CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Basis for Considering Solar Energy
There are several important reasons for considering solar energy as an energy resource
to meet the needs of developing countries. First, most the countries called developing
are in or adjacent to the tropics and have good solar radiation available. Secondly,
energy is a critical need of these countries but they do not have widely distributed,
readily available supplies of conventional energy resources. Thirdly, most of the
developing countries are characterized by arid climates, dispersed and inaccessible
populations and a lack of investment capital and are thus faced with practically
insuperable obstacles to the provision of energy by conventional means, for example, by
electrification. In contrast to this solar energy is readily available and is already
distributed to the potential users. Fourthly, because of the diffuse nature of solar energy
the developments all over the world have been in smaller units which fits well into the
pattern of rural economics.

1.2 Objectives of the Study

The present study is part of a project in solar energy utilization in AIT, aimed at the
development of one or more prototype units demonstrating the usefulness and
economic viability of solar energy for the designed purposes.

The specific objective of the argument in this chapter is to identify an area of solar
energy utilization useful to the developing countries of Asia, and further, to select a
suitable device for development and for a preliminary investigation.

1.3 Possibilities for Research and Development

Solar energy research seems to have gathered momentum during the last two decades.
Over this period there have been many publications, seminars and conferences dealing
with solar energy. One of the most up to date and comprehensive surveys of solar
energy applications is a report by an ad-hoc advisory panel of the Board on Science and
Technology for International Development entitled 'Solar Energy for Developing
Countries: Perspectives and Prospects', NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (1972).
The conclusions of this report supersede those of earlier such surveys and are
summarized below.

1
The panel observes that solar evaporation has been a historical, traditional method of
obtaining salt from sea water or brines; it remains important today on both a small and
large scale in many countries. There appears to be little research that cannot as well be
done by the industries using this process.

Water heating technology is well established and the needed development is largely to
adapt the technology to use materials and manufacturing capabilities of the country in
question. Hot water for hospitals, schools and other such institutions and families could
become much more widely available with these developments. The nature of the
equipment is such that it can be manufactured in developing countries, and adapting it
to their conditions seems straightforward.

Solar distillation must still be regarded as experimental but small scale community stills
are near to extensive commercial applications. Designs are now available for solar stills
that are serviceable and can be used with a reasonable degree of confidence. Further
research in this application would involve adaptation of existing technology to the
specific needs of developing countries through design modifications to allow the use of
locally available materials and locally manufactured components.

A traditional and widespread use of solar energy is for drying, particularly, of agricultural
products. The design and control of these for particular crops or other materials to be
dried are areas of research that could lead to more practical applications in developing
countries which could result in improved utilization of food supplies.

Research and development in solar heating have been aimed almost entirely at
applications in the temperate climates of industrialized countries. The panel knows little
of the real extent of needs for space heating in developing countries, or of the possible
role of solar energy in meeting these needs.

Studies in air conditioning aimed primarily at United States and Australian applications
are still in early stages. Technological feasibility appears to be assured; economic
feasibility is now under study. The best methods of obtaining cooling with solar energy
in developing countries are far from clear at this time and the immediacy and extent of
needs for air conditioning are not known.

There are many refrigeration cycles and systems that can be considered for solar
refrigeration. It has yet to be established what may be the best scale on which to
operate solar refrigerators in developing countries. There are a substantial number of
open questions regarding refrigeration, and the application has the attractive possibility

2
of better utilization of available foodstuffs if refrigeration could be successfully
provided.

The possible applications of the successful development of economic solar energy

conversion to meet needs for mechanical or electrical energy are wide. This conversion
remains an elusive yet intriguing problem. Solar cooking appears to be simple in its
technology and significant in its advantages if it can be successfully applied, Solar
cookers have been developed to a degree of satisfactory technical performance for
providing at least part of the cooking needs of families. However, extensive field trials in
India, Mexico and Morocco have so far not resulted in social acceptance of these
devices. The conclusions at the Panel are summarised thus: the solar processes that
are now useful or that could be brought to a stage of development in which they could
produce useful results in the shortest time are evaporation, drying, distillation and water
heating. More extensive development in refrigeration, solar heating, cooling and thermal
design of buildings should make some of these uses practical within the decade.
Applications of solar power will require the substantial development of new technology.

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 The Rationale for Selecting Solar Refrigeration
The discussion in the earlier section indicates that out of the solar energy applications
that are in the experimental stage, space heating and air conditioning are not high

3
priority needs in Asia, conversion to mechanical or electrical energy is best left to be
carried out by well-equipped laboratories of industrialised countries and that the social
acceptance of solar cooking is rather doubtful, This leaves solar refrigeration as a
possible area of study. In order to select a device for further development the following
questions must be answered. What is the need for such a device in developing
countries, especially, in Asia? Should the device be a food cooler or an ice maker? What
size should it be? The rest of this section is devoted to an attempt to find answers to
these questions.

A distinguished solar scientist of South East Asia writing anonymously makes the
following comments in an article entitled 'A Case for a Solar Ice Maker', ANON., (1963).

"After eight years of study of the problems of applying solar energy in an

underdeveloped country I believe that the most promising line of research is to develop
an ice making machine. The goal should be a self contained, reliable ice making
machine capable of making at least 10 lbs. of ice per sunny day at a cost of one U.S.
cent per pound using only solar energy and water as inputs. In tropical countries vast
amounts of fresh fruit, vegetables and fish are lost or their value depreciated by
spoilage. This spoilage could be prevented by freezing them with ice... Ice is an
important commodity of commerce, fetching as much as 10 U.S. cents per pound in
remote areas because of its high cost of transportation (due to melting en-route or the
alternative high cost of making it locally at the remote place by electricity or fuel). A
foreign made electric refrigerator costs about 250 $ U.S., the cost of a comparable solar
icemaker would be at least 250 $ U.S.It may seem strange that a solar ice maker
costing 250 $ U.S. would be bought when people were not buying solar cookers at only
10 $ U.S. each. The explanation is that the solar ice maker would be bought by traders
and shop owners who can easily afford the amount and they would use the ice for
preserving their valuable stocks of fresh fruits, fish etc...... Also the poor people who
produce the fresh fruit, fish etc., can afford to buy ice at about one or two U.S. cents per
pound, as it is only a small short-term investment of about 10 or 20 U.S. cents, which
they can recover within a few days after the sale of their frozen products".

BA HLI et al. (1970) have studied the possibilities for the development of ice makers in
Burma. They state that solar ice makers and refrigerators are assured of success purely
from the meteorological point of view. They also observe that the solar ice making
facilities can either be of domestic size or of community size for local conditions.

The domestic solar ice makers and refrigerators must be as automatic as possible in
order to compete with electrically operated refrigerators. Community size solar ice
makers can have manual participation because there would be an operator available for
each ice maker. Roughly, the cost of production of ice by local factories is half U.S. cent

4
per pound of ice ex-factory, but the cost of ice in the hand of the consumer would be
about one U.S. cent per pound in the cold season and much higher in the hot season.
They conclude that under these conditions, if a solar ice maker can make ice anywhere
in Burma for about one U.S. cent per pound that ice could be a boon to the country.

MERRIAM (1972) discussing possible applications of solar energy in developing

countries observes thus:

"A very promising application is refrigeration. Refrigeration encompasses household

refrigerators, space cooling, air conditioning of buildings etc., but I have chosen to
concentrate attention on one particular possible device, a machine for making ice. This
is for several reasons, both technological and socio-economic. For one thing, converting
the solar radiation into ice solves the problems of intermittency and storage. Ice can be
stored for months. Also it is transportable,... An ammonia-water cycle is
contemplated..... Several ice makers and refrigerators using this cycle and solar energy
input have been built, The design I have in mind would be constructed of mild steel, and
would be rugged and simple without moving parts. The output would be 60-70 kg/day of
-10oC ice, the input would be l0-12 m of solar radiation and the services of a full-time
unskilled operator".
The answers to the questions raised at the beginning of this section can now be
provided, viz:

Solar refrigeration is one of the most promising fields for further development; An ice
maker seems to be the most useful device in developing countries; If ice can be made
at about one U.S. cent per pound commercial viability is assured. A community size unit
producing loo-150 lbs. of ice a day, with some manual operation is to be preferred for
initial development; domestic refrigerators need to be automatic as far as possible.

The first objective of the study has been reached with the above conclusions, i.e., that of
selecting a suitable device for further development. The next step is to make a
preliminary study aimed at the development of a community size solar ice maker. As a
first step towards this goal an experimental ice maker will be designed and built which
will provide experience for further development.

Some of the theoretical concepts that are useful in analyzing the performance of solar
refrigerators will be presented in this chapter. A brief analysis of the ammonia-water
cycle will be made as this will be used in the experimental refrigerator.

5
2.2 Indices of Performance
Any solar cooling device essentially consists of two parts: a cooling unit employing a
thermodynamic cycle no different from that employed in conventional refrigerators, and
a solar heat source with a flat-plate or a focusing collector to operate it. The usual index
by which the performance of a refrigerator is measured is the coefficient of
performance which is defined as the ratio of cooling produced to heat supplied. This
same concept may be applied to the refrigerator component and a cooling ratio may be
defined as

heat absorbed by refrigerant during refrigerator heat absorbed by

generator contents during refrigeration
The performance of the solar collector can be defined by a heating ratio given by

heat absorbed by the contents of the generator incident solar

radiation on the collector
The overall performance ratio can now be defined as the product of the two above
defined ratios, or explicitly as

heat absorbed by refrigerant during refrigerator incident solar

radiation on the collector

The concepts of heating ratio and cooling ratio are especially useful when analyzing
systems where the collector and generator are separate.

2.3 Operation of the Intermittent Ammonia-Water System

Figures 2.1 and 2.2 show a simple system consisting of two vessels connected by an
overhead pipe. The right hand vessel contains aqua-ammonia and functions as the
generator-absorber. The left hand vessel contains pure ammonia and functions as the
condenser-evaporator.

The operation of the intermittent aqua-ammonia system can be divided into two phases:
the regeneration phase and the refrigeration phase. During the regeneration phase heat
is supplied to the generator-absorber which contains an ammonia solution of high
concentration. As the solution is heated the pressure rises and once condensation
pressure is reached ammonia distills off and condenses in the evaporator-condenser
which is immersed in a bucket of water, Fig. 2.1.

6
During the refrigeration phase the heat source is removed and the generator-absorber is
allowed to cool. The pressure drops and the ammonia starts evaporating drawing heat
from the surroundings thus producing cooling. The weak ammonia solution in the
generator-absorber absorbs the evaporated ammonia and the process continues until
all the ammonia in the condenser is evaporated, Fig. 2.2.

2.4 Analysis of the Ideal Cycle

In the following analysis of the ammonia-water absorption cycle all thermodynamic
processes are assumed to be reversible.

Energy is transferred in the form of heat at three temperature levels, i.e., - atmospheric
temperature Ta, at which heat is rejected in the condenser and absorber, - the
temperature at which heat is taken from the cold chamber Tc, - the temperature at which
heat is received in the generator Tg.

7
It is possible to imagine an arrangement of reversible machines performing a function
equivalent to that of the absorption plant, Fig. 2.3. Firstly, a reversible heat engine
receives a quantity of heat Qg, at a temperature Tg and rejects heat at a temperature
Ta while producing a quantity of work Wga with an efficiency,
WcaQg=Tg−TaTg,
where all temperatures are measured on the thermodynamic temperature scale.
Secondly, a reversible refrigerator receives a quantity of heat Qc at Tc and rejects heat at
Ta while absorbing a quantity of work Wca. The coefficient of performance of the
refrigerator is
−QcWca=TcTa−Tc.
If Wga is made equal to - Wca this plant will be equivalent to an absorption refrigerator, The
coefficient of performance of the combined plant can be defined as Qc / Qg, which on
combining the two previous expressions becomes,

C.O.P=Qc/Qg=Tc(Tg−Ta)Tg(Ta−Tc).
The practical importance of this result is that if a C.O.P. for the cycle under
consideration is known Tg may be calculated, since Ta is fixed and Tc is chosen by the
designer.
Rigorous Analysis of the Ammonia-Water Cycle
CHINNAPPA (1961), presents a rigorous analysis of the theoretical aqua-ammonia
cycle, Two forms of the cycle are suitable for comparison with the actual cycle. These
two cycles are shown plotted for the aqua-ammonia system on a pressure-temperature-
concentration (p-t-X) chart. The first form of the theoretical cycle may be designated
'constant pressure absorption cycle' and is represented in Fig. 2,4 by 2-3-4-5-2. The
second form of the theoretical may be designated 'constant temperature absorption
cycle' and is represented in Fig. 2.4 by 1-3-4-6-1.

Even though the constant pressure cycle is the more efficient one it is difficult to realise
in practice. Hence, the constant temperature cycle is examined in greater detail.

In the constant temperature absorption cycle regeneration consists of two processes 1-

3 and 3-4. In the refrigeration phase during the cooling process 4-6 the solution is
cooled, usually by immersion in a water bath, to a temperature t6 which is equal to the
initial temperature t1. Effective refrigeration takes place during the process 6-l.
The expression for the amount of refrigeration is

8
Qc=W′6Lm
where

Lm = mean latent heat of the refrigerant during the process 6-1.
W′6 = weight on the refrigerant at point 6.

The heat supplied during the regeneration process 1-3-4 is given by

Qg=W4H4−W1H1+∫W1W4HvdW,
where

w = weight of the solution, suffix indicating the point of the cycle,
H = specific enthalpy of the solution, suffix indicating the point of the cycle,
Hv = specific enthalpy of the vapor boiling out of the liquid,
dW = differential mass of the vapor boiling out of the liquid.

Thus the expression for the C.O.P. becomes

9
 W′6LmW4H4−W1H1+∫W1W4HvdW

2.5 Development

According to the Survey of Solar-Powered Refrigeration carried out by SWARTMAN, HA,

and NEWTON (1973), the first study undertaken to explore the use of solar energy for
refrigeration was probably in 1936 at the University of Florida by Green. The steam to
power a steam jet refrigerator was produced by heating water flowing in a pipe placed
at the focal line of a cylindro-parabolic reflector.

Oniga reported in 1937 that researchers in Brazil tried to adapt a parabolic reflector to
an absorption refrigerator but the system never got beyond the experimental stage.
Kirpichev and Baum of Russia reported the successful operation of an assembly of
solar refrigerators producing 250 kilogrammes of ice per day in 1954. The refrigerators
were of the conventional vapour – compression type driven by a heat engine operating
on the steam produced by a boiler placed at the focus of a large mirror. However, it has
been generally conceded that the low efficiency of solar energy in producing power, the
very high cost of equipment, and the complexity of this type of system are unfavourable
factors in the future development. Since this system was build, there has been little
interest shown in this direction of solar refrigeration.

The first major project on an all solar absorption refrigeration system was undertaken
by TROMBE and FOEX (1964). Fig. 2.5 shows the general set-up of the system, which
has these main features: ammonia-water solution is allowed to flow from a cold
reservoir through a pipe placed at the focal line of a cylindro-parabolic reflector. Heated
ammonia-water vapourized in the boiler is subsequently condensed in a cooling coil.
The evaporator is a coil surrounding the container used as an ice box. The cylindro-
parabolic reflector measured 1.5m2. In the prototype trials, the daily production of ice
was about 6 kilogrammes or about 4 kilogrammes of ice per square metre of collecting
area for four – hour heating.

CHAPTER THREE

10
 DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENTAL UNIT
3.1 Choice of Configuration
It was stated earlier that a solar refrigerator consists of two components, a solar
power unit and a refrigeration unit. The solar power unit is based on either of two basic
concepts, i.e., flat-plate collectors or focusing collectors.

Flat-plate collectors are flat blackened surfaces to absorb direct and diffuse solar
radiation. Transparent covers and back insulation may be provided to reduce or control
heat losses from the plate. On the plate, absorbed solar energy is converted to a desired
form of energy, usually heat, and means are provided to remove that energy, usually as
heated water or air. Flat-plate collectors are generally suitable for operation in a fixed
position.

The basic element of the focussing collector is an optical device, e.g., a parabolic
reflector, to focus the beam component of solar radiation on a receiver smaller than the
reflector. This collector can produce a higher energy flux. Although the focussing
collector gives higher temperatures than the flat-plate collector, it is more difficult to
operate. Also, for a small experimental -unit, it seems to be more expensive than the
flat-plate collector, Therefore, a flat-plate collector was selected for this particular study.

The refrigeration unit can be either a continuous or an intermittent absorption system.

The continuous absorption refrigeration system cannot serve the purpose if the pumps
require power. Therefore, in rural areas where electricity is unavailable, the intermittent
absorption refrigeration

system is preferred. The intermittent refrigeration cycle has two major operations,
regeneration and refrigeration. Regeneration is the process of heating the refrigerant-
absorbent fluid to drive off the refrigerant vapour and condense the vapour in a separate
container. Refrigeration takes place when the liquid refrigerant vapourizes, producing a
cooling effect around the evaporator. The refrigerant is re-absorbed by the absorbent.
Since the refrigerator is a purely experimental device it was decided to keep it as simple
as possible. The configuration chosen is shown in Fig. 3.1. Simplicity has been achieved
by having the condenser function as the evaporator and the generator function as the
absorber.

3.2 Operation of the System

During the regeneration, valve A is open and valve B is closed, and the strong solution in
the generator being heated by the flat-plate collector boils, producing vapour at a high

11
pressure. The weak solution returns from the top header to the bottom header by the
insulated return pipes. The vapour in the top header is mainly ammonia because water
has a much lower volatility than ammonia. The ammonia vapour passes into the
condenser which is immersed in a tank of cold water to keep it cool. The pressure is
uniform throughout the system. When heating stops valve A is closed and the vapour
pressure in the generator drops. The concentration in the generator is now less than it
was before regeneration. Before refrigeration is started the tank of cooling water is
removed and valve B is opened. The condenser now functions as the evaporator.
Ammonia vapourizes due to the pressure difference between the generator and
evaporator. The vapourization of ammonia absorbs heat from

Fig. 3.1 - The First Experimental Unit

the surroundings of the evaporator, thus producing the refrigeration effect. Ammonia
vapour from the evaporator passes through the pipe taken to the bottom header of the
generator so that the incoming vapour bubbles through the aqua-ammonia solution thus
facilitating absorption in it. The glass covers are removed from the collector so that the
heat of absorption can be dissipated to the sky from the generator risers. Refrigeration
continues until all the liquid ammonia in the evaporator has vapourized. A full cycle of

12
operation has now been completed. To accommodate the intermittent availability of
solar energy, the refrigeration is carried out during the day and refrigeration takes place
at night after the radiation is no longer available.

3.3 Concentration of Aqua-Ammonia

The objective is to produce a temperature of 17°F in the evaporator, The saturation

vapour pressure of anhydrous ammonia at this temperature is 45 psia. The temperature
of the absorber is the atmospheric temperature which is assumed to be 86°F. Thus in
the absorber there is an aqua-ammonia mixture at temperature of 86'F with the
pressure of ammonia vapour at 45 psia. Hence, from the p-t-x diagram for aqua-
ammonia the concentration is found to be 0.46, thus determining the starting point of
refrigeration cycle, shown as point 1 in Fig. 3.2.

3.4 Regeneration Phase of the Cycle

The condenser temperature is 86°F. From the p-t-x diagram the saturation pressure of
anhydrous ammonia at this temperature is 170 psia. Point 2 of the cycle can be
determined, since the pressure and the concentration (which

Fig. 3.2 - Ideal Thermodynamic Cycle

does not change during process l-2) at point 2 are known. Point 3 of the cycle is fixed by
the maximum solution temperature attainable with the collector, which is assumed to
be 189°F. This determines point 3 and hence the concentration which is 0.40 from the
p-t-x diagram.

13
3.5 Refrigeration Phase of the Cycle
Ideally, during the refrigeration phase of the cycle, the solution is first cooled to the
absorption pressure of 45 psia, which at a concentration of 0.40 corresponds to an
initial absorption temperature of 103°F. This fixes point 4. The cycle is completed by the
process 4-l during which ammonia evaporating at 17°F is reabsorbed into the solution.

3.6 Collector-Generator Specifications

It was decided to keep the unit as compact as possible. Thus, a four ft. by four frontal
area was selected for the collector-generator. Black iron seamless pipes were used
throughout to resist corrosion by ammonia-water mixture and the pressure associated
with the necessarily high ammonia concentrations. A copper sheet four by four feet and
0.06 inch thick was used for the collecting plate and was painted dull black. The plate
was soldered to twelve 1 inch diameter tubes at four-inch intervals. The ends of the 1
inch tubes were welded to headers. To provide for adequate separation of the water
from the ammonia vapour out of the collector-generator, a 4-inch pipe was used for the
top header, This 56 in, length of pipe gave a liquid surface area of 225 in2 when the
header was half full. The liquid level could be observed through bull's eyes at both ends
of the header. For the bottom header a pipe 2 inches in diameter and 54 inches long
was used. The arrangement of the collector-generator is shown in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 - Solar Collector - Generator

To prevent heat loss at the rear of the collector-generator polystyrene foam four inches
thick was used for insulation. The top and bottom headers and the risers at each end of
the collector were also thermally insulated with polystyrene foam. There were two glass
covers in front of the collecting surface supported by a wooden frame. Ordinary window

14
glass 1/4 in thick was used. The gap between the collecting tubes and the first glass
cover was 1/4 in; between the two glass covers the gap was 3/4 in. The glass covers
were removable.

The inclination of the plane of the generator was 20 degrees to the horizontal with the
unit facing due south.

3.7 The Volume of the Generator

The volume of the generator calculated below from the standard pipe dimensions is
used to determine the quantity of aqua-ammonia in the system, and to determine the
changes in the liquid level in the generator throughout the cycle.

Top header (half full)

4.667 ft x 0.5 x 0.0882 ft3/ft = 0.206 ft3

14 risers
14 x 4 ft x 0.00585 ft3/ft = 0.328 ft3
Bottom header
4.5 ft x 0.0233 ft3/ft = 0.105 ft3
Total volume = 0.639 ft3

Surface area of the liquid in the top header half full

= ID. X length
= 4.026 in x 56 in
= 225.456 in2
= 1.565 ft2

Specific Volume of aqua-ammonia

At point 1, V1 = 0.0192 ft3/lb

Point 2, V2 = 0.0205ft3/lb
Point 3, V3 = 0.0202 ft3/lb
Point 4, V4 = 0.01895 ft3/lb

Liquid level in generator

Start with 0.639 ft3 of 0.46 aqua-ammonia at 86°F
Its weight is 0.639/0.0192 = 33.281 lbs
15
The volume of 33.281 lbs of 0.46 aqua-ammonia at 170°F is
33.281 x 0.205 = 0.682 ft3

Increase in volume is 0.682 – 0.639 = 0.043 ft3

Rise in liquid level is 0.043/1.565 = 0.027 ft

= 0.331 in
When concentration, X = 0.46

Wt. Of ammonia + wt. of water = 33.281 lbs

Therefore, wt. of ammonia = 15.309 lbs

wt. of water = 17.972 lbs

When concentration X = 0.40

wt. of ammonia = 11.981 lbs

wt. of water = 17.972 lbs

Total weight = 29.953 lbs

Therefore, wt. of ammonia distilled = 3.328 lbs.

After the distillation of 3.328 lbs of ammonia we have 29.958 lbs of 0.40 aqua-ammonia
at 139°F

Volume = 29.953 x 0.0202 = 0.605 ft3

Decrease in volume below initial volume at point 1 is 0.034 ft3.

Fall in liquid level below centre is 0.034/1.565 = 0.022 ft

= 0.261 in.

Volume of 29.953 lbs of aqua-ammonia at 103°F is 29.953 x 0.01895

= 0.568 ft3

Decrease in volume below initial volume at point 1 is 0.071 ft3.

Fall in liquid level below centre is 0.071/1.565 = 0.045 ft

= 0.544 in.

16
The Size of the Receiver for Ammonia

Weight of ammonia distilled

= 3.328 lbs

This ammonia has volume (at 86°F) = 3.328/37.16 = 0.089 ft3.

Let the ammonia receiver be made of Schedule 40, 4-inch pipe.

Required length = 0.089/0.0882 = 1.015 ft = 12.18 in.

Consequently, the ammonia receiver (condenser-evaporator) was made of 4 inch black

iron pipe, 16 inches long.

Heat of Generation
Let enthalpy of 29.953 lbs of 0.40 aqua-ammonia at 189°F = H3,
enthalpy of 3.328 lbs of ammonia vapour at mean generation temperature
(approximately) 178° = HA,
enthalpy of 33.281 lbs of 0.46 aqua-ammonia at 86°F = H1.

From fig. 3.2: Hl = 33.281 x (-55) = -1830 Btu.

HA = 3.328 x 627 = 2086 Btu.
H3 = 29.953 x 75 = 2246 Btu.

Therefore, heat of generation = H3 + HA – Hl = 6162 Btu.

Daily global solar radiation on horizontal surface = 400 Cal.cm.-2day

= 22,800 Btu on 4 by 4 feet surface per day

Therefore, the solar energy incident on the collector is 3.7 times the heat of generation.

Heat of Condensation
After rectification the ammonia has a temperature of 120°F.

Enthalpy of 3.328 lbs of ammonia vapour at temperature 120°F

= 3.328 x 634 = 2110 Btu.

Enthalpy of 3.328 lbs of ammonia liquid at pressure 170 psia and

temperature 86°F = 3.328 x 138.9 = 462 Btu.

17
Total heat of condensation = 2110 - 462 = 1648 Btu.

The condenser was kept at a temperature constant within 1°F by immersing it in 135
gallons (80 x 80 x 80 cm3) of cold water during the generation cycle. The water tank
was supported by a wooden stand.

Further Details of the Design

A 1-inch pipe was used to connect the generator to the ammonia reservoir. A 28 in.
length of this pipe rising vertically from the top header was used as a rectifier to remove
water from the ammonia being distilled. The absorption line was made of ¼ in pipe
connected to the bottom header as shown in Fig 3.4

Fig. 3.4 - Small Solar Powered Refrigerator

18
 Fig. 3.5 -Solar-Powered Refrigerator

There were two ammonia shut-off valves to control the system. The pressure in the
system was indicated by two bourdon-type ammonia gauges; one was attached to the
generator and the other was at the top of the tube leading to the ammonia receiver. A
thermometer was also used at the top of the rectifier to measure the temperature of the
ammonia vapor.

19
 CHAPTER FOUR
EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
4.1 Relationship between Plate Temperature and Solution Temperature
The collector-generator was first charged with water and temperature measurements
were made to find the relation between the plate temperature (TT )and solution
temperature (TL). Five tests runs were carried out (see Fig.4.1). It was concluded that
the solution temperature was lower than the corresponding plate temperature by about
2.4°F. However, it was observed that at the beginning and end of each day both
temperatures were the same.The average values of the temperature differences T P-
TL are shown in Fig. 4.2.This calibration was necessary because no high pressure
thermometer fitting had been attached to the generator for measuring internal
temperatures.
4.2 Experimental Results
After evacuation, the system was charged with 0,46 aqua-ammonia solution (see
Appendix A). The results obtained during four test runs are shown in Figures 4.3 to 4.14.
These runs were performed on nearly cloudless days.

Illustrated in Fig. 4.3 are the plate temperature (Tp), the solution temperature (TL)derived
from the calibration shown in Fig. 4.2, the solution vapor pressure (Pl), ammonia-vapor
temperature when leaving rectifier (T2),and condenser cooling water temperature (T3)
during the generation period. The evaporator pressure, evaporator temperature derived
from the pressure, absorption pressure, and absorption temperature for the refrigeration
period are shown in Fig. 4,4. The theoretical and actual cycles executed by the solution
in the collector-generator are shown as l-2-3'-4' and l-2-3-4-5 respectively in Fig. 4.5.

20
 Fig. 4.1 - Observation on Plate and Solution Temperatures

Fig. 4.2 - Differences between Plate and Solution Temperature (TP-TL) : Mean of Five Test Runs.

Fig. 4.3 - Observation during Refrigeration test on May 9, 1975

Fig. 4.4 - Observation during Refrigeration test on May 9, 1975

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Fig. 4.5 - Actual and Theoretical Solution Cycles for Test on May 9, 1973

Fig. 4.6 - Observations during Regeneration Test on May 10, 1975

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 Fig. 4.7 - Observations during Refrigeration Test on May 10, 1975

Fig. 4.8 - Actual and Theoretical Solution Cycles for Test on May 10, 197

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The analysis of the test on may 14th 1974 9Figure 4.9,4.10, and 4.11) is given as an
example below.

4.3 Amount of Ammonia Distilled

Initially we have:

Concentration of solution = 0.46

Total weight of solution = 33.281 lbs
Weight of ammonia = 15.309 lbs
Weight of water = 17.972 lbs

After regeneration the final concentration of the solution in the collector-generator is

0.416, as shown in Fig. 4.11.

 Weight of ammoniaWeight of ammonia + Weight of

water=0.416

Since

The weight of water = 17.972 lbs,

Weight of ammonia in solution = 12.800 lbs.

Therefore

Amount of ammonia distilled = 2,509 lbs.

The amount of ammonia distilled was also determined by observing the liquid level in
the receiver. Fig. 4,15 shows the geometry of the cross section, of the receiver.

Let

A be the cross section area of the liquid,

R be the radius of the receiver cross section,
h be the height of the liquid level above the center of the receiver,
1 be the length of the receiver;

Also, let v be the volume of the drain pipe below the receiver. Then the volume of the
liquid is equal to Al + v.

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Where

A=ΠR22+hR2−h2−−−−−−−√+R2

We have R = 2.013 inches, 1 = 1.25 ft, and v = 0.00105 tuft; and after this run h was
observed to be 0.3 inches. This gives

Volume of liquid ammonia distilled = 0.0666 tuft

This volume of liquid ammonia was observed at 7.00 am in the morning after the
regeneration; the vapor pressure of the ammonia was 169 psi.

We now have from the ammonia tables:

Ammonia temperature = 86°F

Density of liquid ammonia = 37.16 lb ft3

Therefore, weight of liquid ammonia distilled = 2.48 Ibs.

Cooling Ration
The cooling ratio of the cycle measures the performance of the system and is defined
as

Coolingratio=n=QcQg
Where

Qc = cooling available during refrigeration period, and

Qg = heat absorbed by collector generator during regeneration.

The cooling available during refrigeration period can be calculated as colows.

2.509 lbs of liquid ammonia at 86oF (169.2 psia) has enthalpy

= 2.509 x 138.9 Btu
= 3.48.9 Btu
2.509 lbs of ammonia vapour at 19oF has enthalpy
= 2.509 x 617.5 Btu
= 1549.30 Btu

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Therefore, cooling obtainable

= 1540.30 – 348.50

= 1200.8 Btu

Heat Absorbed by Solution During Regeneration

Let enthalpy of 30.772 lbs of 0.416 aqua-ammonia

at 193oF = H3,

enthalpy of 2.509 lbs of ammonia vapour at mean generation temperature

at 180oF = HA,

and enthalpy of 33.281 lbs of 0.46 aqua-ammonia

at 86oF = H1

4.4 Solar Coefficient of Performance

The solar C.O.P. is defined as the ration of the cooling obtainable to the amount of solar
energy absorbed by the collector plate. The amount of solar energy absorbed by the
collected plate can be calculated as shown in detail in Appendix B. For the run on May
14th the amount of solar energy absorbed by the plate

= 13,237 Btu.

Therefore, solar C.O.P.

= 1200.8/ 13,237
= 0.0907

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 Fig. 4.16 – Refrigeration Process – Lower Photograph shows frost on the evaporator.

Discussion
Although the system has worked, the cooling ration and the solar C.O.P. are still low as
in the previous studies of CHINNAPPA (1962) and SWARTMAN and SWAMINATHAN
(1971). It is difficult to control heat losses in the system. However, while Swartman
found the absorption process to be slow, there were no such difficulties in the
refrigeration process in this system. The absorption process was completed within two
hours and the formation of ice on the outer surface of the evaporator took half an hour
(Fig. 4.16).

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 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND PLANS FOR CONTINUING RESEARCH

5.1 Conclusions
The capability of AIT in the design, construction, and operation of solar powered
refrigeration has been demonstrated. Furthermore, the operating conditions were found
to be almost exactly in accordance with the design specifications. The theory of the
system is therefore well understoof. The new feature by whuch ammonia vapour from
the evaporator is taken to the bottom header of the generator so that the heat of
absorption during the refrigeration process is dissipated from the flat plate has been
shown to remove the difficulty encountered by previous workers of obtaining sufficiently
rapid absorption for satisfactory operation

5.2 Economic Considerations

The cost of making this experimental unit was 15,500 bahts. If annual depreciation and
maintenance is 10 percent of the cost, then the cost per day is 4 bahts, the cooling
effect obtained on a good day is sufficient to make 2 kilogrammes of ice, and studies of
the solar radiation climate show that over one year the average yield would be about 1
kilogramme of ice per day. Therefore, 1 kilogramme of ice would cost 4 bahts. This is
eleven times the wholesale price of ice in Bangkok. (0.375 bahts per kilogramme).
However, the objective in making this experimental unit was merely to demonstrate the
refrigeration effect produced from solar energy, and to gain practical experience; no
attempt was made to optimize the performance of the system or to minimize the cost.
It seems, therefore that an economically viable solar ice maker is within striking
distance.

5.3 Modifications
Work is at present under way to test two new features on the refrigerator. The first is an
expansion valve with a dry evaporator coil connected between the ammonia receiver
and the absorption inlets. The evaporator coils will be used to cool a box for making ice.
The second feature is a flat mirror used to enhance the solar heating of the generator.
Various positions of the mirror attachment will be tested..

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5.4 The Development of a Village Ice-Maker
A solar ice maker may be designed for domestic or village use. The larger village sized
units would be more efficient and hence relatively cheaper. The main objective will
therefore be to design, construct, and test a solar ice maker that produces 100
kilogrammes of ice per day without using oil or electricity. It must be rugged and easy to
operate. A unit producing 100 kilogrammes of ice per day requires a solar collecting
surface of about 20 square metres. The efficiency of the system will be improved in
several ways. High generation temperatures will be avoided by keeping the ammonia
concentration in the generator constant with the help of a reservoir containing excess
solution. The thermal capacity of the solar heater will be reduced by using a packed
column separator instead of a larger diameter header. Heat exchangers will be used to
save heat during regeneration and to save cold during refrigeration.

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