1 Introduction and History of Dynamic Mechanical Analysis

DYNAMIC MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF POLYMERS AND RUBBERS 1
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis 1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY OF

DYNAMIC MECHANICAL ANALYSIS
of Polymers and Rubbers
DMA is a very important tool in the modern polymer lab-
Kevin P. Menard oratory. Despite that, only a few books have concentrated
Perkin-Elmer Corporation, Norwalk, USA on the technique..1 – 3/ The first attempts to do oscillatory
experiments to measure the elasticity of a material were
Bryan W. Bilyeu made by Poynting.4/ in 1909. Other early work gave meth-
University of North Texas, Denton, USA ods to apply oscillatory deformations by various means to
study metals.5/ and many early experimental techniques
were reviewed by te Nijenhuis.6/ in 1978. Miller’s book on
1 Introduction and History of Dynamic polymer properties.7/ referred to dynamic measurements
Mechanical Analysis 1 in this early discussion of molecular structure and stiff-
2 Theory and Operating Principles 2 ness. Early commercial instruments included the Weis-
2.1 Forced Frequency Analyzers 2 senberg Rheogoniometer (¾1950) and the Rheovibron
2.2 Free Resonance Analyzers 3 (¾1958). The Weissenberg Rheogoniometer, which dom-
3 Instrumentation 4 inated cone-and-plate measurements for over 20 years
following 1955, was the commercial version of the first
4 Applications 5
instrument to measure normal forces..8/ By the time Ferry
4.1 Thermoplastic Solids and Cured
wrote the Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers.9/ in 1961,
Thermosets 5
dynamic measurements were an integral part of polymer
4.2 Polymer Melts and Solutions 11
science and he gives the best development of the theory
4.3 Thermoset Curing 15
available. In 1967, McCrum et al..10/ collected the current
Acknowledgments 18 information on DMA and dielectric analysis (DEA) in
List of Symbols 18 their landmark textbook. The technique remained fairly
Abbreviations and Acronyms 18 specialized until the late 1960s when commercial instru-
ments became more user-friendly. About 1966, Gillham
Related Articles 18
developed the TBA.11/ and started the modern period of
References 19 DMA. In 1971, Macosko and Starita.12/ built a DMA that
measured normal forces and from this came the Rheo-
metrics Corporation. In 1976, Bohlin also developed a
Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) is the technique commercial DMA and started Bohlin Rheologia. Both
of applying a stress or strain to a sample and analyzing instruments used torsional geometry. The early instru-
the response to obtain phase angle and deformation data. ments were, regardless of manufacturer, difficult to use,
These data allow the calculation of the damping or tan d, slow, and limited in their ability to process data. In the
storage, loss, and complex modulus, complex viscosity late 1970s, Murayani.13/ and Read and Brown.14/ wrote
and compliance. Two approaches are used: (a) forced books on the uses of DMA for material characterization.
frequency, where the signal is applied at a set frequency, Several thermal and rheological instrument companies
and (b) free resonance, where the material is perturbed introduced DMAs in the same time period and currently
and allowed to exhibit free resonance decay. Most DMAs most thermal and rheological vendors offer some type of
are the former type while the torsional braid analyzer DMA.
(TBA) is of the latter. In both approaches, the technique Polymer Laboratories offered a DMA using an axial
is very sensitive to the motions of the polymer chains geometry in the early 1980s. This was soon followed by
and it is a powerful tool for measuring transitions in an instrument from Du Pont. Perkin-Elmer developed
polymers. It is estimated to be 100 times more sensitive to a controlled stress analyzer based on their thermo-
the glass transition than differential scanning calorimetry mechanical analyzer (TMA) technology, which was
(DSC) and it resolves other more localized transitions not designed for increased low-end sensitivity. The com-
detected in DSC. In addition, the technique allows the petition between vendors has led to easier to use,
rapid scanning of a material’s modulus and viscosity as a faster, and less expensive instruments. The revolution
function of temperature or of frequency. DMA may also in computer technology, which has so affected the lab-
be referred to as dynamic mechanical thermal analysis oratory, changed the latter and DMA of all types
(DMTA), dynamic mechanical spectroscopy (DMS), or became more user-friendly as computers and software
dynamic thermomechanical analysis (DTMA). evolved.
Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry

R.A. Meyers (Ed.) Copyright  John Wiley & Sons Ltd
2 POLYMERS AND RUBBERS
2 THEORY AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES e are linearly related by E, the relationship is given by
Equation (4):
2.1 Forced Frequency Analyzers
e.t/ D e0 sin.wt/ .4/
If a constant load applied to a sample begins to
oscillate sinusoidally (Figure 1), the sample will deform where e0 is the strain at the maximum stress. This curve,
sinusoidally. This will be reproducible if the material is shown in Figure 2(a), has no phase lag (or no time
deformed within its linear viscoelastic region. For any difference from the stress curve) and is called the in-phase
one point on the curve, the stress applied is described by portion of the curve.
Equation (1): The viscous limit was expressed as the stress being
proportional to the strain rate, which is the first derivative
s D s0 sin wt .1/
of the strain. This is best modeled by a dashpot and for
where s is the stress at time t, s0 is the maximum stress, w is that element the term for the viscous response in terms
the frequency of oscillation, and t is time. The resulting of strain rate is described by Equation (5):
strain wave shape will depend on how much viscous
ds0
behavior the sample has and how much elastic behavior. e.t/ D h D hws0 cos.wt/ .5/
In addition, the rate of stress can be determined by taking dt
the derivative of the above equation in terms of time: or Equation (6):
ds p
D ws0 cos wt .2/ e.t/ D hws0 sin wt C .6/
dt 2
The two extremes of the material’s behavior, elastic where the terms are as above and h is the viscosity.
and viscous, provide the limiting extremes that will sum Substituting terms as above gives Equation (7):
to give the strain wave. The behavior can be understood
by evaluating each of the two extremes. The material at p
e.t/ D ws0 cos.wt/ D ws0 sin wt C .7/
the spring-like or Hookean limit will respond elastically 2
with the oscillating stress. The strain at any time can be This curve is shown in Figure 2(b). Now consider the
written as Equation (3): behavior of the material that lies between these two limits.
e.t/ D Es0 sin.wt/ .3/ This curve is shown in Figure 2(c) and is intermediate
between the above cases. The difference between the
where e(t) is the strain at any time t, E is the modulus, applied stress and the resultant strain is an angle, d, and
s0 is the maximum stress at the peak of the sine wave, this must be added to the equations. Hence the elastic
and w is the frequency. Since in the linear region s and response at any time can now be written as Equation (8):
Force (dynamic)
e.t/ D e0 sin.wt C d/ .8/
Using trigonometry, this can be rewritten as Equation (9):

Force
e.t/ D e0 [sin.wt/ cos d C cos.wt/ sin d] .9/

Force (static) Stress = FA
Time This equation, corresponding to the curve in Figure 2(c),

can be separated into the in-phase and out-of-phase
Phase angle = δ strains that corresponds to curves such as those in
Material response
Figure 2(a) and (b), respectively. These sum to the curve
Force
in Figure 2(c) and are [Equations 10 and 11]

Stress Amplitude = k
e0 D e0 sin.d/ .10/
e00 D e0 cos.d/ .11/
Time
and the vector sum of these two components gives
Figure 1 When a sample is subjected to a sinusoidal oscillat-
ing stress, it responds with a similar strain wave provided the
the overall or complex strain on the sample [Equa-
material stays within its elastic limits. (Reprinted with permis- tion 12]:
sion from K. Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis: a Practical
Introduction, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999.) eŁ D e0 C ie00 .12/
Applied stress, σt
Applied stress, σt
σ0 σ0
t t
No phase lag δ = phase lag = π /2 = 90°
Measured strain, εt
Measured strain, εt
ε0 Dynamic strain α amplitude ε0
t t
(a) (b)
Stress, σt
σ0
Static
stress
t
Phase lag δ
δ
(primary DMA output)
Strain, εt
ε0
t
(c)
Figure 2 When the material responds to the applied wave perfectly elastically, an in-phase response is seen (a), while a viscous
response gives an out-of-phase response (b). Viscoelastic materials fall in between these two lines as shown in (c). (Used with the
permission of Perkin-Elmer Corporation, Norwalk, CT.)
2.2 Free Resonance Analyzers

Deformation
If a suspended sample can swing freely, it will oscillate like

a harp or guitar string until the oscillations gradually come
to a stop. The naturally occurring damping of the material
controls the decay of the oscillations. This produces a
wave, shown in Figure 3, which is a series of sine waves
decreasing in amplitude and frequency. Several methods Time
exist to analyze these waves and are covered in a review
Figure 3 The decay wave from a free resonance analyzer show-
by Gillham..15,16/ These methods have also been applied ing the decreasing amplitude of signal with time. (Reprinted with
successfully to the recovery portion of a creep– recovery permission from K. Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis: a
curve where the sample goes into free resonance on Practical Introduction, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999.)
removal of the creep force..17/
From the decay curve, the period, T, and the loga- exist for both manual and digital processing..15,16,18/ Fuller
rithmic decrement, , can be calculated. Several methods details of the following may be found in McCrum et al..18/
and Gillham..15,16/ Basically, the decay of the amplitude Free resonance analyzers normally are limited to rod or
is evaluated over as many swings as possible to reduce rectangular samples or materials that can be impregnated
error [Equation 13]: on to a braid. This last approach is how the curing studies
on epoxy and other resin systems were done in torsion
1 An and gives these instruments the name TBA.
 D ln .13/
j AnCj
where j is the number of swings and An is the amplitude
of the nth swing. For one swing, where j D 1, the above 3 INSTRUMENTATION
equation becomes Equation (14):
One of the biggest choices when selecting a DMA
An is to decide whether to use stress (force) or strain
 D ln .14/
AnCj (displacement) control for applying the deforming load to
if for a low value of , where An /AnC1 ³ 1, the equation the sample (Figure 4a and b). Strain-controlled analyzers,
can be rewritten as whether for simple static testing or for DMA, move the
" # probe a set distance and use a force balance transducer or
1 A2n A2nC1 load cell to measure the stress. These parts are typically
³ .15/
2 A2n located on different shafts. The simplest version of this
is a screw-driven tester, where the sample is pulled one
then from this, since the square of the amplitude is
turn. This requires very large motors so the available force
proportional to the stored energy, W/Wst , and the
always exceeds what is needed. They normally have better
stored energy can be expressed as 2p tan d, this equation
short-time response for low-viscosity materials and can
becomes Equation (16):
normally perform stress relaxation experiments easily.
1 W They also usually can measure normal forces if they
³ D p tan d .16/
2 Wst are arranged in torsion. A major disadvantage is their
transducers may drift at long times or with low signals.
which gives us the phase angle, d. The time of the
Stress-controlled analyzers are cheaper to make
oscillations, the period, T, can be found using the
because there is only one shaft, but are somewhat trickier
Equation (17):
to use. Many of the difficulties have been alleviated
s s
M 1 C 2
T D 2p .17/ Force
1 4p2
where 1 is the torque for one cycle and M is the moment Force
of inertia around the central axis. Alternatively, T can
be calculated directly from the plotted decay curve as
Equation (18):

2
TD .tn t0 / .18/
n Force is axial along Force is applied
(a) one axis of sample (b) torsionally to sample
where n is the number of cycles and t is time. From this,
the shear modulus, G, can be calculated and for a rod of
length L and radius r is given by Equation (19): Motor
Motor
2 microns
4p ML 2 mgr mN
GD 1 C .19/
NT 2 4p2 12N
Detector
where m is the mass of the sample, g the gravitational
constant and N a geometric factor. In the same sys- Detector
tem, the storage modulus, G0 , can be calculated using
Equation (20): The applied force The applied
(c) is controlled (d) deformation is controlled
0 1 8pML
G D . .20/
T2 r4 Figure 4 Types of forced resonance DMAs: (a) axial, (b) tor-
sional, (c) controlled stress and (d) controlled strain. (Reprinted
Having the storage modulus and the tangent of the with permission from K. Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Ana-
phase angle, the remaining dynamic properties can be lysis: a Practical Introduction, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
calculated. 1999.)
by software and many strain-controlled analyzers on samples, as shown by the use of both types to study the cur-
the market are really stress-controlled instruments with ing of neat resins. Normally axial analyzers cannot handle
feedback loops making them act as if they were strain fluid samples below about 500 Pa s and torsional instru-
controlled. In stress control, a set force is applied to the ments will top out with the harder samples (the exact mod-
sample. As temperature, time, or frequency varies, the ulus depending on the size of the motor and/or load cell).
applied force remains the same. This may or may not be
the same stress: in extension, for example, the stretching
and necking of a sample will change the applied stress 4 APPLICATIONS
seen during the run. However, this constant stress is a
more natural situation in many cases and it may be more
4.1 Thermoplastic Solids and Cured Thermosets
sensitive to material changes. Good low-force control
means they are less likely to destroy any structure in The thermal transitions in polymers can be described in
the sample. Long relaxation times or long creep studies terms of either free volume changes.19/ or relaxation
are more easily preformed on these instruments. Their times..20/ While the latter tend to be preferred by
greatest disadvantage is that their short time responses engineers and rheologists in contrast to chemists and
are limited by inertia with low-viscosity samples. polymer physicists who lean toward the former, both
Since most DMA experiments are run at very low descriptions are equivalent. Changes in free volume, vf ,
strains (¾0.5% maximum) so as to stay well within a can be monitored as a volumetric change in the polymer,
polymer’s linear region, it has been reported that both by the absorption or release of heat associated with that
analyzers give the same results..18a/ However, when one change, the loss of stiffness, increased flow, or a change
reaches the non-linear region, the difference becomes in relaxation time.
significant as stress and strain are no longer linearly The free volume of a polymer, vf , is known to be
related. Stress control can be said to duplicate real-life related to viscoelasticity,.21,22/ aging,.23 – 26/ penetration
conditions more accurately since most applications of by solvents,.27/ and impact properties..28/ Defined as the
polymers involve resisting a load. space that a molecule has for internal movement, it is
DMA instruments are normally built to apply the shown schematically in Figure 5(a). A simple approach to
stress or strain in two ways (Figure 4c and d). One looking at free volume is the crankshaft mechanism,.29/
can apply force in a twisting motion so one is testing where the molecule is imagined as a series of jointed
the sample in torsion. This type of instrument is the segments. From this model, it is possible to describe
dynamic analog of the constant shear spinning disk simply the various transitions seen in a polymer. Other
rheometers. While mainly used for liquids and melts, solid models exist that allow for higher precision in describing
samples may also tested by twisting a bar of the material. behavior; the best seems to be the Doi – Edwards
Torsional analyzers normally also permit continuous model..30/ Aklonis and Knight.31/ give a good summary of
shear and normal force measurements. Most of these the available models, as does Rohn..32/
analyzers can also do creep– recovery, stress – relaxation, The crankshaft model treats the molecule as a collection
and stress – strain experiments. of mobile segments that have some degree of free
Axial analyzers are normally designed for solid and movement. This is a very simplistic approach, yet very
semisolid materials and apply a linear force to the sam- useful for explaining behavior. As the free volume of the
ple. These analyzers are usually associated with flexure, chain segment increases, its ability to move in various
tensile, and compression testing but they can be adapted directions also increases (Figure 5b). This increased
to do shear and liquid specimens by proper choice of mobility in either side chains or small groups of adjacent
fixtures. Sometimes the instrument’s design makes this backbone atoms results in a greater compliance (lower
inadvisable, however (e.g. working with a very fluid mat- modulus) of the molecule. These movements have been
erial in a system where the motor is underneath the sample studied and Heijboer.33/ classified b and g transitions
has the potential for damage to the instrument if the sam- by their type of motions. The specific temperature and
ple spills into the motor). These analyzers can normally frequency of this softening help drive the end-use of the
test higher modulus materials than torsional analyzers material.
and can run TMA studies in addition to creep– recovery, Moving from very low temperature, where the molecule
stress – relaxation, and stress – strain experiments. is tightly compressed, to higher temperatures, the first
Despite the traditional selection of torsional instru- changes are the solid-state transitions. This process
ments for melts and liquids and axial instruments for is shown in Figure 6. As the material warms and
solids, there is really considerable overlap between the expands, the free volume increases so that localized
types of instruments. With the proper choice of sample bond movements (bending and stretching) and side-
geometry and good fixtures, both types can handle similar chain movements can occur. This is the g transition,
Tg
in the amorphous phase that relates to reduced viscosity.
Free These two transitions are not universally accepted. Finally
volume the melt is reached, where large-scale chain slippage
Physical
Volume
aging occurs and the material flows. This is the melting

temperature, Tm . For a cured thermoset, nothing happens
Occupied after the Tg until the sample begins to burn and degrade
volume because the cross-links prevent the chains from slipping
past each other.
Temperature
This brief overview provides an idea of how an idealized
(a) polymer responds. Now a more detailed description of
these transitions can be provided with some examples
of their applications. The best general collection of this
information is still McCrum et al.’s 1967 text..29/
4.1.1 Sub-Tg Transitions

The area of sub-Tg or higher order transitions has
been heavily studied.37 – 44/ as these transitions have been
associated with mechanical properties. These transitions
can sometimes be seen by DSC and TMA, but they
are normally too weak or too broad for determination
Stretching, bending, rotating,
by these methods. DMA, DEA, and similar techniques
coordinated movements, slippage
(b) are usually required..45/ Some authors have also called
these types of transitions.46,47/ second-order transitions
Figure 5 Free volume, vf , in polymers: (a) the relationship of to differentiate them from the primary transitions of Tm
free volume to transitions, and (b) a schematic example of free
volume and the crankshaft model. Below the Tg in (a) various and Tg , which involve large sections of the main chains.
paths with different free volumes exist depending on heat history Boyer reviewed Tb in 1968.48/ and pointed out that while
and processing of the polymer, where the path with the least a correlation often exists, Tb is not always an indicator
free volume is the most relaxed. (b) The various motions of a of toughness. Bershtein and Egorov.49/ have reported
polymer chain. Unless enough free volume exists, the motions
that this transition can be considered the ‘activation
cannot occur. (Reprinted with permission from K. Menard,
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis: a Practical Introduction, CRC barrier’ for solid-phase reactions, deformation, flow or
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999.) creep, acoustic damping, physical aging changes, and gas
diffusion into polymers as the activation energies for the
transition and these processes are usually similar. The
Tg , which may also involve associations with water..34/ strength of these transitions is related to how strongly
As the temperature and the free volume continue to a polymer responds to those processes. These sub-Tg
increase, the whole side chains and localized groups of transitions are associated with the material properties in
4 – 8 backbone atoms begin to have enough space to move the glassy state. In paints, for example, peel strength
and the material starts to develop some toughness..35/ (adhesion) can be estimated from the strength and
This transition, called the b transition, Tb , is not as clearly frequency dependence of the sub-ambient b transition..50/
defined as described here (Figure 6). Often it is the glass Nylon 6,6 shows a decreasing toughness, measured as
transition, Tg , of a secondary component in a blend or impact resistance, with declining area under the Tb peak in
of a specific block in a block copolymer. However, a the tan d curve. Figure 7 shows the relative differences in
correlation with toughness is seen empirically..36/ Tb compared with Tg for a high-impact and a low-impact
As heating continues, the Tg or glass transition appears nylon. It has been shown, particularly in cured thermosets,
when the chains in the amorphous regions begin to that increased freedom of movement in side chains
coordinate large-scale motions (Figure 6). One classical increases the strength of the transition. Cheng et al..51/
description of this region is that the amorphous regions reported for rigid rod polyimides that the b transition is
have begun to melt. Since the Tg occurs only in amorphous caused by the noncoordinated movement of the diamine
material, in a 100% crystalline material there would not be groups, although the link to physical properties was not
a Tg . Continued heating drives the material through the TaŁ investigated. Johari et al. reported in both mechanical.52/
and Tll . The former occurs in crystalline or semicrystalline and dielectric studies.53/ that both the b and g transitions
polymer and is a slippage of the crystallites past each in bisphenol-A-based thermosets depend on the side
other. The latter is a movement of coordinated segments chains and unreacted ends, and that both are affected
For purely crystalline

Tγ materials, no Tg occurs
(6) Tβ Tα or Tg
(5)
(4)
Tg is related to molecular mass
(3) up to a limiting value
β transitions are often In semicrystalline polymers,
E ′(Pa)
related to the toughness a crystal−crystal slip, T α* occurs
Rubbery plateau (2)
For thermosets,
Rubbery plateau is related
no Tm occurs
to Me between cross-links or Tll in some
entanglements amorphous Tm = melting (1)
polymers
Temperature (K)
(6) (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Local Bend Side Gradual Large Chain
motions and groups main scale slippage
stretch chain chain
Figure 6 Idealized temperature scan of a polymer. Starting at low temperature the modulus decreases as the molecules gain more
free volume, resulting in more molecular motion. This shows main curve as divided into six regions which correspond to local
motions (6), bond bending and stretching (5), movements in the side chain or adjacent atoms in the main chain (4), the region of
the Tg (3), coordinated movements in the amorphous portion of the chain (2), and the melting region (1). Transitions are marked
as described in the text. (Reprinted with permission from K. Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis: a Practical Introduction, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999.)
5.5 4.0 be due to misidentification of the transition or because

E ′ (a) the transition does sufficiently disperse energy. A working
rule of thumb.58 – 62/ is that the b transition must be related
E ′(109 Pa)
to either localized movement in the main chain or very

tan δ
E ′ (b) large side-chain movement to absorb sufficient energy.

The relationship of large side-chain movement and
tan δ (a)
toughness has been extensively studied in polycarbonate
0 tan δ (b) 0.0 by Yee and Smith.63/ and also in many other tough glassy
−150.0 0.0 150.0 polymers..64/
Temperature (°C) Less use is made of the Tg transitions and they are
mainly studied to understand the movements occurring
Figure 7 High- and low-impact nylon samples showing how
the b transition is related to sample toughness as measured by in polymers. Wendorff and Schartel.65/ report that
impact testing. The (a) lines show a material with good impact this transition in polyarylates is limited to inter- and
strength by the falling dart test and the (b) lines shows one intramolecular motions within the scale of a single repeat
with poor values by the same test. (Reprinted with permission unit. Both McCrum et al..29/ and Boyd.66/ similarly limited
from K. Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis: a Practical
the Tg and Td to very small motions either within the
Introduction, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999.)
molecule or with bound water. The use of what is
called two-dimensional infrared (IR) spectroscopy, which
by physical aging and postcure. Nelson.54,55/ reported that couples Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy
these transitions can be related to vibration damping. This and DMA to study these motions, is a topic of current
is also true for acoustic damping..56/ In both of these cases, interest..67,68/
the strength of the b transition is taken as a measurement
of how effectively a polymer will absorb vibrations. There
4.1.2 The Glass Transition (Tg or Ta )
is some frequency dependence involved in this, which will
be discussed later in section 5.7. As the free volume continues to increase with increasing
Boyer.57/ and Heijober.33/ showed that this information temperature, the glass transition, Tg , occurs where large
needs to be considered with care as not all b transitions segments of the chain start moving. This transition is also
correlate with toughness or other properties. This can called the a transition, Ta . Tg is very dependent on the
1.1 than not the initial cost justification for a DMA is

1.0 β 5.0
4.5 measuring a hard to find Tg . While estimates of the relative
Storage modulus
0.9 Tg
0.8
4.0 sensitivity of DMA with respect to DSC or differential
3.5
0.7 thermal analysis (DTA) vary, it appears that DMA is
Tan δ
3.0
0.6 2.5 10 – 100 times more sensitive to the changes occurring at
0.5 Operating 2.0
0.4 range 1.5
Tg . The Tg in highly cross-linked materials can easily
0.3 1.0 be seen long after it has become too flat and diffuse
0.2 0.5 to be seen in the DSC (Figure 9). A highly cross-linked
0.1 0.0
0.0 molding resin used for chip encapsulation was run by both
−100.0 0.0 100.0 200.0 methods and DMA is able to detect the transition after
Temperature (°C) it is undetectable in DSC. This is also a known problem
with certain materials such as medical-grade urethanes
Figure 8 Definition of operating range based on position of Tg and very highly crystalline polyethylenes.
and Tb in an epoxy circuit board. (Reprinted with permission The method of determining Tg in DMA can be a
from K. Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis: a Practical manner for disagreement as at least five ways are in
current use (Figure 10a). It should be noted that DSC
also has multiple methods (Figure 10b). Depending on
23.8 the industry standards or background of the operator,
the peak or onset of the tan d curve, the onset of the E0
Heat flow (mW)
1.0 Heat flow drop, or the onset or peak of the E00 curve may be used.
1h
The values obtained from these methods can differ by up
0h 2−8 h
to 25 ° C from each other in the same run. In addition,
Tan δ
0.5
a 10 – 20 ° C difference from DSC is also seen in many
materials. In practice, it is important to specify exactly
Tan δ how the Tg should be determined. For DMA, this means
0.0
21.8 defining the heating rate, applied stresses (or strains), the
150 175 200 frequency used, and the method of determining Tg . For
Temperature (°C) example, the sample will be run at 10 ° C min 1 under
0.05% strain at 1 Hz in a nitrogen purge (20 cm3 min 1 )
Figure 9 The Tg of a chip encapsulation material was measured and the Tg determined from the peak of the tan d curve.
by DSC and DMA as a function of postcure time. (Reprinted
with permission from K. Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Ana- It is not unusual to see a peak or hump on the storage
lysis: a Practical Introduction, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, modulus directly preceding the drop that corresponds to
1999.) the Tg . This is shown in Figure 11. This is also seen in the
DSC and DTA and corresponds to a rearrangement in
the molecule to relieve stresses frozen in below the Tg by
degree of polymerization up to a value known as the the processing method. These stresses are trapped in the
critical Tg or the critical molecular weight. Above this material until enough mobility is obtained at the Tg to
value, Tg typically becomes independent of molecular allow the chains to move to a lower energy state. Often a
weight..69/ Tg represents a major transition for many material will be annealed by heating it above the Tg and
polymers, as the physical properties changes drastically slowly cooling it to remove this effect. For similar reasons,
as the material goes from a hard glassy to a rubbery some experimenters will run a material twice or use a
state. It defines one end of the temperature range over heat – cool – heat cycle to eliminate processing effects.
which the polymer can be used, often called the operating
range of the polymer, and an example of this range
4.1.3 The Rubbery Plateau, TŁa and Tll
is shown in Figure 8. Where strength and stiffness are
needed, it is normally the upper limit for use. In rubbers The area above the Tg and below the melt is known
and some semicrystalline materials such as polyethylene as the rubbery plateau and the length of it and
and polypropylene, it is the lower operating temperature. its viscosity are dependent on the molecular weight
Changes in Tg are commonly used to monitor changes between entanglements (Me ).70/ or cross-links. The
in the polymer such as plasticizing by environmental molecular weight between entanglements is normally
solvents and increased cross-linking from thermal or calculated during a stress – relaxation experiment but
ultraviolet (UV) aging. similar behavior is observed in DMA. The modulus in
The Tg of cured materials or thin coatings is often the plateau region is proportional to either the number
difficult to measure by other methods and more often of cross-links or the chain length between entanglements.
Peak tan δ = 140.5 °C 1.12e +9
1.00e + 9 The overshoot at the Tg
9.00e + 8 is caused by stress relief.
Modulus (Pa)
Onset E ′ = 133.1°C 8.00e + 8
7.00e + 8
6.00e + 8
Peak E ′′ = 136.7 °C 5.00e + 8
4.00e + 8
Modulus (Pa)
3.00e + 8
2.00e + 8
1.00e + 8
tan δ
100
Onset E ′′ = 127.3°C 25.4 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 81.8
Temperature (°C)
Figure 11 Stress relief at the Tg in DMA. The overshoot

is similar to that seen in DSC and is caused by molecular
Onset tan δ = 130.0 °C rearrangements that occur owing to the increased free volume
at the transition. (Reprinted with permission from K. Menard,
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis: a Practical Introduction, CRC
(a) Temperature (°C)
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999.)
Tf
plateau region. This crystallization occurs when the poly-
mer chains have been quenched (quickly cooled) into a
Heat flow (mW)
highly disordered state. On heating above the Tg these

chains gain enough mobility to rearrange into crystallites,
∆H (Jg−1)
which causes a sometimes dramatic increase in modulus.

DSC or its temperature-modulated variant, dynamic dif-
Inflection point 1
2 ∆C p ferential scanning calorimetry (DDSC), can be used to
confirm this..73 – 76/ The aŁ transition, TaŁ , the liquid– liquid
Onset transition, Tll , the heat set temperature, and the cold crys-
tallization peak are all transitions that can appear on the
(b) Temperature (°C) rubbery plateau. In some crystalline and semicrystalline
Figure 10 Methods of determining Tg . (a) Multiple methods polymers, a transition is seen here called the TaŁ .77,78/ .
of determining Tg are shown for DMA. Tg varies by up 10 ° C Figure 13 shows this in a sample of polypropylene. The
in this example, depending on the value chosen. Differences as aŁ transition is associated with the slippage between crys-
great as 25 ° C have been reported. (b) Four of the methods tallites and helps extend the operating range of a material
used to determine Tg in DSC are shown. The half-height above the Tg . This transition is very susceptible to process-
and half-width methods are not included. (Reprinted with
permission from K. Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis: a ing induced changes and can be enlarged or decreased by
Practical Introduction, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999.) the applied heat history, processing conditions, and phys-
This is often expressed in shear as Equation (21): ical aging..79,80/ TaŁ has been used by fiber manufacturers
to optimize properties in their materials.
rRT In amorphous polymers, the Tll transition is seen
G0 ³ .21/
Me instead, which is a liquid – liquid transition associated
with increased chain mobility and segment – segment
where G0 is the shear storage modulus of the plateau associations..81/ This order is lost when Tll is exceeded
region at a specific temperature, r is the polymer density, and regained on cooling from the melt. Boyer et al..82 – 84/
and Me is the molecular weight between entanglements. report that, like Tg , the appearance of Tll is affected by the
In practice, the relative modulus of the plateau region heat history. Tll is also dependent on the number-average
shows the relative changes in Me or the number of cross- molecular weight, Mn , but not on the weight-average
links compared with a standard material. molecular weight, Mw . Bershtein et al..85/ suggest that
The rubbery plateau is also related to the degree of crys- this may be considered as quasimelting on heating or the
tallinity in a material, although DSC is a better method formation of stable associates of segments on cooling.
for characterizing crystallinity than DMA..71,72/ Also as While this transition is reversible, it is not always easy
in DSC, there is evidence of cold crystallization in the to see and Boyer.82/ spent many years trying to prove
temperature range above the Tg (Figure 12). That is one it was real. Not everyone accepts the existence of this
of several transitions that can be seen in the rubbery transition. This transition may be similar to some of
6.84 3.00e + 11 75
Normalized heat flow endo up (Wg−1)
Tm 70
1.00e + 11
6.5
E′ 60
Tg
1.00e + 10
6.0 50
Modulus (Pa)
1.00e + 9
Tan δ
40
5.5
Cold crystallization 30
1.00e + 8 Heat flow
5.0
20
1.00e + 7
4.5 10
Tan δ
4.2 1.00e + 6 0
37.6 100 150 200 250 277
Temperature (°C)
Figure 12 Cold crystallization in poly(ethylene terephthalate) caused a large increase in the storage modulus, E0 , above the Tg . A
DSC scan of the same material is included. (Reprinted with permission from K. Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis: a Practical
the data from temperature-modulated DSC experiments Many final properties of polymeric products depend on
showing a recrystallization at the start of the melt..87 – 90/ changes induced in processing..91,92/
In both cases, some subtle changes in structure are
sometimes detected at the start of melting. Following 4.1.4 The Terminal Region
this transition, a material enters the terminal or melting
region. On continued heating, the melting point, Tm , is reached.
Depending on its strength, the heat set temperature can The melting point is where the free volume has increased
also be seen in DMA. While it is normally seen in either so the chains can slide past each other and the material
a TMA or a CGL (constant gauge length) experiment, it flows. This is also called the terminal region. In the molten
will sometimes appear as either a sharp drop in storage state, this ability to flow is dependent on the molecular
modulus (E0 ) or an abrupt change in probe position. Heat weight of the polymer (Figure 14). The melt of a polymer
set is the temperature at which some strain or distortion material will often show changes in temperature of
is induced into polymeric fibers to change its properties, melting, width of the melting peak, and enthalpy as
such as to prevent a nylon rug from feeling like fishing the material changes.93,94/ resulting from changes in the
line. Since heating above this temperature will erase the polymer molecular weight and crystallinity.
texture, and polyesters must be heated above the Tg to Degradation, polymer structure, and environmental
dye them, it is of critical importance to the fabric industry. effects all influence the changes that occur. Polymers that
degrade by cross-linking will look very different from
those that exhibit chain scission. Very highly cross-linked
3.0 4 polymers will not melt as they are unable to flow.
E′ The study of polymer melts and especially their
E ′(1010 Pa)
elasticity was one of the areas that drove the development

Tan δ
of commercial DMA instruments. Although a decrease

Tg in the melt viscosity is seen with temperature increases,
T α∗ DMA is most commonly used to measure the frequency
Tan δ dependence of the molten polymer and its elasticity. The
0.5 0 latter property, especially when expressed as the normal
−150 0 +150
forces, is very important in polymer processing.
Temperature (°C)
Figure 13 The aŁ transition, TaŁ , in polypropylene correspond- 4.1.5 Frequency Dependences in Transition Studies
ing to a crystal – crystal slip in the polymer. (Reprinted with
permission from K. Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis: a The choice of a testing frequency or its effect on the
Practical Introduction, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999.) resulting data must be addressed. A short discussion of
Table 1 ASTM Tests for DMAa

Broad distribution
Tg D3386 CTE of Electrical Insulating Materials by TMA
10
10
D4065 Determining DMA Properties Terminologyb
D4092 Terminology for DMA Tests
D4440 Measurement of Polymer Melts
D4473 Cure of Thermosetting Resins
Modulus
D5023 DMA in Three Point Bending Tests

Rubbery plateau D5024 DMA in Compression
Tm D5026 DMA in Tension
Terminal zone D5279 DMA of Plastics in Tension
shows the effect D5418 DMA in Dual Cantilever
6 Increasing Mw of Mw increases E228-95 CTE by TMA with Silica Dilatometer
10
E473-94 Terminology for Thermal Analysis
E831-93 CTE of Solids by TMA
Temperature E1363-97 Temperature Calibration for TMA
E1545-95a Tg by TMA
Figure 14 Molecular weight and flow: the terminal zone or E1640-94 Tg by DMA
melting region follows the rubbery plateau and is sensitive to E1824-96 Tg by TMA in Tension
the Mw of the polymer. (Reprinted with the permission of the E1867-97 Temperature Calibration for DMA
Rheometrics Sciences Inc., Piscataway, NJ.)
a This list of ASTM methods was supplied by courtesy of Dr Alan
Riga and is reprinted with permission from K. Menard, Dynamic
how frequencies are chosen and how they affect the Mechanical Analysis: a Practical Introduction, CRC Press, Boca Raton,
measurement of transitions is in order. Considering that FL, 1999.
b This standard qualifies a DMA as acceptable for all ASTM DMA
higher frequencies induce more elastic-like behavior, Standards.
there is some concern that a material will act stiffer CTE, coefficient of thermal expansion.
than it really is if the test frequency is chosen to be
too high. Frequencies for testing are normally chosen uses DSC. Different types of transitions also have
by one of three methods. The most scientific method different frequency dependences; McCrum et al..29/ listed
would be to use the frequency of the stress or strain many of these. If one looks at the slope of the
to which the material is exposed in the real world. temperature dependence of transitions against frequency,
However, this is often outside the range of the available one sees that in many cases the primary transitions
instrumentation. In some cases, the test method or such as Tm and Tg have a different dependence on
the industry standard sets a certain frequency and this frequency than the lower temperature transitions. In
frequency is used. Ideally a standard method such as fact, the activation energies are different for a, b,
this is chosen so that the data collected on various and g transitions because of the different motions
commercial instruments can be shown to be compatible. required and the transitions can be sorted by this
Some of the American Society for Testing and Materials approach..1 – 3,10,47/
(ASTM) methods for DMA are listed in Table 1. Many
industries have their own standards so it is important
4.2 Polymer Melts and Solutions
to know whether the data are expected to match a Mil-
spec, an ASTM standard, or a specific industrial test. A fluid or polymer melt responds to strain rate rather
Finally, one can arbitrarily pick a frequency. This is done than to the amount of stress applied. The viscosity is
more often than not, and 1 Hz and 10 rad s 1 are often one of the main reasons why frequency scans are run.
used. As long as the data are run under the proper As the stress – strain curves and the creep recovery runs
conditions, they can be compared to highlight material show, viscoelastic materials exhibit some degree of flow
differences. This requires that frequency, stresses, and or unrecoverable deformation. The effect is strongest in
the thermal program be the same for all samples in the melts and liquids where frequency versus viscosity plots
data set. are the major application of DMA.
Lowering the frequency shifts the temperature of a Figure 16 shows a frequency scan on a viscoelastic
transition to a lower temperature (Figure 15). At one material. In this example, the sample is a rubber above the
time, it was suggested that multiple frequencies could Tg in three-point bending, but the trends and principles
be used and the Tg should then be determined by apply to both solids and melts. The storage modulus
extrapolation to 0 Hz. This was never really accepted and complex viscosity are plotted on logarithmic scales
as it represented a fairly large increase in testing against log (frequency). In analyzing the frequency scans,
time for a small improvement in accuracy. For most trends in the data are more significant than specific peaks
polymer systems, for very precise measurements, one or transitions.
E′
1 Hz 1.80
7 Hz
1.60
109 7 Hz
1.40
Modulus (Pa)
1.20
tan δ (×101)
1.00
108 0.80
1 Hz
0.60
0.40
tan δ
0.20
107 0.00
−200.0 −150.0 −100.0 −50.0 0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0 250.0 300.0
Temperature (°C)
Figure 15 Effect of frequency on transitions: the dependence of the Tg in polycarbonate on frequency. (Used with the permission
of Rheometric Sciences, Piscataway, NJ.)
107
More
107 h0 / cMv1 .22/
More
liquid solid
like
Viscosity (Pa s)
106 like
E′ 106 for cases where the molecular weight, Mv , is less than the
Modulus (Pa)
entanglement molecular weight, Me and for cases where

105 105 Mv is greater than Me [Equation 23]
η∗
104 104 h0 / cMv3,4 .23/
103
Flow dominates Elastic dominates
103
where h0 is the viscosity of the initial Newtonian plateau,
c a material constant, and Mv the viscosity-average
10−2 10−1 100 101
molecular weight. This relationship can be written in
Log [frequency (Hz)]
general terms, replacing the exponential term with the
Figure 16 An example of a frequency scan showing the Mark – Houwink constant, a. Equation (23) can be used
change in a material’s behavior as the frequency varies. Low as a method of approximating the molecular weight of a
frequencies allow the material time to relax and respond, polymer. The value obtained is closest to the viscosity-
hence flow dominates. High frequencies do not allow relaxation average molecular weight obtained by osmometry..96/ In
and elastic behavior dominates. (Reprinted with permission
comparison with the weight-average data obtained by
from K. Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis: a Practical
Introduction, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999.) gel permeation chromatography (GPC), the viscosity-
average molecular weight would be between the number-
average and weight-average molecular weights, but closer
Starting with the viscosity curve, hŁ , a fairly flat region to the latter..97/ This was orginially developed for steady
appears at low frequency, called the zero shear plateau..95/ shear viscosity but also applies to complex viscosity.
This is where the polymer exhibits Newtonian behavior The relationship between steady shear and complex
and its viscosity is dependent on molecular weight, not the viscosity is fairly well established. Cox and Merz.98,99/
strain rate. The viscosity of this plateau has been shown found that an empirical relationship exists between
to be related experimentally to the molecular weight for complex viscosity and steady shear viscosity when the
a Newtonian fluid [Equation 22]: shear rates are the same. The Cox – Merz rule is stated as
[Equation 24] E0 – E00 crossover point is found. As frequency increases

and shear thinning occurs, the viscosity (hŁ ) decreases.
jh.w/j D h.gP /jgP Dw .24/ At the same time, increasing the frequency increases the
elasticity (E0 ). This is shown in Figure 17. The E0 – hŁ
where h is the constant shear viscosity, hŁ is the complex
crossover point is used as an indicator of the molecular
viscosity, w the frequency of the dynamic test, and dg/dt
weight and molecular weight distribution..102/ Changes
the shear rate of the constant shear test. This rule of thumb
in its position are used as a quick method of detecting
seems to hold for most materials to within about š10%.
changes in the molecular weight and distribution of a
Another approach is the Gleissele.100/ mirror relationship,
material. After the power-law region, another plateau is
which states [Equation 25]
seen, the infinite shear plateau.
hgP D hC .t/jtD1/Pg .25/ This second Newtonian region corresponds to where
the shear rate is so high that the polymer no longer shows
when hC .t/ is the limiting value of the viscosity as the a response to increases in the shear rate. At the very high
shear rate, gP , approaches zero. shear rates associated with this region, the polymer chains
The low-frequency range is where viscous or liquid-like are no longer entangled. This region is seldom seen in
behavior predominates. If a material is stressed over long DMA experiments and is usually avoided in use because
enough times, some flow occurs. As time is the inverse of the damage done to the chains. It can be reached
of frequency, this means that materials are expected to in commercial extruders and causes degradation of the
flow more at low frequency. As the frequency increases, polymer, which causes the poorer properties associated
the material will act in a more and more elastic fashion. with regrind.
Silly Putty , the children’s toy, shows this clearly. At low As the curve in Figure 17 shows, the modulus also varies
frequency Silly Putty flows like a liquid whereas at high as a function of the frequency. A material exhibits more
frequency it bounces like a rubber ball. elastic-like behavior as the testing frequency increases
This behavior is also similar to what happens with tem- and the storage modulus tends to slope upward towards
perature changes. A polymer becomes softer and more higher frequency. The change in storage modulus with
fluid as it is heated and it goes through transitions that frequency depends on the transitions involved. Above
increase the available space for molecular motions. Over the Tg , the storage modulus tends to be fairly flat with
long enough time periods, or small enough frequencies, a slight increase with increasing frequency as it is on
similar changes occur. Hence one can move a polymer the rubbery plateau. The change in the region of a
across a transition by changing the frequency. This rela- transition is greater. If one can generate a modulus
tionship is also expressed as the idea of time – temperature scan over a wide enough frequency range (Figure 18a
equivalence..101/ Often stated as low temperature is equiv- and b), the plot of storage modulus versus frequency
alent to short times or high frequency, it is a fundamental
rule of thumb in understanding polymer behavior. Same behavior seen here!
As the frequency is increased in a frequency scan, the 107 107
Newtonian region is exceeded and a new relationship Mw increases
develops between the rate of strain, or the frequency, and
the viscosity of the material. This region is often called the 106 106
Viscosity (Pa s)
Modulus (Pa)
power law zone and can be modeled by Equation (26): η∗

MWD
increases
hŁ ³ h.gP / D cgP n 1
.26/ 105 105
E′
where hŁ is the complex viscosity, gP is the shear rate and
the exponent term n is determined by the fit of the data. 104 104
E ′′
It can also be written as Equation (27):
s ³ h.gP / D cgP n .27/ 103 103

10−2 10−1 100 101
where s is the stress and h is the viscosity. The exponential Frequency (Hz)
relationship is why the viscosity versus frequency plot
is traditionally plotted on a logarithmic scale. With Figure 17 The crossover point between either E0 and E00 or
modern curve-fitting programs, the use of log – log plots between E0 and hŁ for a material corresponds to the relative
molecular weight and molecular weight distribution. (Reprinted
has declined and is rather anachronistic. The power-law with permission from K. Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Ana-
region of polymers shows shear thickening or thinning lysis: a Practical Introduction, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
behavior. This is also the region in which the E0 – hŁ or the 1999.)
appears like the reverse of a temperature scan. The same For example, in a tape adhesive, sufficient flow under
time – temperature equivalence as discussed above also pressure at low frequency is desired to fill the pores of
applies to modulus, in addition to compliance, tan d, and the material to obtain a good mechanical bond. When
other properties. the laminate is later subjected to peel, the material needs
The frequency scan is used for several purposes that will to be very elastic so it will not pull out of the pores
be discussed in this section. One very important use that is [this is a very simplified version of adhesion; a detailed
very straightforward is to survey the material’s response discussion can be found elsewhere..103,104/ ] The frequency
over various shear rates. This is important because scan allows the measurement of these properties in one
many materials are used under different conditions. scan, so ensuring that tuning one property does not
For example, adhesives, whether tape, Band-Aids , degrade another. This type of testing is not limited to
or hot melts, are normally applied under conditions adhesives as many materials see multiple frequencies
of low frequency and this property is referred to in actual use. Viscosity versus frequency plots are used
as tack. When they are removed, the removal often extensively to study how changes in polymer structure
occurs under conditions of high frequency called peel. or formulations affect the behavior of the melt. Often
Different properties are required in these regimes and to changes in materials, especially in uncured thermosetting
optimize one property may require chemical changes resins and molten materials, affect a limited frequency
that harm the other. Similarly, changes in polymer range and testing at a specific frequency can miss the
structure can show these kinds of differences in the problem.
frequency scan. For example, branching affects different It should be noted that since the material is scanned
frequencies..32/ across a frequency range, there are some conditions
where the material – instrument system acts like a guitar
string and begins to resonate when certain frequencies are
reached. These frequencies are either the natural reso-
Dynamic nance frequency of the sample – instrument system or one
of its harmonics. This is shown in Figure 19. Under this
G′ set of experimental conditions, the sample – instrument
Log moduli
system is oscillating like a guitar string and the desired

information about the sample is obscured. Since there is
no way to change this resonance behavior as it is a func-
tion of the system (in a free resonance analyzer, this effect
G ′′ is necessary), it is required to redesign the experiment by
changing sample dimensions or geometry to escape the
problem. Using a sample with very different dimensions,
which changes the mass, or changing from extension to
(a) Log temperature three-point bending geometry changes the natural oscil-
lation frequency of the sample and hopefully solves this
problem.
Dynamic
G′
Log moduli
Resonance
η∗
1010 Harmonics 1010
Complex viscosity
Storage modulus
G ′′ E′ 109
109
108 108
107 107
106 106
(b) Log frequency
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
Figure 18 Comparison of a modulus scan taken by scanning Frequency (Hz)
at various frequencies and by varying the temperature. This
relationship is called time – temperature equivalency and is Figure 19 Free resonance occurring during a frequency scan.
discussed later. (Used with the permission of Rheometric (Used with the permission of Perkin-Elmer Corporation,
Scientific, Piscataway, NJ.) Norwalk, CT.)
4.3 Thermoset Curing of handling and sample, the composite is often easier to
work with.
The ability of DMA to give viscosity and modulus values Another special area of concern is paints and
for each point in a temperature scan allows the estimation coatings.110,111/ where the material is used in a thin layer.
of kinetic behavior as a function of viscosity. This has the This can be addressed experimentally by either a braid as
advantage of describing how fluid the material is at any above or coating the material on a thin sheet of metal. The
given time, so as to determine the best time to apply metal is often run first and its scan subtracted from the
pressure, what design of tooling to use, and when the coated sheet’s scan to leave only the scan of the coating.
material can be removed from the mold. The simplest This is also done with thin films and adhesive coatings.
way to analyze a resin system is to run a plain temperature A sample cure profile for a commercial two-part epoxy
ramp from ambient to some elevated temperature..105 – 109/ resin is shown in Figure 20. From this scan, it is possible
This ‘cure profile’ allows the collection of several vital to determine the minimum viscosity (hŁmin ), the time to
pieces of information as shown in Figure 20. hŁmin and the length of time it stays there, the onset of
cure, the point of gelation where the material changes
4.3.1 Cure Studies in the Dynamic Mechanical Analysis from a viscous liquid to a viscoelastic solid, and the
beginning of vitrification. The minimum viscosity is seen
Before analyzing the cure in Figure 20 in more detail it in the complex viscosity curve and is where the resin
should be mentioned that in curing studies, all three types viscosity is the lowest. A given resin’s minimum viscosity
of commercial DMA instruments are used. The shape is determined by the resin’s chemistry, the previous heat
of curve and the temperature of events follow the same history of the resin, the rate at which the temperature
pattern. The values for viscosity and modulus often differ is increased, and the amount for stress or stain applied.
greatly. Both types of forced resonance DMA instruments Increasing the rate of the temperature ramp is known
also use samples impregnated into fabrics in techniques to decrease the hŁmin , the time to hŁmin , and the gel time.
that are referred to as ‘torsional braid’. There are some The resin becomes softer faster, but also cures faster. The
problems with this technique as temperature increases degree of flow limits the type of mold design and when
will cause an apparent curing of nondrying oils as thermal and how much pressure can be applied to the sample.
expansion increases friction. However, the ‘soaking of The time spent at the minimum viscosity plateau is the
resin into a shoelace’, as this technique has been called, result of a competitive relationship between the material’s
allows one to handle difficult specimens under conditions softening or melting as it heats and its rate of curing. At
where the pure resin is impossible to run in bulk (owing to some point, the material begins to cure faster than it
viscosity or evolved volatiles). Composite materials such softens, and that is where the viscosity starts to increase.
as graphite – epoxy composites are sometimes studied in As the viscosity begins to climb, an inversion is seen
industrial situations as the composite rather than the of the E00 and E0 values as the material becomes more
‘neat’ or pure resin because of the concern that the solid-like. This crossover point also corresponds to where
kinetics may be significantly different. In terms of ease the tan d D 1 (since E0 D E00 at the crossover). This is
E ′−E ′′ crossover ~ gelation point

108 108
Complex viscosity (Pa s)
107 107
106 Pa ~ solidity
Modulus (Pa)
106 106
Possible
105 105
E ′′ vitrification point
104 104
Curing
103 E′ 103
Melting 102 Minimum viscosity (time, length, 102

and/or temperature )
101 η∗ 101
compaction
100
50.0 70.0 90.0 110.0 130.0 150.0
T Slope of line is related to Eact
Figure 20 The DMA cure profile of a two-part epoxy showing the typical analysis for minimum viscosity, gel time, vitrification
time, and estimation of the action energy. See discussion in text. (Reprinted with permission from K. Menard, Dynamic Mechanical
Analysis: a Practical Introduction, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999.)
taken to be the gel point,.112 – 164/ where the crosslinks it does not allow for as much network development, but
have progressed to forming an ‘infinitely’ long network gives a series of hard (highly cross-linked) areas among
across the specimen. At this point, the sample will no softer (lightly cross-linked) areas.
longer dissolve in solvent. Although the gel point corre- On the way to vitrification, an important value is
lates fairly often with this crossover, it does not always 106 Pa s. This is the viscosity of bitumen.121/ and is often
do so. For example, for low initiator levels in chain used as a rule of thumb for where a material is stiff enough
addition thermosets, the gel point precedes the modulus to support its own weight. This is a rather arbitrary point,
crossover..115/ A temperature dependence for the pres- but is chosen to allow the removal of materials from a
ence of the crossover has also been reported..105 – 109/ In mold and the cure is then continued as a postcure step.
some cases, where powder compacts and melts before As will be seen below, the postcure is often a vital part of
curing, there may be several crossovers..116/ Then, the the curing process.
one following the hŁmin is usually the one of interest. Some The cure profile is both a good predictor of performance
researchers.117 – 119/ believe that the true gel point is best and a sensitive probe of processing conditions. A final
detected by measuring the frequency dependence of the note on cure profiles is that a volume change occurs during
crossover point. This is done either by multiple runs the cure..122/ This shrinkage of the resin is important and
at different frequencies or by multiplexing frequencies can be studied by monitoring the probe position of some
during the cure. At the gel point, the frequency depen- DMA instruments and also by TMA and dilatometry.
dence disappears..119/ Value is usually only a few degrees
different from that obtained in a normal scan and in most 4.3.2 Photocuring
cases is not worth the additional time. During this rapid
climb of viscosity in the cure, the slope for hŁ increase A photocure in a DMA instrument is run by applying
can be used to calculate an estimated Ea (activation a UV light source to a sample that is held at a
energy)..120/ This will be discussed below, but the fact that specific temperature or subjected to a specific thermal
the slope of the curve here is a function of Ea is important. cycle..123 – 125/ Photocuring is done for dental resin, contact
Above the gel temperature, some workers estimate the adhesives, and contact lenses. UV exposure studies are
molecular weight, Mc , between crosslinks according to also run on cured and thermoplastic samples by the same
Equation (28): techniques as photocuring to study UV degradation. The
cure profile of a photocure is very similar to that of a
RTr
G0 D .28/ cake or epoxy cement. The same analysis is used and the
Mc same types of kinetics are developed as for thermal curing
where R is the gas constant, T is the temperature in studies.
kelvins, and r is the density. At some point the curve The major practical difficulty in running photocures
begins to level off and this is often taken as the vitrification in a DMA instrument is the current lack of a commer-
point, Tvf . cially available photocuring accessory, comparable to the
The vitrification point is where the cure rate slows photocalorimeters on the market. One normally has to
because the material has become so viscous that the bulk adapt a commercial DMA instrument to run these exper-
reaction has stopped. At this point, the rate of cure slows iments. The Perkin-Elmer DMA-7e has been successfully
significantly. The apparent Tvf , however, is not always adapted.126/ to use quartz fixtures, a laboratory-made
real: any analyzer has an upper force limit. When that heating chamber and commercial UV source triggered
force limit is reached, the ‘topping out’ of the analyzer from the DMA instrument’s RS232 port. This is a fairly
can pass as the Tvf . Use of a combined technique such easy process and other instruments such as the RheoSci
as DMA/DEA [DEA is dielectric analysis, where an DMTA 4 have also been adapted.
oscillating electrical signal is applied to a sample; from
this signal, the ion mobility can be calculated, which is 4.3.3 Modeling Cure Cycles
then converted to a viscosity (see McCrum.18/ for details);
DEA will measure to significantly higher viscosities than The above discussions are based on using a simple
DMA] to see the higher viscosities or the removal of a temperature ramp to see how a material responds to
sample from parallel plate and sectioning it into a flexure heating. In actual use, many thermosets are actually
beam is often necessary to see the true vitrification point. cured using more complex cure cycles to optimize the
A reaction can also completely cure without vitrifying tradeoff between the processing time and the final
and will level off in the same way. One should be aware product’s properties..127,128/ The use of two-stage cure
that reaching vitrification or complete cure too quickly cycles is known to develop stronger laminates in the
could be as bad as reaching it too slowly. Often an overly aerospace industry. Exceptionally thick laminates often
aggressive cure cycle will lead to a weaker material as also require multiple stage cycles in order to develop
strength without porosity. As thermosets shrink on curing, Eh

ln h.t/ D ln h1 C C tk1 eEk /RT .31/
careful development of a proper cure cycle to prevent or RT
minimize internal voids is necessary.
By replacing the last term with an expression that treats
One reason for the use of multistage cures is to
temperature as a function of time, the equation becomes
drive reactions to completion. Another is to extend
Equation (32):
the minimum viscosity range to allow greater control
in forming or shaping of the material. The development Z t
Eh
of a cure cycle with multiple ramps and holds would be ln h.T, t/ D ln h1 C C k1 eEk /RT dt .32/
RT 0
very expensive if done with full-sized parts in production
facilities. The use of DMA gives a faster and cheaper way This equation can be used to describe viscosity – time
of optimizing the cure cycle to generate the most efficient profiles for any run where the temperature can be
and tolerant processing conditions. expressed as a function of time. The activation energies
can now be calculated. The plots of the natural logarithm
4.3.4 Isothermal Curing Studies of the initial viscosity (determined above) versus 1/T and
the natural logarithm of the apparent rate constant, k,
Often curing is done at a constant temperature for versus 1/T are used to give us the activation energies,
a period of time. This is how the data needed Eh and Ek . Comparison of these values with the k
for the kinetic models discussed in the next section and E with those calculated by DSC shows that this
are normally collected. It is also how rubber sam-
model gives larger values..110,111/ The DSC data are faster
ples are cross-linked, how initiated reactions are run,
to obtain, but they do not include the needed viscosity
and how bulk polymerizations are performed. Indus-
information.
trially, continuous processes, as opposed to batch,
Several corrections have been proposed, addressing
often require an isothermal approach. UV light and
different orders of reaction.139/ (the above assumes first
other forms of non-thermal initiation also use isother-
order) and modifications to the equations..140,141/ Many of
mal studies for examining the cure at a constant
these adjustments are reported in Roller’s 1986 review.142/
temperature.
of curing kinetics. It is noted that these equations do not
work well above the gel temperature. This same equation
4.3.5 Curing Kinetics by Dynamic Mechanical Analysis has been used to predict the degradation of properties in
Several approaches have been developed to studying thermoplastics successfully..143/
the chemorheology of thermosetting systems. Halley and
MacKay.129/ recently reviewed chemorheology and the 4.3.6 Mapping Thermoset Behavior: the Gillham – Enns
more common kinetic models. A fundamental method Diagram
is the Williams – Landel – Ferry (WLF) model,.130/ which
looks at the variation of Tg with degree of cure. This has Another approach to attempt to understanding fully
been used and modified extensively..131,132/ A common the behavior of a thermoset was developed by Gillham
empirical model for curing has been proposed by Roller et al..144 – 150/ and is analogous to the phase diagrams used
et al..133 – 138/ In the latter approach, samples of the by metallurgists. The time – temperature – transformation
thermoset are run isothermally as described above and (TTT) diagram or the Gillham – Enns diagram (after its
the viscosity versus time data are collected. This is plotted creators) is used to track the effects of temperature and
as log hŁ versus time in seconds, where a change in slope time on the physical state of a thermosetting material.
is apparent in the curve. This break in the data indicates Figure 21 shows an example. Running isothermal studies
that the sample is approaching the gel time. From these of a resin at various temperatures and recording the
curves, the initial viscosity, h0 , and the apparent kinetic changes as a function of time can do this. One has
factor, k, can be determined. By plotting log (viscosity) to choose values for the various regions and Gillham
versus time for each isothermal run, the slope, k, and et al. have done an excellent job of detailing how
the viscosity at t D 0 are apparent. The initial viscosity one picks the Tg , the glass, the gel, the rubbery, and
and k can be expressed according to Equations (29) the charring regions..151,152/ These diagrams are also
and (30): generated from DSC data.153/ and several variants,.154,155/
such as the continuous heating transformation and
h0 D h1 eEh /RT .29/ conversion – temperature – property diagrams, have been
k D k1 eEk /RT .30/ reported. Surprisingly easy to do, although rather slow,
they have not yet been accepted in industry despite their
Combining these allows one to setup the equation for obvious utility. A recent review.156/ will hopefully increase
viscosity under isothermal conditions [Equation 31] the use of this approach.
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, EŁ complex modulus
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Gel
E0 storage modulus
Fu
T g∞
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
rubber Char
ll
Vitr E00
cu
Sol−gel ifica loss modulus

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
re
tion
rubber J compliance
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Temperature of curing
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
Devitrifi k deformation
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,, , , , , , , , ,
,,,,,,,,,,,, , , , , , , , ,
,,,,,,,,,,,, , , , , , , , ,
,,,,,,,,,,,, , , , , , , , ,
,,,,,,,,,,,, , , , , , , , ,
,,,,,,,,,,,, , , , , , , , ,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
cation
T period
,,,,,,,,,
Gel glas
Ge s r density
lat Tg = T ∞
ion V g G shear modulus
itr
ific Me entanglement molecular weight
at
ion Sol−gel glass Mc molecular weight between cross-links
Mw Molecular weight
Liquid f Frequency
,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,, T g = T gel w Frequency in hertz
,,,
g k Rate constant
Ea Activation energy
T gel
g Sol glass vf Free volume
Ta,b,g Transition
T g0 Log time  Logarithmic decrement
 Torque
Figure 21 The Gillham – Enns or TTT diagram. (Reprinted
from J.K. Gillham, J.B. Enns, ‘On the Cure and Properties
of Thermosetting Polymers using Torsional Braid Analysis’,
Trends Polym. Sci., 2(12), 406 – 419 (1994), Copyright 1994, with ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
permission from Elsevier Science.)
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
CGL Constant Gauge Length
CTE Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
DDSC Dynamic Differential Scanning Calorimetry
DEA Dielectric Analysis
The authors acknowledge the Analytical Instruments DMA Dynamic Mechanical Analysis
Division of Perkin-Elmer Inc. and the Materials Sci- DMS Dynamic Mechanical Spectroscopy
ence Department of the University of North Texas DMTA Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis
for their support and assistance. In addition, the help DSC Differential Scanning Calorimetry
and advice of Professor Witold Brostow of the Materi- DTA Differential Thermal Analysis
als Science Department of UNT, Debra Kauffman and DTMA Dynamic Thermomechanical Analysis
Karen Lanigan of the PE Division Research Library, and FTIR Fourier Transform Infrared
the editorial staff of John Wiley & Sons Ltd is greatly GPC Gel Permeation Chromatography
appreciated. IR Infrared
TBA Torsional Braid Analyzer
TMA Thermomechanical Analyzer
LIST OF SYMBOLS TTT Time – Temperature – Transformation
UV Ultraviolet
WLF Williams – Landel – Ferry
d phase angle
tan d tangent of the phase angle, also called the
damping
s stress RELATED ARTICLES
g shear strain
e tensile strains Coatings (Volume 2)
gP shear strain rate Coatings Analysis: Introduction ž Mechanical Properties
eP strain rate of Solid Coatings ž Rheology in Coatings, Principles and
h viscosity Methods ž Thermal Analysis of Coatings
hŁ complex viscosity
h0 storage viscosity Food (Volume 5)
h00 loss viscosity Viscosity of Food: Measurement and Application
Polymers and Rubbers (Volume 8) 19. P. Flory, Principles of Polymer Chemistry, Cornell
Polymers and Rubbers: Introduction ž Atomic Force University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1953.
Microscopy in Analysis of Polymers 20. R. Bird, C. Curtis, R. Armstrong, O. Hassenger, Dynam-
ics of Polymer Fluids, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons,
Polymers and Rubbers cont’d (Volume 9) New York, 1987.
Dielectric Spectroscopy in Analysis of Polymers ž 21. J.D. Ferry, Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers, 3rd
Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Rubbers edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980.
22. J.J. Aklonis, W.J. McKnight, Introduction to Polymer
Viscoelasticity, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, New
Thermal Analysis (Volume 15)
York, 1983.
Thermal Analysis: Introduction ž Differential Scan-
23. L.C.E. Struik, Physical Aging in Amorphous Polymers
ning Calorimetry and Differential Thermal Analysis ž
and Other Materials, Elsevier, New York, 1978.
Inorganic Systems, Thermal Analysis Applications to ž
24. L.C.E. Struik, in Failure of Plastics, ed. W. Brostow,
Simultaneous Techniques in Thermal Analysis ž Ther- R.D. Corneliussen, Hanser, New York, 1986.
mogravimetry 25. S. Matsuoka, in Failure of Plastics, ed. W. Brostow,
R.D. Corneliussen, Hanser, New York, 24 – 59, 1986.
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DYNAMIC MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF POLYMERS AND RUBBERS 1

Dynamic Mechanical Analysis 1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY OF

Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry

Using trigonometry, this can be rewritten as Equation (9):

e.t/ D e0 [sin.wt/ cos d C cos.wt/ sin d] .9/

Time This equation, corresponding to the curve in Figure 2(c),

in Figure 2(c) and are [Equations 10 and 11]

No phase lag δ = phase lag = π /2 = 90°

ε0 Dynamic strain α amplitude ε0

2.2 Free Resonance Analyzers

If a suspended sample can swing freely, it will oscillate like

aging occurs and the material flows. This is the melting

4.1.1 Sub-Tg Transitions

For purely crystalline

related to the toughness a crystal−crystal slip, T α* occurs

Rubbery plateau (2)

(6) (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

5.5 4.0 be due to misidentification of the transition or because

to either localized movement in the main chain or very

E ′ (b) large side-chain movement to absorb sufficient energy.

1.1 than not the initial cost justification for a DMA is

Figure 11 Stress relief at the Tg in DMA. The overshoot

highly disordered state. On heating above the Tg these

which causes a sometimes dramatic increase in modulus.

elasticity was one of the areas that drove the development

of commercial DMA instruments. Although a decrease

Table 1 ASTM Tests for DMAa

D5023 DMA in Three Point Bending Tests

entanglement molecular weight, Me and for cases where

104 104 h0 / cMv3,4 .23/

[Equation 24] E0 – E00 crossover point is found. As frequency increases

power law zone and can be modeled by Equation (26): η∗

s ³ h.gP / D cgP n .27/ 103 103

system is oscillating like a guitar string and the desired

E ′−E ′′ crossover ~ gelation point

Melting 102 Minimum viscosity (time, length, 102

strength without porosity. As thermosets shrink on curing, Eh

Sol−gel ifica loss modulus

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