Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolysis
 takes place in cytoplasm of the cell
 anaerobic process
 6-carbon sugar, glucose, is broken down into two molecules of 3-carbon
molecule called pyruvate
 Net gain: 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules
 STEPS
ENERGY-INVESTMENT STAGE
STEP 1: Glucose is phosphorylated by ATP to form Glucose 6-
phosphate
STEP 2 & 3: The atoms of glucose 6-phosphate are rearrange
to form fructose 6-phosphate.
Fructose 6-phpsphate is phosphorylated by ATP to form
fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
LYSIS STAGE
STEP 4: Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate is cleaved to form G3P
and DHAP
STEP 5: DHAP is rearranged to form another G3P
ENERGY-CONSERVING STAGE
STEP 6: Pi are added to the two G3P, and two NAD+ are
reduced
STEP 7: Two ADP are phosphorylated by substrate-level
phosphorylation to form two ATP
STEP 8 & 9: The remaining phosphates are moved to the
middle carbons. A water molecule is removed from each
substrate.
STEP 10: Two ADP are phosphorylated by substrate-level
phosphorylation to form two ATP. Two pyruvate are form.
 PRODUCTS:
2 Pyruvates (Pyruvate oxidation)
2 NADH (ETC)
2 H2O (use during the process)
2 ATP (net gain, counted as product)
2. Aerobic
 is the process of producing cellular energy involving oxygen.
 cells break down food in the mitochondria in a long, multistep process.
 produces roughly 36 ATP.
  The first step in is glycolysis, the second is the citric acid cycle and the
third is the electron transport system.
3. Anaerobic
 process by which cells that do not breathe oxygen liberate energy from
fuel to power their life functions.
 takes place in the cytoplasm of cells
4. Kreb’s Cycle
 The sequence of reactions by which most living cells generate energy
during the process of aerobic respiration. It takes place in the
mitochondria, consuming oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water as
waste products, and converting ADP to energy-rich ATP.
 Process:
In order for pyruvate from glycolysis to enter the Kreb's Cycle it must first
be converted into acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
which is an oxidative process wherein NADH and CO2 are formed.
Another source of acetyl-CoA is beta oxidation of fatty acids.
Acetyl-CoA enters the Kreb Cycle when it is joined to oxaloacetate by
citrate synthase to produce citrate. This process requires the input of
water. Oxaloacetate is the final metabolite of the Kreb Cycle and it joins
again to start the cycle over again, hence the name Kreb's Cycle. This is
known as the committed step
Citrate is then converted into isocitrate by the enzyme aconitase. This is
accomplished by the removal and addition of water to yield an isomer.
Isocitrate is converted into alpha-ketogluterate by isocitrate
dehydrogenase. The byproducts of which are NADH and CO2.
Apha-ketogluterate is then converted into succynl-CoA by alpha-
ketogluterate dehydrogenase. NADH and CO2 are once again produced.
Succynl-CoA is then converted into succinate by succynl-CoA synthetase
which yields one ATP per succynl-CoA.
Succinate coverts into fumerate by way of the enzyme succinate
dehydrogenase and [FAD] is reduced to [FADH2] which is a prosthetic
group of succinate dehydrogenase. Succinate dehydrogenase is a direct
part of the ETC. It is also known as electron carrier II.
Fumerate is then converted to malate by hydration with the use of
fumerase.
Malate is converted into oxaloacetate by malate dehydrogenase the
byproducts of which are NADH.
5. Oxaloacetate
 is an intermediate of the citric acid cycle, where it reacts with acetyl-CoA
to form citrate, catalysed by citrate synthase.
 6. Electron Transport Chain
 The electron transport chain (aka ETC) is a process in which the NADH
and [FADH2] produced during glycolysis, β-oxidation, and other catabolic
processes are oxidized thus releasing energy in the form of ATP. The
mechanism by which ATP is formed in the ETC is called chemiosmotic
phosphorolation.
 Products: 32-34 ATP 6 water NAD & FAD ( are recycled to be used
again in the citric acid cycle and glycolisis )

Photosynthesis

1. Light Dependent Reaction

 Convert light energy to chemical energy (ATP and NADPH) and produce
oxygen gas as a waste product
 Photophosphorylation that includes Electron transport chain and
chemiosmosis

 Requirements:
Photosystems (I and II), Mobile electron acceptor (Pq, Pc, Fd), Stationary
electron acceptor (Cytochrome B6f complex), Enzymes (NADP+
reductase and (ATP synthase)
 STEPS:
1. Photosystem II absorbs photons (packets of light) exciting electrons that
are passed to primary electron acceptor of PSII to plastoquinone (Pq).
Electrons lost from PSII are replaced by the photolysis of water, producing
oxygen.
2. The B6f complex receives electrons from Pq and passes them to Pc.
This provides energy for the B6f complex to pump proton (H+) into the
thylakoid lumen.
3. PSI absorbs photon, exciting electrons that are passed through a carrier
(Fd) to reduce NADP+ to NADPH. These electrons are replaced by
electrons from PSI.
4. ATP synthase uses the proton (H+) gradient to synthesize ATP from
ADP and Pi. Enzyme acts as a CHANNEL for protons to diffuse back into
the stroma using this energy to drive the synthesis of ATP.
2. Cyclic and non-cyclic
Cyclic
  The photophosphorylation process which results in the movement of the
electrons in a cyclic manner for synthesizing ATP molecules is called
cyclic photophosphorylation.
 In this process, plant cells just accomplish the ADP to ATP for immediate
energy for the cells. This process usually takes place in the thylakoid
membrane and uses Photosystem I and the chlorophyll P700.
 During cyclic photophosphorylation, the electrons are transferred back to
P700 instead of moving into the NADP from the electron acceptor. This
downward movement of electrons from an acceptor to P700 results in the
formation of ATP molecules.
Non-cyclic
 The photophosphorylation process which results in the movement of the
electrons in a non-cyclic manner for synthesizing ATP molecules using the
energy from excited electrons provided by photosystem II is called as non-
cyclic photophosphorylation.
 This process is called as non- cyclic phosphorylation, because the lost
electrons by P680 of Photosystem II are occupied by P700 of
Photosystem I and are not reverted back to P680 . Here the complete
movement of the electrons are in a unidirectional or in the non- cyclic
manner.
 During non-cyclic photophosphorylation, the electrons released by P700
are carried by primary acceptor and are finally passed on to NADP. Here,
the electrons combine with the protons – H+ which is produced by splitting
up of the water molecule and reduces NADP to NADPH2.
3. Ferrodoxin
 Ferredoxin (Fd) is found in chloroplasts which mediates electron transfer
and contains an iron-sulfur cluster.
 It is involved in the photosynthesis process where its iron atoms accept or
discharge electrons when they are being oxidized or reduced.
 Ferredoxin is a soluble component in the chloroplasts. In its reduced form,
it gives electrons directly to the systems that reduce nitrate and sulfate
and via NADPH to the system that reduces carbon dioxide.
 The iron-sulfur cluster can contain 2Fe-2S and is termed plant-like or 3Fe-
4S or 4Fe-4S clusters.
 Adrenodoxin(ADR) is a ferredoxin containing a 2Fe-2S group involved in
electron transfer from NADPH+ to a cytochrome P-450 in the adrenal
gland.
 Putidaredoxin (PUT) and terpredoxin (TER) are involved in the same
reaction in bacteria and contain a 2Fe-2S group.
  The electron acceptor of PS I is ferredoxin, a small (94-residue) Fe2S2
cluster protein that is used in the chloroplast as an electron donor to
NADP+(via ferredoxin-NADP reductase) and thioredoxin (via ferredoxin-
dependent thioredoxin reductase.
4. Plastoquinone
 It is one of the electron acceptors associated with Photosystem II in
photosynthesis.
 Materials needed: Two (2) Electrons
 Acts as an electron and energy carrier in the electron transport process.
5. Calvin Cycle
 chemical reaction that converts carbon dioxide and other compound to
glucose
 found in stroma
 Materials needed: 6 molecules of carbon dioxide, 18 ATP, 12 NADPH
 Products: 12 PGAL, 18 ADP, 12 NADP+, 18 Pi, 6 H20
 3 phases: 1) Carbon Fixation 2) Reduction 3) Regeneration

ABBREVIATION:

 ATP Adenosine Triphosphate

 DHAP Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate
 G3P (PGAL) Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate
 NAD + Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
 NADH Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide - Hydrogen (reduced)
 FAD+ Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
 FADH2 Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
 RuBisCo Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase,
 RuBP Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate
 BPGA 1,3-Bisphosphoglyceric Acid
 PGA 3-Phosphoglyceric Acid