STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• Light Dependent Process (Light Reactions or Phosphorylation)

 requires the direct energy of light o make energy carrier molecules that are used in the
second process

 occur in the grana

• Light Independent Process (Dark Reactions or Calvin Cycle )

 occurs when the products of the Light Reaction are used to form C-C covalent bonds
of carbohydrates

 take place in the stroma of the chloroplasts

Light reactions

A. Absorption by pigment molecules

Pigment: A substance that absorbs light, often selectively

1. The pigments involved in photosynthesis include: the chlorophylls and the carotenoids (red,
orange or yellow pigments--carotenes and xanthophylls--abundant chlorophyll masks their
color), which are packed into specialized membranes called thylakoids as photosynthetic units--
photosystems.

Photosystem: discrete unit of organization of chlorophyll and other pigment molecules

embedded in thylakoids of chloroplasts and involved with light, required in the reaction of
photosynthesis.

2. When the pigments absorb the light energy, they emit a certain absorption spectrum
(spectrum of light waves absorbed by a particular pigment).

3. The light is absorbed by the pigment molecules. All chlorophyll molecules within a particular
photosystem can absorb light energy in the form of photons, but only one can use the energy in a
photochemical reaction--reaction center. The other molecules are termed antennae pigments
because they act as an antennae for gathering light. Any photon absorbed outside the reaction
center is transferred molecule by molecule to the reaction center.
4. Once the photon reaches the reaction center, the chlorophyll molecule absorbs the energy. One
of its electrons is boosted to a higher energy state and transferred to an acceptor molecule to
initiate the electron transport chain. The chlorophyll molecule is thus oxidized and positively
charged.

5. There are two different kinds of photosystems that usually work simultaneously and together:
Photosystem I (PI) and Photosystem II (PII).

a. PI: P700.
b. PII: P680.

B. Steps of the light reaction

1. Light energy enters PII where it is trapped by the P680 reaction center.

2. P680 becomes excited and transfers an energized electron to an acceptor molecule.

3. The electrons are replaced by photolysis (splitting of a water molecule). This is the process
that releases O2 gas into the atmosphere.

4. The electrons pass downhill to PI. During this process, the electron transport chain allows for
the formation of ATP from ADP + P-- Photophosphorylation. More specifically, as the electrons
flow down the chain, protons move from the stroma into the thylakoid space and thus create a
gradient of potential energy. As the protons pass down this gradient and back into the stroma,
they pass through an ATP synthetase and ATP is formed.

5. The light energy in PI boosts the electrons from P700 to another electron acceptor.

6. It is then passed to ferredoxin and then to the coenzyme NADP (an electron carrier). This
results in the reduction of NADP to NADPH2 and the oxidation of P700 .

7. Electrons from PII replace those removed from the P700 molecule.

8. Thus, there is a continuous flow of electrons from water to PII to PI to NADP--and this
reaction is therefore called noncyclic electron flow. The production of ATP is therefore called
noncyclic photophosphorylation.

C. Cyclic Photophosphorylation

1. PI can also work independently of PII.

2. This cyclic electron flow occurs when the electrons from the P700 molecule are boosted by
the illumination of PI.
3. However, instead of being passed to NADP, the electrons are sent down the electron transport
chain that connects PI and PII

4. ATP is produced-- cyclic photophosphorylation.

5. Eukaryotic cells are able to synthesize ATP by this method, however, no water is split, thus no
O2 is released, and NADPH2 is not formed.

6. Therefore, this process is believed to occur when the cell has reducing power already in the
form of NADPH2, but still requires additional ATP. It is also believed that the most primitive
photosynthetic mechanisms worked in this way. This process is also apparently used by some
bacteria to carry out photosynthesis.
DARK REACTIONS
Steps

1. Triose phosphate isomerase converts all of the G3P reversibly into dihydroxyacetone
phosphate (DHAP), also a 3-carbon molecule.
2. Aldolase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase convert a G3P and a DHAP into fructose 6-
phosphate (6C). A phosphate ion is lost into solution.
3. Then fixation of another CO2 generates two more G3P.
4. F6P has two carbons removed by transketolase, giving erythrose-4-phosphate. The two
carbons on transketolase are added to a G3P, giving the ketose xylulose-5-phosphate
(Xu5P).
5. E4P and a DHAP (formed from one of the G3P from the second CO 2 fixation) are
converted into sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate (7C) by aldolase enzyme.
6. Sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase (one of only three enzymes of the Calvin cycle that are
unique to plants) cleaves sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate into sedoheptulose-7-
phosphate, releasing an inorganic phosphate ion into solution.
7. Fixation of a third CO2 generates two more G3P. The ketose S7P has two carbons
removed by transketolase, giving ribose-5-phosphate (R5P), and the two carbons
remaining on transketolase are transferred to one of the G3P, giving another Xu5P. This
leaves one G3P as the product of fixation of 3 CO 2, with generation of three pentoses that
can be converted to Ru5P.
8. R5P is converted into ribulose-5-phosphate (Ru5P, RuP) by phosphopentose isomerase.
Xu5P is converted into RuP by phosphopentose epimerase.
9. Finally, phosphoribulokinase (another plant-unique enzyme of the pathway)
phosphorylates RuP into RuBP, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, completing the Calvin Cycle.
This requires the input of one ATP.

Thus, of 6 G3P produced, three RuBP (5C) are made, totaling 15 carbons, with only one
available for subsequent conversion to hexose. This required 9 ATPs and 6 NADPH per 3 CO2.

RuBisCO also reacts competitively with O2 instead of CO2 in photorespiration. The rate of
photorespiration is higher at high temperatures. Photorespiration turns RuBP into 3PGA and 2-
phosphoglycolate, a 2-carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and glyoxalate to
glycine. Via the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate, two glycines are converted into
serine +CO2. Serine can be converted back to 3-phosphoglycerate. Thus, only 3 of 4 carbons
from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to 3PGA. It can be seen that photorespiration
has very negative consequences for the plant, because, rather than fixing CO2, this process leads
to loss of CO2. C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in
certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates, for example, corn.

Products

The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following:

3 CO2 + 6 NADPH + 5 H2O + 9 ATP → glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) + 2 H+ + 6

NADP+ + 9 ADP + 8 Pi
or
 3 CO2 + 6 C21H29N7O17P3 + 5 H2O + 9 C10H16N5O13P3 → C3H5O3-PO32- + 2 H+ + 6 NADP+
+ 9 C10H15N5O10P2 + 8 Pi

Hexose (six-carbon) sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle. Although many texts list a
product of photosynthesis as C6H12O6, this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of
respiration, where six-carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of
the Calvin cycle are three-carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates," namely,
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).

Products of Photosynthesis

The primary product of Photosynthesis is Glucose which is the source of carbohydrates

like cellulose, starches etc. The process of Photosynthesis also produces fats, proteins, water
soluble sugars such as maltose and sucrose. The plants depend on this glucose for their growth
and energy.

All the living creatures on the earth depend on fats, proteins and carbohydrates to derive
their basic source of energy and thus have a direct dependence on the process of Photosynthesis
for their survival.

Photosynthesis and Respiration

The importance of Photosynthesis can be understood with respect to our breathing

process. The breathing process keeps us alive and Photosynthesis provides us oxygen to breathe
in.

The process of Photosynthesis and Respiration are inter-related and serve one another.
While Photosynthesis requires carbon-dioxide and releases oxygen to produce glucose,
Respiration needs oxygen while inhaling and releases carbon-dioxide while exhaling.

Photosynthesis happens during the day time when the sun shines because the plants
require sunlight to produce energy. On the other hand Respiration happens all the time as long as
a living creature is alive.
 However, unlike other living creatures, the plants breathe once in a day. During night,
when there is no sunlight, the stomata (pores through which sunlight and carbon-dioxide enter
the leaves) are closed and the leaves breathe releasing carbon-dioxide in the air.

Photosynthesis and Environment

The level of carbon-dioxide in the environment largely depends on the process of

Photosynthesis. The process of Photosynthesis again depends on the number of plants and trees
we have. Excessive increase or decrease in the level of carbon-dioxide can bring forth disastrous
results on the planet earth.

Industrial revolutions and technical progress have led to too many factories, production
houses, buildings, roads etc thereby increasing the use of fuel and release of industrial waste and
carbon-dioxide which can be very harmful for the environment.

Just the way, an increase in the carbon-dioxide level may harm the environment;
similarly decrease in the level may cause the planet to freeze as CO2 helps in keeping our planet
warm and live-able. Photosynthesis helps in maintaining the balance of the carbon-dioxide level
in nature by taking in CO2 in the day time (and simultaneously supplying oxygen for other living
beings) and breathing it out in the night.

Photosynthesis and Life

Photosynthesis is directly related to the life and survival of all the other living creatures
on earth. It not just supplies oxygen without which breathing and being alive would be difficult,
but it also supplies food and energy to all.

Among all the living organisms on planet earth only plants are capable of producing their
own food and deriving energy from it. No other living creature can produce their food and thus,
depend on plants or other creatures which feed on plants to survive. Therefore, by producing
energy the plants supply all the necessary nutrients and energy directly and/or indirectly to the
other living creatures. The production of this energy is possible through Photosynthesis.