The Bad Ellipse: Circles in Perspective

The Minor Axis is the Key

Randall Neal Bartlett, IDSA, Associate Professor
Department of Industrial Design, Auburn University

Has the eruption of computer rendering eliminated the need of drawing a visually correct
circle in perspective, an ellipse? No. Even with computer aided design and all the drawing
programs, the need for a designer to sketch will never go away. Designers still need sketch
and sketch accurately. The need to draw a visually correct ellipse is important, regardless if it
is with the aid of an ellipse template or a freehand thumbnail sketch. The content of this
paper is not a debate of traditional drawing methods versus computer-aided drawing. It is a
presentation of a method that can be used to determine if an ellipse is visually correct, and it
needs to be shared with educators and designers.

This method begins with the assumption that you can sketch an
ellipse freehand or draw an ellipse with a template and that you
know the difference between a major and minor axis. The
method will be referred to as the Chord Method and a key
ingredient is the alignment of the minor axis..

This Chord Method was taught to me in college by

Professor William Bullock during a perspective theory
drawing class. Professor Bullock picked up the technique
will working for Baugh- Deines Design, Wichita, KS.
Robert Deines explained the Chord Method and Professor
Bullock developed the concept in to a class handout.
The image below is a copy of the original handout I received
in 1977.

During my career in industry I showed this

technique to several designers and all of
them marveled at the method. Many
wished they had been taught the Chord
Method in school. I used the technique for
seventeen years before I proved the
method through photographic images and
overlays. I have expanded the technique
beyond drawing knobs on a radio or
wheels on a car. I will explain the method
for determining the visually correct ellipse
on horizontal, vertical, and angled
surfaces.

Drawing cylindrical forms in perspective is often a bit of guesswork. Ellipse templates are
helpful; however it is often difficult to determine the proper ellipse for a drawing. The
degree or angle of the ellipse is often determined by sight: what looks right. The Chord
Method is simple quantitative method for determining the proper degree of an ellipse. This
removes much of the guesswork from drawing circles in perspective. A student, professional
or educator will benefit from knowing this technique and will be able to draw a correct
ellipse with confidence.

The Chord Method: Definition.

A chord is a straight line joining two points on a curve.
The chord line is used in this method to assist in
determining a visually correct ellipse. As shown in the
image to the right, a circle has been divided into two
equal halves: left and right sections. A line, a chord line,
crosses the circle horizontally, below the center point,
creating two equal (shaded) sections. Any line drawn
horizontally that intersects the circle will create two
equal sections.
The Chord Method: Ellipse Position
In order to fully understand the Chord Method, a few basic terms need to be defined.
Circles in perspective have three basic orientations. These orientations are best described in
reference to the given plane on which they appear: vertical, horizontal, or angled planes. The
photographs of the white cube show the different orientations of the ellipses. The sides of
the cube represent horizontal planes and the top of the cube is a vertical plane.
Obviously, the circles
on the sides and top of
the white cube appear
as ellipses. Every ellipse
has a major and minor
axis, and the minor axis
orientation is the key
ingredient to drawing a
visually correct circle
(ellipse) in perspective.

By overlaying an ellipse template on the photograph of the white

cube, the minor axis orientation is determined. The minor axis
lines-up with the opposite vanishing point of the horizontal plane.
If the circle is on the right side of the cube (right-horizontal plane)
the minor axis of the ellipse aligns with left vanishing point.

When I was taught that the minor axis aligns with the opposite
vanishing point I took if for the truth, but several years ago a student challenged me and I
couldn’t explain the reason, even though I had confidence that the minor axis did align with
the vanishing point I could not prove it. So, I developed the white cube as a teaching-aid to
help illustrate the minor axis orientation. The white rods penetrating the center points of the
black circles represent the minor axis. Photographing the white box and then overlaying the
prints with ellipse templates proved the minor axis alignment method.
The key is the minor axis. To help my students
remember this I tell them that the minor axis is
the major factor for aligning an ellipse and the
major axis has no purpose in this method,
except to help locate the center point. The
minor axis is major and major axis is minor.
Regardless of the ellipse orientation the minor
axis alignment is always in the position that
would visually allow the ellipse to rotate around
an imaginary axis, like a wheel. The imaginary
axis is always perpendicular to the plane of the
ellipse and it penetrates the center point.

With this knowledge of the minor axis orientation we can transfer it to a vertically positioned
circle in perspective. The vertically oriented circle in perspective is an ellipse with the minor
axis position vertically. In this orientation the vanishing lines are not used to align the minor
axis of the ellipse, a vertical line through the center is used. Again, I used photography to
prove this minor axis orientation. The white rod penetrating the center of the black disc in
the photograph below depicts the vertical line through the center of the ellipse and the
minor axis orientation.

As indicated in the photograph of the clear plastic disc the

minor axis is shown with the alignment of the ellipse
template. The ellipse template has been placed over a
photograph of the disc, which shows the minor axis
orientation in a vertical position.
 Now that we know the minor axis orientation for
the horizontal and vertical circle in perspective, we
will now determine the angled ellipse orientation
for the minor axis. An angled ellipse uses the
minor axis for alignment, too. This orientation
takes a little more visual judgment than an ellipse
in the horizontal or vertical orientation. A visual
key that helps to align angled ellipses is to
remember that the minor axis and the imaginary
axis are perpendicular to the plane of the ellipse.
The white plastic rod depicts the imaginary axis
and represents the minor axis orientation. In order
to prove this point, make an enlarged photo copy of this page: set the photo copier
enlargement for 150 percent. You will need the center the image on the copier and set the
mode to photo. Locate a 50 degree ellipse template and overlay the ellipse with a 1 .75 size,
50 degree ellipse. Be sure to align the minor axis with the white plastic rod. As you will
notice, the minor axis indication marks on the template align with the white rod. Make
photocopies of other images in this paper and use other ellipse templates to check the
alignment. The enlargement size may need adjusting. Also, most ellipse templates are
graduated in 5 degree increments, so select the degree that best matches the ellipse. Ellipse
size will be a factor, too.

The Chord Method: Application

Now that we know the correct ellipse orientation, the minor axis direction, we now need to
determine the correct ellipse degree. So far, the images that have been shown in this paper
have all been the correct ellipses; because the majority of the ellipses shown are actual
photographs of circles or discs. The Chord Method is used to help determine the visually
correct ellipse. At the beginning of this paper a chord was defined and an image was shown
with a line, a chord line, dividing the circle into two equal sections. This technique is applied
to circles in perspective, ellipses, to determine two equal sections.

A photograph of the white cube has been

overlaid using an ellipse template and
triangle, which indicates a chord line. The
chord line created by the triangle has
divided the bottom part of the ellipse into
two sections. The two sections should
appear visually equal. In order to explain
how to apply the Chord Method we will
start with a horizontal ellipse and I will use a
step by step approach.

The Chord Method for Horizontal Oriented Ellipses

Step 1: Draw any line to a vanishing point. The line shown in Step 1 vanishes to the left
vanishing point. Then draw an ellipse with the minor axis inline with the vanishing line. The
degree of the ellipse is relevant at this time.

Step 2: Draw a vertical line through the geometric center of

the ellipse. This divides the perspective circle, an ellipse, into
two visually equal halves.

Step3: Draw a line through the lower section of the ellipse

that vanishes to the right vanishing point, as shown in Step 3.
This line is called a chord line. The two sections that are
created by the chord line should appear visually equal, if the
correct degree of ellipse is used.

If the minor axis of the ellipse is aligned to right vanishing

line then you strike a chord line to the left vanishing point
and check the two sections for equality. As you can see from
the image, the two sections are equal. Remember, the equal
sections are based on visual equality, not physical volume.
This question should be asked: Do they appear equal?

In the illustration below, a box has been created with an

ellipse (a circle in perspective) shown on the right side of the
box. Also, perspective guide lines are shown to help establish
the minor axis line and the chord line. This illustration shows
the correct ellipse.

The following examples

show ellipses that are not
correct. As you can see the two sections created by the
chord line are not equal. In the first image the ellipse is too
large; the degree of the ellipse is large. Remember, the size
of the ellipse is determined by the major axis and the
degree is determined by the minor axis. Here, the minor
axis distance, the degree, is too large.

The section to the right of the horizontal line, which

intersects the geometric center of the ellipse, is larger than
the section left of the horizontal line.

If both sections are visually equal then the correct degree

of ellipse is used.

In the image to the right shows the degree of

the ellipse is too small. The section to the right of the horizontal line is smaller
than the section to the left. In both images the minor axis orientation is aligned
with the left vanishing point and the chord line is drawn to the right vanishing
point. It is important to remember the chord line is to drawn to the opposite vanishing point
as the minor axis is aligned.

This same technique and information is used on the left

side of the cube, also. If a circle in perspective, an ellipse, is
drawn on the left side of the cube then the minor axis is to
be aligned with the right vanishing point. And the chord is
drawn to the left vanishing point (see the image to the left).
Changing the degree of the ellipse, which is direct
relationship with the minor axis distance, will result in an
ellipse that is not visually correct. I have found that when
using ellipse templates that the degree of the minor axis can
be either five degrees small or five degrees large without affecting the visual correctness. It is
when the minor axis is ten degrees or greater, either large or small, that the ellipse appears
off.

Now that we have reviewed circles (ellipses) on the flat horizontal sides of a cube, let’s look
at circles on the top of the cube, those that are vertically oriented. Ellipses drawn in this
orientation are different from those shown previously. The minor axis is still the key, but in
the vertical orientation the minor axis is always aligned vertically. The chord method can be
applied to ellipses in this orientation, but the technique
differs slightly from the horizontally oriented ellipses.

The image to the left illustrates the use of the chord method
for vertically oriented ellipses. If the incorrect degree ellipse
template is used or if a free ellipse is too thin or too thick the
sections created by the chord will not appear visually equal.
In the following images the chord method for vertical
ellipses is explained.

The Chord Method for Vertical Oriented Ellipses

Step 1: Draw any ellipse with the minor axis aligned
vertically. Draw any line through the geometric center of
the ellipse to either the left or the right vanishing point. In
this image the line is drawn to the left vanishing point.

Step 2: Draw a line through the ellipse to the opposite

vanishing point of the previous line. Make sure that the
line starts on the bottom part of the ellipse (as shown). This
line will intersect the first line, which will create two
sections.

Step3: Check the sections to verify that they are visually

equal. If they are not, adjust the thickness of the ellipse so
that the sections are visually equal. The thickness of the
ellipse is controlled by the degree, which is directly related to
the minor axis.
As stated in Step 1, the line drawn through the center can be drawn to either vanishing point
and then the chord line is drawn to the opposite vanishing point. The image below provides
an example of the line drawn through the center and vanishing to the right vanishing point.
The chord line is drawn though the ellipse, intersecting the line drawn through the center,
and vanishing to the left vanishing point. Notice that the two sections created by the
intersecting lines are to the left side of the ellipse. Applying
the Chord Method to vertically oriented ellipses can be
checked by either technique described above.

The Chord Method can also be used as a tool to help set

up a quasi perspective grid. This can be achieved by
starting with an ellipse that orients the minor axis
vertically. Draw a line through center in the general
direction of either the left or right vanishing point. Then
draw a chord line to the opposite vanishing point that creates two visually equal sections.

Now, you have established both vanishing point directions. Create a box around the ellipse
that vanishes to the right and left. Make sure that the lines touch the sides of the ellipse. This
will create a square in perspective, which can be used a basis for a perspective sketch. See the
images below. This technique can be applied to ellipses that are horizontally oriented, too.

The final use of the Chord Method is for angled circles; ellipses that have there minor axis
oriented in different directions other than to the left or right vanishing point and vertically.
This application is for those cylindrical objects that are on angled surfaces. This technique
was developed through my teaching experiences and was not part of the original handout
that I received form Professor Bullock.
As shown in the photograph, the minor axis is visually
perpendicular to the surface that the ellipse is on. This is
true for all circles in perspective. Two help me visualize
this I imagine that an arrow is penetrating the center of the
circle. Another way to envision the perpendicular line is to
imagine that there is an axle that the circle (ellipse) would
rotate about.

The following images explain how to use the chord

method for ellipses on angled surfaces.
 Draw a line that appears
to be visually
perpendicular with the
angled surface. Draw an
ellipse with the minor
axis aligned with the
perpendicular line. Draw
another line through the
center of the ellipse that
is on the same plane as
the angled surface.
Next, draw a chord line
at the top of the ellipse,
which vanishes in the
same direction as the
angled surface. This
lines should intersect
the line that is drawn
through the center of the ellipse. This will create two sections. If the two sections are visually
correct then the correct degree of ellipse has been used.

It should be evident that visually correct ellipses can now be drawn with confidence. The
main key is the minor axis alignment and after that has been established the next factor is the
proper thickness of the ellipse, which is directly related to the degree of the ellipse. With the
information provided, there are a few variations and combinations of this method that can
be used in sketching. I suggest that you explore these techniques and master the chord
method. Remember, this method still relies on visual judgment, but it should prove helpful
when drawing objects with cylindrical forms.