PHYS 162 - Chapter 4 Bipolar Junction Transistors

CHAPTER 4
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS
4-1 BJT STRUCTURE
- The BJT is constructed with three doped
semiconductor regions separated by two pn
junctions shown in Figure 1.
- The three regions are called Emitter, Base and
Collector. They are labeled as C, B and E.
- One type of BJT consists of 2 n-type with one p-
type in between. This is called npn transistor.
- The other has 2 p-types with one n-type in
between. This is called pnp transistor.
- The pn junction joining the base and emitter is
called base-emitter junction.
- The pn junction joining the base and collector is
called base-collector junction.
- The symbols for the npn and pnp transistors are
shown in Figure 2.

4-2 BASIC BJT OPERATION Figure 1 BJT Structure

- Figure 3 shows the proper DC bias for both the npn
and pnp transistors to work.
- It should be noted that in both the cases:
o The base-emitter (BE) junction is forward
biased.
o The base-collector (BC) junction is reverse
biased.

4.2.1 Transistor Currents

- The directions of the currents in an npn and pnp
transistors are shown in Figure 4. Figure 2 npn and pnp BJT symbols
- By this figure we can say that
the emitter current is the sum
of the base current and
collector current, that is,
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵
- 𝐼𝐵 is very small compared to
𝐼𝐶 or 𝐼𝐸 . The capital letter
subscript indicates DC values.

Figure 3 Forward - reverse of a BJT

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 4 Bipolar Junction Transistors
4-3 BJT CHARACTERISITICS AND PARAMETERS
- When both npn and pnp transistors are connected to DC
bias as shown in Figure 5,
o VBB forward biases the base-emitter junction
o VCC reverse biases the base-collector junction.

4.3.1 DC Beta (βDC) and DC Alpha (αDC)

- 𝛽𝐷𝐶 is the DC current gain of the transistor and it is the ratio
of collector current to base current, that is,
𝐼𝐶
𝛽𝐷𝐶 =
𝐼𝐵
- 𝛽𝐷𝐶 has a typical value of range of 20 to 200 or higher. It is
metioned in the datasheet of the transistor under the
symbol hFE.
- The ratio of collector current to the emitter current is 𝛼𝐷𝐶 ,
that is,
𝐼𝐶
𝛼𝐷𝐶 =
𝐼𝐸
- Typical value of 𝛼𝐷𝐶 ranges from 0.95 to 0.99 or greater but
is always less than 1. This is because the IC is always slightly
less than IE.

4.3.2 BJT Circuit Analysis

- Consider the circuit shown in Figure 5; following are the Figure 4 Transistor DC bias circuits
parameters that can be identified.
o IB – DC base current
o IE – DC emitter current
o IC – DC collector current
o VBE – DC base-emitter voltage
o VCB – DC collector-base voltage
o VCE – DC collector-emitter voltage
- The main objective of a DC circuit analysis of a BJT transistor
is to find out the above parameters.
- Following are some of the equations that need to be kept in
Figure 5 Transistor currents and voltages
mind when solving a circuit of Figure 5.
Table 1 DC parameters for the circuit in Figure 5
# Equations
1 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7 𝑉
2 𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝐵
3 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝐵
4 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵
5 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
6 𝑉𝐶𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 4 Bipolar Junction Transistors
NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 4-2 PAGE 170

4.3.3 Collector Characteristic Curves

- For a given value of base current IB, the plot of IC versus VCE is called the collector characteristic curve.
- It shows how the collector current IC changes with change in collector-emitter voltage VCE.
- Figure 6(b) shows a collector characteristic curve for a specific value of IB.
- From Figure 6(b), three regions of operation can be worked out.
o Saturation Region
o Active Region
o Breakdown Region

Figure 6 Collector characteristic curves

4.3.3.1 Saturation Region

- Suppose VBB is set to produce a certain value of IB and VCC is zero.
- In this condition both the base-emitter junction and the base-collector junction are forward biased.
- A small base current flows through the base-emitter junction due to low impedance and therefore IC is
zero.
- As VCC is increased, VCE will also increase as collector current is increased.
- This is illustrated by the region between points A and B in Figure 6(b).
- This region of operation is the saturation region.
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PHYS 162 - Chapter 4 Bipolar Junction Transistors
4.3.3.2 Active Region
- As VCC keeps on increasing, VCE becomes higher than
0.7V and the base-collector junction becomes reverse
biased.
- At this point, IC becomes constant for a given value of
IB.
- This region is illustrated by the points B and C in Figure
6(b) is called the active region.
- For this region, the value of IC is determined only by the
relation 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝐵 .

4.3.3.3 Breakdown Region

- When the VCE is high enough, the reverse biased base-
collector junction goes into breakdown.
- The collector current IC increases rapidly as shown by Figure 7 Family of IC versus VCE curves
the portion after point C in Figure 6(b).
- A transistor should never be operated in this
region.

4.3.4 Cutoff
- When IB is zero, the transistor is in the cutoff
region.
- This is shown in the collector characteristic
curve of Figure 7 as the grey area and in terms
of the circuit in Figure 8.
- In this condition, 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ≈ 𝑉𝐶𝐶 .

4.3.5 Saturation Figure 8 Cutoff circuit

- If we add a base voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐵 > 0.7𝑉 to the circuit

in Figure 8, base current IB starts to flow.
- This in turn also increases the collector current
( 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝐵 ) and VCE decreases ( 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 −
𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 ).
- This is illustrated in Figure 9.
- As VCE decreases it reaches its saturation value
𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑠𝑎𝑡 < 0.7𝑉.
- At this point, IC reaches its saturation value and
cannot increase any further, that is, 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑠𝑎𝑡 .

Figure 9 Saturation circuit operation

NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 4-4 PAGE 174

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 4 Bipolar Junction Transistors
4.3.6 DC Load Line
- Saturation and cutoff can be shown on the
collector characteristic curve.
- Figure 10 shows the DC load line by connecting
the saturation point
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑠𝑎𝑡
,
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑠𝑎𝑡
and the cutoff point
𝐼𝐵 = 0𝐴
,
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶

- The active region of operation for a transistor is

in between cutoff and saturation.

4.3.7 Maximum Transistor Ratings Figure 10 DC Load line on IC vs. VCE curve
- Maximum transistor ratings are given in transistor datasheet.
- The product of VCE and IC cannot exceed the maximum power rating.
- Both VCE and IC cannot be maximum at the same time.
- If VCE is maximum then IC can be calculated as
𝑃𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝐶 =
𝑉𝐶𝐸(𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
- If IC is maximum then VCE can be calculated as
𝑃𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝐶𝐸 =
𝐼𝐶(𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 4-6 PAGE 177

4.3.8 Derating PD(max)

- PD(max) is specified at 25°C. For higher temperature PD(max) is less.
- The derating factor is specified in datasheet.
- It is the amount by which PD(max) is reduced for each degree rise in temperature.
- A derating factor of 2mW/°C means the PD(max) will decrease by 2mW for each degree rise in
temperature.
NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 4-7 PAGE 178

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 4 Bipolar Junction Transistors
4-4 THE BJT AS AN AMPLIFIER
- Amplifier is one of the major applications of a transistor.
- Amplification is the process of increasing the amplitude of an electrical signal.
- For a BJT to work as an amplifier, it has to be biased in the active region.

4.4.1 DC and AC Quantities

- The difference between the symbols used for DC and AC quantities is that subscript of DC quantities
have capital letters while the AC quantities have small letters. Table 2 lists all the relevant DC and AC
quantities.
Table 2 Symbol for DC and AC quantities
Description DC Quantities AC Quantities
Base-Emitter Voltage VBE Vbe
Collector-Emitter Voltage VCE Vce
Base-Collector Voltage VCB Vcb
Base Current IB Ib
Collector Current IC Ic
Emitter Current IE Ie
External Resistance RB, RC, RE Rb, Rc, Re
Internal Resistance 𝑟′𝑒

4.4.2 Transistor Voltage Amplification

Figure 11 Basic transistor amplifier circuit

- Figure 11 shows a basic transistor amplifier circuit.

- The AC voltage Vs is superimposed on the DC bias VBB as shown in figure.
- The AC input voltage Vin produces an AC base current Ib.
- This AC base current produces a larger AC collector current Ic.
- This AC collector current produces an AC voltage across RC which is amplified.
- Following are some of the equations that can be setup from the circuit in Figure 11.
o The internal AC resistance of the base emitter junction, 𝑟′𝑒 , is very low and in series with RB.
o The AC base voltage is given by
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PHYS 162 - Chapter 4 Bipolar Junction Transistors
𝑉𝑏 = 𝐼𝑒 𝑟′𝑒
o The AC collector voltage equals the AC drop across RC and given by
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐶
o As 𝐼𝑐 ≅ 𝐼𝑒 , therefore
𝑉𝑐 ≅ 𝐼𝑒 𝑅𝐶
o Vb can be considered to be the input AC voltage to the transistor while V c can be considered as
the output AC voltage.
o Since voltage gain is defined as the ratio of output voltage to input voltage, the voltage gain A v
of an amplifier can be given as
𝑉𝑐 𝐼𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑣 = ≅ ≅
𝑉𝑏 𝐼𝑒 𝑟 ′ 𝑒 𝑟 ′ 𝑒
o Therefore voltage gain Av is equal to
𝑹𝑪
𝑨𝒗 ≅ ′
𝒓𝒆
This equation provides the voltage amplification which depends on the values of R C and 𝑟′𝑒 .
NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 4-9 PAGE 182

4-5 THE BJT AS A SWITCH

- The application of a BJT as a
switch is one of the most
important in digital circuits.
- When used as a switch, a BJT
operation alternates between
cutoff and saturation.
- Figure 12 illustrates the ideal
BJT switch operation.
Figure 12 Ideal BJT switch operation
4.5.1 Conditions in Cutoff
- When there is no base current, i.e., 𝐼𝐵 = 0𝐴, the transistor is in cutoff. All the voltage drop is across
collector emitter, i.e.,
𝑉𝐶𝐸(𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 ) = 𝑉𝐶𝐶
- In this scenario, the collector-emitter junction is modeled as an open switch.
4.5.2 Conditions in Saturation
- With VBB and large enough base current IB to achieve maximum collector current, the transistor is
saturated, i.e., 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑠𝑎𝑡 . The collector current is given by
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐼𝐶 𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
𝑅𝐶
- The minimum base current required to produce saturation is
𝐼𝐶 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐼𝐵 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝛽𝐷𝐶
- As VCE(sat) is very small, it can be neglected and collector-emitter junction is modeled as a closed
switch.
NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 4-10 & 4-11 PAGE 183 & 185

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 4 Bipolar Junction Transistors
4-6 PHOTOTRANSISTOR
- It is a transistor device where base current is produced by light instead of voltage.
- The collector-base junction is exposed to light through a lens.
- The base current, 𝐼𝜆 , is proportional to the intensity of light.
- The collector current produced is given by 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝜆 .

Figure 13 Phototransistor
schematic

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