality of available groundwater in a certain area is indispensable for the
development of human beings in every sector. This study conducted in 2010 assessed the groundwater
quality of former Lake Haramaya area to check its suitability for domestic purpose. Primary data were
collected from triplicate samples of six sources for physical, chemical and biological analysis. Based
on the physical analysis, the pH was within World Health Organization (WHO) standard unlike 33.3%
turbidity which was above the WHO guideline. The total dissolved solids (TDS) value indicated that the
2+
groundwater is classified as fresh water. The total hardness, concentrations of Iron (Fe ) and
2+
manganese (Mn ) ions in the groundwater are in the recommended interval. However, 50 and 33.3% of
the samples are above WHO recommendation for fluoride (F‾) and nitrate respectively. The
microbiological result indicates that treatment is necessary for 83.3% of the samples. Therefore,
attention shall be given for source protection than complicated treatment procedures. In these regard a
strong control and management system shall be introduced by establishing a committee who have a
stake on the resource. Though, ground water source is safer compared to other sources of water, the
study indicated the importance to conduct regular quality monitoring and treatment before use.

Key words: Drinking water, groundwater, Lake Haramaya, physical-chemical-biological parameters, well water.

INTRODUCTION

Water is an essential element for human and all other community for decades. The lake used to provide
living things. In addition to drinking, humans need water freshwater for drinking, irrigation, fishing (Oreochromis
for various purposes including bathing, washing and niloticus and Clarias gariepinus), animal watering, and for
cooking, as well as for industrial, agricultural and migration birds. It has been used also for recreation
recreational activities. Thus, the availability of adequate purpose for over 120,000 people in the region by the
water supply and its quality is essential for the existence local municipal (Brook, 2003, 1994). The lake, moreover,
of life. Water used for drinking should be free from used to give great view for the surrounding and keep the
pathogens, disease causing microbes, toxics or ecology of the land. Haramaya University, one of the
physiologically undesirable chemicals, or biological pioneer universities in the country, was established five
materials (Erah et al., 2002). However, pure water is decades before between Lake Haramaya and Gara
never found in nature. All water contains some level of Muleta taking into consideration the beautiful view of the
impurities which vary from dissolved gases, chemical lake. The 440 ha wide University has been using the lake
compounds, to suspended matters such as organisms for teaching, demonstration, drinking and other activities
and dirt. (Brook, 1994).
Water from various sources, surface as well as The previous Lake Haramaya was formulated from
subsurface, has been used for centuries to fulfill human rainfall precipitation and drains along the catchments. In
demand (Sandhu et al., 1976). The now extinct Lake its hay days, Lake Haramaya boasted a depth of 10 to 12
Haramaya had been the source of water for the towns of m. A decade ago, the depth was 12 cm and currently
Harar, Aweday, Haramaya and its surrounding there no water at all (Figure 1). The Lake has been
 Zewdu 195

Figure 1. Aerial photograph of Lake Haramaya, 1996 (left) and Lake Haramaya in its hay days (right).

enormously used for domestic water supplies of Harar, sampled wells in the vicinity of the lake and analysis for physical,
Haramaya and Aweday towns and for irrigation by the chemical and biological parameters.
The study was conducted in 2010. Ground water wells were
local farmers. This has caused the extinction of the lake carefully selected in the vicinity former lake. A total of six samples
and consequently water supply shortage for Harar, were taken in triplicate, four wells from the University premises (S2,
Aweday and Haramaya towns. To alleviate this problem, M1, A3 and A8), and two samples (H1 and H2) from Harar and
exploration of other sources of water including ground Oromia Water supply wells in the vicinity of the lake area.
water was mandatory. The selected physical parameters for the study were temperature
Groundwater is generally a preferred source for water (T), electric conductivity (EC), pH, turbidity and total dissolved
solids (TDS). The physical parameters were measured on site for
supply compared to other sources because of its all identified wells using ELE international Conductivity meter 4071
constant and good natural quality as well as relatively low U.K, ELE international pH/mV meter U.K, HANNA instruments HI
capital cost of water supply system development. It 9635 microprocessor conductivity/TDS meter, and HANNA
however requires appropriate physical, chemical and instruments HI 93703 microprocessor turbidity meter using standard
biological treatment, depending on the nature of existing procedures (Tortora et al., 2003; APHA, 2005).
Samples for biological analysis were taken carefully to avoid
pollutants before being supplied for domestic uses.
accidental contamination during sampling. The ice box used to
In an effort to sustain the water supply for Harar, carry samples were cleaned and disinfected after each use to avoid
Aweday and Haramaya towns, the Harari and Oromia contaminating bottles surface and the sampler's hands. Sterile
National Regional States investigated and developed gloves were used during sampling to avoid external contamination.
groundwater wells in the vicinity of the lake. Currently, Date and other relevant information were recorded and samples
these wells supply domestic water for the three towns. In were clearly labeled on site. Samples were kept at +4°C to
minimize changes that may occur in the bacterial content of water
addition, Haramaya University and the surrounding as a result of exposure to light and heat. The samples were
community have been exploring the ground water source transported within 24 h of collection and analyzed for biological
in the area as well. parameters in Haramaya University and Dire Dawa Water Bureau
However, the current exploration in the surrounding is laboratories. Examination was conducted as soon as possible after
not done in a scientific manner. The quality of the water is sampling and certainly within 48 h. Samples were analyzed
unknown and the current ground water balance of the according to a standard procedure using membrane filtration
method followed by incubation of the membrane to give direct count
area is not deeply studied. As a result, it is very hard to of colonies after 24 h for total coliforms (Tortora et al., 2003; WHO,
predict the withdrawal amount and potential quality 2003; APHA, 2005).
problems associated with the water. This study aims to For chemical analysis, triplicate samples were collected for
assess the physical, chemical, and biological quality of replication (accuracy) purpose using half a liter plastic bottles from
water and make appropriate recommendations based on the wells. A total of 18 samples were collected. Separate analysis
of the three samples was conducted and average values were
identified quality issues.
taken. Chemical analysis of samples was conducted for anion and
cation determination including concentrations of nitrate (NO 3-) and
METHODOLOGY hardness following a standard laboratory procedure.
Nitrate (NO3-) was identified using UV Spectrophotometric
The method applied in this study is primary data collection from Screening Method (APHA, 2005); where, matched silica cell of 1 cm
196 J. Ecol. Nat. Environ.

Figure 2. Location of Lake Haramaya Basin, Eastern Ethiopia.

(UV -Visible spectrophotometer) was used at 220 and 275 nm. Both and has not started operation yet. Well number 3 is not working
the sample and standard were treated by 1 M HCl. A wavelength of because of sand in the well and its unsuitability for pumping. On the
220 nm was used to obtain NO 3- reading and a wavelength of 275 other hand, Haramaya University has constructed 14 boreholes
nm to determine interference due to dissolved organic matter. Both since 1952. Of these wells, 4 are operational. The history of static
for sample and standards, two times the absorbance reading at 275 and dynamic head fluctuations of all wells are not known till now.
nm was subtracted from the reading at 220 nm to obtain From the scattered records available in the University, the depth of
absorbance due to NO3-. the wells range between 20 to 72 m. The static water level, dynamic
Hardness, which reads the concentration of calcium and water level and the yield ranges from 17 to 20 m, 15 to 45 m, 1 to 5
magnesium ions, was determined as indicated in the literature L/s, respectively, for continuous discharge.
(APHA, 2005). Accordingly, 100 ml sample was transferred to
conical flask. 2 ml buffer solution was added followed by about 0.4
g of solid indicator. Samples were titrated immediately but slowly
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
with continuous stirring until the last reddish tinge disappears and
blue color was observed. Reagent blank used for comparison was
titrated in a similar way as for the sample. Finally, Analysis of ground water quality
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) titrant was standardized
against calcium standard. Samples were taken from six wells in Haramaya
catchment for biological, chemical and physical tests. The
Description of the study area
coordinates of the sampled points are shown in Table 1.

The former Lake Haramaya is situated in the Eastern Ethiopia

highlands in Haramaya District, Eastern Hararghe Zone of Oromia Physical analysis
Regional State. It lies between 9°22’03’’ to 9°30’ N Latitude and
41°58’14’’ to 42°06' E Longitude (Figure 2). The catchment is
All the physical analyses results of the samples have
situated on the main road from Addis Ababa to Harar town at a
distance of 505 km form Addis Ababa and 20 km north - west of been compared with standard values set by WHO (1981,
Harar towns. The total area of the catchment is 5,030 ha of which 1984). The mean value of pH and turbidity of the
the area that the lake used to occupy 228 ha. The catchment also measured samples were found to be 7.39 ± 0.40 and
covers part of the Haramaya town, Haramaya University, Bate 3.88 ± 3.88, respectively as shown in Table 2. The pH is
town, five peasant associations (Damota, Ifa-Bate, Tuji-Gebissa, within the WHO standard. For turbidity however, 33.3% of
Ifa-Oromia and Guba-Selama (Behar, 2002).
Lake Haramaya was formed due to marine transgression in the
the samples were above the WHO guideline. The high
region from Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous time approximately turbidity for well number “A3, M1 and S2” could be
225 to 100 million years ago. The lake basin comprises of directly related to leakage of water source from marshy
undifferentiated lower complex basement rocks overlain by shallow land surrounding the wells that was observed during the
marine sediments of Triassic and Jurassic age. The major portions study.
of the agricultural soils in the catchment are very shallow and most TDS was also measured in the laboratory. The result
soils of the steeper slopes are unproductive truncates exposed to
the sub soils (Behar, 2002; Boselline et al., 2001; Brook, 1994).
(Table 2) indicates that, almost all water samples have
In the former Lake Haramaya area, there are eight wells of which TDS less than 550 mg/L, the average being 488 mg/L. In
two belongs to Oromia region (well number 7 and 6) and six to general, the groundwater of the study area is classified
Harar town (well number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 8). Well number 8 is new as fresh water (TDS less than 1000 mg/L). The electric
 Zewdu 197

Table 1. Location coordinates of sampled wells.

S/N Description Northing Easting Remark

1 S2 09° 24' 16.4" 42° 01' 53.7" 72 m well depth where water level is at 18 m
2 A3 09° 24' 47.9" 42° 02' 28.9" 48 m well depth where water level is at 12 m
3 A8 09° 25' 18.9" 42° 01' 42.8" -
4 M1 09° 24' 49.1" 42° 02' 22.9" 58 m well depth where water level is at 14 m

Sample was taken from reservoir supplied from three wells and directly pumped to deliver water to
5 H1 09° 23' 58.9" 42° 01' 42.5"
Harar town and Haramaya University by car

Sample was taken from reservoir constructed in the middle of the former Lake and supplied from
6 H2 09° 24' 08.3" 42° 01' 33.2"
another three wells.

Table 2. Physical, chemical and biological analysis results and WHO standards (1981 and 1984).

WHO
S/N Description S2 A3 A8 M1 H1 H2 Average Ave. dev
Recommended Maximum
Physical parameter
1 pH 7.34 6.86 7.55 7.39 7.52 7.65 7.39 ± 0.40 6.5-8.5 -
2 Temperature (°C) 22.1 21.9 22.6 21.5 23.8 22.0 - - - -
* *
3 Turbidity (NTU) 0.76 7.76 0.16 14.37 0.20 0.00 3.88 ± 3.88 <5 -
4 TDS (mg/L) 523 338 468 473 411 453 488 ± 35 500 1500
5 EC (µS/cm) 1046 676 936 946 812 896 971 ± 75 - -

Chemical parameter
6 Total hardness (mg/L CaCO3) 456.4 454.6 465.4 376.4 329.4 521 488.7 ±32.3 - 500
7 Alkalinity (mg/L CaCO3) 395 290 405 380 350 373 384 ± 11 - -
8 Fluoride (mg/L F‾) 0.7 0.65 0.65 1.0 0.8 1.05 0.88 ± 0.18 0.7 1.5
9 Iron (Fe) 0.02 0.01 Trace 0.01 Trace Trace 0.01 ± 0.01 0.1 1.0
2+
10 Manganese (Mn ) 0.008 0.006 Trace 0.008 Trace Trace 0.004 ± 0.004 0.02 0.5
11 Nitrate (mg/L NO3) 13.2 19.8 26.4 24.2 26.4 22 17.6 ± 4.4 25 45

Biological parameter
12 TC (CFU/100 ml) 0-3 >50 4-50 >50 4-50 4-50 - - 0/100 ml
*Mostly contamination occurs since it is near to Ifa-Bate area and flood passes near by the well source.

conductivity in the study area is found to be in the range of 0.5 to 0.55 of the TDS value. The small TDS value and lesser major ionic constituents
198 J. Ecol. Nat. Environ.

Table 3. Distribution of tested samples for TC (CFU/100 ml) according to their level of contamination and treatment procedure required.

Degree of Number of tested sample

Range of TC a Treatment procedure
contamination (%)
0-3 0 1 (16.7%) No treatment required
4-50 1 3 (50.0%) Chlorination only
51-50,000 2 2 (33.3%) Flocculation, sedimentation then chlorination.
>50,000 3 0 Very high contamination, need specific treatment
a
(Al-Khatib and Orabi, 2004).

++
indicate that the area has only local flow systems between 290 and 405 mg/L CaCO3. In all the wells, Ca
+
whereby water reaches the discharge area without was the dominant cation with reasonable amount of Na
undergoing substantial flow paths. It also means the (Table 2).
recharge and discharge areas are very near to each The fluoride (F‾) concentration in the watershed is 0.88
other so that the residence time of groundwater within ± 0.18, ranging from 0.65 to 1.05 mg/L. Over 50% of the
rocks or aquifers is very short unlike the regional flow samples are above the WHO recommended value. The
systems (Enger and Smith, 1995). Such type of flow most common composition of fluoride in water bodies is 1
system has an immediate response to the rain water and mg/L for seawater and for typical rivers/lakes. The value
the quantity of groundwater discharge is the direct is mostly less than 0.5 mg/L (Trifunovic, 2006). However,
consequence of rainwater. in the study area the possible rise of fluoride might be
associated with the presence of fluoride-bearing minerals
like apatite, fluorite and biotite in the rocks. Fluoride is
Chemical analysis also an element that is sometimes deficient, but in the
provision of rural water supplies from groundwater,
The total hardness concentration in mg/L of CaCO3 in excess is more likely to be a problem. The range of
the watershed is found to be 488.7 ± 32.3 ranging desirable concentrations of fluoride in drinking water is
between 329.4 and 521 mg/L. All samples were below relatively small. At concentrations below 0.5 mg/L, dental
the WHO maximum value except one which can be caries may result and fluoride is added to many tooth-
classified as very hard water and found at the center of pastes and some water supplies to promote dental
2+ 2+
the previous lake. The concentrations of Mg and Ca in health. On the other hand, concentrations above the
all the samples were below the upper limit of WHO guideline in drinking water can cause dental fluorosis
standard which is 150 and 200 mg/L, respectively (WHO, (Trifunovic, 2006).
2+ 2+
2009). Hardness in water causes serious public health Iron (Fe ) and the manganese (Mn ) concentration in
threat and can be minimized by reducing the uptake of the study area were found to be 0.01 ± 0.01 and 0.004 ±
heavy metals (Pb, Cu, Zn) from water pipe material. As 0.004, respectively. The concentrations of iron and
per WHO guideline, hardness above 200 mg/L causes manganese ions in the groundwater of the study area are
scaling and excessive soap consumption contributing to in the recommended interval (WHO, 2009).
high phosphate concentration. It also cause economical The most abundant nutrient in water from all samples
problem by increasing detergent use, destruction of was nitrogen in the form of nitrate. The measured nitrate
clothes, and high energy consumption as a result of concentration in the study area was 17.6 ± 4.4 ranging
scaling and corrosion on domestic devices. Besides, the from 13.2 to 26.4 mg/L. 33.3% of the sample were above
energy and time wasted by the women in preparing foods the WHO recommended value. Unlike most other
and drinks due to the scaling effect and during washing to elements in groundwater, nitrate is not derived primarily
form foam is considerably significant. Moreover, high from the minerals in rocks that make up the groundwater
level of hardness could causes harsh effect on human reservoir. Nitrate in groundwater generally originates from
skin and hair (Trifunovic, 2006). On the other hand, nitrate sources on the land surface, in the soil zone, or in
tuberculation is a serious problem caused in the distri- shallow subsoil zones where nitrogen-rich wastes are
bution network. Tuberculation refers to the accumulation buried. Here the high value of nitrate is mostly due to the
of scaling materials inside distribution pipe mainly at the open area defecation as there is no proper sanitation
areas of pitting corrosion (localized non uniform corrosion system in the area and also from use of fertilizers by
hardly detected before a hole appears). Tuberculation farmers surrounding the area (Behar, 2002).
rarely affect the water quality unless some of the From the previous physical and chemical analysis
tubercles are broken, however it can decrease the cross result, most of the ground water satisfies the
sectional area of CI pipe from 47 to 76% and leads to a recommendations given by the WHO hence are suitable
drastic increase of pipe roughness (Trifunovic, 2006). for drinking purpose. However, since the TDS result
Alkalinity of the samples were 384 ± 11, ranging revealed local flow is predominate and the high turbidity
 Zewdu 199

and nitrate showed the possibility of short detention time and turbidity were found to be 7.39 ± 0.40 and 3.88 ±
of the water in the soil, it implies the importance for 3.88, respectively. The pH was within WHO standard
conducting microbiological analysis. unlike 33.3% turbidity which were above the WHO
guideline. The high turbidity in some of the wells could be
directly related to leakage of water source from marshy
Microbiological analysis land surrounding the wells but also high bacterial load.
Based on TDS value, the groundwater of the study area
Groundwater is generally a preferred source of water was classified as fresh water (TDS less than 1000 mg/L)
compared to other sources because of its constant and and the electric conductivity was found to be in the range
good natural quality. For all the six samples, the of 0.5 to 0.55 of the TDS value. The small TDS value and
microbiology was analyzed for total colifoms, according to lesser major ionic constituents imply the area has only
a standard procedure by membrane. According to the local flow systems. The total hardness concentration in
WHO guideline, the guideline value of coliform organisms mg/L of CaCO3 in the watershed is found to be 488.7 ±
in drinking water is 0 CFU/ml. The result of the analysis is 32.3, ranging between 329.4 and 521 mg/L, which are
summarized in Tables 2 and 3. below the upper limit of WHO standard. However, the
The result indicates that treatment is necessary for fluoride (F‾) concentrations in the watershed is 0.88 ±
83.3% of the samples. The high bacteriological load in 0.18, ranging from 0.65 to 1.05 mg/L, where 50% of the
“A3 and M1” is associated with its shallowness and sample is above the WHO recommended value. Iron
2+ 2+
possibly the waste water flow from adjacent upstream (Fe ) and the manganese (Mn ) concentration in the
area of Ifa-Bate. High turbidity values observed in the two study area were found to be 0.01 ± 0.01 and 0.004 ±
wells is also associated with their bacterial load. For this 0.004, respectively. The concentrations of iron and
reason, it is highly important to clean the area manganese ions in the groundwater of the study area are
surrounding the wells or avoid using these wells for in the recommended interval. The measured nitrogen in
drinking purpose due to the necessity of complex the form of nitrate concentration show that 33.3% of the
treatment procedures required that include flocculation, sample were above the WHO recommended value (mean
sedimentation and chlorination which may be value 17.6 ± 4.4 ranging from 13.2 to 26.4 mg/L). Open
unaffordable. area defecation and fertilizers wastes from local farming
In general, the WHO recommends that residual activity caused the higher values.
chlorine shall be at least 0.5 mg/L after a contact time of On top of this, the microbiological result indicates that
30 min for pH and turbidity less than 8 and 5 NTU, treatment is necessary for 83.3% of the samples.
respectively for proper disinfection (Trifunovic, 2006). However, high turbidity in the area could lead to shielding
However, the high turbidity in the study area could lead to effect during chlorination. Excess chlorination on the
shielding effect during chlorination, whereby the chlorine other hand has impact on health. Therefore, attention
and organisms do not come in contact, which leads to shall be given to source protection rather than
more chlorine consumption. Hence, excess disinfectant, complicated treatment procedures. In these regard, a
primarily chlorine, is needed to be added to impact the strong control and management system shall be
microorganisms. However, this has its own negative introduced by establishing a committee comprised of
effect. Excess chlorination, in the presence of organic local government official, water bureaus, farmers, the
matter, form disinfection byproducts (DBPs) like university and other bodies who have a stake on the
trihalomethanes (THMs), which are carcinogenic, resource. There is further a need to conduct regular
mutagenic and with the potential to cause central nervous quality monitoring.
system damage. Therefore, high precaution shall be
considered for source protection in order to maintain the
health of the community instead of excess use of chlorine ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
(Tebeje, 2010, 2011; Spencer and Winkowska, 1991).
Moreover, if the area persists to be the water supply The author acknowledges the Ministry of Water Resource
source to the three towns and the University, then the and Haramaya University for their generous support to
catchment should be zoned at least into three different conduct the laboratory analysis for free. He would also
sections: the lake vicinity free from agriculture and like to thank the editors for their wise questions and
grazing land, certain radius from the lake vicinity free constructive criticism which rendered this study, a
from farmers who uses pesticide, herbicides and readable and acceptable piece of work.
fertilizers and the last zone for free farming area. It is also
advisable to conduct regular quality supervision.
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