UNIT – III

Measurement of Pressure and vacuum: liquid column manometers, measuring elements for
gauge pressure and vacuum, indicating elements for pressure gauges, measurement of absolute
pressure, measuring pressure in corrosive liquids.

Pressure
Many instruments have been invented to measure pressure, with different advantages and
disadvantages. Pressure range, sensitivity, dynamic response and cost all vary by several orders of
magnitude from one instrument design to the next. The oldest type is the liquid column (a vertical
tube filled with mercury) manometer. Following table gives the instruments which are used in
various situations:
Table 19.2
Type of pressure to be measured Pressure Measuring instrument to be used
Low pressure Manometer
High and medium pressure Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
Diaphragm gauge.
Bellows Gauges.
Low vacuum and ultra high vacuum McLeod vacuum gauge
Thermal conductivity gauges.
Ionisation gauges.
Very high pressures Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
Diaphragm gauge.
Bulk modulus pressure gauge.

Manometers
The difference in fluid height in a liquid column manometer is proportional to the pressure
difference. Liquid column gauges consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube whose ends are
exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight is in equilibrium with the
pressure differential between the two ends of the tube. A very simple version is a U-shaped tube
manometer (Fig. 19.1) is half-full of liquid, one side of which is connected to the region of interest
while the reference pressure, which could be the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum, is applied to the
other. The difference in liquid level represents the applied pressure.

The types of manometers in common use are :

1) U-tube type,
2) enlarged-leg type,
3) well type,
4) Inclined – tube type and the ring type.

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U-tube manometer
It consists of U shaped glass tubes partially filled with a liquid known as manometer liquid, mercury
is a very common manometer liquid. These are known as two limbs of the manometer, if both the
limbs are connected to the same pressure source the level of mercury in both the limbs will be same,
but if these two limbs are connected to two different pressure sources, level of mercury in both the
levels will be different. In the diagram pressure P1 is greater than pressure P2. So, the mercury level
in the (P1) limb is pushed down compared to the P2 limb. Now, this difference between the mercury
level in right limb and left limb which is h is the measure of difference of pressures between the
limbs. So, P1= P2 + ρgh.

Liquid Head over a U-tube manometer

ρl = density of the liquid over manometer fluid

ρm = density of the manometer fluid

Well Manometer

Well-type manometers, in well-type manometer one leg is replaced by large diameter well. Since the
cross sectional area of the well is much larger than the other leg when pressure is applied to the well
the manometer liquid in the well lowers only slightly compared to the liquid rise in the other leg. So,
what we do is in a well-type manometer one leg is replaced by a large diameter well. Since the cross
sectional area of the well is much larger than the other leg when pressure is applied to the well the
monometer liquid in the well lowers only slightly compared to the liquid rise in the other leg. As a
result of this the pressure difference can be indicated only by the height of the liquid column in one
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leg. So, you do not have to measure the liquid level in both the legs you can measure the liquid level
in only one leg because the change in the mercury level in the well which has a large diameter is very
very low this makes the instrument easier to use than the U tube manometer.

Let us say the cross sectional area of the limb is A1 and the reservoir is A2, A2 is much greater than
A1. Now, when this two links are connected to different pressure sources the level of the mercury in
well goes down by a very small amount let us say Δh and the level of the mercury in the low
diameter leg increases much and let us this reading be h. So, initially this was the zero level. So, the
change in the mercury level in the well has gone down only by small amount Δh and the change in
the mercury level in the vertical leg is h and P2 is greater than P1. So, the amount of mercury that has
been pushed down in the well has only gone up in the vertical leg. So, I can write A2 X Δh which is
the volume of the mercury that has gone down in the well is equal to A1 h which is the amount of
mercury that is contained in this length
So A2 X Δh = A1 h
Δh= A1h/A2. For static balance we will write P2 is equal to P1, so P2 is equal to P 1 + ρg (h + Δh). So,
make a balance on these line. So, here the pressure is P2 and here the pressure is P1, pressure is P 1 +
pressure due to this mercury level + pressure due to this delta h. So, P2 equal to P 1 + ρg(h +Δh). If
you now, put Δh equal to (A1/A2) h.
P2 -P1 = ρg[1 +(A1/A2)] h.

Now, if A1 by A2 is much much less than 1 because A 2 is much much greater than A 1 then I can
neglect this and then P 2 - P1 can be written as P2 - P1 equal to ρgh. If the area of the well is 500 or
more times larger than the area of the vertical leg the error involved in neglecting the area term is
negligible.

Inclined Tube manometer

The inclined monometer or draft gauge is a variation on the well-type manometer in which one leg of
the tube is inclined to increase measurement sensitivity. Inclined manometers can measure low
pressures the low pressure arm is inclined so that the fluid has a longer distance to travel then in a
vertical tube for the same pressure change. This gives a magnified scale and thus increases sensitivity
of the manometer.

When the limbs are connected to two different pressure sources mercury level goes down here only
by this amount say Rm. But since this is inclined this much will be the increase in the length of
mercury in the tube and the relationship between Rm and R1 is Rm equal to R1 sin α. So, now, again I
can write the balance equation for static balance P2 - P1 equal to ρ g (1 + A1/A2) X Rm this follows
straight from the discussions on well type manometer. Rm = R1 sin alpha, so P2 - P1 equal ρ g into (1
+ A1/ A 2) into R1 sin α, if A2 is much much greater than A1 then A1 / A2 will be much much less than
1. So, in that case P2 - P1 = ρgR1 sin α. The scale of the manometer can be extended greatly by
decreasing the angle of the inclined leg α to a small value. This comes from the relationship Rm equal
to R1 sin α. If you make alpha small sin α will be small, so we have to increase our 1, so that R1 X sin
α matches with Rm. So, by decreasing the value of α, we can increase the sensitivity further.

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Ring balance manometer
Ring balance manometer; note that the dead weight pressure gage as well as the ring balance
manometer are the instruments where I am measuring pressure by balancing in against known force.
A ring balance manometer is used to measure differential pressure; this is a schematic of a ring
balance manometer. It consists of a tube with circular cross section, the tube may be made of plastics,
aluminum, metal and so on and so forth. So, a tube is bent into a ring and is supported at the centre
by a pivot; the tubular chamber is divided into two parts by splitting, sealing and then filling with a
suitable light liquid such as kerosene or paraffin oil for isolating the two pressures.

Connecting the two different pressure sources P1 and P2. Now when P1 equal to P2; that means, the
two ends are connected to the same pressure source; the tube will not experience any torque, that
tube will show no movement. But if these two limbs are connected to two different pressure sources
or these two chambers are connected to two different pressure sources. Then the ring balance
manometer will experience a torque which will try to rotate the ring. And then there is a weight
attached to the ring which will try to arrest that rotation.

So, there will be a balance between these two opposing forces and when balance is obtained, the
rotation of the ring or the angular rotation of the ring which is measured by an angle ϕ becomes the
measure of the differential pressure.

So, when P1 is equal to P2; the angular rotation will be 0. But when P1 is not equal to P2; that means,
the ring balance is connected to two different pressure sources there will be a net torque which will
try to rotate the ring. Let these rotation be measured by angle ϕ; so, this ϕ is a measure of the
differential pressure P2 - P1.

where α is the cross sectional area of the tube; w is the weight attached to the ring R is the diameter.

Measuring elements for Gauge Pressure and Vacuum

Mechanical Electrical
LVDT – Linear Variable differential
transmitter or transducer

Bourdon tube.
It is basically a tube with elliptical cross section and bent in the form of English letter C and one end
is sealed and connected to link. Tip displacement for a given bourdon tube is directly related to the
amount of pressure that is being applied inside the bourdon tube. See if I can measure this

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displacement, I can relate this to the pressure that is being applied. So, this displacement is raid by
attaching a pointer to the tip of the bourdon tube and that is done through a link a gear sector pinion
hire spring assembly.

When pressure is applied, it is cross section becomes more circular, crossing the tube to straighten
out until the force of the fluid pressure is balanced by elastic resistance of the tube material. That is
why, this is known as elastic element. Since the open end of the tube is fixed, changes in pressure
move the closed end and the displacement of the tip of the bourdon tube is a measure of the amount
of pressure that is being applied inside the bourdon tube.

To increase the sensitivity of the bourdon tube elements, we can extend the length of the bourdon
tube, that the tip displacement is directly proportional to the angular length. We can make a spiral
bourdon tube or we can form a helix structure.

We can use the materials for making a bourdon tube, which shows good elastic property. Commonly
used materials are bronze, beryllium-copper, steel, alloy steel and nickel span C. Nickel span C is an
interesting alloy, whose modulus of elasticity does not change with change in temperature.

The advantages of Bourdon tube pressure gauges are that they give accurate results. Bourdon tubes
are simple in construction and their cost is low. They can be modified to give electrical outputs. They
are safe even for high pressure measurement and the accuracy is high especially at high pressures.
The Bourdon gauge coupled with a S.S, capsule type sensing bulb is used in milk homogenizer.
The Bourdon tube pressure gauges have some limitations also. They respond slowly to changes in
pressure. They are subjected to hysteresis and are sensitive to shocks and vibrations. As the
displacement of the free end of the bourdon tube is low, it requires amplification. More over, they
cannot be used for precision measurement.

Bellows pressure gauge.

A bellows element is a one piece expansible-collapsible and axially flexible member. Bellows are
essentially thin walled cylindrical shells with deep convolutions and are sealed at one end. The sealed
end and will undergo axial displacement when pressure is applied at the open end. Bellows are made
of materials with good elastic property such as brass, phosphor, bronze, beryllium, copper etcetera.
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Stainless steel although not highly elastic is also sometimes used for it is anti-corrosive property.
Carbon steel is easily corroded and difficult to machine, so avoided.

Spring can be used inside the bellows to add to elasticity and also to determine the range. Bellows
are more sensitive than bourdon gauges. You can use bellows elements to measure differential
pressure. Note that to measure differential pressure, I make use of two bellows elements. So, I
connect one bellow element with one pressure source and other connect with another pressure
source. Both source displacement, and this pointer shows the resulting displacement. So,
displacement of this pointer is a measure of difference between these two pressures. So, that way it
shows differential pressure.

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The Metal-diaphragm pressure element

Diaphragm is a flexible disk usually with concentric corrugations. A diaphragm converts pressure to
deflection. This is similar to bourdon tube as well as bellows elements. So, bourdon tubes, bellows,
elements diaphragm all convert pressures to displacement of deflection. If we apply pressure, it will
show deflection. This deflection is a measure of the pressure being applied.

Bell type
Bell type manometer consists of an inverted container which is immersed in a sealing liquid. So,
when you apply pressure inside, it will try to push the bell up of course, that will be restricted by the
spring. And the displacement shown by the bell is noted as h; this displacement of the bell is a
measure of this pressure.

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The instrument consists of a bell suspended with the open end downwards in a sealed chamber
usually made of cast iron, containing a liquid such as oil or mercury. The liquid covers the open end
of the bell and acts as a seal, so forming two chambers.

In the second type, however, the bell is made of thin material and the controlling force is obtained by
means of a spring. If the bell is made of thin material, the areas over which the pressures act will be
equal on the inside and the outside. In this type of instrument it is usual to apply the high pressure to
the outside of the bell and the low pressure to the inside.

Differential pressure gauge;

In case of differential pressure gauge; we have to connect the pressure gauge to two different
pressure sources. So, I will apply one pressure inside the bell and another pressure from outside of
the bell. So, the bell type differential pressure gauge will consists of an inverted container immersed
in a sealing liquid and the sealing liquid is taken in a sealed chamber. Now as usual I apply one
pressure inside the bell and the other pressure outside the bell. Now these two pressures are separated
by the sealing liquids; again due to differences in this pressures P1 and P2, the bell will show a
moment which can be used to move this pointer against this scale. So, the movement of the pointer
against the scale can be used to measure the differential pressure P1 - P2. So, bell type manometer can
be used both to measure differential pressure as well as gauge pressure.

Electrical Indicating Elements for pressure gauge

Electrical pressure transducers
A transducer element usually gives us electrical signal as output and it becomes very convenient for
the purpose of measurement.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=FYggY7LLDrw
www.youtube.com/watch?v=wkGadXZlnyA

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Inductive type
Inductive type electrical pressure transducer consists of an linear variable differential transformer
(LVDT), where core is positioned by the pressure being applied through a diaphragm, bourdon tube
or bellows element. So, you apply pressure here, in this bourdon tube we have learnt in previous
classes that there will be deflection of this tip of the bourdon tube.

The core of the LVDT is connected to this pressure sensing capsule. Now when I apply pressure
here, this capsule receives the pressure and it will show deflection. So, this displacement will cause a
movement of the core of the LVDT. So, the LVDT will produce an electrical signal of voltage it will
produce and that will be dependent on the pressure being applied. So, I can directly calibrate the
output voltage of LVDT with this pressure.

Resistance-Rod Pressure Differential meter

The mercury manometer is arranged with a contact-rod assembly in one leg. The contact-rod
assembly includes about 100 resistance wires hung vertically with the length of wires selected so as
to form a spiral of contact points above the surface of the mercury at zero pressure differential. As
the mercury level moves upward, successive contacts are made between the wires and the surface of

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the mercury. Thus, the total resistance between the contact-rod head and the manometer chamber
varies from maximum when none of the rods are grounded to zero when all rods are grounded.

Bellow system: It consists of a precision potentiometer, this is the wiper arm you have a bellows
here. The bellows is connected to this wiper arm. We are also attached a spring here and this wiper
arm is pivoted. When pressure applied inside the bellows, the sealed end of the bellows will show
deflection as there is deflection the wiper arm will change the location here as it does, there will be a
voltage output from the wheat stone bridge. Initially you get a null point and then when you apply
pressure, the balance will be destroyed because the wiper arm has changed the position. So, the
output voltage is a measure of the pressure that you are applying inside the bellows. So, this way you
can convert the bellows to a resistive type electrical pressure transducer.

Electric Pressure gage (Stain gauge)

A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical conductance and its dependence
on the conductor's geometry. When an electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its
elasticity such that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become narrower and longer,
which increases its electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, when a conductor is compressed
such that it does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten, which decreases its electrical resistance end-
to-end. From the measured electrical resistance of the strain gauge, the amount of induced stress may
be inferred.
 The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which converts the mechanical elongation and
compression into aresistance change.
• This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length and cross sectional area of the
gauge wire, when an external force acts on it.

A typical strain gauge arranges a long, thin conductive strip in a zig-zag pattern of parallel lines. This
does not increase the sensitivity, since the percentage change in resistance for a given strain for the
entire zig-zag is the same as for any single trace. A single linear trace would have to be extremely
thin, hence liable to overheating (which would change its resistance and cause it to expand), or would
need to be operated at a much lower voltage, making it difficult to measure resistance changes
accurately.

Typical foil strain gauge; the blue region is conductive and resistance is measured from one large
blue pad to the other. The gauge is far more sensitive to strain in the vertical direction than in the
horizontal direction. The markings outside the active area help to align the gauge during
installation.

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 Electric Pressure gauge (Strain gauge)

Potentiometer meter
It uses a resistor of uniform resistance. By varying the position of the sliding contact on the resistor,
we take variable voltage from the resistor, but it is not a variable resistor. In a potentiometer entire
input voltage is applied across the whole length of the resistor and output voltage is the voltage drop
between the fixed and sliding contact as shown below.

Capacitive type

Magnetic –clutch method

The float in the mercury manometer positions the balls in a nonmagnetic tube below the float. The
permanent magnet is self-centering on the steel ball, and the glass balls are used for additional
buoyance. The movement of the float produces a corresponding rotation of the magnet arm, and a
pen or pointer operates over an indicating scale.

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Pneumatic –balance differential pressure meter
Pneumatic technology deals with the study of behaviour and applications of compressed air in
manufacturing automation in particular. Pneumatic systems use air as the medium which is abundantly
available and can be exhausted into the atmosphere after completion of the assigned task.
Many pneumatic devices use a nozzle and flapper system to give a variation in the compressed air signal. A
pneumatic transmitter is shown in Figure. If the flapper moves away from the nozzle then the transmitted or
output pressure will fall to a low value. If the flapper moves towards the nozzle then the transmitted
pressure will rise to almost the supply pressure. The transmitted pressure is approximately proportional to
the movement of the flapper and thus the change in the measured variable.

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High Vacuum Measurement:

McLeod gage (for calibration, more accuracy)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WbXN0U4oUJA
The McLeod Gauge is used to measure vacuum pressure. It also serves as a reference standard to
calibrate other low pressure gauges. The components of McLeod gauge include a reference column
with reference capillary tube. The reference capillary tube has a point called zero reference point.
This reference column is connected to a bulb and measuring capillary and the place of connection of
the bulb with reference column is called as cut off point. It is called so because if the mercury level is
raised above this point, it will cut off the entry of the applied pressure to the bulb and measuring
capillary. Below the reference column and the bulb, there is a mercury reservoir operated by a piston.

The pressure to be measured (P1) is applied to the top of the reference column of the McLeod Gauge
as shown in Fig. 20.2. The mercury level in the gauge is raised by operating the piston to fill the
volume as shown by the dark shade in the diagram. When the applied pressure fills the bulb and the
capillary, again the piston is operated so that the mercury level in the gauge increases. When the
mercury level reaches the cut-off point, a known volume of gas (V1) is trapped in the bulb and
measuring capillary tube. The mercury level is further raised by operating the piston so the trapped
gas in the bulb and measuring capillary tube is compressed. This is done until the mercury level
reaches the Zero reference Point marked on the reference capillary. In this condition, the volume of
the gas in the measuring capillary tube is read directly by a scale besides it. That is, the difference in
height H of the measuring capillary and the reference capillary becomes a measure of the volume
(V2) and pressure (P2) of the trapped gas. Now as V1, V2, and P2 are known, the applied pressure P1
can be calculated using Boyles Law given by:
P1V1 = P2 V2
The working of McLeod Gauge is independent of the gas composition. A linear relationship exists
between the applied pressure and height and there is no need to apply corrections to the readings. The
limitations are that the gas whose pressure is to be measured should obey the Boyles law and the
presence of vapours in the gauge affects the performance.

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Mcleod vacuum gage is essentially a modified manometer. This consists of a tube which is sealed at
one end, a bulb and a tube is attached. Another tube is connected to the vacuum source. Now this
tube is connected to a movable reservoir of mercury or the manometer liquid by a flexible tube or
flexible hose. Please note that when the mercury level goes down cutoff level, the branching point
and if this is connected to the vacuum source this entire thing is now exposed to the same vacuum.

The working principle volume V of the gas given by the volume of the capillary the bulb, and the
bottom tube up to the opening is trapped by lowering the movable reservoir down to the appropriate
extent the trapped gas of the volume V is then at the vacuum P this is what we explain. Now, the
movable reservoir is slowly raised till the level of the manometer liquid the capillary reference
matches with the 0 mark on the stem. This operation compresses the trapped gas to a volume Vc and
pressure Pc equivalent to the head Y indicated by the manometer as shown.

Advantages of the McLeod gage; it is independent of the gas composition. No property of the gas is
present in the equation. So, the measurement is independent of the gas composition. Use as standard
to calibrate other low pressures McLeod gage can be used as standard to calibrate other low pressure
gages, there is no need to apply any corrections to the McLeod gage readings.

Thermal Conductivity gages

Thermocouple gage
We have three different types. 1) thermocouple gage; 2) Pirani gage; 3) thermistor gage.

Thermal conductivity of a gas is independent of pressure at normal pressures; but at low pressures,
thermal conductivity of a gas depends on pressure in fact, it decreases with pressure. When the
pressure of a gas is low enough, so that the mean free path of gas molecules is large compared with
the relevant dimension of the gage, the pressure of a gas becomes dependent on its thermal
conductivity.

We have up filament which can be heated by supply of some energy. Now, this is kept as a within a
glass chamber; and to that glass chamber, I apply the vacuum that means, this is connected to the gas
source whose pressure I am going to measure. So, if this is the filament which is being heated by a
supply of constant energy input, this is my hot surface. Now, the glass tube will work as a cold
surface. So, there will be heat exchange between this hot filament and this cold surface. So, a heated
element supplied with a constant energy input will assume an equilibrium temperature when heat
input equal to heat loss by conduction plus radiation. So, as I told you there is heat exchange between
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the filament and the cold surface of the tube; filament works as hot surface and the surface of the
tube is the cold surface. So, there is energy exchange between a hot body and a cold body. And after
some time, a thermal equilibrium will be established. So, thermal equilibrium will be established
when the heat input to the filament which is coming from the constant energy source is equal to the
heat loss due to conduction, conviction and radiation. Heat loss from the filament may occur by
three different modes of heat transfer namely conduction, convection and radiation, but convection is
considered very negligible here. So, you can think that the heat loss is occurring mainly due to
conduction and radiation. Among these two, the conductive heat loss will depend on the gas pressure,
the thermal conductivity of a gas depends on the gas pressure. So, the heat conduction loss will
depend on the thermal conductivity of the gas pressure. In other words, the temperature that the
filament will assume when equilibrium is reached will have a relationship with the thermal
conductivity of the gas.

So, conduction heat loss from a heated conducting wire or hot thin metal surface is dependent on the
thermal conductivity and composition of the surrounding gas. Thus, for a given gas, the equilibrium
temperature of a heated conducting wire or hot thin metal surface is a function of pressure. I can
easily measure the temperature of the wire by say a thermocouple or by a bridge circuit. So, the basic
principal in nutshell is as follows. In a gas chamber, if I heat a filament with some constant energy
source, the temperature that the filament will assume at equilibrium will depend on the thermal
conductivity of the gas.

Now, if I measure the temperature of the filament I can relate the temperature measurement with the
gas pressure. And the temperature measurement can be done very easily let us say I can measure the
temperature of the hot filament by a thermocouple which may be welded to the hot filament or the
metal surface which is being heated up or I can also make use of a Wheatstone bridge to find out the
change in resistance due to change in temperature of the filament. So, either way I can relate the
temperature of the filament upon heating with the gas pressure. So, this is the principal all the
thermal conductivity gages uses.

Let us first talk about thermocouple gage what you see is a schematic of a thermocouple gage. So,
this is the glass tube. And through this, the gas is admitted that means, this is connected to the gas
source whose pressure I am going to measure. We have taken a thin metal strip, we have taken a thin
metal strip, which will be heated up by adjusting the current flowing through it and this will work as
a hot surface. So, inside the glass tube, I have taken a hot surface here which is the thin metal strip;
and this thin metal strip is being heated up by sending appropriate current through it.

Now, as the hot surface gets heated up, it will exchange heat with the surrounding gas and the cold
surface. Now, the heat conduction loss will depend on the thermal conductivity of the gas molecules,
which depends on the gas pressure. So, the equilibrium temperature that the hot surface will assume
will depend on the gas pressure. The temperature of the hot surface can be measured by attaching
thermocouple on the hot surface. So, a thermocouple can be welded onto the thin metal strip hot
surface and the temperature of the hot surface can be measured.
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Later on when we talk about temperature measurement, we will see that the output of the
thermocouple is millivolt. So, the thermocouple output is millivolt which is an indication of the or
which is a measure of the temperature of the thin metal strip. So, finally, this millivolt output of the
thermocouple which is a measure of the temperature of the thin metal surface indicates the pressure.
So, this conception is very simple. It is simply consists of a glass tube to which the gas pressure will
be admitted. And inside the tube we have mounted a thin metal strip, which will work as a hot
surface. It will be heated up by sending current through it. And then we measure the temperature of
the hot surface by taking help of say a thermocouple.

So, the hot surface in a thermocouple gage is a thin metal strip whose temperature may be
varied by changing the current passing through it. For a given gas and heating current, the
temperature assumed by the hot surface depends on pressure. Temperature of the surface is
measured by a thermocouple welded to the hot surface.

Pirani Gage

Pirani gages do not measure the wire temperature directly. Instead they use the fact that the
resistance of a conducting wire changes with the wire’s temperature. Pirani gages are generally more
accurate than thermocouple gage, but it is also more expensive than thermocouple gage. Gage has to
be calibrated for individual gas, because thermal conductivity is a function of the gas we are talking
about. So, different gases will have different thermal conductivity. Calibration is non-linear.
Temperature compensation is provided. The heated wire or the measuring element is connected as
one leg of a Wheatstone bridge. An exactly identical element is connected as another leg which is
exposed to ambient temperature and works as a compensator.

The Pirani gauge consists of a metal wire open to the pressure being measured. The wire is heated by
a current flowing through it and cooled by the gas surrounding it. If the gas pressure is reduced, the
cooling effect will decrease; hence the equilibrium temperature of the wire will increase. The
resistance of the wire is a function of its temperature and by measuring the voltage across the wire

16
and the current flowing through it, the resistance can be determined and so the gas pressure is
evaluated.

a Pirani gauge withtwo platinum alloy filaments which act as resistances in two arms of a
Wheatstone bridge. One filament is the reference filament and the other is the measurement filament.
The reference filament is immersed in a fixed-gas pressure, while the measurement filament is
exposed to the system gas. A current through the bridge heats both filaments. Gas molecules hit the
heated filaments and conduct away some of the heat. If the gas pressure around the measurement
filament is not identical to that around the reference filament, the bridge is unbalanced and the degree
of unbalance is a measure of the pressure. The unbalance is adjusted and the current needed to bring
about balance is used as a measure of the pressure.

Ionization Gage
These gauges are the most sensitive gauges for measuring very low pressures or high vacuum. The
principle of operation of these gauges sensing pressure of gas by measuring the electrical ions
produced when the gas is bombarded with electrons. Fewer ions will be produced by lower density
gases. The electrons are generated by thermo ionic emission. These electrons collide with gas atoms
and generate positive ions. The ions are attracted to a suitably biased electrode known as the
collector. The current in the collector is proportional to the rate of ionization, which is a function of
the pressure in the system. Hence, measuring the collector current gives the gas pressure.
The ionization gauges are of two types, the hot cathode ionization gauges and the cold cathode
ionization gauges. In hot cathode version an electrically heated filament produces an electron beam.
The electrons travel through the gauge and ionize gas molecules around them. The resulting ions are
collected at a negative electrode. The current depends on the number of ions, which depends on the
pressure in the gauge. The working of cold cathode gauge is also same with the only difference in the
production of electrons which are produced in the discharge of a high voltage.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4uoiPUoPFiI

Principle of ionisation gage.

An electron passing through a potential difference will acquire a kinetic energy that is proportional to
the potential difference through which the electron is passing. If this energy is large, an electron
strikes a gas molecule, there is a possibility that the electron may knock out a secondary electron
from the gas molecule; and in that case, the gas molecule will be converted to a positively charged
ion.

Number of positive ions formed is dependent on the number of gas molecules per unit volume and
number of gas molecules per unit volume is a measure of pressure. Of course, the number of positive
ions will also depend on number of collisions, so number of electrons that are passing through the
potential difference. But if I can keep the number of electrons passing through constant, then the
number of positive ions will depend on the number of gas molecules present in the chamber. And
number of gas molecules per unit volume is nothing but a measure of pressure. The pressure or
vacuum can be measured by measuring the current produced by the ionized gas molecules. This
current will be very small amount current, so amplification will be required for purpose of
measurement.

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Ionization Gauge is a device that is used to measure vacuum. In the hot cathode type, a column of
gas is introduced into which, a potential difference V is applied with free electron in the space. This
causes the electron with a charge e to acquire a kinetic energy Ve. If the pressure range of the gas in
the column goes below a certain limit, called the critical pressure, then corresponding to a voltage
larger than the critical voltage Vc, the energy Ve may be high enough to initiate ionization, and
positive ions will be produced when the electrons collide with the gas molecules.
The value of Vc is smallest for cesium (3.88V) and largest for helium (24.58V), among monoatomic
gases or vapours. For diatomic gases like N2, H2 and so on, it is roughly about 15V. This is known
as the ionization potential and at this potential the pressure is also important.
At very low pressures, during the intervals of time for transit from the cathode to the plate in a
vacuum chamber, more than one collision is unlikely for an electron. Then for a fixed accelerating
potential V>Vc, the number of positive ions formed would vary linearly with the value of pressure.
Thus, a determination of the rate of production of positive ions for a given electron current should
give a measure of the pressure.
Working
The construction of a hot cathode type ionization gauge consists of a basic vacuum triode. The figure
of an external control type hot cathode gauge is shown below.

External Type Ionisation Gauge

The grid is maintained at a large positive potential with respect to the cathode and the plate. The
plate is at a negative potential with respect to the cathode. This method is also known as the external
control type ionization gauge as the positive ion collector is external to the electron collector grid
with reference to the cathode. The positive ions available between the grid and the cathode will be
drawn by the cathode, and those between the grid and the plate will be collected by the plate.
The internal control type is shown below. Here the grid is the positive ion collector and the plate is
the electron collector.

Internal Type Ionisation Gauge

One of the most popularly used hot filament gauges for industrial applications is the Bayard – Alpert
type filament gauge. It consists of a helical grid with a potential of +150 volts. This huge potential
attracts the electrons and thus causes gas ionization. At -30 volts, the gas ions are attracted to the
central ion collector, thus producing an ion current of 100mA/Torr. This value is then fed to the
electronic systems to be amplified and displayed.

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The hot cathode ionization gauge is useful in measuring the total pressure of all the gases present in
the system. The biggest advantage of this device is its very small response time. This is because of
the devices small inertia. The device is used for pressure measurement between the ranges of 10-8 to
10-3 Torr with an output current varying between 10-9 to 10-4 A. But this range depends on the gas,
other things remaining constant.
Where the pressure is higher than 10-3 Torr, the positive ions make a greater impact on the cathode to
heat it up and ultimately destroy it. At pressure ranges below 10-8 Torr, in external control type, the
electrons impact over the grid and radiates soft x-rays, which results in the production of electrons
from the plates as secondary emission. These electrons produced will be of the same order as that of
the positive ion current in the plate circuit and thus neutralizes this current. Thus the internal control
type is known to be a better option to measure pressure as low as 10-9 Torr.
When the cathode remains at very temperatures (say 3000 deg C), the gaseous matters present inside
may reset with the filament or with themselves particularly at different pressure stages. This may
causes the device to produce wrong outputs and may also affect the cathode life. During extreme
conditions of high temperatures and low pressures, the presence of any gases inside the device, will
be forcefully released, thus causing the pressure to increase. Thus, the electrodes have to be properly
treated before use. This can be done only by passing high currents through the electrodes, especially
the filament and the grid and by high frequency heating of the plate. To overcome these problems,
the cold cathode type ionization gauge is also used by many.

Measuring Pressures in Corrosive Fluids

Steam-coil siphon

A pressure gauge siphon is a simple device used to protect a pressure sensor from high-temperature
media, such as steam. It can also be used to reduce the potentially damaging effects of rapid pressure
changes. These low-cost devices allow systems builders to use a pressure sensor with a much lower
temperature range in high-temperature applications. When first installed the siphon should be filled
with water or some other suitable separating medium. As seen in the diagram, condensation of the
pressure medium collected inside the coiled portion of the siphon prevents direct contact with the
external media.

A typical pressure gauge siphon like that shown in the diagram would be made from carbon steel,
rated at 48 bar (700 psi) and suitable for a maximum temperature of 230 ºC. However, siphons can
be made from other materials to reduce costs. Extra coils can be added, and the pipes can be made
longer or shorter to suit the requirements of the application.

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 Diaphragm seal in pressure measurement

Diaphragm seals (often also referred to as chemical seals), mounted with pressure gauges, process
transmitters, pressure switches etc., are recognised and valued internationally for the most difficult of
measuring tasks. By using diaphragm seals, the measuring instruments can be used at extreme
temperatures from -90 to + 400 °C and with aggressive, corrosive, heterogeneous, abrasive, highly
viscous or toxic media. The optimal diaphragm seal designs, materials and filling media are
available for each application.

Diaphragm seals are also referred to as chemical seals. It is a flexible material that separates the
process fluid or material from intering the measuring instrument and also transfer the fluid pressure
to the meter without contact.

Why to use a seal?

1) High pressure, the High temperature can affect the meter gauge directly, also fluid entering the
meter gauge can cause corrosion in it.
2) The measuring gauge or meters are separated from process fluid using a diaphragm as shown at
the bottom of the above picture.
3) The internal space between this diaphragm and the pressure measuring instrument is completely
filled with a system fill fluid. This system could transfer the mechanical pressure of diaphragm to
the measuring elements of the gauge.
4) The process pressure is get transmitted to the diaphragm and into the process fluid and from there
to the measuring element.
5) The diaphragnm material should meet the requirements in pressure withstand, corrosion,
Temperature.

Application:
 For the process fluid is corrosive
 For the medium is highly viscous and fibrous, thus causing measuring problems due to dead
spaces.
 The medium which has the tendency for crystallisation
 For very high-temperature medium
 For the process fluid is toxic.

Liquid seal in pressure measurement

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Purge system in pressure measurement

It is useful when a small and continuous flow of air or other gas through the measuring line is
sufficient to maintain the line free from sludge. Air is supplied at the necessary pressure through a
constant-flow regulator, which contains an orifice and a differential –pressure-controlling means. If
the flow of air through the line is constant, then there is a constant pressure drop in the measuring
line.

Response of Mechanical Pressure gages.

Head and Level

Measurement of head and level: Head, density and specific gravity, direct measurement of liquid
level,

Head, density and specific gravity

The second is pressure measurement in which the level or height is determined from the relation,
p= ρ g h.
Density and specific gravity may also be inferred from a pressure measurement
Specific gravity = Density of substance/distance of reference substance.

Direct measurement of liquid level,

a) Slight glass or gage glass on the vessel
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Sight glass is used for the continuous indication of liquid level within a tank or vessel. A sight glass
instrument consists of a graduated tube of toughened glass which is connected to the interior of the
tank at the bottom in which the water level is required
Sight glass or gauge is one of the simplest Direct level measurement techniques. As shown in
Figure the sight glass is normally mounted vertically adjacent to the container. The liquid level can
then be observed directly in the sight glass.
when the container is closed, In this case the ends of the glass are connected to the top and bottom of
the tank, as would be used with a pressurized container (boiler) or a container with volatile,
flammable, hazardous, or pure liquids. In cases where the tank contains inert liquids such as water
and pressurization is not required.

Float and Tape Liquid Level Gage

Float devices use the buoyancy of a float to indicate the liquid level in the tank. One common
approach is to attach the float to a chain. The chain is attached to a counterweight which indicates
the level as the float moves up and down. These types of device are often found on large
atmospheric storage tanks.
In liquid level measurement by floats, the primary device is a float which by reason of its buoyancy
follows the changing level of the liquid, the movement of the float is transferred to a pointer through
the some suitable mechanism. The various types of floats used are hollow metal spheres, cylinder
shaped ceramic floats and disc-shaped floats of synthetic materials
In the simplest float operated mechanism (fig ) for continuous direct liquid level measurement, the
float is attached to a cable which is wound around a pulley in which the indicating pointer is
attached. The movement of pointer is read on a scale which is calibrated in terms of the level of the
tank.

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Float and Tape Liquid Level Gage

https://instrumentationtools.com/float-
type-level-indicator-principle/
Figure below shows an alternative method of using pulleys to obtain a direct visual scale that can be
replaced by a potentiometer to obtain a linear electrical output with level.

Float and Shaft Liquid level

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Hydraulic Remote Transmission of liquid level

Pressure measurement in open vessels,

Bubbler System for Liquid –Level Measurement

Air purge (bubbler tube) is one of the most popular hydrostatic pressure types of liquid measuring
system which is suitable for any liquid as shown in fig. An air purge system consists of a hollow
tube inserted in the liquid of the tank. Two connections are made with the bubbler tube, one to the
regulated air supply and the other to a pressure gauge, calibrated in terms of liquid level. A bubbler is
connected in the air supply line which serves simply as a visual check to the flow of the supply air. A
level recorder may be connected with the pressure gauge to keep the continuous record of liquid level
as shown in fig

When there is no liquid in the tank or the liquid in the tank is below the bottom end of the bubbler
tube and the pressure gauge indicates zero. In other words, if there is no back pressure because the air
escapes to the atmosphere. As the liquid level in the tank increases, the air flow is restricted by the
depth of liquid and the air pressure acting against liquid head appears as back pressure to the pressure
gauge. This back pressure causes the pointer to move on a scale, calibrated in terms of liquid level.
The full range of head pressure can be registered as level by keeping the air pressure fed to the tube,
slightly above the maximum head in the tank. The range of the device is determined by the length of
the tube. Because air is continuously bubbling from the bottom of the tube, the tank liquid does not
enter the bubbler tube and hence the tube is said to be purging. The common purging fluid is air, but,
if air reacts with the tank fluid or is absorbed, different gases (Ca/N) are chosen depending on the
liquid properties.

Diaphram-Box System

The diaphragm box liquid level meter is shown in fig and consist of two flanges in between which is
contained a diaphragm element made of rubber or oil resistant synthetic composition. The box is
immersed in the liquid to be measured and an air filled capillary extends from it to the instrument.
The deflection of the diaphragm produced by the liquid head causes a compression of the air in the
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connection capillary. The capillary tubing, on the other end is connected to a secondary instrument
which through the air from the capillary tube indicates the liquid head exerted by the liquid on the
diaphragm. The capillary connecting tube, which enters the top flange, is extended into the
diaphragm box and is bent to one side, to prevent its being sealed by the diaphragm

Air Trap System for liquid-level measurement

air trap method is used when a diaphragm box cannot be used. Here a box without diaphragm is
inserted into the tank. In effect the box comprises an iron pipe which is inserted into the tank. The
upper end of the pipe is sealed and connected to the secondary instrument through capillary tubing
and the bottom end is exposed to the liquid in the tank. When the liquid level rises, the air in the
capillary tube is compressed and the instrument responds accordingly. Here it is important that the
liquid should be free from the solids, which otherwise might plug the capillary.

Level measurements in pressure vessels,

Differential Pressure Manometer for measuring the liquid level

Use of Liquid seals with a manometer

Displacement Float Liquid –Level Gage

25
Pneumatic – Balance Displacement –float liquid level meter

Measurement of Interface level

Fig. 9.11

Density Measurement
The measurement of density or specific gravity may be accomplished by two methods
1) The pressure at the bottom of a column of liquid is proportional to the density
2) The weight of a given volume of liquid (or gas) is proportional to the density.

26
Displacement Meter for Measuring Specific Gravity

Hydrometer method
Hydrometers are the simplest device for measuring the specific weight or density of a liquid. The
device consists of a graduated glass tube, with a weight at one end, which causes the device to float
in an upright position. The device sinks in a liquid until an equilibrium point between its weight and
buoyancy is reached. The specific weight or density can then be read directly from the graduations
on the tube. Such a device is shown in Figure

Baume gravity scale:

Two types of scales were developed depend upon the specific gravity by scientist Baume
1) Liquid heavier than water, Degree of Baume Ba, = 145 – (145/s.g.)
2) Liquid lighter than water, Degree of Baume Ba, = (140 / s.g.) – 140

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Continuous Hydrometer (Transmitting type)
Induction hydrometers
Induction hydrometers are used to convert the specific weight or density of a liquid into an electrical
signal. In this case, a fixed volume of liquid set by the overflow tube is used in the type of setup
shown in Figure, the displacement device, or hydrometer, has a soft iron or similar metal core
attached. The core is positioned in a coil which forms part of a bridge circuit. As the density/specific
weight of the liquid changes, the buoyant force on the displacement device changes. This movement
can be measured by the coil and converted into a density reading.

Level Indicator for Dry Materials

WEIGHING DEVICE
This is probably the simplest possible device whenever feasible and gives result most accurately. The
bin containing the solid is supported from scale levers or other types of force balancing system,
which can be mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric. This device can operate under high
temperature and pressure. It is very expensive particularly for large bins where supports etc, causes
lots of problems.
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DIAPHRAGM METHOD
The device consists of a flexible diaphragm which is exposed to the solid material in the bin. As
solid level rises, pressure forces diaphragm against counter weighted lever mechanism.
This device is best suited for detecting solid level at one particular point. One unit is required to
detect level at one point. Thus two units will be required to detect both high and low levels. If
intermediate levels are also to be detected, then more units may be used.

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