Smart Power Management

Energy Conversion and Management 84 (2014) 562582
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman
Smart power management algorithm in microgrid consisting

of photovoltaic, diesel, and battery storage plants considering variations
in sunlight, temperature, and load
Sam Koohi-Kamali a,b, N.A. Rahim a,c, H. Mokhlis a,b,
a
b
c
UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), Level 4, Wisma R&D UM, Jalan Pantai Baharu, 59990 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Renewable Energy Research Group, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 12 February 2014
Accepted 24 April 2014
Available online 20 May 2014
Keywords:
Photovoltaic
Smart grid
Battery energy storage
Power smoothing
Renewable energy
Energy management system
a b s t r a c t
Integration of utility scaled solar electricity generator into power networks can negatively affect the
performance of next generation smartgrid. Rapidly changing output power of this kind is unpredictable
and thus one solution is to mitigate it by short-term to mid-term electrical storage systems like battery.
The main objective of this paper is to propose a power management system (PMS) which is capable of
suppressing these adverse impacts on the main supply. A smart microgrid (MG) including diesel, battery
storage, and solar plants has been suggested for this purpose. MG is able to supply its local load based on
operator decision and decline the power oscillations caused by solar system together with variable loads.
A guideline algorithm is also proposed which helps to precisely design the battery plant. A novel application of time domain signal processing approach to lter oscillating output power of the solar plant is
presented as well. In this case, a power smoothing index (PSI) is formulated, which considers both load
and generation, and used to dispatch the battery plant. A droop reference estimator to schedule generation is also introduced where diesel plant can share the local load with grid. A current control algorithm is
designed as well which adjusts for PSI to ensure battery current magnitude is allowable. MG along with
its communication platform and PMS are simulated using PSCAD software. PMS is tested under different
scenarios using real load proles and environmental data in Malaysia to verify the operational abilities of
proposed MG. The results indicate that PMS can effectively control the MG satisfying both operator and
demand sides.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Public needs in modern societies beside optimal consumption
and/or generation of electricity necessitate the integration of intelligent power management systems (PMSs) into power networks. This
matter has brought a new concept which is so-called Smartgrid.
Smartgrid incorporates advanced measurement technologies, control algorithms, and communication platforms into present power
grid. These features are helpful to optimize the utilization of renewable energy (RE) prime movers which contribute in the generation of
electricity in large scales [1,2]. A combination of distributed storage
(DS), RE distributed generation (DG) systems and loads which can
Corresponding author at: Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel.: +60 3
79675238; fax: +60 3 79675316.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Koohi-Kamali), [email protected]
(H. Mokhlis).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.04.072
0196-8904/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
operate in parallel with the grid or in autonomous modes is so-called

Microgrid. Microgrid (MG) can be considered as a cluster of load
and generation in smartgrid that brings many advantages for the
system. The benets can be pointed out i.e. increasing RE sources
depth of penetration, decreasing environmental emissions, utilizing
waste heat, providing ancillary services, making the balance
between generation and consumption, and bringing continuous
backup power supply for redundant and sensitive processes [3].
Renewable resources such as wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) are
naturally intermittent and hence energy storage systems (ESSs) like
battery can be exploited together with them to compensate for this
drawback [4]. Solar PV plant in high penetration levels can modify
the load prole and create technical challenges for the system in
steady-state and transient operating modes. The uctuating output
power is one example brought to this end [5,6]. Ramp ups/downs in
solar plant output power are completely unpredictable. These uctuations can be governed by several factors i.e. passing clouds, PV
S. Koohi-Kamali et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 84 (2014) 562582
power plant placement, depth of penetration, and power network

topology. In the case that these oscillations are out of control, main
AC network equipments such as motors, generators, and voltage regulating devices can be affected adversely [4]. This oscillatory nature
may create voltage and angle instability in the main grid to which
DG is connected especially where DG depth of penetration is high.
There have been suggested many methods in the literature to
resolve this problem [710]. For instance, in [7], generation curtailment, dump load usage, and using ESS have been recommended as
remedies for this purpose. However, the role of load variation based
on a real pattern has not been studied in this research. The use of ESS
has become very popular recently [8,9] in collaboration with fuel cell
[10] in order to suppress addressed oscillations. In this case, battery
energy storage (BES) has been mostly proposed by the researchers
for short-term to mid-term applications [6,8,9].
Batteries are expensive equipments and thus adopting
elaborated control strategies in order to efciently exploit them is
mandatory. A conventional inertial lter has been utilized in [11]
to smooth output power of a wind farm and make a reference value
for current controlled inverter of BES. In [6,12], state of charge (SOC)
feedback controllers for BES have been suggested which limit battery charging/discharging currents within the acceptable range.
However, nding an accurate time constant for SOC by these two
methods is not a straightforward task and hence highly depends
on assumptions made by the planner which may not be the same
at all the times. In [6], genetic algorithm (GA) has been also used
to optimize the control parameters for solar plant which may
increase the computational burden instead. In all above mentioned
cases, there has not been considered the role of rotary based DG
systems such as diesel generator power plant in conjunction with
the intermittent RE sources where the system supplies loads based
on actual proles. The lack of a unied power management system
(PMS) which can govern a MG including RE sources together with
the conventional DGs is completely obvious as well. In [13,14],
coordinated energy management algorithms have been proposed
which can control a MG consisting of only electronically interfaced
(EI) DGs in grid-connected and stand-alone modes. However, the
role of rotary based DG has not been investigated and smoothing
power uctuations of solar plant together with a real load prole
have not been addressed in these works.
In this paper, MG is investigated which consists of both rotary
(diesel power plant) and EI based DGs. A power smoothing index
has been formulated to mitigate the uctuations resulted by intermittent solar PV system together with the variable load. In this
case, moving average ltering (MAF) which is a time domain signal
processing approach is utilized to smooth these oscillations. This
index can be applied for any kind of intermittent RE sources since
it is easy to implement and has not relied on complicated computational methods. A load model is also proposed which can be
suitable for real-time applications where the actual load prole
has to be simulated for dynamic studies. A current control algorithm is designed as well to ensure the battery charge/discharge
current is within the specied limitation. This work also suggests
a guideline algorithm for the purpose of the battery house sizing
taking into account the ramp rate limits of the main network. In
addition, a power management algorithm (PMA) is suggested
which helps the system owner to exploit the battery plant in the
most efcient way. The concept of agent is included in this algorithm to dene different level of hierarchy where a communication
channel acts as the platform to exchange information between the
operator, DGs, and loads. To dispatch diesel and BES plants a new
application of droop control mechanism is introduced which
makes it possible for the operator to schedule the generation units
for both active and reactive powers. A droop mechanism for diesel
plant excitation controller is also designed so that it can share the
local reactive power with BES proportional to their ratings.
563
In what follows, Section 2 presents the proposed MG conguration. Section 3 describes the MG components dynamic models and
controllers. Section 4 explains the data input preparation
approaches for generation units and loads. Section 5 analyses the
proposed PMA and highlights the role of MAF in smoothing out
the aforementioned uctuations. In Section 6, simulation results
have been brought to the readers and technical matters have been
investigated in depth. Section 7 concludes this work.
2. System conguration and operation
The proposed microgrid (MG) incorporates both rotary and
electronically interfaced distributed generation (EIDG) systems
(see Fig. 1). MG is subject to operate in grid-connected (G.C) mode.
The primary source of power is a diesel engine which provides the
mechanical torque required for a 1.28 MV A synchronous generator. Another DG unit is a 1080 kV A (1026 kW h, 1125 A h) battery
energy storage system (BESS) which consists of a Lead-acid battery
bank connected to the grid through a three-phase bi-directional
voltage sourced converter (VSC). BESS is capable of operating as
either source or sink of power. As a demand, a six steps AC load
in two categories (i.e. industrial and domestic loads) are interconnected to the load bus and each group consists of three similar
feeders. The demand is supposed to vary during 24 h. A 1 MWp
photovoltaic distributed generation (PVDG) plant is also considered to inject the available power from the sun into the MG in
unity P.f during the whole day.
BESS is dispatched to smooth the power uctuations in system
caused by solar plant together with loads and hence it reduces the
ramp rate stresses on the main AC network. Diesel plant is dispatched to shift up or down the grid active power prole and thus
shares the load active power with AC network.
Depending on the power management strategy, BESS operates
either in inverting or rectifying modes. Diesel plant is assumed to
decrease or increase its active power generation according to
PMS commands. BESS and diesel plant can be dispatched in order
to share the load reactive power proportional to their ratings.
As shown in Fig. 1, there exist four agents in MG, namely, unit
agents, generation agent, load agent, and main agent [15]. Generation agent is assigned to receive and/or send the data from/to DG
unit agents through the communication channel (bus) indicated
by dotted black line. Each DG unit agent collects the local information such as DG breaker status, output voltage and current, and
availability of prime mover. There is a forecasting module embedded in PV unit agent and along with this module the estimated solar
pattern is sent to the main agent to be ltered yielding averaged
solar irradiation prole. In BESS, unit agent calculates SOC of battery
and sends it to generation agent. All these information is gathered in
generation agent and then sent to the main agent. Local agents also
generate and compute the feedback signals required for the internal
controllers (red dotted lines) such as current or power loops, governor, and excitation controllers. Load agent also registers the status
of load breakers and the power which is own in each feeder
together with the forecasted load prole. These data are sent to
the main agent (which is in the highest level of hierarchy) to inform
the operator about the system states (dotted blue lines). Then the
operator calculates the dispatching references and issues required
commands for the DGs and loads breakers.
3. System components and controllers
3.1. Voltage sourced converter (VSC)
Two-level three-leg converter topology has been utilized in this
work. This topology consists of six insulated gate bipolar transistor
564
Fig. 1. Smart microgrid conguration.
(IGBT) semiconductor switches. There exist two IGBTs in each leg

and hence they supposed to be switched on/off in a complementary manner to prevent the short circuit at the VSC terminal. The
gate ring signals are generated through pulse width modulation
(PWM) technique which benets from high frequency modulation
saw-tooth waveform crossing the reference signal oscillating at
fundamental frequency (50 Hz). To prevent the propagation of high
switching frequency harmonics in the main network, VSC is connected to point of common coupling (PCC) through a LC lter
and delta-star step-up isolation transformer. LC lter includes in
equivalent inverter line inductance in parallel with a capacitor
bank (design value). Bandwidth of LC lter should be lower than
the VSC controller bandwidth to make sure that the noiseless
states are fed back into the controller. Thus, the control loops
would be in charge of attenuating the low frequency disturbances
which pass through the lter.
3.1.1. Phase locked loop (PLL)
To measure the frequency of a measured AC signal, PLL mechanism can be used. The quadrature component of the input signal
(Vq) into PLL controller is compared to zero and hence the error
passes through a PI regulator whose output would be considered
as the input for voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) unit (see
Fig. 2). This method of PLL implementation force Vq to become zero
and thus the direct component of signal (Vd) is aligned with the reference phasor rotating at the same frequency. Another method has
been presented in [16] in which the difference between the PLL
output angle and its input reference angle can turn into zero if it
is limited to between zero and 180.
In current control mode, the ow of power can be in two directions

i.e. from the VSC to the master network or vice versa. The master
unit or network is assumed to be robust enough to provide constant frequency and voltage at PCC and thus VSC can simply follow
the reference phasor using the phase PLL controller [17]. To model
current controller, states of the system should be measured and
transformed to dq0 rotating synchronous reference. Parks transformation is applied for this purpose as shown in Fig. 2. The angle
of this conversion is generated through the PLL controller which
simultaneously oscillates along with the instantaneous voltage
phasor measured at PCC.
As shown in Fig. 3, current controller is composed by a fast
inner current loop which tracks the reference current value (Iref).
Direct and quadrature components of reference current can be calculated either through Eqs. (1) and (2) or can be generated using an
outer slower power loop in PQ control mode (see Fig. 4). The outer
power loop follows the given power references which are either
negative (in rectifying mode) or positive (in inverting mode).
Id;ref
2
Pref
3V d
Iq;ref
2
Q Cf 0V d
3V d ref
where Vd is the direct component of VSC output voltage (in kV), Cf is

the capacitor value in LC lter (in F), Pref and Qref are the desired setpoints for active and reactive powers (in MW and MVAR),
respectively.
3.2. Solar PV generator dynamic model
3.1.2. Current control

The former control technique which is mainly utilized in the
presence of a master grid is so-called current control scheme.
PV generator should be modeled accurately because the dynamics of VSC and controllers highly depend on the PV model. For the
565
Parks Transformation
SIN
Va
Vq,ref = 0.0
-2 /3
+
+
SIN
Vb
SIN
Vc
COS
Va
COS
Vb
COS
Vc
+
++
Vq
VCO
Va
2/3
PI
2 /3
+
+
PLL
freq
Vb
-2 /3
+
+
+
++
Vd
2/3
2 /3
Vc
+
+
Fig. 2. PLL controller used in this work.
Rs
Id
Isc
Ish
Rsh
Fig. 5. Equivalent single-diode model of solar PV cell.
Fig. 3. Inner current loop regulator.
PI
Id,ref
three-diode model, a third diode has been included in the model

to represent the current ows through the peripheries [19]. However, single-diode model has shown a reasonable trade-off
between accuracy and simplicity. This model is generally utilized
in power system studies since determination of parameters
becomes slightly complicated for double-diode and three-diode
models. In single-diode model, a current source is anti-parallel
with a diode. As depicted in Fig. 5, shunt and series resistances
are also considered in this equivalent circuit.
When the PV cell is illuminated by the sun, it generates DC
photo-current (Isc). Photo-current varies linearly against changes
in solar irradiance. The current through the anti-parallel diode
(Id) is responsible for non-linearity of IV characteristic. The
Kirchhoffs current law, based on equivalent circuit shown in
Fig. 5, yields [20]:
I Isc Id Ish
and hence,
PI
Iq,ref

V IRs
V IRs
1
I Isc I0 exp
nkT c =q
Rsh
Isc can be calculated as:

Fig. 4. Outer power loop regulator in PQ control mode.
circuitry based modeling techniques of PV cell, single-diode, double-diode, and three-diode models have been suggested in the literature. The single-diode model can be further improved by adding
a second diode in parallel with the rst diode. The second diode
represents the recombination effect of carriers in depletion region
of semiconductor where current value of PV cell is low [18]. In
Isc IscR
G
1 aT T c T CR
GR
where
GR: reference solar radiation
TCR: reference cell temperature
IscR: short circuit current at GR and TCR
aT: temperature coefcient of photo current
and I0 is dark current and can be calculated as:
566
I0 IoR
T 3c
T 3cR

qeg
1
1
exp

T cR T c
nk
Inputs : V (t ), I (t )
where
IoR: dark current at TCR
q: electron charge
k: Boltzman constant
eg: band gap energy
n: diode ideality factor (between 1 and 2, typical value for
silicon solar cell is 1.3).
dI = I (t ) I (t dt )
dV = V (t ) V (t dt )
dV = 0
No
Yes
The basic unit of PV generator is solar cell which is able to generate electrical power about 12 W. Series and/or parallel electrically
coupled PV cells make PV modules and further PV arrays. A PV array
encompasses series and parallel connected modules and hence the
single cell equivalent circuit can be scaled up in order to rearrange
for any series/parallel conguration. Total number of 160 strings
that each consists of 24 modules in series (Voc,Plant = 1221.6 V) have
been connected in parallel (Isc,Plant = 891.2 A) to build up 1 MW PV
power plant. Parameters of PV module used in this paper are cited
in Table 1.
3.2.1. Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm
The amount of power which can be captured from the solar cell
depends on the operating point on the IV characteristic. To draw
as much power as possible from the PV generator, different MPPT
techniques have been introduced in the literature [2124]. MPPT
algorithm is designed to generate voltage reference value at DC
link and hence keep the operating point about the knee point of
IV curve. The main duty of MPPT algorithm is to match impedance
at the PV generator terminal where the load impedance varies and
force the operating point to move away the knee point. A commonly used algorithm is Perturb and Observe (P&O) technique.
However, this method has its own limitations. For example, the
exact maximum power point (MPP) can never be found and hence
the power oscillates about MPP [20,25]. The method adopted in
this work is Incremental Conductance (IC) algorithm. Fig. 6 shows
the owchart of this algorithm which has been implemented in
PSCAD [24]. The IC algorithm is designed to evaluate Eq. (5) at
the MPP as:
dP dVI
dI
IV
0
dV
dV
dV
where I and V are the output current and voltage at the terminal of
PV generator, respectively.
3.2.2. PVDG control mechanism
According to [26,27], PVDG is not allowed to participate in voltage regulation and thus it can only operate in unity power factor.
By forcing the reactive power to zero in steady-state, the DC bus
equation which shows relationship between input power (PPV)
and output power (PVSC) can be written as:
d 2
2
V PPV PVSC
dt dc C
Yes
dI = 0
dI dV = I V
No
No
Yes
dI > 0
dI dV > I V
Yes
No
No
Increase
Vref
Yes
Decrease
Vref
Decrease
Vref
Increase
Vref
I (t dt ) = I (t )
V (t dt ) = V (t )
Return
Fig. 6. IC algorithm in order to the estimate Vref for DC bus controller.
PVDG system is assumed to operate in current control mode at all

the times. To regulate the voltage at DC bus, there are two techniques i.e. single-stage and double-stage methods. In this work, single-stage controller has been utilized through which only the
inverter is controlled. There exists no interfacing unit between the
PV array and inverter except DC link. In single-stage mechanism,
whole power generated in DC side by PV prime mover is instantaneously transferred to AC side and hence the voltage at DC link gets
regulated. MPPT sets the voltage reference. As illustrated in Fig. 7,
the error between the square of set-point and square of measured
DC bus voltage passes through a PI compensator. PI regulator output is added to instantaneous power generated by PV array making
up Pref for the inner power loop. Assuming that PVSC to be the input
power for the inverter and if the switching losses is ignored, the V 2dc
and PPV would be the controller inputs and hence Pref would be the
controller output. PVSC would become equal to Pref in steady-state so
that the variation of DC link voltage would be forced to become zero
and the feed-forward path including the PPV ensures that the whole
power is transferred to the AC side.
However, in double-stage approach a DCDC converter is
exploited which regulates for voltage at DC bus at desired value
by tracking the MPPT reference. DCDC converter should be
Parameter
Value
Rated Power (Pmax)

Maximum Power Voltage (Vpm)
Maximum Power Current (Ipm)
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc)
Short Circuit Current (Isc)
Temperature Coefcient (Voc)
Temperature Coefcient (Isc)
NOCT (Normal Operating Cell Temperature)
210 W
41.3 V
5.09 A
5.09 V
5.57 A
0.142 V/C
1.95 mA/C
46 C
Vdc2
Table 1
Electrical specications of solar module (HIT-N210A01).
Vref2
PI
++
PPV
Fig. 7. Outer power loop in PVDG controller.
Pref
controlled separately and so one control level has to be added to

the controller with additional ltering and switching hardware.
3.3. Battery energy storage system (BESS)
3.3.1. Battery design approach
In this paper, a design guideline has been proposed to accurately size the battery storage plant taking into account the technical and empirical aspects. In conventional rotary based generators,
the high inertia of rotating mass is capable of supplying for any
transient power mismatch between the load and generation. By
contrast, in low or non-inertial systems (e.g. a PVDG system) any
changes in the load or generation results in an abrupt power oscillation. To compensate for this drawback, BESS can be exploited in
power networks [4]. BESS also can bring ancillary services for AC
network such as dispatching ability, ride-through capability, and
network stability.
In this work, BESS is directly connected to the DC-link of VSC. To
prevent battery electrolyte decomposition, state of charge (SOC) is
considered as the operating control variable in the power management system (PMS). To control the charge/discharge current PMS
limits the dispatching reference (Pref) through the proposed algorithm shown in Fig. 8. This current control strategy is embedded
in BESS unit agent and connes dispatching reference (smoothing
power index) of BESS to make sure that the charge/discharge currents are controllable accordingly. Since the MG is in grid-connected mode any mismatch between the smoothing index and
BESS power limits would be supplied or absorbed by the grid. In
this algorithm, the PVDG and load forecasting modules release
their estimated waveforms and then smoothing index is calculated
by the main agent accordingly. It sends the dispatching signal to
BESS through the generation agent. Once the unit agent receives
the dispatching commands from the generation agent, the current
control algorithm is activated and determines whether the charge/
discharge current is within the allowed boundary or not. In another
method, the storage unit is connected to DC link via DCDC converter. DCDC converter is a bidirectional buck-boost converter
that has two duties. Firstly, it boosts up battery terminal voltage
to that level is required at DC bus. Secondly, it contributes in charging/discharging process of battery in constant current (CC) or constant voltage (CV) modes. To control DCDC converter additional
elaborated control mechanisms together with ltering and switching elements have to be considered.
PV
FORECASTING
MODULE
LOAD
FORECASTING
MODULE
PPV
PL
PLavg
MOVING
AVERAGE
FILTER
Pset
+ +
-
For the utility applications, lead-acid battery is a proper solution in terms of technical aspects and its cost per kilo watt [28].
Lead-acid battery (LAB) is able to meet the ramp rate requirements
of the grid. LAB can be used for deep-cycle applications where the
power is supplied for a long duration. LAB is also suitable to be
charged or discharged in a short period of time (e.g. for power
smoothing purpose).
To determine the charge or discharge rate of a battery cell, C rate
is dened. C rate species the amount of constant current multiplied
by the duration (which is 5, 10, or 20 h) when the battery can continuously supply for this current. It is nominally determined in manufacturers datasheets as C5, C10, or C20. The battery cell terminal
voltage (Vcell) strongly depends on the C rate which the battery is
sized for. Designing of a BESS for a typical microgrid is begun with
characterization of battery cell which is the smallest unit in a battery bank. Open-circuit terminal voltage of the cell in 100% state
of charge is considered as the oat or nominal voltage (Voc). Final
voltage at the completion zone of discharge is symbolized by Vnal
for each cell. Keeping the Vcell above the Vnal retains the operating
point in the linear zone. Therefore, Vnal should be chosen as high
as possible and normally 80% to 90% of Voc might be a reasonable
value. Vnal is specied in the manufacturers datasheets for high
rate of discharge (e.g. 5 min in here) applications. The nearest value
of voltage available in the datasheet to the calculated Vnal can be
selected as the nal voltage and used to size BESS (see Fig. 9).
Let VBESS to be the BESS terminal voltage after discharge. BESS is
supposed to contain Ns battery cell in series to meet the required
voltage level at DC bus. The minimum DC bus voltage of VSC, in
which the VSC can operate normally, is considered as VBESS and
can be formulated as:
where m is the PWM switching modulation index and VLL is RMS

value of line-to-line VSC voltage at the grid side. Thus, the number
of cells in series in each string is given by:
Ns
V BESS
V final
Yes
Iref < IChar ,max
Pref = P
PL PLav g Pset PPV Rt
11
Pmax
BESS t dt
PL PLav g Pset PPV K T
12
where
Yes
Pref = P
No
K
Pref = PDichar ,max
10
If the calculated Ns is not an integer, the subsequent higher value

would be selected as Ns. BESS should be able to absorb or supply
the maximum power in a short duration and at the same rate. To
design it for maximum operating ramp rate, it is enough to nd
the maximum difference between reference waveform estimated
by moving average processing unit and estimated solar plant output
power added to difference between estimated load prole and average load (smoothing index). The maximum ramp rate can be handled by BESS is found through (see Section 5):
Emax
BESS
Iref < IDisch ,max
where PL is the instantaneous load (in MW), PLavg is the average load
(in MW), Pset is reference waveform generated by MAF (in MW), and
PPV is the PVDG output power (in MW). R(t) is the unity exponential
or ramp function and reaches to its nal value in T (s) and thus the
maximum energy which can be absorbed or supplied by BESS is
determined by:
2
3Vd
No
p
2 2V LL
p
m 3
V BESS
Pmax
BESS
567
Pref = PChar ,max
Fig. 8. Proposed battery charge/discharge current controller.
Rtdt
13
K is equal to 0.5 and 0.2 where R(t) is either ramp or exponential

function, respectively.
568
so the discharge current in ampere(s) is written as:
I D C Ah
17
The time taken for BESS to ramp up/down depends on the application which BESS is designed for. In G.C mode, BESS is responsible for
smoothing the PVDG power uctuations together with the load.
Smoothing index is considered to be the dispatching reference for
battery plant VSC and hence BESS should be sized based on this variable boundary of variation. The ramp rate of PVDG is very fast
(because it is EIDG) and a sudden change in solar radiation level
results in abrupt PVDG output variation. Load is also variable. In this
case, generation and load forecasting can be proper remedies in
order to denote what would be the boundary of these uctuations
in advance. In this work, the load and generation proles are
assumed to be forecasted one day in advance. For example, we consider a noise of 10% about the PVDG average output power. If the
PVDG is designed for 1 MWp, the peak time generation would vary
from 0.9 to 1.1 MWp. So the BESS system should be capable of supplying or absorbing 100 kW within several seconds.
3.3.2. Battery dynamic model
Shepherd model of lead-acid battery is used in this paper
[29,30]. To improve this model, the initial state of charge is substituted in the equations to accurately consider how the battery level
of charge affects other parameters. The electrochemical behavior of
battery is described in terms of current and voltage. This empirical
model is often used incorporating with Peukert equation in order
to obtain battery voltage and SOC as follow:
V T V oc R i K i
1
SOC i DOD
18
where VT is the battery terminal voltage (V), Voc is the battery opencircuit voltage, R is the internal resistance (ohm) calculated as:
R R0 K R
1
SOC i DOD
19
where R0 is residual resistance (ohm) calculated through:
R0 R0 K R
20
KR is electrolyte resistance at full charge and R0 is initial battery

resistance at full charge. i is the instantaneous battery current (A).
Ki is polarization coefcient, and DOD is depth of discharge given
by:
DOD
Fig. 9. Proposed battery house sizing and designing algorithm.
Taking into account active power capability of BESS the

maximum energy can be written as:
Emax
BESS
K SVSC cos u T
14
where SVSC is VSC rated apparent power in VA and g is VSC

efciency which is between 0.8 and 0.9.
To nd the charge and discharge rate of BESS, the C rate (A h) of
battery plant should be found which is equal to:
C Ah
Emax
BESS
V BESS :3600
15
and thus the charge/discharge rate of BESS is denoted as a C rate

coefcient given by:
3600
T
16
Q max
idt
21
where Qmax is the maximum nominal capacity of the battery. SOCi is

initial state of charge which can vary between 0.3 and 0.9 while the
simulation starts running. Instantaneous battery state of charge is
formulated as:
SOC
Q max Q used
SOC i DOD
Q max
22
where
Q used
idt
23
As shown in Fig. 10, the equivalent circuit of battery has been

implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC by a variable DC voltage source
in series with a variable resistor. The amplitude of voltage source
and resistor are determined through the Eqs. (18)(23).
Technical specications of lead-acid battery module used in
BESS are cited in Table 2. The lowest nal voltage value for 5 min
discharge is 9.6 V. To provide the voltage level of 912 V at the VSC
DC link, 95 battery modules are estimated to be connected in series
in each string. The maximum ramp rate considered for PVDG
569
purchase agreement between the utility companies and power

producers [31].
Active and reactive power reference values for VSC of battery
plant are determined by PMS. These values are passed through
the droop mechanism taking into account as P0 and Q0, respectively. Since the AC network is robust, the frequency and voltage
are xed in G.C mode and thus PMS dispatching values are used
to directly dispatch BESS. Other types of droop control have been
reported in the literature where all DGs are electronically dispatchable units [32,33]. In this case, each DG generates its own frequency clock by itself through measuring the frequency and
voltage at DG system point of connection (POC).
In power grids with high X/R ratio, the ow of active power predominantly depends on power angle and thus the frequency [34].
The ow of reactive power can be regulated by changing the voltage
magnitude at POC. Therefore, P and Q are controlled independently
through frequency and voltage droop regulations, respectively, as:
1
SOC
Voc K i
VT
Fig. 10. Equivalent dynamic model of battery module.
together with the load are supposed to be 2 [300, 350] kW/min

(refer to Section 5). Each battery string can supply up to 75 A h
which means that the current can be drawn within 5 min would
be 265.3 A and hence to supply 350 kW (384 A) power, two battery
strings are adequate in discharge mode. On the other hand, the
maximum allowed charge current is 22.5 A for each string and
the BESS should be able to absorb 300 kW (329 A) in the matter
of minutes. To ensure the charge current in within the boundary,
15 battery strings have been allocated for this purpose. If the charge
current is above 329 A, the proposed current control algorithm limits the smoothing reference to this value.
Pref M P xPOC x0 P0
24
where x0 is nominal grid angular frequency in p.u, xPOC is the

momentary angular frequency of voltage at POC in p.u, and MP is
active power droop coefcient as:
MP
P max Pmin
25
xmin xmax
and P0 (in p.u) is determined directly by system operator (main

agent) or calculated as:
3.3.3. BESS control mechanism

BESS controller is designed to operate in grid-connected mode.
PQ control mechanism is adopted which is a variety of current
control of VSC. The references are generated by main agent in order
to dispatch the dispatchable DGs (BESS and diesel plant). BESS is
responsible for smoothing power oscillations due to the changes
in solar radiation and load. A new dispatching index is formulated
in this paper which would be investigated in Section 4.
To employ the storage system efciently, BESS must quickly
respond within the acceptable duration. In this case, undesirable
operation of load tap changers (LTCs) and capacitor banks, which
can be due to the power uctuations of PVDG and the load, is minimized and hence the AC network would be less stressed.
To make sure that the power is delivered in the microgrid with
acceptable ramp rate, from the system operator view, BESS must
quickly counteract to sudden changes in load and PVDG output
power. Allowed ramp rate is normally mentioned in kilowatt per
minute (kW/min) and is the common feature of solar power
P0
P max Pmin
2
26
In steady-state (Verr = 0), and thus:
Q ref MQ V POC V 0 Q 0
27
where V0 is nominal grid voltage in p.u, VPOC is the instantaneous

VSC voltage at POC in p.u, and MQ is reactive power droop coefcient given by:
MQ
Q max Q min
V min V max
28
and Q0 is set-point for reactive power in p.u which is determined by

PMS or calculated as:
Q0
Q max Q min
2
29
Table 2
Technical specications of 12 V battery module (RM12-75DC).
Nominal Voltage
Nominal Capacity
Internal Resistance
Polarization Coef
Electrolyte Resistance
Units in series
Units in parallel
Max. Charge Current
Voc
C20 (Qmax)
R0
Ki
KR
Ns
Np
Ich,max
Final Voltage
9.6 V
10.02 V
10.2 V
10.5 V
10.8 V
12 V
75 AH (20 h)
64.8 mO (Fully charged battery)
0.003
0.7 mO
1.0
1.0
22.5 A
Time (Mins)
A
W
A
W
A
W
A
W
A
W
10
15
30
45
60
265.3
2501.6
235.9
2416.7
216.6
2271
193.1
2066.5
174.9
1820
188.2
1880.3
176.5
1822.3
167.4
1756.4
152
1620.4
136.4
1491.5
148.5
1518.7
141.5
1473.9
137.3
1426.3
128.1
1347.3
116.6
1242.3
92.6
925.2
90
896.3
88.2
881.5
84
863.9
77.9
836
67.9
698.6
66.7
687.4
66.1
675.9
64
665.6
61.6
647
53.3
579
53
572.3
52.4
564.5
51.3
558
49.7
547.8
570
Fig. 11. BESS active power droop control module.
Fig. 13. Torque map diagram of IC engine.

Fig. 12. BESS reactive power droop control module.
As shown in Figs. 11 and 12, output of droop mechanisms sets

the active and reactive power references for VSC outer power
loops. The outer power loops would set current references for
the inner current loops.
3.4. Diesel generator plant

Some typical models of diesel generator plant have been presented in [3537]. Diesel generator set has to perform three tasks
in here. Firstly, it generates constant active power to shift down/up
the grid active power prole or it shares the instantaneous load
active power with the utility. Secondly, in the case that the grid
is not able to charge the battery, diesel plant must go through this
task. Thirdly, the local load reactive power is assumed to be shared
between BESS and diesel plant proportional to their ratings.
The diesel generator plant includes in an internal combustion
(IC) engine which drives a synchronous generator. Diesel prime
mover should respond quickly to any changes in demand and thus
reject the disturbances. In diesel power station, a 1.2 MW diesel IC
engine, which is mechanically coupled with a 1.28 MV A (cos /
= 0.8) synchronous generator, operates as the prime mover. The
model of IC engine which is available in PSCAD library has been
utilized for the simulation purpose. The IC engine model takes
the mechanical speed of generator and the fuel intake as the inputs
and gives the mechanical torque as the output. Input parameters of
IC engine have been set according to Table 3. As shown in Fig. 13,
the output torque in any specic cranking angle is dened for the
software as a torque map lookup table. Diesel engine has been
rated 17% larger than the synchronous generator capacity to keep
the microgrid stable during the overload condition. Synchronous
generator and IC engine are supposed to spin at the same speed
of 1500 rpm and hence there is no need to exploit gear box.
The synchronous generator has 4 poles and produces 50 Hz
sinusoidal voltage waveform. There is a direct and quadrature axes
model for this component in PSCAD library which has been used to
simulate the diesel plant [38]. The generator parameters (see
Table 4) have been imported into the PSCAD software according
Table 3
IC engine model parameters.
Table 4
Synchronous generator (LSA 50.1-4P) model parameters.
Parameter
Value
Unit
Description
Vb
Ib
xb
0.40
1.85
314.16
Rated RMS line-to-line voltage

Rated RMS line current
Base electrical angular frequency
1.0
kV
kA
rad/
s
s
Ta
Xd
X 0d
X 00d
Xq
X 00q
0.041
3.53
0.246
0.135
2.12
0.169
s
p.u
p.u
p.u
p.u
p.u
Inertia constant (including ywheel and engine

inertias)
Armature time constant
d-axis synchronous reactance
d-axis transient reactance
d-axis sub-transient reactance
q-axis synchronous reactance
q-axis sub-transient reactance
X2
T 0d
T 00d
T 0do
T 00do
T 00qo
0.152
0.222
0.02
2.72
0.043
0.25
p.u
s
s
s
s
s
Negative sequence reactance

d-axis short-circuit transient time constant
d-axis sub-transient time constant
d-axis open-circuit time constant
d-axis sub-transient open-circuit time constant
q-axis sub-transient open-circuit time constant
to the manufacturers datasheet. Some parameters of generator

have not been provided by the manufacturer and thus can be
approximated as [39,40]:
Xd Xq
since the rotor of generator is non-salient,
T 00do
Unit
Engine rating
Machine rating
Engine rotating speed
Number of cylinders
Number of engine cycles
Misred cylinder
1024
1280
1500
6
Four strokes
No
kW
kV A
rpm
31
32
where X2 is the negative sequence reactance, and
T 00q T 00d
T 00qo
X q 00
T
X 00q q
33
34
The manufacturer datasheet provides the moment of inertia J in

(kg m2), however, the PSCAD needs inertia constant H in second(s)
as a data entry given by:
1
Value
X d T 0d T 00d
X 00d T 0do
X 00q 2X 2 X 00d
H2
Parameter
30
J x2m
SG
35
where SG is the generator rating base in MVA and,
2
P
xm xs
36
where P is the number of poles and xs is the synchronous angular

frequency in rad/s.
571
3.4.1. Governor controller

A governor control mechanism is proposed in this work which
enables the diesel generator to be dispatched by main agent
through the droop mechanism set-point. Main agent calculates
for the coefcient of power sharing with AC network and considers
the diesel plant capability. If the power sharing is not the issue,
diesel plant is dispatched in xed values.
The governor of IC engine is to regulate for the fuel intake and
thus the engine rotating torque. As shown in Fig. 14, there are
two time constants in the proposed governor model. The rst
one (T1) is the time required for the actuator to move and replace
in a new position and is modeled by a rst-order lag compensator.
Another time constant is the dead-time (T2) taken for all the cylinders to receive the fuel since they are not in a similar position at a
moment. A hard limiter is also added to ensure that the fuel intake
is not negative and there is an upper limit for the fuel intake that
corresponds to the maximum generation capacity. The values set
for the parameters of IC engine governor model are cited in Table 5.
Active power droop coefcient (MPD) of IC engine governor is given
by:
M DP
Pmax;D Pmin;D
xmin xmax
37
where Pmax,D and Pmin,D are the maximum and minimum of active
power generation capability of diesel generator plant in p.u, respectively. In steady-state mode, when the frequency is restored to its
nominal value, the momentary angular frequency of diesel generator (xD,POC), measured at POC in p.u, would be equal to synchronous
angular frequency (xs) and thus xerr becomes zero. Active power
set-point of plant (P0D) in p.u can be set by main agent in G.C mode
or obtained as:
P0D
P max;D Pmin;D
2
38
3.4.2. Excitation controller

Excitation controller comprises a voltage compensator together
with an exciter. The operational characteristics of excitation system have been described in [39,41] in detail. IEEE has developed
standard mathematical transfer functions for available commercial
excitation systems for software modeling purposes [42]. The exciter AC5A model has been utilized in this paper and its transfer
function is illustrated in Fig. 15. All the variables denitions
together with their values have been cited in Table 6. AC5A model
has been already implemented in PSCAD library. Parameters
default values, which have been chosen in this work, conrms
the proper response of exciter.
To set for Vref and prevent the circulation of reactive current
between the DGs, a reactive power versus Vref droop mechanism
is proposed to be added to the excitation controller. This control
loop is also responsible for sharing the load reactive power
between the BESS and diesel plant. As shown in Fig. 16, the Vref
can be set for G.C mode. Operator commands the reactive power
set-point (to share the local reactive power demand).
Table 5
IC engine governor controller parameters.
Parameter
Value
Unit
Description
T1
T2
K
0.05
0.02
1.0
sc
s
p.u
Time constant of actuator

Engine dead-time
Actuator gain
where QD,POC is the instantaneous reactive power output of synchronous generator in p.u, Q0D is the reactive power set-point in
p.u given by:
Q 0D
Q max;D Q min;D
2
39
where Qmax,D and Qmin,D are the maximum and minimum of reactive
power generation capability of diesel generator plant, respectively.
MDQ is the reactive power droop coefcient and can be calculated
through:
MDQ
Q max;D Q min;D
V min V max
40
where Vmin and Vmax are the allowed boundary of variation for Vref in
p.u (5%).
3.5. Load model
To ensure the stability of a power network, the generation of
power should be closely matched with its consumption. In this
case, the load dynamic behavior is very important and has to be
considered in power grid modeling and evaluating stages. Several
kinds of load have been introduced by [39] e.g. constant power
(P), constant current (I), and constant impedance (Z) loads. Modeling of load is not a straightforward task and hence so many factors
are involved such as time, metrological constrains, and economy
status.
There exist two load categories, in this work, i.e. industrial and
residential loads. Each consists of three similar feeders and hence
there are totally six load feeders. The load model is composed by
two portions. The rst portion includes in base load and the second
part represents as the alternating load. This MG totally supplies
260 kV A domestic base load (cos / = 0.963) and 357 kV A industrial base load (cos / = 0.98), respectively. Second portion of
domestic load varies between 85 and 260 kV A (0.9 6 cos /
6 0.96). Variable part of industrial load varies between 95 and
175 kV A (0.8 6 cos / 6 0.9). Base load has been implemented by
static load model and the variable load modeled using the dynamic
denition suggested in Section 3.5.2.
3.5.1. Static load
Base load has been modeled by algebraic functions in which the
instantaneous voltage and frequency are independent variables as:
P P0
V
V0
a
1 K PF df
Fig. 14. Diesel plant governor model and suggested active power droop controller.
41
572
Fig. 15. AC5A excitation controller transfer function.
Table 6
Synchronous generator excitation controller parameters.
RX
Unit
Description
TE
TA
TF1, TF2, TF3
KA
KE
KF
SE(EFD1)
SE(EFD2)
EFD1
EFD2
VRMIN
VRMAX
0.8
0.02
1.0, 0, 0
400
1.0
0.03
0.86
0.5
5.6
4.2
7.3
7.3
s
s
s
p.u
p.u
p.u
p.u
p.u
p.u
p.u
p.u
p.u
Exciter time constant

Regulator amplier time constant
Regulator stabilizing circuit time constant
Regulator gain
Exciter constant related to self-excited eld
Regulator stabilizing circuit gain
Saturation at EFD1
Saturation at EFD2
Excitation voltage for SE1
Excitation voltage for SE2
Minimum regulator output
Maximum regulator output
QD,POC
Q0D
1/MDQ
++
Value
Parameter
Vref
V0
Fig. 16. Synchronous generator proposed reactive power droop controller.
Q Q0
V
V0
b
1 K QF df
42
where a and b are equal to the voltage indices for active and reactive powers, respectively. These two parameters have been set to
zero. KPF and KQF are the frequency indices for active and reactive
powers, respectively, and have been considered to be zero. The zero
value of parameters ensures that the base load is constant power
load and thus is independent from voltage and frequency variations.
3.5.2. Dynamic load
This portion has been simulated through the variable inductance L in series with variable resistance R and this branch is connected to the ground in parallel with the base load. R and L values
have to be altered during the simulation to represent the variable
portion of the load. Since the actual load prole is available, by
deducting the base load whatever remains would be the dynamic
portion. Given the values of load active (P) and reactive (Q) powers,
R and L values can be calculated as:
GMho
43
V2
BSiemens
Q
V2
44
where G and B are the load conductance and susceptance, respectively. V is the nominal RMS line voltage and thus,
LH
45
Y2
B
Y 2 xs
46
where xs is synchronous angular frequency and Y is the load admittance given by:
2
Y 2 ohm
q
G2 B2
47
4. Data inputs
Power system behavior is inherently unpredictable. Generation,
transmission, and demand all have a degree of uncertainty. To keep
power system stable and cost effective, grid codes and regulations
have been mandated by the utilities and regulatory authorities
over the last decades [26,27]. From the system planning and operation perspectives, load scheduling, forecasting, and economic dispatching are those kinds of remedies to cope with the variable
nature of power system. In this case, planners and operators attain
a prior knowledge, from their databases, about the problematic
uncertainties. They can propose their most efcient and cheapest
solutions in order to resolve these shortcomings.
Load and supply forecasting are both beyond the scope of this
research. However, to examine the impacts of load and generation
variations on dynamics of system, it is necessary to collect the real
load and PV radiation data. In this paper, the PVDG irradiation and
the daily load proles are assumed to be forecasted by data centre
or a forecasting module (embedded in unit and load agents) one
day in advance. This information, after some logical manipulation,
would be used as inputs for PSCAD software.
4.1. Solar irradiation prole
A typical location in Malaysia in the city of Kuala Lumpur with
latitude of 3,70 N and longitude of 101,390 E has been chosen
[43,44] as the sampling point. The solar radiation pattern has been
extracted through the HOMER software which is a Micropower
optimization model developed and supported by Homer Energy
LLC. This software is able to estimate the average hourly irradiation
prole using the method suggested by [45]. HOMER creates a set of
8760 solar radiation values for each hour of the year. On the other
hand, to study the dynamic behavior of microgrid in presence of
PVDG, solar radiation prole is needed with higher precision than
the hourly data [46]. For example, to see the power ow changes,
in the system, followed by PVDG power output variation (ramp
rate) within 5 min, the solar radiation prole should be sampled
in every 5 min during a day. In this case, the BESS is sized so that
it can absorb or supply the power difference between Pset and Ppv
(together with that part of smoothing index related to the load)

during the period PVDG ramps up or down, respectively. PV plant
generates power in an unpredictable manner. This fact can be considered as the result of cloudy sky, in worst condition, or rising and
setting of the sun during the day which causes 1013% variation in
PV plant output power. The abrupt changes in generated power are
the main concerns for the system planners and operators. A passing cloud can lead to more than 60% change in PVDG output in a
matter of seconds [47]. Fig. 17 shows the average solar irradiation
(G) prole for a typical day on May approximated at the coordinates of sampling. Twenty four hourly irradiation values have been
interpolated to obtain 288 values and redraw the solar pattern for
every 5 min during a day. To investigate the ramp rate effects on
the network, a normal distributed random noise with 0 mean
and standard deviation 1 was applied on the averaged solar prole
[6]. Hence, the noisy signal Gn which is nally estimated through
the MATLAB module is utilized as the input of PV plant model
given by:
Gn G randnsizeG 0:5 0:15
48
where G is a (m n) array in which m = 288 and n = 1, respectively.

4.2. Operating temperature prole
To study the impacts of variation in temperature on the PVDG
output power, the temperature prole of sampling location was
collected from Malaysia Metrological Department (MMD). The
input of PV generator accepts the cell operating temperature given
by [48]:
T cell T Amb

T NOCT 20
Gn
0:8
49
where TAmb is the ambient temperature shown in Fig. 18 and TNOCT is

nominal cell operating temperature available in manufacturers
datasheet (46 C). Tcell prole was estimated (in Celsius) during
the day of sampling and exploited as solar PV generator model data
input in PSCAD.
4.3. Load data
The load characteristic is one of the main factors in power system
modeling for dynamic stability and transient studies. Similar to the
stochastic generation, load is also variable and changes during the
day. In some hours in a day the load prole is in its maximum value
when the utility charges the customer for highest prices. The load
changes also generate power mismatch between the generation
and consumption. System power quality can be highly affected
where DGs generate intermittent power and the main grid is weak.
In this work, there are two kinds of customer i.e. the residential and
industrial. The former is considered to be non-vital load. The industrial processes are the vital loads since any power disruption may
results in huge money wastage and has hazardous consequences
as well. The load prole associated with each category was collected
from Tenaga National Berhad (TNB) ofce of sampling distribution
in Malaysia. As shown in Fig. 19, the industrial load prole is almost
constant since the industrial processes are often redundant while
the domestic load varies during the day.
5. Power management system (PMS)
A coordinated power management algorithm (PMA) has been
proposed in this paper. PMS, as the highest hierarchical level of
control, runs PMA and dispatches the dispatchable DGs. Economics
has not been considered in suggested PMA and hence the dispatching strategy has been dened based on the technical issues. The
most important PMA objective is to decline the stresses on the
AC network due to PV plants ramp ups/downs and load uctuations. In addition, BESS and diesel plant are supposed to share
the local reactive power demand proportional to their ratings. Diesel can also share the local active power demand with AC network
as in Eq. (50) or it can supply a constant active power to shift up/
down the grid active power prole.
P00D
bPL
if PD;min P00D PD;max
P 0D
o w:
50
where P 00D is dispatching reference of diesel plant and b is the active

power sharing coefcient determined by the system operator. The
instantaneous power mismatch between the local generation and
load would be compensated by grid.
PMS receives all the eld information from lower stream agents
(generation and load) and saves them in its database. Data pointed
out in here can be battery SOC, PV power production status, breakers states, DGs apparent power outputs, DGs power capabilities,
and forecasting signals.
The integration of DG system should not put stress on the main
grid components. In this MG, since the demand and generation are
both variable, an efcient smoothing index has been proposed in
order to smooth the active/reactive power oscillations generated
by PVDG and load together. PVDG operates in unity power factor
and hence it only contributes in the active power ramp ups/downs.
In the case of load, both active and reactive power change according to load proles. To smooth the active power oscillation during
the time when the PVDG generation is down (night time), diesel
and grid contribute to supply the demand. SOC of BESS is controlled instantaneously to make sure that BESS operates within
its power capabilities limits as:
SOC min SOC SOC max
Fig. 17. Forecasted solar irradiation prole by HOMER in Malaysia on May and the
noise applied on.
573
51
Diesel can operate in its capacity at nominal frequency which can

be determined by the PMS unit (P0D) or dispatched up to its maximum generation capacity by operator (bPL). It can be used to charge
the battery up to SOCref which is 60% in here. The reference SOC is
determined by the operator which has the knowledge in advance
about the load and PV active power proles. If SOCref is properly
selected, by end of the day, the battery can be recharged up to SOCref
(if needed) by diesel or grid depending on the operator decision.
During the daytime, as long as the SOC battery is within the operational boundary, BESS is controlled in PQ mode and thus active
574
Fig. 18. Temperature proles (a) Malaysia ambient temperature. (b) Cell operating temperature.
Fig. 19. Distribution network load prole in Malaysia.
power reference is equal to smoothing index calculated by the main

agent as:

DP PL PLav g Pset PPV
52
where DP is smoothing index in MW, PL is the instantaneous load

estimated by the load agent in MW, PLavg is the active power load
prole mean value in MW given by:
PLav g
PL;max PL;min
2
53
where
PL;min Pinds;min Pdoms;min
54
PL;max Pinds;max P doms;max
55
where Pinds,min and Pdoms,max denote the minimum industrial active

load and maximum domestic active load, respectively. PPV is PVDG
output power which is calculated by PV plant unit agent and is sent
to main agent through generation agent. Pset is the moving average
value of PVDG output power in MW. Embedded moving average
module in main agent receives the noisy PPV prole one day ahead
and thus Pset is generated through this module. Taking into account
that PLavg is 872 kW and PL 2 [787, 1000] kW and thus rst term in
(52) would be member of [85, 128] kW. If the boundary of changes
for second term in (52) is between 215 and 222 kw (see Fig. 20), the
smoothing index would be member of [300, 350] kW.
Moving average is often used to reduce the random noise and is
the best offer for time domain encoded signals. Principle of operation is to get average from a number of input signal points and
hence to reproduce each point in the output signal as [49]:
575
Fig. 20. Generation of PV average reference using moving average lter.
Y i F k
1=2
npX
where a is droop coefcient given by:
X i j
56
jnp 1=2
where X and Y are the input (PPV) and output (Pset) vectors, respectively. np is the number of points used in the moving average lter.
Eq. (56) represents two sides averaging which is so-called symmetrical averaging. Symmetrical averaging requires np as an odd number. Moving average is a convolution of input signal with a
rectangular unity area pulse which exploits lter kernel (Fk) given by:
Fk
1
np
57
As the number of points rises, the level of noise declines (see

Fig. 20). In this paper, 21-point moving average lter has been
exploited in order to smooth the noisy signal and generate Pset.
To supply the microgrid reactive power, Q0D of synchronous
generator excitation controller, and Qref of BESS are both set
through the commands issued by the main agent. A constant
smoothen share of reactive power (QLavg) is supposed to be supplied by the power grid. In this case, the load reactive power uctuation about QLavg is smoothed by the BESS and diesel plant as:
Q L;max Q L;min
Q Lav g
2
58
where
Q L;min Q inds;min Q doms;min
59
Q L;max Q inds;max Q doms;max
60
where Qinds,min and Qdoms,max denote the minimum industrial reactive load and maximum domestic reactive load, respectively. In
another case, if the operator decides to supply the whole reactive
power locally, QLavg is set to zero and hence BESS and diesel plant
share the local demand.
Reactive power smoothing difference (DQ) should be shared
between BESS and diesel generator proportional to their ratings.
In this case, the set point reference values can be calculated as:
"
Q 0B
Q 0D DQ
1
11=a
1
1a
#
61
SBESS
SDiesel
62
and,
DQ Q L Q Lav g
63
where SBESS, SDiesel are the MVA ratings of BESS and diesel plant,
respectively. Therefore, ve operating zones are dened for BESS
as follows:
a. DP > 0 and DQ < 0 thus BESS delivers active power (discharge) and absorbs reactive power;
b. DP < 0 and DQ < 0 thus BESS absorbs both active (charge)
and reactive powers;
c. DP > 0 and DQ > 0 thus BESS delivers both active (discharge)
and reactive powers;
d. DP < 0 and DQ > 0 thus BESS absorbs active power (charge)
and delivers reactive power;
e. Standby mode in which no active power is supplied or
received but reactive power still can be exchanged.
As shown in Fig. 21, PMS is able to smartly handle the MG based
on the solar radiation level together with BESS and diesel plant
technical constrains. BESS can be safely charged or discharge when
needed as well as it shares reactive power with diesel plant at the
same time. PMS also makes it possible for the network operator to
determine the active and reactive power portions supplied by each
generation unit. In this case, the step-wise operation of PMS to run
PMA is described as follows:
1. Main agent calculates for active and reactive powers smoothing
indices. At all the times, the reactive power references are set
for BESS and diesel through Qref and Vref, respectively (see
Section A);
2. From evening to morning when the solar radiation is low, the
local load is supplied by the grid and diesel plant. If battery
SOC is bellow SOCref, depending on operator decision, it has to
be charged by diesel plant or grid up to the level of SOCref (see
Section B).
3. During the daytime (see Section C), BESS smoothing function is
activated if:
576
Input data received

by main agent
Section A
Operator decisions
Eq. 50
Pconstant
Pset
Calculate active
power smoothig
index
Eq. 52
PLavg
PPV
PL
Operators
commands
0
Eq. 58
Droop
Q ref
Q 0B
Vref
Q0D
Calculate
reactive Power
smoothing index
Eq. 63
QLavg
QL
P0D
Section B
Yes
Yes
Yes
Pref = PChar
PDiesel = P0D + PChar
BESS
Is charged locally ?
SOC < SOCref
No
(t < t1 ) (t > t 2 )
No
Pref = 0
PDiesel = P0D
Pref = PChar
PDiesel = P0D
No
Yes
Pref = P
PDiesel = P0D
Section C
SOCmin SOC SOCmax
Yes
No
(SOC = SOCmax ) ( P > 0)
Pref = P
PDiesel = P0D
Yes
Pref = P
PDiesel = P0D
No
(SOC = SOCmin ) ( P < 0)
No
Pref = 0
PDiesel = P0D
Fig. 21. Proposed smart power management algorithm.
Fig. 22. Comparison between the microgrid without BESS and with BESS. (a and d) Grid active power prole. (b and e) Diesel plant active power output. (c and f) BESS active
power output.
SOC of BESS is between 30% and 90% when time is between t1

and t2;
BESS is fully-charged and smoothing index is positive;
BESS SOC is fully-discharged and smoothing index is
negative;
Otherwise battery keeps on operating in idle mode (Pref = 0).
6. Simulation studies
Several test cases have been conducted to evaluate the operation of proposed PMA in MG (see Fig. 1) when the system works
in grid-connected mode. Microgrid with the agents and communication channels has been simulated in PSCAD/EMTDC software.
Solar radiation, cell operating temperature, and load vary during
577
Fig. 23. Comparison between the microgrid without BESS and with BESS. (a and d) Grid reactive power prole. (b and e) Diesel plant reactive power output. (c and f) BESS
reactive power output.
Fig. 24. Comparison between the microgrid without BESS and with BESS. (a and d) Battery house SOC prole. (b and e) Battery house terminal voltage. (c and f) Battery house
output current.
the day. PMA should be able to manage the system and hence relief
the stresses imposed on AC network. The network operator concern is about the active power ramp ups/downs caused by PVDG
since integration of DG systems must not negatively affect the
properties of main supply. For each test case, the proposed active
power smoothing index has been evaluated as well. The ability of
BESS, diesel plant, and grid to share the local active and reactive
power demand has also been investigated in conjunction with
other test cases. The role of operators decision has been taken into
account as well.
6.1. Test case 1: Power smoothing index impact on decreasing stress on

AC network, Diesel plant shares load active power with grid and load
reactive power with BESS while grid is to charge BESS
In this test case, diesel plant is supposed to supply 50% of load
active power (PL) and hence operator decides to dispatch this unit
(Eq. (50)) with b = 0.5 and rest of load is supplied by distribution
network. BESS plant is assumed to smooth the power uctuation
resulted by load and PVDG plant. The operator, which has been
received the forecasted waveforms, sets SOCref to be 60% at the
578
Fig. 25. (a) Grid active power prole. (b) Diesel plant active power output. (c) BESS active power output.
Fig. 26. (a) Battery house SOC. (b) Battery house terminal voltage. (c) Battery house current.
beginning of the day and at the end of day battery should be

recharged (if any) up to this level by the grid. Operator also sets
PLavg = 0.872 (MW) and thus the load uctuations about this value
would be compensated by BESS. Operator also assigns the diesel
plant and BESS to share the load reactive power (QL) locally
between themselves and sets QLavg = 0. PMA is activated between
t1 and t2 for the purpose of smoothing. In here, t1 and t2 are supposed to be at 6:30 a.m and 7:30 p.m, respectively. There are two
scenarios which have been implemented in this test case. MG operates while BESS smoothing functionality is disabled in the former
case and is enabled in the latter case. In both cases, load reactive
power still can be shared properly between two DGs. As shown
in Figs. 2224, between 12:00 a.m and 6:30 a.m the diesel supplies
the load together with the grid. From 6:30 a.m to 7:30 p.m, as
shown in Fig. 22, AC grid encounters with too many uctuations

as the PVDG output starts increasing, however, these oscillations
are mitigated for the second case. In the rst case, SOC of battery
keeps unchanged since BESS is in idle mode.
In second case, all the active power uctuations have been suppressed by BESS and hence the grid active power prole becomes
smoothened (see Fig. 22d). As depicted in Fig. 23, the load reactive
power has been shared between two DGs proportional to their ratings. The grid supplies zero reactive power in both cases because QL
is supplied locally. The reactive power outputs of DGs together
with the grid reactive power prole for both cases are the same
which conrms that the control of active power is independent
from the reactive power. The battery house terminal voltage
changes stably above the nal voltage value in the second case
579
Fig. 27. (a) Grid reactive power prole. (b) Diesel plant reactive power output. (c) BESS reactive power output.
Fig. 28. (a) Grid active power prole. (b) Diesel plant active power output. (c) BESS active power output. (d) Active power smoothing index prole (DP).
(see Fig. 24) and remains constant in the rst case. At the end of
day when the SOC becomes less than 60%, the grid starts charging
the battery (see the grid active power prole which peaks between
08:30 p.m and 09:30 p.m in Fig. 22d) BESS current control unit
checks for the reference value for charging power which is sent
by operator. If this value is within the boundary, battery keeps
on charging until the SOC reaches to 60% (see BESS active power
prole which is absorbed between 08:30 p.m and 09:30 p.m in
Fig. 22f) and the system gets ready for the next day. If the amount
of charging current is above the limit assigned in current control
algorithm (see Fig. 8), algorithm limits charging active power reference value to maximum allowed value (300 kW).
6.2. Test case 2: Diesel plant can be remotely dispatched to shift up/
down the grid active power prole, BESS smoothing function is
enabled, diesel plant is to charge the battery, and load reactive power
is shared between diesel plant and BESS
In this test case, operator decides to dispatch the diesel plant by
xed active power reference. The aim is to shift down/up the grid
active power prole while BESS smoothing function is enabled at
all the times during the day. As shown in Fig. 2527, from 12 a.m
to 2 a.m the diesel plant active power output is 200 kW (reference
set by operator is 200 kW). Between 2 a.m and 4 a.m active power
reference increases to 400 kW by the operator and then declines to
580
Fig. 29. (a) Battery house SOC. (b) Battery house terminal voltage. (c) Battery house current.
Fig. 30. (a) Grid reactive power prole. (b) Diesel plant reactive power output. (c) BESS reactive power output.
300 kW from 4 a.m until the end of day. BESS smoothes the power
uctuations similar with the rst case and the changes in diesel
plant output power has no effect on its operation. At the end of
day, diesel plant receives the command from the system operator
in order to increase its active power generation and charge the battery. SOC of BESS that has fallen to less than 60% is charged back to
its reference SOC (by setting for P0D = 350 kW and Pref = 150 kW)
and then system gets ready for the next day.
Reactive power is also shared between diesel plant and BESS. As
illustrated in Fig. 27, whenever the diesel output power changes,
its output reactive power slightly oscillates. This matter happens
because in rotary based DGs control of active and reactive power
to some extent is dependent to each other. To deliver more active
power by synchronous generator, diesel engine should rotate faster
and hence power angle would increase. Along with sudden
increase in power angle, the amount of reactive power delivered
by diesel plant shortly grows. Then, the excitation acts against this
phenomenon and reduce the reference voltage until the operating
point returns to its original value in a short while.
6.3. Test case 3: Diesel plant is remotely dispatched to generate

constant active power, BESS smoothing function is enabled, diesel
plant is to charge the battery, load reactive power is shared between
diesel plant and BESS, and QLavg is supplied by the grid
This test case is to show the efcacy of proposed reactive power
smoothing index (DQ). Between 12 a.m and 6:30 a.m BESS is idle
and diesel plant generates constant active power. The grid compensates for the active power difference between the diesel plant
output (PDiesel) and the load (see Fig. 28). At 4 a.m operator issues
a command to supply the average load reactive power by the grid
and hence the load reactive power uctuations about this value is
shared between diesel plant and BESS. Once the operator command is received by the generation agent, this agent informs unit
agent associated with BESS and diesel plant. These DGs adjust their
reactive power generation accordingly (see Fig. 30). QLavg can be
calculated through Eq. (58) and it is also possible to be considered
as constant offset value provided that the rest of reactive load
above this offset complies with BESS and diesel plant power
capabilities as being shared between them. At the end of day, battery is charged by diesel plant (by setting for P0D = 350 kW and
Pref = 150 kW) up to reference SOC and system gets prepared for
the next day.
As shown in Fig. 28, BESS follows the active power index closely
and the ramp ups/downs are completely compensated by this unit.
The voltage at the battery house terminal is uctuating due to the
battery output current oscillations. Since the nal voltage value
has been chosen properly, these variations have no undesirable
effect on the operation of BESS (see Fig. 29). The current controller
module in BESS unit agent instantaneously monitors and controls
the current of battery to make sure that its value is allowable.
7. Conclusion
This paper proposes a novel power management algorithm
(PMA) which utilizes the battery and diesel plants efciently inside
of a microgrid which operates in grid-connected mode. This paper
also investigates the role of battery storage in the smartgrid in mitigating solar plant output power oscillations where both rotary and
electronically interfaced DGs are present in the system. PMA integrates moving average ltering method into the scheduled dispatching of battery plant in order to smooth the grid active
power prole and reduce the undesirable effects on its components. Moving average lter reduces the computational burden
and helps the operator to determine the degree of smoothness.
Results show that if one day ahead forecasting information about
the load and solar radiation is available (considering a ramp rate
of 50% to +10% for solar plant together with load), a 21-point
symmetrical lter produces an acceptable smoothened reference
waveform. A practical algorithm is also suggested to size the battery plant accurately based on data available through forecasting
modules together with network constraints. Size of the battery
plant obtained through this algorithm is quite matched to suppress
solar plant power uctuations along with the variable load. PMA is
implemented in an agent oriented communication environment
with four hierarchical levels. Communication platform helps the
system operator to interfere in the operation of PMA and hence
dispatch the DGs based on the real-time system requirements.
The contribution of diesel plant in shifting up/down the grid active
power prole is evident and makes it possible for the system operator to decide about the locally or remotely (by the grid) supplying
the loads. The proposed droop mechanism as an outer loop for
excitation controller ensures the accurate reactive power sharing
between the battery and diesel plants. A load model is designed
which is suitable for power system real-time simulation and
results prove the efcacy of this model. The overall operation of
microgrid to manage the generation and consumption as well as
to bring ancillary services for the main supply is quite satisfactory.
Acknowledgment
This work has been supported by High Impact Research
Secretariat (HIR) at University of Malaya through the Campus
Network Smart Grid System for Energy Security project (Project
No: H-16001-00-D000032 & Grant No: UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/32).
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Energy Conversion and Management 84 (2014) 562582

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

Smart power management algorithm in microgrid consisting

operate in parallel with the grid or in autonomous modes is so-called

S. Koohi-Kamali et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 84 (2014) 562582

power plant placement, depth of penetration, and power network

S. Koohi-Kamali et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 84 (2014) 562582

Fig. 1. Smart microgrid conguration.

(IGBT) semiconductor switches. There exist two IGBTs in each leg

In current control mode, the ow of power can be in two directions

where Vd is the direct component of VSC output voltage (in kV), Cf is

3.1.2. Current control

S. Koohi-Kamali et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 84 (2014) 562582

Fig. 2. PLL controller used in this work.

Fig. 5. Equivalent single-diode model of solar PV cell.

Fig. 3. Inner current loop regulator.

three-diode model, a third diode has been included in the model

Isc can be calculated as:

S. Koohi-Kamali et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 84 (2014) 562582

PVDG system is assumed to operate in current control mode at all

Rated Power (Pmax)

Fig. 7. Outer power loop in PVDG controller.

S. Koohi-Kamali et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 84 (2014) 562582

controlled separately and so one control level has to be added to

where m is the PWM switching modulation index and VLL is RMS

Iref < IChar ,max

PL PLav g Pset PPV Rt

PL PLav g Pset PPV K T

If the calculated Ns is not an integer, the subsequent higher value

Pref = PChar ,max

Fig. 8. Proposed battery charge/discharge current controller.

K is equal to 0.5 and 0.2 where R(t) is either ramp or exponential

S. Koohi-Kamali et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 84 (2014) 562582

so the discharge current in ampere(s) is written as:

where R0 is residual resistance (ohm) calculated through:

KR is electrolyte resistance at full charge and R0 is initial battery

Fig. 9. Proposed battery house sizing and designing algorithm.

Taking into account active power capability of BESS the

where SVSC is VSC rated apparent power in VA and g is VSC

and thus the charge/discharge rate of BESS is denoted as a C rate

where Qmax is the maximum nominal capacity of the battery. SOCi is

As shown in Fig. 10, the equivalent circuit of battery has been

S. Koohi-Kamali et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 84 (2014) 562582

purchase agreement between the utility companies and power

Fig. 10. Equivalent dynamic model of battery module.

together with the load are supposed to be 2 [300, 350] kW/min

where x0 is nominal grid angular frequency in p.u, xPOC is the

and P0 (in p.u) is determined directly by system operator (main

3.3.3. BESS control mechanism

In steady-state (Verr = 0), and thus:

where V0 is nominal grid voltage in p.u, VPOC is the instantaneous

and Q0 is set-point for reactive power in p.u which is determined by

S. Koohi-Kamali et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 84 (2014) 562582

Fig. 11. BESS active power droop control module.

Fig. 13. Torque map diagram of IC engine.

As shown in Figs. 11 and 12, output of droop mechanisms sets

3.4. Diesel generator plant

Rated RMS line-to-line voltage

Gn G randnsizeG 0:5 0:15

where G is a (m n) array in which m = 288 and n = 1, respectively.

if PD;min P00D PD;max

SOC min SOC SOC max

SOC of BESS is between 30% and 90% when time is between t1