Pressure measuring instruments

Classification of pressure measuring instruments based on construction and working

principles
Four basic types of pressure measuring instruments are;

1. Liquid column elements:

Barometer
Manometer u tube, enlarge leg well inclined leg

2. Elastic element gauge:

Bourdon tube
Bellows
Diaphragm
Capsule

3. Electrical transducers:

Resistance and inductance type

4. Force balanced devices:

Dead weight gauge
Ring gauge
Bell gauge

BAROMETER:

Barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is the pressure

exerted by the air surrounding the earth that goes on decreasing away from the earth surface.

Working principle:
Barometric liquid balances the atmospheric pressure against vacuum and pressure head reading
is obtained in the absolute units.

Construction and working:

Barometer has a glass tube closed at one end and opened at the other; the length of the tube
must be greater than 76.2 cm. the tube is first completely filled by mercury and open end is
temporarily plugged. Then the tube is inverted so that plugged end is immersed in a mercury pan.
When the plug is removed, the mercury in the tube drops b y a certain amount, creating a vacuum
at the top of the tube and then reading h is noted. The reading h is proportional
to atmospheric pressure acting on mercury in the pan. Note that this atmospheric pressure reading
is in absolute units.

We have stated that vacuum is present the top of the tube above mercury, but actually there is
vapor pressure of mercury acting on mercury pressure P kg/cm2 is given by P= 6.66 X 10 -3h

MANOMETER:
 The device used to know about the pressure difference in the pipeline, it is a simple in
construction, basic law of physics are applied for calculation of the pressure drop. It is a glass or
metal tube with a 'U' bend providing with two legs. Manometeric fluids as mercury or carbon
tetrachloride etc., where the density should be higher than the fluid which flow through the pipe,
manometeric fluid will be filled in the tube for the value, the two legs are connected to the points
on which we are interested to calculate the differential pressure, when this done the fluid which
flow in the pipe or tube will enter into both the legs, the pressure on the leg will differ showing
the deflection of height in the manomertic fluid.

U-Tube Manometer

Principle: all manometers work on the effect of hydrostatic pressure exerted by a liquid column. In
manometer unknown pressure is determined by balancing it against some known pressure or
vacuum.
Construction and working:
The U-tube manometer consists of glass U-tube partially filled with a suitable liquid like water,
mercury etc. one of the arms or legs of the manometer, is connected to unknown pressure tap to
be measured while other is connected to other pressure tap or it is left open to atmosphere.
When there is difference of pressure between two arms of the manometer, liquid levels in the two
arms of the manometer, liquid levels in the two arms do not match. This level difference in the two
arms of the manometer represents differential pressure (P1-P2). The static balance equation is
P2-P1=h g
h=height difference
=mass density of manometer liquid
If the fluid over manometer liquid has appreciable density, then static balance equation can be
written as:
P2-P1= h (m - l) g
h= height difference
m = mass density of manometric liquid
l = mass density of fluid over manometric liquid

INCLINED LEG MANOMETER:

The construction is very similar to enlarged leg manometer except that small diameter tube is
inclined to the vertical axis.
When pressure P1 and P2 are applied then liquid rises in the tube,the level of manometer ic liquid
inside the tube is measured from zero level along the inclined tube which represents the
differential pressure (P1 P2) the static balance equation can be written as
P2-P1= d sin[1+(A1/A2)]
=anlge of inclination of the inclined leg
d= height difference measured
 Advantages:
Due to inclined leg, the manometer reading gets amplified. Hence it can be used for
measurement of low pressures of which cannot be measured by other manometers.
By reducing angle , the scale length and hence the sensitivity can be increased.

MANOMETRIC LIQUIDS:

Desirable properties of good manometric liquid should have

Low-freezing point
High boiling point
Non wetting characteristics
Low surface tension
Chemically inert
Clear visible interface
Ability to maintain density at various temperatures
MANOMERTIC FLUIDS USED IN PRACTICE ARE:
Mercury: mercury has low freezing point(-38F) and high boiling point (675F) but it corrodes
many metals and it is poisonous and expensive.
Water with colouring agents: colour agents reduce surface tension of pure water, that
reduce the capillarity effect in manometer.
Benzene, Kerosene, CCl4, toluene etc.. to make CCl4 visible a small amount of iodine
crystals can be added.

Calibration:
Manometer is subjected to known differential pressure and the corresponding height difference is
noted. The calibration curve can be prepared by plotting height difference versus differential
pressure. This curve can be used to get the differential pressure for certain height difference.
Sources of error:Temperature effect: rise in temperature causes decrease in manometric
liquid density that affects the calibration which leads to an error.
Capillary rise: to avoide capillary rise effect, the tube diameter should be
over 10mm otherwise capillary rise results in error in pressure reading.
Meniscus shape: For water the free surface is concave while for mercury free surface is
convex. The level of manometric liquid should be noted at the center of the meniscus.
Advantages and limitations:
Advantages:
Simple inexpensive construction
High accuracy and sensitivity
Can be used for low pressure measurements
Desired span can be obtained just by using suitable manometric liquids
Pressure range of manometers is 3 to 100KPa.
Limitations:
No over range protection
Requires larege space
 Non portable
Leveling is required
Condensation of test liquid affects the reading.

ELASTIC PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

Transducers are a device that converts one form of energy into some other form. These pressure
gauges have an elastic element that converts pressure signal into proportional mechanical
displacement. In this article we study Bourdon gauge, bellow gauge, diaphragm gauge and
capsule gauge.

BOURDON PRESSURE GAUGE:

Principle: E.Bourdon introduced Bourdon tube in 1852 as a curved or twisted tube having non
circular transverse section, according to Bourdon theory a tube having internal cross section that
is not a perfect circle if bent or distorted has the property of changing its shape with internal
pressure variation, this cause the free end deflection of the tube which can be taken as the
measurement of change in pressures inside it.

Bourdon gauges

Construction: Bourdon pressure gauges use different types of Bourdon springs as C-shaped
Bourdon tube which if formed by winding the tube to form a segment of a circle having arc- length
of about 270 degrees. In spiral type, number of turns is wound in the shape of a spiral about a
common axis. In helix type number of turns is wound in helix form. In these figures P indicates
direction of application of pressure, while T indicates tip travel for rise in pressure

We study C-shaped Bourdon tube gauge as it consists of a C-shaped Bourdon tube, tip,
adjustable link, segments lever, sector, pinion, spring, and pointer. A C-shaped Bourdon tube is a
thin walled tube having a non circular or nearly elliptical transverse section as one end of the tube
soldered or welded to a socket at the base through which pressure is fed inside the tube while the
other end is sealed by a tip. Adjustable link, segment lever sector or pinion are connected to the
tip, that convert linear motion of the tip into proportional rotary motion which is given to the pointer
that moves on the scale calibrated in terms of pressure. A hair spring is connected to the spindle
on which sector is mounted, that provides the necessary tension for meshing sector and pinion
thus eliminating any backlash.
Under range protection is particularly required for gauges having partial ranges (like 20to 50psi).
Bourdon tube material: a bourdon spring can be made of any metal or alloy that exhibits
satisfactory elastic properties. Material used are- brass, phosphor bronze, monel, beryllium,
copper, stainless steel etc.

Pressure range:
C-shaped tube 0 to 1,00,000
psi
Gauge pressure 0 to 12,000psig
Absolute pressure 0 to 100 psia
Vacuum 0 to 30 Hg
Working:
When fluid under pressure to be measured enters the bourdon tube, its cross section tries to
become more and more circular that caused straightening of the tube. Since one end of the tube is
fixed straightening cause the free end to deflect that is called a tip travel. The amount of tip travel
for given rise in pressure is a function of tube length wall thickness cross section geometry and
elastic module of the tube material. This linear tip travel is guided and amplified by adjustable link
and segment lever and then it is given to sector and pinion arrangement. Sector and pinion
convert the amplified tip travel into proportional rotary motion of the pointer connected to the
pinion. The pointer defection can be read on the scale calibrated in terms of pressure.
Helical and spiral types bourdon tubes have many numbers of turns hence the tops movements
for give change in pressure is more than that for single turn C- shaped tube.
Gauge pressure measurement: when unknown pressure is fed inside the bourdon tube and its
out side is exposed to atmosphere, the reading would be in gauge units.

Absolute pressure measurement: when unknown pressure is fed inside the tube and its
outside(instrument case)is evacuated, then reading would be in absolute units.
Vacuum measurement: procedure is similar to gauge pressure measurement. Bourdon vacuum
gauge have poor accuracy.
Calibration:
Bourdon gauge are calibrated using dead weight tester or by comparison calibration.

Advantages, limitations, Applications:

Advantages:
1.low cost and simple construction
2.wide pressure range
3. high accuracy in relation to low cost
Limitations:
1.Low spring gradient
2.Susceptibility to shock and vibration
3.Bordon tube material possess some hysteresis in a pressure cycle, hysteresis can be kept
minimum by proper heat treatment and by using proper materials.

Temperature Measurement
Devices

Temperature Sensors

The most commonly used type of all the sensors are those which detect Temperature or heat.
These types of temperature sensor vary from simple ON/OFF thermostatic devices which control a
domestic hot water heating system to highly sensitive semiconductor types that can control
complex process control furnace plants.

We remember from our school science classes that the movement of molecules and atoms
produces heat (kinetic energy) and the greater the movement, the more heat that is
generated. Temperature Sensors measure the amount of heat energy or even coldness that is
generated by an object or system, allowing us to sense or detect any physical change to that
temperature producing either an analogue or digital output.

There are many different types of Temperature Sensor available and all have different
characteristics depending upon their actual application. A temperature sensor consists of two basic
physical types:

Contact Temperature Sensor Types These types of temperature sensor are required to
be in physical contact with the object being sensed and use conduction to monitor changes
in temperature. They can be used to detect solids, liquids or gases over a wide range of
temperatures.
Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types These types of temperature sensor use
convection and radiation to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect
liquids and gases that emit radiant energy as heat rises and cold settles to the bottom in
convection currents or detect the radiant energy being transmitted from an object in the form
of infra-red radiation (the sun).

The two basic types of contact or even non-contact temperature sensors can also be sub-divided
into the following three groups of sensors, Electro-mechanical, Resistive and Electronic and all
three types are discussed below.

The Thermostat

The Thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical temperature sensor or switch, that basically
consists of two different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium etc, that are bonded
together to form a Bi-metallic strip. The different linear expansion rates of the two dissimilar
metals produces a mechanical bending movement when the strip is subjected to heat.

The bi-metallic strip can be used itself as an electrical switch or as a mechanical way of operating
an electrical switch in thermostatic controls and are used extensively to control hot water heating
elements in boilers, furnaces, hot water storage tanks as well as in vehicle radiator cooling
systems.

The Bi-metallic Thermostat

The thermostat consists of two thermally different metals stuck together back to back. When it is
cold the contacts are closed and current passes through the thermostat. When it gets hot, one
metal expands more than the other and the bonded bi-metallic strip bends up (or down) opening
the contacts preventing the current from flowing.

On/Off Thermostat

There are two main types of bi-metallic strips based mainly upon their movement when subjected
to temperature changes. There are the snap-action types that produce an instantaneous
ON/OFF or OFF/ON type action on the electrical contacts at a set temperature point, and the
slower creep-action types that gradually change their position as the temperature changes.

Snap-action type thermostats are commonly used in our homes for controlling the temperature set
point of ovens, irons, immersion hot water tanks and they can also be found on walls to control the
domestic heating system.

Creeper types generally consist of a bi-metallic coil or spiral that slowly unwinds or coils-up as the
temperature changes. Generally, creeper type bi-metallic strips are more sensitive to temperature
changes than the standard snap ON/OFF types as the strip is longer and thinner making them
ideal for use in temperature gauges and dials etc.

Although very cheap and are available over a wide operating range, one main disadvantage of the
standard snap-action type thermostats when used as a temperature sensor, is that they have a
large hysteresis range from when the electrical contacts open until when they close again. For
example, it may be set to 20oC but may not open until 22oC or close again until 18oC.

So the range of temperature swing can be quite high. Commercially available bi-metallic
thermostats for home use do have temperature adjustment screws that allow for a more precise
desired temperature set-point and hysteresis level to be pre-set.
The Thermistor

The Thermistor is another type of temperature sensor, whose name is a combination of the
words THERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR. A thermistor is a special type of resistor which changes
its physical resistance when exposed to changes in temperature.

Thermistor

Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel, manganese or
cobalt coated in glass which makes them easily damaged. Their main advantage over snap-action
types is their speed of response to any changes in temperature, accuracy and repeatability.

Most types of thermistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance or (NTC), that is
their resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the temperature, and of course there are
some which have a Positive Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), in that their resistance value goes UP
with an increase in temperature.

Thermistors are constructed from a ceramic type semiconductor material using metal oxide
technology such as manganese, cobalt and nickel, etc. The semiconductor material is generally
formed into small pressed discs or balls which are hermetically sealed to give a relatively fast
response to any changes in temperature.

Thermistors are rated by their resistive value at room temperature (usually at 25 oC), their time
constant (the time to react to the temperature change) and their power rating with respect to the
current flowing through them. Like resistors, thermistors are available with resistance values at
room temperature from 10s of M down to just a few Ohms, but for sensing purposes those types
with values in the kilo-ohms are generally used.

Thermistors are passive resistive devices which means we need to pass a current through it to
produce a measurable voltage output. Then thermistors are generally connected in series with a
suitable biasing resistor to form a potential divider network and the choice of resistor gives a
voltage output at some pre-determined temperature point or value for example:

Temperature Sensors Example No1

The following thermistor has a resistance value of 10K at 25 oC and a resistance value of 100 at
100oC. Calculate the voltage drop across the thermistor and hence its output voltage (Vout) for
both temperatures when connected in series with a 1k resistor across a 12v power supply.
At 25oC

At 100oC

By changing the fixed resistor value of R2 (in our example 1k) to a potentiometer or preset, a
voltage output can be obtained at a predetermined temperature set point for example, 5v output at
60oC and by varying the potentiometer a particular output voltage level can be obtained over a
wider temperature range.

It needs to be noted however, that thermistors are non-linear devices and their standard
resistance values at room temperature is different between different thermistors, which is due
mainly to the semiconductor materials they are made from. The Thermistor, have an exponential
change with temperature and therefore have a Beta temperature constant ( ) which can be used
to calculate its resistance for any given temperature point.

However, when used with a series resistor such as in a voltage divider network or Whetstone
Bridge type arrangement, the current obtained in response to a voltage applied to the
divider/bridge network is linear with temperature. Then, the output voltage across the resistor
becomes linear with temperature.

Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD).

Another type of electrical resistance temperature sensor is the Resistance Temperature

Detector or RTD. RTDs are precision temperature sensors made from high-purity conducting
metals such as platinum, copper or nickel wound into a coil and whose electrical resistance
changes as a function of temperature, similar to that of the thermistor. Also available are thin-film
RTDs. These devices have a thin film of platinum paste is deposited onto a white ceramic
substrate.
 A Resistive RTD

Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature coefficients (PTC) but unlike the
thermistor their output is extremely linear producing very accurate measurements of temperature.

However, they have very poor thermal sensitivity, that is a change in temperature only produces a
very small output change for example, 1/oC.

The more common types of RTDs are made from platinum and are called Platinum Resistance
Thermometer or PRTs with the most commonly available of them all the Pt100 sensor, which has
a standard resistance value of 100 at 0 oC. The downside is that Platinum is expensive and one
of the main disadvantages of this type of device is its cost.

Like the thermistor, RTDs are passive resistive devices and by passing a constant current through
the temperature sensor it is possible to obtain an output voltage that increases linearly with
temperature. A typical RTD has a base resistance of about 100 at 0 oC, increasing to about 140
at 100oC with an operating temperature range of between -200 to +600 oC.

Because the RTD is a resistive device, we need to pass a current through them and monitor the
resulting voltage. However, any variation in resistance due to self heat of the resistive wires as the
current flows through it, I2R , (Ohms Law) causes an error in the readings. To avoid this, the RTD
is usually connected into a Whetstone Bridge network which has additional connecting wires for
lead-compensation and/or connection to a constant current source.

The Thermocouple

The Thermocouple is by far the most commonly used type of all the temperature sensor types.
Thermocouples are popular due to its simplicity, ease of use and their speed of response to
changes in temperature, due mainly to their small size. Thermocouples also have the widest
temperature range of all the temperature sensors from below -200 oC to well over 2000oC.

Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consists of two junctions of dissimilar
metals, such as copper and constantan that are welded or crimped together. One junction is kept
at a constant temperature called the reference (Cold) junction, while the other the measuring (Hot)
junction. When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is developed across the
junction which is used to measure the temperature sensor as shown below.

Thermocouple Construction
The operating principal of a thermocouple is very simple and basic. When fused together the
junction of the two dissimilar metals such as copper and constantan produces a thermo-electric
effect which gives a constant potential difference of only a few millivolts (mV) between them. The
voltage difference between the two junctions is called the Seebeck effect as a temperature
gradient is generated along the conducting wires producing an emf. Then the output voltage from
a thermocouple is a function of the temperature changes.

If both the junctions are at the same temperature the potential difference across the two junctions
is zero in other words, no voltage output as V1 = V2. However, when the junctions are connected
within a circuit and are both at different temperatures a voltage output will be detected relative to
the difference in temperature between the two junctions, V1 V2. This difference in voltage will
increase with temperature until the junctions peak voltage level is reached and this is determined
by the characteristics of the two dissimilar metals used.

Thermocouples can be made from a variety of different materials enabling extreme temperatures
of
between -200oC to over +2000oC to be measured. With such a large choice of materials and
temperature range, internationally recognised standards have been developed complete with
thermocouple colour codes to allow the user to choose the correct thermocouple sensor for a
particular application. The British colour code for standard thermocouples is given below.

Thermocouple Colour Codes

Thermocouple Sensor Colour CodesExtension and Compensating Leads

Code Type Conductors (+/-)

J Iron / Constantan

K
 N Nicrosil / Nisil

T Copper / Constantan

The three most common thermocouple materials used above for general temperature
measurement are Iron-Constantan (Type J), Copper-Constantan (Type T), and Nickel-
Chromium (Type K). The output voltage from a thermocouple is very small, only a few millivolts
(mV) for a 10oC change in temperature difference and because of this small voltage output some
form of amplification is generally required.

Thermocouple Amplification

The type of amplifier, either discrete or in the form of an Operational Amplifier needs to be
carefully selected, because good drift stability is required to prevent recalibration of the
thermocouple at frequent intervals. This makes the chopper and instrumentation type of amplifier
preferable for most temperature sensing applications.

Other Temperature Sensor Types not mentioned here include, Semiconductor Junction Sensors,
Infra-red and Thermal Radiation Sensors, Medical type Thermometers, Indicators and Colour
Changing Inks or Dyes.

In this tutorial about Temperature Sensor Types, we have looked at several examples of sensors
that can be used to measure changes in temperature. In the next tutorial we will look at sensors
that are used to measure light quantity, such as Photodiodes, Phototransistors, Photovoltaic Cells
and the Light Dependant Resistor.