Origin and Distribution of Irregular Oil-Water Contacts in Tight Sandstones, Chang 8 Member, Longdong Area, Ordos Basin, China

ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 31 · Number 5 · 2013 pp.
667–696 667
Origin and distribution of irregular oil-water contacts in

tight sandstones, Chang 81 Member, Longdong area,
Ordos Basin, China
Changyu Fan1,2, Zhenliang Wang1,2,Yage Ying1,2 and Jingjing Liu1,2

1
State Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China
2
Department of Geology, Northwest University, Xi’an, 710069, China
*Author for corresponding. E-mail: [email protected]
(Received 11 September 2012; accepted 16 February 2013)
Abstract
In recent years, understanding the distribution of oil and water in tight
sandstones has been a challenge in the exploration and development of the
Chang 81 Member in the Longdong area of the Ordos Basin. The spatial pattern
of the oil/water contacts pattern varies widely over a distance of 160 km from
south to north. The origin of these patterns is unknown. The present-day oil-
water distribution in the reservoirs reflects the superimposed effects of
hydrocarbon migration and accumulation. An integrated analysis of the
characteristics of the present-day oil-water distribution in the Chang81 Member
revealed that the a typical water-oil relationships are primarily located in the
northeastern oil migration zone, and nearly normal water-oil relationships are
located in the southwestern oil accumulation zone. Large-scale oil accumulation
occurred at the end of the Early Cretaceous in response to strong fluid dynamics.
The oil migrated from northeast to southwest in the slightly oil-wet carrier beds,
and nearly normal water-oil relationships and larger accumulations formed in
the Xifeng and Heshui oilfields in the southwest. The fluid dynamics
subsequently weakened, and reservoir heterogeneity dominated, causing the oil
to be trapped more easily in the tight reservoirs in the deeper parts of the
northeastern oil migration zone. A typical oil-water distributions, such as
inverted oil-water distributions, gradational oil-water interfaces, and low-
abundance oil reservoirs, developed in such locations as the Huachi oilfield.
Strong reservoir heterogeneity existed in both stages, but the fluid dynamics
were significantly different, which controlled the distribution of oil and water in
the tight reservoirs.
Keywords: Petroleum Migration and Accumulation, Tight sandstones, Oil-

water distribution
668 Origin and distribution of irregular oil-water contacts in tight sandstones,
Chang 81 Member, Longdong area, Ordos Basin, China
1. INTRODUCTION
With the continued increase of exploration and development of tight sandstones,
petroleum geoscientists and engineers have become increasingly concerned with fluid
storage and flow in low-permeability (submillidarcy) systems (Nelson, 2009), which
are present in most typical deep basin gas and oil traps. After Masters (1979)
introduced the concept of deep-basin gas traps, Cant and Ethier (1984) determined that
diagenesis could form effective traps in the basin-centered areas of the Alberta Basin.
Factors in the formation of diagenetic traps include detrital mineralogy, early
diagenetic minerals, burial history and fluid content. Subsequently, Law (2002)
introduced the term basin-centered gas accumulation systems (BCGASs), which
includes gas systems that have been variously referred to as deep basin gas traps
(Masters, 1979), tight gas systems (Spencer and Mast, 1986; Law and Spencer, 1993)
and continuous-type or unconventional gas systems (Schmoker, 1996). BCGASs are
generally considered to have abnormal pressures (high or low), commonly lack a
down-dip water contact, and are low-permeability reservoirs (Law, 2002; Law and
Curtis, 2002).
Evidence for buoyancy as a dominant force in the disposition of oil and gas is
lacking in all tight sandstone systems (Philip, 2009). The flow of oil and gas is “non-
Darcy flow”; because of the existence of large resisting forces, the relationship
between flow velocity and pressure gradient is nonlinear, and the flow of
hydrocarbons requires a certain start-up pressure gradient (Li et al., 2010). In
conventional reservoirs, buoyancy plays a leading role; because of the buoyancy
caused by the density difference between oil and water, the oil and water differentiate
easily and form a continuous oil column and uniform water-oil contact. In tight
reservoirs, the complex fluid flow mechanism inevitably forms complicated oil-water
relationships that have been confirmed in recent hydrocarbon exploration. The tight
reservoirs often have nonuniform water-oil contacts, inverted oil-water distributions,
simultaneous production of oil and water and uneven distributions of oil and water in
the reservoir. In this type of reservoir, including the Chang6 reservoirs of the
Hujianshan area in the Ordos Basin, the Chang4+5 reservoirs of the Jiyuan oilfield in
the Ordos Basin and the Chang81 reservoirs in the Longdong area, which will be
studied in this article, complicated oil-water distributions are widespread and cause
difficulties for engineers in petroleum exploration and development, reservoir
evaluation and hydrocarbon reserve estimation.
The characteristics of the oil-water distribution and their formation mechanisms in
tight sandstones have always been troublesome problems for petroleum geologists,
and research on these topics is sparse. Zhang et al. (2006) investigated the mechanisms
that control inverted oil-water distributions in two types of mid- to low-permeability
sand bodies. They found that fault sealing was the primary factor controlling the
inverted oil-water distribution in the reservoirs, while the physical properties and
permeability differences of the reservoirs were a secondary factor; in a wedge of
sandstone, the heterogeneity of the reservoir layer was a key cause for the inverted oil-
water distribution. Qu et al. (2008) analyzed reservoir architecture and its control over
the distribution of oil and water and showed that the spatial arrangement and
configuration of the reservoir’s elements directly controlled the distribution of oil and
ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 31 · Number 5 · 2013 669
water. Layered reservoirs may have several oil-water contacts. The “oil-filled”
reservoirs usually formed above the inner oil-water boundary, while lenticular or belt-
like “oil in water” reservoirs usually formed between the inner and outer oil-water
contacts. Based on data from cores and well logging, Fan et al. (2011) studied the
sedimentary micro-facies and evolutionary features of the Chang6 Oil Group in the
Hujianshan area and analyzed the regular distribution pattern of the oil and water and
the geologic characteristics that controlled the distribution of oil and water layers.
They found that the internal reservoir structure, the ability for lateral oil migration and
the connectivity of the sandstone at different periods were all primary factors in the
distribution of oil and water.
Most of the studies described above statically analyzed the distribution of oil and
water based on the present-day reservoir characteristics, such as the petrophysical
heterogeneity, the reservoir configuration, the reservoir’s internal structure, the
present-day ability for lateral oil migration and the sedimentary micro-facies.
However, the present-day distribution of oil and water in conventional sandstones or
unconventional tight sandstones is the result of the cumulative effects of every event
of hydrocarbon migration and accumulation in the reservoir’s geologic history.
Research on the distribution of oil and water in reservoirs should thus focus on the
history of hydrocarbon accumulation.
Many recent studies have focused on the mechanisms of hydrocarbon accumulation
in low-permeability reservoirs. Zhu et al. (2007) performed an experimental study of
oil migration and accumulation in tight sandstones by injecting fluid into core samples
under computer-controlled pressures. Based on a study of the relationship between
compaction and hydrocarbon accumulation history in very-low permeability
reservoirs in the Triassic Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin, Deng et al. (2009)
suggested that the reservoirs had not developed during the period of peak hydrocarbon
generation and expulsion and that cementation of ferruginous carbonates was a crucial
factor in the compaction of the reservoirs. Based on the results of a previous study,
Luo et al. (2010) proposed a model for the accumulation of oil in the low-permeability
Chang81 Member of the Longdong area of the Ordos Basin. Hydrocarbons generated
by the source rocks of the Chang73 Member entered the carrier system of the Chang81
Member during the late Jurassic, when the reservoirs still had favorable porosity and
permeability. The hydrocarbons migrated laterally due to buoyancy and accumulated
in traps. Subsequent tilting of the basin caused the accumulated oil and gas to escape.
At the same time, compaction and cementation decreased the permeability of the
reservoirs. Since the Early Cretaceous, the hydrocarbons migrated and accumulated
laterally along the residual pathways that were oil-wet due to long-term contact with
oil. However, these studies did not examine the characteristics of the oil-water
distribution and its formation mechanism. In this paper, the formation mechanism of
the complex oil-water distribution is discussed in the context of the oil accumulation
history, which provides a new perspective for the study of the distribution of oil and
water in tight sandstones.
2. GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Ordos Basin is located in the mid-western part of the Chinese mainland and has an
area of 370,000 km2 (Fig. 1). It is a polycyclic sedimentary cratonic basin and has
experienced stable subsidence, downwarped migration, twist obvious, etc. (Sun et al.,
1985, 1986; Zhao and Liu, 1990; Hu, 1986; Tian, 1997; Ren, 1999; Yang, 2002; Zhao
et al., 2011). The basin’s present-day structure indicates that it is an asymmetric basin
that has a wide eastern flank and a narrow western flank. Faults and folds developed
along the margins of the basin. However, the structure of the inner basin is relatively
simple, and the strata dip to the west at less than 1°. There are few secondary and
tertiary structures, and a series of low amplitude structures are present across most of
the basin (Wang, 1997; Li et al., 2000; Ma, 2004; Xiao et al., 2005). Based on its
tectonic evolution and the present-day tectonic features, the basin is divided into six
structural units: the Yimeng uplift, Weibei uplift, Western edge thrust belt, Jinxi
flexural fold belt, Tianhuan depression and Shanbei slope (Fig. 1). Triassic oil
reservoirs are mainly located in the central and southwestern parts of the basin (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Structure contour map of the top of the Chang8 oil group of the Yanchang
Formation (Upper Triassic), regional distribution of Triassic oil production areas and
the location of the study area in the Ordos Basin (after Zhang et al., 2009).
The Yanchang Formation is upper Triassic in age and can be further divided into five
members and ten oil groups (Fig. 2). The Chang7 Oil Group is located within the third
member (T3y3), which includes lacustrine sedimentary facies. The lithologies include
dark mudstone, carbonaceous mudstone and fine siltstone that are intercalated with oil
shale, and the group is 80-100 m (262.4-328 ft) thick. The Chang7 member is the main
source rock of the Yanchang Formation. The Chang8 Oil Group, which is part of the
second member of the Yanchang Formation (T3y2) below the Chang7, is composed of
sandstone and shale of lacustrine delta sedimentary facies; these sandstones form the main
reservoirs of the Chang8 Oil Group and are 170-185 m (557.6-606.8 ft) thick (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Summary diagram showing the chrono- and lithostratigraphy, sedimentary

facies, and characteristics of the petroleum system of the Yanchang Formation
(Upper Triassic) in the Longdong area, Ordos Basin.
Commercial hydrocarbon reservoirs of the Chang8 Oil Group were discovered in the
Longdong area. The Chang8 Oil Group can be subdivided into two thin layers: the
Chang81 and Chang82 Members (Fig. 2). The Chang81 Member is the focus of this
article; it is a tight sandstone with a porosity of 5-15%.
The study area is the Longdong area, which is located in the southwest part of the
Ordos Basin (Fig. 1). It extends across the Shanbei Slope and Tianhuan Depression
and has an area of 30,000 km2. The Chang8 Oil Group is a main target for oil
exploration in this area. The large oil reservoirs, such as the Qingyang and Heshui
oilfields, are mainly located in the southern part of the Longdong area. The
distribution of oil and water in the northern part of the study area is complex, and the
area includes smaller oil reservoirs such as the Huachi oilfield and newly discovered
Huanxian oilfield.
3. OIL MIGRATION AND ACCUMULATION

3.1. Oil source characteristics
The Chang7 sediments are composed of dark argillaceous rocks that are rich in algae and
kerogen and were deposited during a period of lake basin development. Published data
shows that the total organic content (TOC) of the Chang7 Oil Group averages 11.2%,
and the vitrinite reflectance (Ro) is 0.9-1.15% in most parts of Longdong area (Zhang et
al., 2006; 2009). These data indicate high organic abundance in the Chang7 Oil Group
and that the sediments reached an early peak oil-generation stage at mid to high maturity.
The isopach map of the high-quality hydrocarbon source rocks in the Longdong
area (Fig. 3) shows that the smaller oilfields and a region of irregular oil-water
distribution is present in the north, where the thickness of high-quality hydrocarbon
Figure 3. Isopach map of high-quality hydrocarbon source rocks in the Chang7 Oil
Group in the Longdong area, Ordos Basin. The contour interval is 5 m (16 ft)
(Zhang, 2006; 2009).
source rocks is high, especially to the northwest of Huachi, where the thickness
reaches more than 40 m (131 ft). In contrast, the thickness is 10-30 m (33-98 ft) in the
southern area, which includes the Xifeng and Heshui oilfields (Zhang et al., 2006;
2009); this suggests that the large amounts of oil that were generated from the northern
source rocks may have migrated to the southwest.
3.2. Main oil accumulation period

3.2.1. Fluid inclusions
A total of 24 core samples of the Chang 81 Member in the study area were used for
fluid-inclusion analyses. Double-polished thin sections (0.1 to 1.0 mm) were prepared.
The petrographic characteristics were investigated under an Olympus polarizing
microscope and a fluorescence microscope. The fluid inclusions were small and were
located in micro-fractures within quartz grains, in quartz overgrowths, in micro-
fractures that cut through quartz grains but not the overgrowths and in micro-fractures
that cut through both the quartz grains and the overgrowth. The inclusions showed
Figure 4. Characteristics of fluid inclusions from different occurrences and stages in

the Chang81 reservoirs. (Photos A and B show first stage fluid inclusions along
micro-fractures within quartz that have zonal distributions. The samples are taken
from tight sandstones from well Xi 259 at 1998.88 m (6556.33 ft). FI = fluid
inclusion; MF = micro-fracture; QZ = quartz grain; HI = hydrocarbon inclusion. (A)
Group of liquid and gas inclusions shown in brown and light grey under single
polarization light. (B) Hydrocarbon inclusions in photo A shown in bright light
yellow under blu-ray inspire, indicating the early-stage charging of heavy oil. Photos
C and D show the second stage fluid inclusions within calcite cement, which are
distributed sporadically in tight sandstones from well Xi 147 at 2100.57 m (6889.87
ft). Ca = calcite cement. (C) Liquid hydrocarbon inclusions shown in brown under
single polarization. (D) Hydrocarbon inclusions in photo C shown in yellowish green
fluorescence under blu-ray inspire, indicating the late stage charging of light oil.)
linear, zonal, group and fragmentary characteristics. A few fluid inclusions were also
located within ferrocalcite cements. The major fluid inclusions were typically from 2
to 8 µm (a few were >10 µm) in diameter. The maximum diameters of the aqueous
and hydrocarbon inclusions were 11 and 15µm, respectively, and these inclusions had
regular circular, elliptical and striped shapes.
By combining the diagenetic sequence (host minerals) and petrography of the fluid
inclusions, we identified two stages of hydrocarbon fluid activities. The early-stage
fluid inclusions were common near the boundaries of the quartz overgrowths along
micro-fractures within the quartz and showed zonal distributions. These fluid
inclusions were entrapped in dissolution pores that formed during the late period of
eogenetic diagenesis and in early micro-fractures (Figs. 4A and 4B). The diameters of
the inclusions ranged from 2 to 8 µm, and the gas-liquid ratio was 2-6% (a few were
> 10%). The late-stage fluid inclusions appeared in the late-stage fractures, siliceous
cement and sparry calcite cement during the middle diagenesis stage (Figs. 4C and
4D). The hydrocarbon inclusions within the late fractures that cut through grain
boundaries had moniliforme shapes. The hydrocarbon inclusions in the siliceous
cement were separate from each other, and the hydrocarbon inclusions in the sparry
calcite cement were distributed along the joints of the calcite.
Based on the fluid inclusion occurrences, stages and types, we selected 103 core
samples from the Chang 81 Member in 18 new exploration wells. The homogenization
temperatures of the fluid inclusions were measured with a Linkam THMS600
Heating/Freezing stage (error: ±0.1°C at 20°C; humidity at 35%). The results showed
that the homogenization temperatures of the early-stage and late-stage fluid inclusions
ranged from 85°C to 115°C and 110°C to 130°C, respectively (Fig. 5). The two groups
of inclusions represent two stages of charging hydrocarbon temperatures (Fig. 5).
Based on the burial and thermal history, the early-stage oil charging occurred from
Figure 5. Histograms for the two stages of fluid inclusions in the Chang81 Member in
the Longdong area.
Figure 6. Burial history of well Zhuang 123 in the Longdong area. The fluid
inclusion data are plotted on the subsidence curves and show the two stages of
hydrocarbon charging.
130 to 120 Ma, which was a time of tectonic subsidence during the middle stage of the
Early Cretaceous. The late stage occurred from 105 to 100 Ma, which was the period
of maximum burial depth at the end of the Early Cretaceous (Fig. 6).
3.2.2. Authigenic illite K-Ar dating

Hydrocarbon accumulation prevents the formation of authigenic minerals in high oil
saturation reservoirs. The formation of authigenic illite in a K-rich environment occurs
immediately before hydrocarbon charging, and the growth of authigenic illite ceases
after hydrocarbon charging. Thus, the K-Ar ages of authigenic illite constrain the
maximum age of hydrocarbon accumulation (Lee et al., 1985; Liewig et al., 2000;
Hamiltion et al., 1989; Hogg et al., 1993; Robinson et al., 1993).
Using a VG3600 Mass Spectrometer, the K-Ar ages were determined for 10
samples (grain size <0.1 µm) of the Chang 81 Member. The ages range from 102.5 to
139.3 Ma; this corresponds to the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous (Fig. 7), which is
slightly earlier than the ages determined from the fluid inclusions. In addition, the end
of the Early Cretaceous was the time that the source rocks of the Chang7 Oil Group
Figure 7. K-Ar ages of illite samples from the Chang81 Member and the suggested
oil charging and migration directions.
generated oil. Thus, the end of the Early Cretaceous was assumed to be the main
period of oil accumulation.
3.3. Characteristics of migration and accumulation during the main period of oil
accumulation
Fluid potential is an important parameter that determines and characterizes
hydrocarbon migration and accumulation (Lerche, 1990; Welte, 1997; Wang and Xie,
1998). Fluid potential involves factors such as overpressure, fluid density and relative
elevation, and its distribution reflects the state of fluid force in the strata (Wang, 2002;
Yang et al., 2007).Therefore, fluid potential is extensively used to study and interpret
the process of oil and gas migration. The formula for oil potential is as follows:
dp p+ pc dp
∫ ∫
p
Φ f = g⋅z+ + (1)
0
ρf p
ρf
where ϕf is the potential per unit mass of fluid, g is the acceleration of gravity, z is the
elevation of the point of interest relative to a datum, p is the fluid pressure, ρf is the
fluid density, and pc is the capillary pressure during hydrocarbon migration. Moreover,
the oil and water are usually considered to be incompressible; that is, their densities
are constant at different fluid pressures. Therefore, the fluid potential equation can be
simplified as:
P
Φ f = g⋅z+ (2)
ρ
Based on the concept of water head, both sides of equation (2) are divided by the
acceleration of gravity (g) to obtain the formula for oil head:
P
ho = z + (3)
ρg
To reflect the detailed changes of fluid potential, we used the magnified oil potential
Uo; its formula is as follows:
ρo
Uo = ⋅h (4)
ρ w − ρo o
where ρo is the oil density, ρw is the water density, and ho is the oil head.
Because rock compaction is irreversible, the compaction curve reflects the degree
of compaction of sedimentary rocks at their maximum burial depth, and the
overpressure calculated by the equivalent depth method represents the overpressure at
the maximum burial depth (Magara, 1981). We first calculated the fluid pressure of
the Chang81 Member in the study area at the end of the Early Cretaceous (maximum
burial depth) by using the equivalent depth method (Magara, 1978) (equation 5).
Pz = γ w Z e + γ b ( Z − Z e ) (5)
where Pz is the fluid pressure, γw is the hydrostatic pressure gradient, γb is the lithostatic
pressure gradient from depth Z to Ze, which can be calculated using the average
density of the overlying strata, Z is the depth of calculated point and Ze is the
equivalent depth. Using data such as the paleo-elevation and fluid density, we then
calculated the magnified oil potential Uo during the main period of oil accumulation
(the end of the Early Cretaceous) using equations 2, 3, and 4.
At the end of the Early Cretaceous, the Uo values of the Chang81 Member were
higher in the northern part of the study area than in the south (Fig. 8). Based on the
principle that oil migrates from high to low potential, the results indicate that oil from
the Chang81 Member migrated from northeast to southwest and then accumulated in
Figure 8. Map showing the magnified oil potential (Uo) map for the Chang81
Member and the suggested directions of oil migration at the end of the Early
Cretaceous in the Longdong area. The contour interval is 200 m (656 ft).
the southwest part of the study area. The Uo contour lines in the northern areas are very
dense, which implies a high oil potential gradient and rapid oil migration in the
northern area (Fig. 8).
The authigenic illite K-Ar dating ages from the Chang81 Member show that the
ages decrease from wells Xi 259 and Li 133 to wells Xi 206, Zhen 246 and well Xi
119. The variations in the age indicate that the crude oils from the Chang7 source
rocks were first expelled toward the underlying Chang81 Member in the northeast part
of the study area and then migrated to the southwest.
The crude oils of the Chang81 Member originated from a single source rock. The
distribution of carbazole compounds in the crude oils is mainly controlled by
hydrocarbon fractionation. The source rock properties and maturity have little
influence on the distribution of carbazole compounds (Duan, 2010). The distribution
of carbazole nitrogen compound isomers shows the effect of fractionation (Fig. 9). The
rate of carbazole nitrogen compound isomers and homologues increases from
northeast to southwest, which indicates the trend of oil migration from the northeast to
the southwest (Fig. 9). Both the illite K-Ar dating ages and the distribution of
carbazole nitrogen compound isomers demonstrate that the oil migration trend
suggested by the fluid potential is credible.
The analyses discussed above indicate that the northeastern part of the study area is
the main zone of oil migration and that the southwestern region is the main zone of oil
accumulation .
Figure 9. Distribution of carbazole isomeride compound parameters of crude oil in

the Chang8 oil reservoirs and the oil charging and migration directions in the
Longdong area (Duan, 2010). a. 1-/4- methylcarbazole; b. 1, 8-/2, 4-
dimethylcarbazole; c. 1, 8-/2, 7- dimethylcarbazole; d. trimethyllcarbazole /
dimethylcarbazole.
4. OIL-WATER DISTRIBUTION
4.1. Distribution of oil and water
The latest well test results (Fig. 10) show that oil wells, water wells and oil-water wells
account for 40%, 8% and 8%, respectively, of all wells in the Chang8 Oil Group in the
northern part of the study area and 20%, 10% and 14%, respectively, of all wells in the
southern study area. In the south, the degree of hydrocarbon enrichment of the
Chang81 Member is high, the oil layers are thick and continuous, the oil-water
relationships are normal, simultaneous production of oil and water is rare and the oil
reservoirs are large. Proven oilfields, such as the Xifeng and Heshui oilfields, are
Figure 10. Map showing the distribution of sand bodies, the well test results
(oil/water) and the boundary between the different patterns of oil and water in the
Chang8 Oil Group in the Longdong area.
located in this region. The initial oil in place (IOIP) of the Xifeng oilfield was 5
million tons in 2006. In contrast, in the north, the distribution of oil and water in the
reservoirs is irregular, there are no clear oil-water contacts, the oil-water layers are
inverted and the simultaneous production of oil and water is common. These
characteristics caused the low oil reserves in the northern portion of the study area.
4.2. The characteristics of oil-water distribution

The characteristics of the Chang81 Member (Fig. 10) show that most of the thick sand
bodies (> 15 m / 49.2 ft thick) correspond to marine delta front distributary channels
and turbidite fan sand bodies that have porosities of 6-10%, low heterogeneity and are
distributed across a wide area. Most of the medium ( 10-15 m / 32.8-49.2 ft thick) and
thin (5-10 m / 16.4-32.8 ft thick) sand bodies are distributary channel margin sands
that are highly heterogeneous and are distributed over a small area. The areas of the
southern and northern thick sand bodies (thickness > 15 m / 49.2 ft) are similar. The
proportions of oil wells to water wells in the thick sand bodies are approximately 3:1
in the north and 7:1 in the south, while the proportion of oil wells to water wells in the
medium sand bodies are approximately 1:1 in the north and 2:1 in the south. In the thin
sand bodies, there is approximately the same number of oil wells as water wells across
the entire area (Fig. 11). The thick sand bodies have the most oil wells and the highest
ratio of oil to water wells, especially in the south. The thickness of the sand body
clearly controls the distribution of oil and water wells.
Figure 11. Numbers of oil wells, water wells and oil-water wells by sandstone
thickness and the area of each sandstone thickness category in the Chang81 Member
in the Longdong area.
80 60 The south
The north
Number of core samples=174 Number of core samples=122
60
Oil saturation (%)
Oil saturation (%)

40
40
20
20
0 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 4 8 12 16 20
Present-day measured porosity (%) Present-day measured porosity (%)
60 The north 60 The south
Number of core samples=26 Number of core samples=38
50
50
Oil saturation (%)
Oil saturation (%)

40
40
30
30
20
20
10
0 10
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 0 5 10 15 20 25
Recovered palaeo-porosity (%) Recovered palaeo-porosity (%)
Figure 12. The correlation between porosity and oil saturation in the Chang81 Member in
the study area.
In conventional reservoirs, oil saturation generally increases with increased

porosity or permeability, and the two parameters are related. However, the relationship
is not obvious in tight reservoirs. An analysis of the correlation between the measured
oil saturation and porosity of the Chang81 Member in the study area shows that there
is no meaningful relationship between the two parameters (Fig. 12). The correlation
between the oil saturation and the paleo-porosity is also poor but is better than the
correlation between the oil saturation and the present-day porosity (Fig. 12).
For example, near well Xi 259, which is located on a west-dipping monocline in the
northern part of the Longdong area, oil wells in the continuous sand body in the
Chang81 Member alternate with water wells with no clear pattern (Fig. 13). The cross
section through the Chang81 oil reservoir (Fig. 14) shows that the water layer in well
Xi 259 lies above the oil layer in well Cheng86 but had a normal oil-water relationship
with well Xi 258. In the continuous sand body in well Xi 258, the water-oil contacts
in the oil layer and the poor oil layer were not the same. In addition, the dry layer in
well Cheng 86 is in the same sand body and at the same structural position as the water
layer in well Xi 259. The measured porosities of the Chang81 oil reservoirs (Fig. 15)
show that the porosity of well Cheng 86 is low (< 10%), while the porosities of wells
Xi 258 and Xi 259 are similar but higher than in well Cheng 85; this suggests that the
sand body in wells Xi 258 and Xi 259 has better connectivity and oil and water are
more easily differentiated. The connectivity of the sand body in wells Cheng 86 and
Xi 259 is lower, the oil and water was disconnected and oil-water inversion occurred.
The phenomenon described above is consistent with the idea that reservoir
heterogeneity controls the distribution of oil and water. However, the reservoir in the
southern part of the study area is also heterogeneous. Why were the oil-water
relationships nearly normal in the south? The cause of the oil-water distribution should
be studied further.
Figure 13. Map showing the present-day elevations and the distribution of water- and oil-
bearing wells in the Chang81 Member in the area near well Xi 259 in the Longdong area.
The location of the cross section in Figure 14 is shown. The contour interval is 20 m (66 ft).
Figure 14. Cross section through the oil reservoirs in the Chang81 Member from well Xi
258 to well Cheng 85.
Figure 15. Depth profiles of the present-day measured porosity of the Chang81 reservoirs
in the wells shown in the cross section in Figure 14.
5. DISCUSSION OF THE CAUSES OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF OIL AND

WATER
The studies described above indicate that the complex oil-water relationships are
mainly located in the oil migration zone (the north), while nearly normal oil-water
relationships mainly occur in the oil accumulation zone (the south). What is the cause
of this pattern? The present-day distribution of oil and water in conventional reservoirs
and unconventional tight reservoirs is the result of the superposed effects of
hydrocarbon migration and accumulation though geologic history. Thus, we should
study the formation of the oil-water distribution in the context of oil migration and
accumulation.
5.1. The intense period of oil migration

The modeled results of the burial and thermal history of the basin (Fig. 16) show that
the Chang7 source rocks entered the oil window in the Late Jurassic, and the maturity
of the source rocks continuously increased with increasing burial depth until the end
of the Late Jurassic. At the end of the Late Jurassic, the process of oil generation was
inhibited by the slight uplift of the strata. As the strata continued subsiding, the source
rocks reached the middle mature stage (Fig. 16).
The mechanism of hydrocarbon expulsion from the Chang7 source rocks is
controversial. Zhang et al. (2006) suggested that primary oil migration mainly
occurred along the kerogen network and that expansion during hydrocarbon
generation can provide sufficient energy for primary oil migration. Other researchers
have suggested that overpressure caused by disequilibrium compaction was the main
driving force of hydrocarbon expulsion from the Chang7 source rocks (Xi et al., 2004;
Liu et al., 2008).
Sonic (AC), deep investigate induction resistivity (RILD), density (DEN), and
neutron (CNL) log data from mudstones and the analyses of synthetic compaction
Figure 16. The modeled results of the burial, thermal and hydrocarbon generation
history of well Zhen 248 in the Longdong area.
Figure 17. Depth profiles of sonic (AC), deep investigate induction resistivity
(RILD), density (DEN), and neutron (CNL) log data for Upper Triassic mudstones in
well Li 140 in the Longdong area.
curves (Wang et al., 2003) show that the strata from the Chang1 to Chang5 Oil Groups
were normally compacted and that the strata underlying the Chang5 Oil Group were
subjected to disequilibrium compaction (Fig. 17). The overpressure of the
disequilibrium compacted strata during the period of maximum burial depth ( end of
the Early Cretaceous) was calculated using the equivalent depth method (equation 5;
Magara, 1981). The results show that high overpressure (4-7 MPa) occurred in the
Chang7 source rocks, which is an important driving force of hydrocarbon expulsion.
There are three types of depth profiles of overpressure (Fig. 18). In Type I, the
overpressure began in the Chang6 Oil Group and reached its maximum at the bottom
of the Chang7 Oil Group, then decreased in the Chang8 Oil Group. The hydrocarbon
in the Chang7 Oil Group could have been expelled toward the adjacent strata. In Type
II, the overpressure began above the Chang5 Oil Group and peaked from the bottom
of the Chang6 Oil Group to the bottom of Chang7 Oil Group. The maximum
overpressure at the bottom of the Chang6 Oil Group formed the seal that impeded
hydrocarbon expulsion from the Chang7 Oil Group to the upper strata. In Type III, the
overpressure increased continuously from the Chang5 Oil Group, but the maximum
overpressure was less than 5 MPa. The hydrocarbons in the Chang7 Oil Group could
only be expelled toward the overlying strata (Fig. 18).
Hydrocarbons expelled from the source rocks by overpressure need to overcome
the resisting forces of capillary pressure and the overpressure of the reservoirs while
migrating to the reservoirs. Thus, the hydrodynamic equation of hydrocarbon
expulsion from the Chang7 source rocks toward the Chang8 reservoirs can be
summarized as follows:
Pe =∆PC7 -Pc -∆PC8 =∆PC7-C8 -Pc (6)

Figure18. Three types of overpressure curves and the potential hydrocarbon-

expulsion directions of the Chang7 Oil Group in the Longdong area.
where Pe is the hydrocarbon expulsion dynamics, ∆PC7 is the overpressure of the

Chang7 source rocks, Pc is the capillary pressure, ∆PC8 is the overpressure of the
Chang8 reservoirs and ∆PC7-C8 is the overpressure difference between the Chang7
source rocks and the Chang8 reservoirs. Theoretically, hydrocarbons could only have
been expelled from the Chang7 source rocks when Pe ≥ 0 (∆PC7-C8 ≥ Pc).
An oil saturation of 50% is usually regarded as the lower limit for an oil reservoir
(England, 1987). The oil saturation of the Chang81 Member in the study area is usually
20-60%. The formation of an oil reservoir (oil saturation ≥ 50%) requires an oil
column height of 170 m to overcome the capillary pressure of the Chang81 Member
(Fig. 19). The oil column height of 170 m can be converted to a pressure of
approximately 0.5 MPa using the following equation:
P = ( ρ w − ρo ) gh (7)
where P is the pressure, ρo is the oil density, ρw is the water density, h is the oil
column height and g is the acceleration of gravity. Therefore, when the overpressure
difference exceeds 0.5 MPa (∆PC7-C8 ≥ 0.5 MPa), the hydrocarbons from the Chang7
source rocks could be expelled toward the Chang8 reservoirs. The results show that
Figure 19. The theoretical oil column height needed to overcome the capillary
pressure in the Chang81 reservoirs in the Longdong area (Liu, 2008).
this hydrodynamic condition is satisfied in most of the northeast part of the study area
(Fig. 20), especially in the Huanxian and Huachi areas, where the overpressure
difference was the highest (2-3 MPa). These results indicate that the conditions for
hydrocarbon expulsion were favorable at the end of the Early Cretaceous in the
northern area of complex oil-water relationships.
In both normally pressured basins and overpressured basins, buoyancy can be
generated as long as a reservoir can form a continuous oil/gas column. The width and
thickness of the sand bodies were unchanged after the period of maximum burial, so
the scale of the present-day sand bodies is the same as at the end of the Early
Cretaceous. The sand bodies in the Chang81 Member had two sediment source
directions (northeast and southwest) and extended from northeast to southwest along
marine delta front distributary channels. The sand bodies strike nearly parallel to the
structural dip direction of the Chang 81 Member at the end of Early Cretaceous, and
the structure dropped 200-300 m along strike in the Qingcheng, Huachi and Huanxian
areas (Fig. 21). In addition, based on the calculated porosities of the Chang81 tight
sandstones at the end of the Early Cretaceous (Chen et al., 2007), 13% of the samples
had porosities less than 10%, 20% had porosities of 10-14%, 20% had porosities of
14-20%, and 47% had porosities of 20-30%. The average porosity was 17.6% (Fig.
22). Thus, in the Early Cretaceous, the sandstones were normal reservoirs where the
connectivity of the sandstones was favorable. At this time, large-scale expulsion of oil
formed higher continuous oil column heights and generated buoyancy.
Using the equivalent depth method (equation 5; Magara, 1981), we calculated the
overpressure in the Chang81 Member at the end of the Early Cretaceous. The results
Figure 20. Contours of the overpressure difference between the Chang7 source rocks
and the Chang81 reservoirs and the area of favorable hydrocarbon expulsion in the
Longdong area. The contour interval is 0.5 MPa.
show that the maximum overpressure (> 5 MPa) was located in the northeast part of
the study area, while the minimum overpressure (< 3 MPa) was located in the
Figure 21. The paleo-structure and sand body directions of the Chang81 Member at
the end of the Early Cretaceous in the Longdong area.
southwest region (Fig. 23).

The low-maturity oil migrated and accumulated in carrier beds with favorable
porosity at the end of the Late Jurassic. The low-maturity oil reservoirs were destroyed
and reconstructed, and the low-maturity oil that was present in the migration paths and
accumulation area partially changed the surface wettability of the mineral grains and
made the rocks of the carrier beds in the Chang81 Member lipophilic at the end of the
Early Cretaceous (Luo et al., 2010). This led to the formation of low capillary resisting
forces in the Chang 81 carrier beds.
Therefore, at the end of the Early Cretaceous, the favorable conditions for
hydrocarbon generation and expulsion, the migration dynamics caused by buoyancy
and overpressure and the weak capillary resisting forces caused by the wettability
Figure 22. The paleo-porosity distribution of sandstones in the Chang81 Member at

the end of the Early Cretaceous in the Longdong area (data from Chen et al., 2007).
Figure 23. Overpressure contours of the Chang81 Member at the end of the Early
Cretaceous in the Longdong area. The contour interval is 0.2 MPa.
reversal of the Chang 81 carrier beds caused an intense period of oil migration in the
northern study area. At this time, the “oil locked”, “oil-water inversion” and
“simultaneous oil and water production” phenomena occurred rarely in the Chang 81
reservoirs. The oil migrated to the south and accumulated to form the favorable
present-day oil-water relationships.
5.2. The weak period of oil migration

After the period of large-scale hydrocarbon generation at the maximum burial depth,
the Chang 7 source rocks in the study area were subjected to tectonic uplift during the
Late Yanshan orogeny. As the formation temperature decreased, the hydrocarbon
generation was inhibited, and less oil was generated than at the end of the Early
Cretaceous. The higher total organic content (TOC) values (> 11.2%) indicate that the
shallow burial depth from the end of the Early Cretaceous until 100 Ma limited the
transformation of organic matter into oil.
In the Yanshanian stage, counterclockwise rotation of the Yanchang Formation
occurred. The present-day structure of the Chang 81 Member is a west-dipping
monocline. The sand bodies extend nearly perpendicular to the structural dip
directions; that is, the structure is gentle along the long dimensions of the sand bodies,
and the sand bodies are less continuous in the up-dip direction (Fig. 24). Data of the
present-day porosity of the Chang81 sandstones show that 40% of samples have
porosities of 12-20%, 56% have porosities of 11-15%, only 4% of samples have
porosities of 15-20% and the average porosity is 11.1% (Fig. 25). The sandstone is
very tight, has poor connectivity and a low volume of oil charging; these
characteristics prevent the formation of continuous oil columns and sufficient
buoyancy in the reservoirs.
Fluid flow in a tight reservoir requires a certain start-up pressure gradient, which
corresponds to “non-Darcy flow”. When buoyancy is not present, overpressure is
necessary for fluid to flow. However, the pressure coefficients measured in the crude oil
of the Chang81 Member are high, ranging from 0.55 to 0.98 (Table 1). The overpressure
disappeared, and negative pressure appeared in some parts of the study area.
Table 1. Pressure data of crude oil from the Chang81 Member

in the Longdong area.
Wells Depth (m) Reservoir Pressure (MPa) Pressure Coefficient

XW 15 1700 16.575 0.98
XW 33 1800 12.860 0.71
XW 35 1600 11.836 0.74
XW 162 2070 16.993 0.82
XW 187 1950 10.809 0.55
XW 29-19 1900 18.000 0.95
XW 32–9 1900 15.370 0.81
XW 33-26 1700 16.650 0.98
DX 79–54 1900 18.040 0.95
DX 80–52 1900 15.010 0.79
Figure 24. Map showing the present-day structure contours and directions of sand
bodies in the Chang81 Member in the Longdong field. The contour interval is 50 m
(164 ft).
Figure 25. The present–day porosity distribution of sandstones in the Chang81

Member in the Longdong area.
Therefore, as the quality of oil generation and expulsion decreased, the reservoir
tightened and the buoyancy and overpressure disappeared, and the oil migration
decreased. Fluid dynamics could not overcome the capillary resisting force. Complex
oil-water relationships, such as “oil-water inversion”, “oil-water differentiation” and
“oil-water mixing”, occurred. Due to the differences in vertical sand body
connectivity, a “unified water-oil interface” appeared in the reservoirs. Figure 26

shows a schematic diagram of the formation of the oil-water distribution during the
two stages of oil migration and accumulation.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The end of the Early Cretaceous was a period of intense oil accumulation in the
Chang81 tight reservoirs in the Longdong area. During this period, oil migrated from
northeast to southwest and accumulated in the southwest part of the study area. Thus,
the northern portion of the study area is regarded as the oil migration zone, and the
southern portion was the oil accumulation zone. In the oil migration zone, the
distribution of oil and water is irregular. In the oil accumulation zone, the oil-water
relationships are nearly normal. The sand bodies of the Chang81 Member controlled
the distribution of oil and water wells, especially in the south. The present-day
porosity and oil saturation of the tight sandstones had no meaningful correlativity, but
Figure 26. Schematic diagram showing the complex distribution of oil and water in
tight reservoirs.
there is a degree of correlation between the paleo-porosity (at the end of the Early
Cretaceous) and the oil saturation of the sandstones, which indicates that the physical
properties of the reservoirs during the period of intense oil migration and accumulation
controlled the distribution of oil and water. The end of the Early Cretaceous was the
period of greatest oil migration, the strongest oil migration dynamics and the weakest
capillary resisting force, which prevented oil from accumulating in the north. The oil
migrated to the southern traps for extensive mixing and differentiation and formed the
favorable oil-water relationships in the south. When the fluid dynamics weakened, and
the sandstones tightened, after the end of the Early Cretaceous, the heterogeneity of
the tight sandstones became more important. In the northern oil migration zone, the oil
was trapped more easily in the tight sandstones at lower structural levels, and
phenomena such as “oil-water inversion”, “incomplete oil-water differentiation” and
“simultaneous production of oil and water” were generated.
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Origin and Distribution of Irregular Oil-Water Contacts in Tight Sandstones, Chang 8 Member, Longdong Area, Ordos Basin, China

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Origin and Distribution of Irregular Oil-Water Contacts in Tight Sandstones, Chang 8 Member, Longdong Area, Ordos Basin, China

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ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 31 · Number 5 · 2013 pp.

Origin and distribution of irregular oil-water contacts in

Changyu Fan1,2, Zhenliang Wang1,2,Yage Ying1,2 and Jingjing Liu1,2

(Received 11 September 2012; accepted 16 February 2013)

Keywords: Petroleum Migration and Accumulation, Tight sandstones, Oil-

Figure 2. Summary diagram showing the chrono- and lithostratigraphy, sedimentary

3. OIL MIGRATION AND ACCUMULATION

3.2. Main oil accumulation period

Figure 4. Characteristics of fluid inclusions from different occurrences and stages in

3.2.2. Authigenic illite K-Ar dating

Figure 9. Distribution of carbazole isomeride compound parameters of crude oil in

4.2. The characteristics of oil-water distribution

Oil saturation (%)

Oil saturation (%)

In conventional reservoirs, oil saturation generally increases with increased

5. DISCUSSION OF THE CAUSES OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF OIL AND

5.1. The intense period of oil migration

Pe =∆PC7 -Pc -∆PC8 =∆PC7-C8 -Pc (6)

Figure18. Three types of overpressure curves and the potential hydrocarbon-

where Pe is the hydrocarbon expulsion dynamics, ∆PC7 is the overpressure of the

southwest region (Fig. 23).

Figure 22. The paleo-porosity distribution of sandstones in the Chang81 Member at

5.2. The weak period of oil migration

Table 1. Pressure data of crude oil from the Chang81 Member

Wells Depth (m) Reservoir Pressure (MPa) Pressure Coefficient

Figure 25. The present–day porosity distribution of sandstones in the Chang81

connectivity, a “unified water-oil interface” appeared in the reservoirs. Figure 26

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