13th International Conference on Applications of Statistics and Probability in Civil Engineering, ICASP13

Seoul, South Korea, May 26-30, 2019

Seismic Performance Assessment of Buildings Located on Hillside

Slope

Richa Tatoba Patil

Ph.D. Student, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
Meera Raghunandan
Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India

ABSTRACT: In the seismically active Indian Himalayan region, lack of available flat lands and ever-
increasing housing needs have led to widespread construction of multi-storey reinforced concrete
moment frame buildings on hilly slopes. Such buildings have foundation at different levels and columns
of varying height to accommodate ground slope, introducing stiffness irregularity over the height of the
structure. During an earthquake, this can lead to stress concentration in structure and may make them
more vulnerable to collapse as compared to their regular counterparts. The primary objective of this study
is to evaluate the seismic performance and factors influencing collapse capacity of buildings on hilly
slopes designed as per modern Indian seismic building codes, which is not extensively investigated in
past. To this end, two-dimensional numerical building models capable of simulating flexural and shear
failure are created in OpenSEES for modern Indian seismic code compliant reinforced concrete special
moment resisting frames located in city of Aizwal in the Himalayan region of India. The collapse capacity
of the nonlinear building models is evaluated using incremental dynamic analysis for a suite of site
specific ground motions. The seismic collapse fragility curves are developed as a metric to assess the
seismic vulnerability of buildings. Buildings located on slope have lower median collapse capacity as
compared to buildings located on flat grounds. The seismic response of buildings located on slope is
particularly influenced by type of configuration and building height. The median collapse capacity
[Sa(T=1s)] decreases by 20% to 42% with increase in slope angle from 5º to 30º as compared to building
on no slope.

1. INTRODUCTIONS shortage of flat lands, buildings are often

The Himalayan region in North to North-East constructed on sloping grounds (Surana et al.
India has very high seismicity due to several 2018). To accommodate sloping ground profile,
active faults created by movement of Indo- buildings foundations rest at different levels and
Australian Plate against the Eurasian Plate. Due to have columns of varying heights, giving rise to
active seismicity in the region, the built vertical irregularity over the height of the
environment in North-East India is exposed to structure. Varying column heights at same floor
moderate and large magnitude earthquakes such level due to presence of sloping grounds also
as, Kashmir (Mw 7.6, 2005) and Sikkim (Mw 6, results in shifting of center of stiffness away from
2011) and Gorkha (Mw 7.8, 2015). These center of mass, introducing torsional effects in
earthquakes have resulted in extensive loss to life buildings. Therefore, for buildings constructed on
and property. For instance, 2015 Gorkha hilly slopes, the seismic response of buildings is
earthquake caused extensive damage to 256,697 greatly affected by the presence of stiffness
houses and complete destruction of 98,852 houses irregularity along the slope and across the slope of
(Varum et al. 2018). The North-East India is the hill. The present study focusses on seismic
typically a hilly terrain. To meet the housing performance of buildings influenced by stiffness
demands of increasing population and due to irregularity along slope direction only, the torsion

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 13th International Conference on Applications of Statistics and Probability in Civil Engineering, ICASP13
Seoul, South Korea, May 26-30, 2019

due to irregularity in the cross slope direction is through collapse fragility curves that are
not considered. Recent studies have observed developed from incremental dynamic analysis on
higher seismic fragility of buildings located on the building models. To evaluate the parameters
hill slopes as compared to the regular building influencing the collapse capacity of buildings due
counterparts located on flat ground (Surana et al. to stiffness irregularity along slope direction, this
2018; Wang et al. 2014). Singh et al. (2012) study considers archetype buildings located on
analyzed the seismic behavior of two typical varying ground slope angle ranging from 0º to 30º,
stepping back configurations of hill buildings different building configuration and different
using linear and nonlinear time history analyses building heights.
and observed that the story at higher ground level
in building located on hill slope is most 2. SEISMIC COLLAPSE ASSESSMENT
susceptible to damage. Mohammad et al. (2017) METHODOLOGY
employed equivalent static approach and response Seismic collapse capacity of a structure is a
spectrum method to study seismic behavior of few measure the life safety provided by the structure
building configurations of hill buildings. They and can be quantified using collapse fragility
concluded that to ascertain true behaviour of hill curves that relate the probability of collapse to
buildings, equivalent static method entirely different intensities of seismic excitation. This
depended on time period is not adequate. Surana study utilizes collapse fragility curve parameters
et al. (2018) have considered the influence of for assessing the relative vulnerability of
Indian seismic design codal level (buildings buildings and evaluates the impact of different
constructed before 1962, and after 2002 high- building parameters that affect its response.
code) on response of low and mid-rise buildings Seismic collapse fragility curves are developed
with different configurations located on hill slope. using incremental dynamic analysis (IDA)
They observed 50% and 10% reduction in median conducted on analytical nonlinear models of
collapse capacity of pre-code and high-code hill archetype modern code compliant reinforced
buildings when compared to their flat-terrain concrete moment frame buildings located in the
counterparts due to torsional irregularity and region. The subsequent sections will discuss the
shear failure of short columns. methodology in detail.
This paper extends on previous research
studies by assessing the impact of different 2.1. Archetypical Building Model
building parameters on seismic collapse capacity In urban India, most of the residential buildings
of modern code-compliant reinforced concrete have the ground story height, intermediate story
special moment resisting frames that are located height and bay width in the range of 3.5 m to 4.5
on hilly slopes. The archetype buildings are m, 2.7 m to 3.5 m and 3 m to 5 m respectively
analytically modelled as a two dimensional frame (Agarwal et al. 2002). This data serves as basis for
with lumped plasticity beam column elements development of archetype building for reinforced
with elastic joint shear springs. The rotational concrete moment frame buildings. The archetype
plastic hinges provided at beams ends are capable building represents the generalized structural
of simulating strength and stiffness deterioration performance of full class of buildings. The
under cycles of earthquake loading. The sloping primary archetypical building (Type I, ID1)
ground also results in presence of short columns considered in this study is a three bay four story
that are susceptible to shear failure. To capture reinforced concrete moment frame residential
this failure, shear springs capable of simulating building located on flat ground with 3 m floor
direct shear failure and flexure shear failure are height and 5 m bay width (Figure 1(a)). To
provided on top of short columns. The seismic accommodate the gradual and steep hill slope, the
vulnerability of the buildings is quantified primary archetype building is modified only at its
foundation level, as shown in Figure 1(b) and

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 13th International Conference on Applications of Statistics and Probability in Civil Engineering, ICASP13
Seoul, South Korea, May 26-30, 2019

Figure 1(c) respectively. Foundation is not special reinforced concrete moment-resisting

provided at ground level due to sloping ground. frame according to the provisions of strength,
Instead a pedestal, generally 1m long, is provided stiffness, and detailing requirements from the
below the ground to the top of footing that Indian Standard codes (IS 1893:2002, IS
introduces a short column in the structure. When 13920:1993). They are assumed to be located in
the slope of ground is less than or equal to 30º with the North-Eastern Indian city of Aizwal, located
horizontal, it is termed as gradual slope (Type II, in the highest seismic zone V as per Indian
ID2), otherwise it is considered as steep slope seismic code IS 1893(2002). The buildings are
(Type III, ID3). For the buildings located on hill considered as residential buildings and are
slopes, the number of stories are computed by designed to withstand dead and live loads
considering stories above the uppermost ground recommended by IS 875:1987. The building
level. This is in line with the recommendation of design considers M25 grade concrete (fck =
the Indian seismic code (IS 1893:2002) for 25MPa) and Fe415 (fy = 415 MPa) steel with
calculating approximate fundamental natural maximum percentage of tension and compression
period of vibration to compute the design base reinforcement in beams is restricted to 1.5% each
shear. Thus, the base shear will be same for all and total longitudinal reinforcement in columns is
structures with same number of stories above limited to 3%. The columns and beam have a
uppermost ground level. width of 300 mm with depth of column range
a) b) c)
from 350 to 450 mm and for beams 350 to 400
mm.
a) b) c)

Figure 1: The geometric configuration of archetype

buildings located on (a) flat ground (Type I, ID1), (b)
gradual slope (Type II, ID2), and (c) steep slope (Type d) e) f)
III, ID3)
To assess the influence of ground slope angle
on the seismic collapse vulnerability of building,
the study also considers additional building
configurations located on gradual slope angle of
0º (ID4), 5º (ID5), 10º (ID6), 15º (ID7), 20º (ID8),
Figure 2: The geometric configurations of archetype
and 25º (ID9) as shown in Figure 2, along with 30º buildings located on ground with slope angle (a) 0º
slope angle (ID2). To accommodate the slope (ID4), (b) 5º (ID5), (c) 10º (ID6), (d) 15º (ID7), (e) 20º
angle, two additional stories will need to be (ID8), and (f) 25º (ID9)
accommodated below the uppermost ground
level, as shown in Figure 2 (a). The residential 2.2. Nonlinear Building Model
building in North-East India usually ranges from The archetypical buildings are modelled as two-
two to six stories. To study the influence of dimensional frame with lumped plasticity beam-
building height on seismic response, buildings column elements and elastic joint shear springs in
with two story (ID10), four story (ID2), and six OpenSEES (2018). The beam and columns are
story (ID11) are considered to be located on the modelled using elastic beam-column elements
gradual slope. All the building configurations with inelastic rotational springs at the ends. The
from ID1 to ID11 are designed individually as inelastic springs are modeled using hysteretic

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 13th International Conference on Applications of Statistics and Probability in Civil Engineering, ICASP13
Seoul, South Korea, May 26-30, 2019

material developed by Ibarra et al. (2005) that failure (Sezen and Moehle 2004) and flexural
captures deterioration of flexural strength and shear failure (Elwood 2004). Once the shear limit
stiffness over cycles of loading. The inelastic curve is reached, the properties of the shear spring
springs have a trilinear backbone curve that is updated to represent the expected negative
captures the negative stiffness of post-peak shear stiffness of for the column. The RC beam-
response enabling the modeling of the strain- column joint is modelled in OpenSEES (2018) by
softening behavior caused due to concrete using joint2D element with elastic joint shear
crushing, rebar buckling and fracture, and bond spring to model joint panel shear behavior. To
failure (Haselton et al. 2008). The study uses the model the rotational flexibility of the footing,
plastic-hinge parameters defined by empirical elastic semi-rigid rotational springs are provided
equations developed by Haselton et al. (2008) at each column base.
based on experimental test results of over 200
columns. The plastic hinge properties are based 2.3. Ground Motions
on beam-column properties such as, section size, To account for spectral shape of expected ground
longitudinal steel yield strength and area, shear motions in Aizwal, site specific ground motions
reinforcement spacing, concrete compressive based on uniform hazard spectra for the city are
strength and axial load in column. To capture the selected. The uniform hazard spectra with 2%
flexural response, the flexural springs are probability of exceedance in 50 years is developed
provided in zero length elements at both at top and based on probabilistic seismic hazard assessment
bottom of all elastic beam-column elements for India by Nath and Thingbaijam (2012). Based
(Figure (a)). Generally, to accommodate the on the uniform hazard spectra, 30 far-field ground
ground slope profile, short columns are provided motions are selected from PEER-NGA (2018)
at lower stories that are susceptible to shear failure database. The mean response spectra of the
in addition to flexural failure. To model the selected ground motions matches the uniform
nonlinear behavior of these columns, shear hazard spectra for the site closely and the same is
springs in addition to flexural springs are provided illustrated in Figure 4. Thirty selected ground
in the zero length element on top of the column, motion records have magnitude (Mw) greater ≥ 6.5
as illustrated in Figure 3(b). and average shear wave velocity for upper 30 m
a) b)
soil column (VS30) ranging from 360 and 760 m/s.
Zero length element
at top of the column 10
Spectral Acceleration

Shear
Flexural spring 1
Elastic element
[g]

spring

0.1
Uniform Hazard Spectra
Zero length element at
Mean Response Spectra
bottom of the column
Selected Ground Motion
0.01
Figure 3: Lumped plasticity model for the (a) regular 0.01 0.1 1 10
columns, and (b) short columns Time Period [sec]
The shear spring is modelled using uniaxial Figure 4: Site specific ground motions selected based
material in OpenSEES (2018), such that column on uniform hazard spectra for Aizwal, India.
response will be controlled by flexural inelastic
2.4. Incremental Dynamic Analysis
springs until shear failure occurs. The shear spring
Incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) is conducted
tracks the response of the associated beam-
on nonlinear structural models to assess its
column element until it crosses the pre-defined
seismic collapse capacity. In incremental dynamic
shear limit curve corresponding to direct shear

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 13th International Conference on Applications of Statistics and Probability in Civil Engineering, ICASP13
Seoul, South Korea, May 26-30, 2019

analysis (IDA), nonlinear model of the building is 3. RESULTS

subjected to increasing intensities of same ground In present study, the seismic collapse capacity of
motion, until it collapses (Vamvatsikos and 11 archetype modern reinforced concrete moment
Cornell, 2002). The process begins by subjecting frames in Section 2.1 is evaluated through IDA of
the structure to a ground motion and recording its analytical nonlinear models of the building. IDA
structural response. The ground motion time is carried out on ach building model using 30
history is then scaled up and the structural ground motions selected in Section 2.3 and
response is recorded. This process of scaling the collapse fragility curves are calculated. The
ground motion and recording the response is collapse fragility curves quantify the probability
continued until the structure experiences dynamic of collapse at a given intensity of ground motion.
structural instability due to sidesway collapse as Since collapse capacities generally follow a
indicated by large interstory drift ratios. The lognormal distribution, the collapse fragility
collapse capacity of the structure for a ground curve is quantified using a lognormal cumulative
motion is measured using intensity of scaled distribution function (Figure 6). The collapse
ground motion that causes the collapse of the fragility curves are characterized by two
structure. The IDA results are represented using parameters, (a) median collapse capacity (xm),
IDA curves, illustrating the variation of ground calculated as the ground motion IM corresponding
motion intensity measure (IM, e.g., spectral to 50% probability of collapse of structure and, (b)
acceleration, Sa) with structural response or lognormal standard deviation (β) that measures
engineering demand parameter (EDP e.g., the dispersion in collapse capacity. The lognormal
interstory drift ratio). Figure 5 illustrates variation standard deviation (β) in this study corresponds to
in collapse capacity of a four story building variability in ground motion characteristics, also
located on flat ground (ID1) when subjected to 30 known as record to record variability. A summary
ground motions records selected in Section 2.3. of fundamental time period, median collapse
Generally the spectral acceleration at fundamental capacity (xm), and lognormal standard deviation
period is used as ground motion intensity measure (β) corresponding to collapse capacity [Sa(T=1s)]
in IDA, but in the present study different building of all the building configurations is presented in
configurations have different fundamental period Table 1.
but closer to 1s. Spectral acceleration at T=1s, Table 1: Summary of seismic collapse capacity of all
Sa(T=1s), is used as ground motion IM in IDA to the building configurations
compare the collapse capacities of different ID No. T1 xm*, β** xm*,
buildings. of Sa(T=1) Sa(T1)
3 story [s] [g] [g]
ID1 4 1.07 1.32 0.45 1.24
Sa (T=1s) [g]

2 ID2 4 1.16 0.93 0.42 0.80

ID3 4 1.14 1.25 0.42 1.09
ID4 4 1.51 1.60 0.51 1.09
1
ID5 4 1.61 1.28 0.56 0.84
ID6 4 1.55 1.09 0.51 0.73
0 ID7 4 1.45 1.05 0.47 0.71
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 ID8 4 1.49 1.04 0.55 0.71
Interstory Drift Ratio ID9 4 1.34 0.94 0.50 0.68
Figure 5: IDA results for a four story building located ID10 2 0.75 0.68 0.41 0.85
on flat surface (ID1) using 30 ground motions. The
blue line shows IDA results for a single ground motion ID11 6 1.54 1.03 0.51 0.70
*x indicates median collapse capacity
m
till structural collapse. **β indicates lognormal standard deviation of xm*, Sa(T=1)

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 13th International Conference on Applications of Statistics and Probability in Civil Engineering, ICASP13
Seoul, South Korea, May 26-30, 2019

The fundamental time period of vibration flexural failure of columns is responsible for
calculated by modal analysis of cracked sections structural collapse and for Type II and Type III
in OpenSEES (2018) is also presented in Table 1. buildings collapse occurs due to the combination
The study specifically looks at the impact of of column flexure and short columns shear failure.
different configurations, building heights and
angle of sloping ground on collapse capacity of 3.2. Influence of ground slope angle
vertically irregular structures and the same is The four story buildings located on gradual slope
discussed in detail in the following sections. have median collapse capacity (Sa(T=1s) 25.6%
lower than buildings located on steep slope. To
3.1. Influence of building configuration understand the effect of gradual slope angles on
Firstly, the collapse capacity of common collapse capacity, additional four story buildings
vertically irregular configuration for buildings with two stories below the uppermost ground
located on sloping grounds is investigated. The level located on 0º (ID4), 5º (ID5), 10º (ID6), 15º
modern reinforced concrete moment frame (ID7), 20º (ID8), 25º (ID9), and 30º (ID2) are
archetypical buildings located on flat (Type I, considered as shown on Figure 2 and results are
ID1), gradual (Type II, ID2) and steep slope (Type summarised in Table 1. It is observed that the
III, ID3) are considered. As evident in Table 1, median collapse capacity [Sa(T=1s)] decreases
buildings located on sloping ground (ID2 and with increase in slope angle, indicating strong
ID3) have higher time period and hence flexible correlation between slope angle of the ground and
as compared to those located on flat ground (ID1). collapse vulnerability of buildings, that structure
The comparison of collapse fragility curves of is more vulnerable to collapse as seen in Figure 7.
four story buildings located on flat (Type I, ID1), 2
gradual (Type II, ID2), and steep slope (Type III,
xm, Sa (T=1s) [g]

1.6 y = -0.02x + 1.43

ID3) is shown in Figure 6. R² = 0.79
1 1.2

0.8
0.8
0.4
P(Collapse)

0.6
0
ID1 ID2 ID3
0.4 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Slope Angle (degrees)
0.2 Figure 7: Comparison of median collapse capacity
(Sa(T=1s) of four story building with varying ground
0 slope angle
0 1 2 3 4
Sa (T=1s) [g] It is evident from Figure 2, that the building
Figure 6: Comparison of collapse fragility curves of can have lowermost column with heights varying
four story archetype building located on flat (ID1), from 1m to 3.6m to accommodate the ground
gradual (ID2), and steep slope (ID3) slope angle. Depending on the slope angle the
The buildings located on flat surface (ID1) number of columns below the uppermost ground
have median collapse capacity (Sa(T=1s)) 29.5% level also varies. For shorter columns, the failure
and 5.3% higher than those located on gradual mode changes from flexure to flexure shear. The
(ID2) and steep (ID1) slope building respectively, predominant failure mechanism generally
indicating higher collapse vulnerability of observed in buildings located on slope is shown
buildings located on sloping grounds. This is Figure 8. The red circles indicates failure. In ID5
mainly due column failure from increased stress (5º slope angle) building, the building collapse is
concentration introduced by irregularity over due to flexural failure of columns where else in
height of the buildings. In Type I buildings, ID2 (30º slope angle) the failure is localized due

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 13th International Conference on Applications of Statistics and Probability in Civil Engineering, ICASP13
Seoul, South Korea, May 26-30, 2019

to shear failure of short columns. The decrease in fragility in Figure 10 illustrates the increase in
median collapse capacity of structure with median collapse capacity of structure with
increase in slope angle is evident from the increase in building height. The median collapse
comparison of collapse fragility curves shown in capacity [Sa(T1)] decreases with increasing height
Figure 9. of the building which is in line with the past
research studies. But to compare the response
a) b)
among buildings, spectral acceleration at T=1s is
considered. The six and four story buildings
located on gradual slope have median collapse
capacity [Sa(T=1s)] 36.8% and 51.5% higher
than the two story building respectively.
1

0.8
Figure 8: Predominant collapse mechanisms for the

P[Collapse]
four story archetype building located on hill slope with 0.6
a) 5º (ID5), and b) 30º (ID2) slope angle ID11
ID2
0.4 ID10
1
0.2
0.8
0
P(Collapse)

0.6 ID4 (0ᵒ) 0 1 2 3 4

ID5 (5ᵒ) Sa (T=1s) [g]
ID6 (10ᵒ) Figure 10: Comparison of collapse fragility curves of
0.4
ID7 (15ᵒ) two story (ID10), four story (ID2) and six story (ID11)
ID8 (20ᵒ)
0.2 archetype building located on gradual slope
ID9 (25ᵒ)
ID2 (30ᵒ)
0 4. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
0 1 2 3 4 This study evaluates the seismic collapse capacity
Sa (T=1s) [g] of the archetypical modern Indian code-compliant
Figure 9: Comparison of collapse fragility curves of reinforced concrete moment frame buildings
four story archetype building located on ground with located on sloping and flat grounds using
slope angle 0º (ID4), 5º (ID5), 10º (ID6), 15º (ID7), Performance Based Earthquake Engineering
20º (ID8), 25º (ID9), and 30º (ID2) (PBEE) framework. Thirty site specific ground
3.3. Influence of building height motions are selected based on uniform hazard
To assess the influence of building height on the spectra for the Aizwal city to carry out the IDA. It
seismic collapse vulnerability, present study is evident from the findings of present study that
considers two, four, and six story modern ground slope, type of configuration, and building
reinforced concrete moment frame archetypical height greatly affects the seismic response of a
buildings located on gradual slope. Here, the modern code designed special moment frame
number of stories are calculated by considering building. Based on median collapse capacity, it is
stories above the uppermost ground level. Each observed that the buildings located on steep and
building has two stories below the uppermost gradual slope have median collapse capacity
ground level to accommodate the gradual slope. (Sa(T=1s), 5.3% to 29.5% lower than their
As seen in Table 1, the fundamental period of the counterparts located on flat grounds. Moreover,
building increases with increase in height due to for buildings located on gradual slope, with
increase in flexibility. The comparison of collapse increase in slope angle from 5º to 30º the median
collapse capacity (Sa(T=1s) decreases by 20% to

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 13th International Conference on Applications of Statistics and Probability in Civil Engineering, ICASP13
Seoul, South Korea, May 26-30, 2019

42% as compared to building on 0º slope (ID4). structures: Part 2 Imposed loads.” Bureau of
For buildings located on gradual slope the median Indian Standards, New Delhi.
collapse capacity [Sa(T=1s)] increases with Mohammad, Z., Baqi, A., and Arif, M. (2017).
increase in building height, with 36.8% increase “Seismic Response of RC Framed Buildings
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173, 1792–1799.
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Grant 15IRCCSG025 from Industrial Research July, 2018).
and Consultancy Centre at Indian Institute of PEER-NGA (2018). “Pacific Earthquake Engineering
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available at http://peer.berkeley.edu/nga/ (last
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