COLEGIO DE SAN SEBASTIAN

SABLAYAN, OCCIDENTAL MINDORO

FLUID MECHANICS

MRS. PINKY N. PAGAYONAN

Science Asst Professor

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Introduction
Fluid mechanics introduces to new fundamental concepts. It is essentially the
application of Newtonian mechanics. It explains to us how the liquid behaved
differently from solid bodies. It focuses on the internal forces in fluids.
Objectives:
At the end of the unit, you should be
able to
 Define the concept of surface  Cite familiar manifestations of
tension surface tension, and capillarity
observed in nature.
 Explain the factors that affect  Analyze Problems involving
surface tension intermolecular forces in fluids.
 Relate surface tension to the
phenomenon of capillarity

ENGAGE What are solids and fluids?

Solids and Fluids

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 Matter exists in three physical states: solid, liquid, and gas. Of the three states of
matter, the solid-state is far the most convenient to study and the simplest in terms of its
gross, mechanical properties.

EXPLORE: INTERMOLE In solids, strong intermolecular forces of attraction keep the

CULAR atoms and molecules firmly in place. The atoms and molecules
FORCES of a solid may move rapidly, as in the case of higher
temperatures. The motion is limited to vibrations around fixed
average positions within the solid. When the temperature is
sufficiently low, their thermal kinetic energies are insufficient to
overcome these forces; the solid attains the property we call
“rigidity." A rigid body can transmit shearing stress.

The other two states of matter- the liquid and the gaseous
states- possess little, if any, rigidity. Together, they may be
classified as "fluids." We define an ideal fluid as a substance
that is incapable of transmitting shearing stresses.

In fluids, the molecular experience weaker intermolecular

forces. Thus, they can move randomly from one position to
another within the body of the fluid. The average distance
between molecules is farther apart such that intermolecular
forces can practically be neglected. This means that the
molecules in the gas move more freely than in a liquid.

No real fluid can precisely meet the conditions of an ideal

fluid, since all fluids exert some shearing stress.

The difference between solids and fluids in terms of:

 Rigidity and shearing stress

 Molecular arrangements
 The movement of atoms and molecules
 The magnitude of molecular forces

Can you think of other characteristics that further distinguish

fluids from solid bodies?
PAUSE&THINK

Characteristics Solid Fluid Liquid Gas Glass

Size &shape Definite Assume the
size and shape of the Definite No free Solid for
shape container volume at a surface a short
definite Occupy period
temperature any

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 volume
External stress Slight No external
elastic stress is Slightly Expand Clamped
yield needed. compressible and at one
results compress side
ed Bet solid
and
liquid
Amount of limited deformation
deformation s
INTERNAL Surface Tension
FORCES
Liquids exhibit mechanical property, which seems to
suggest that there is a contractile surface membrane or skin that
envelopes it. This property is associated with any liquid's free
surface or the interface between any two non-miscible liquids.
Ex. A waxed needle may float on the surface of liquids.
Small oil drops appear as beads nearly spherical in shape instead
of spreading out into a very thin layer because of gravitational
Fig 1. forces. These phenomena have their underlying causes in the
Intermolecular fine-scale structure of the liquid itself.
forces within a
fluid and at the Cohesive Forces
surface of a
fluid. The surface properties of liquids resulting from the
existence of intense intermolecular forces- cohesive forces.
These internal forces do not follow an inverse square law and
are not gravitational in origin. These intermolecular forces are
directly responsible for many processes like soldering and
welding and capillary phenomena such as the rise of liquids in
fine bore tubes, the complete wetting of a towel when one end is
dipped in water, and the rise of oil in wicks and of water in the
soil.

Fig 1 shows that cohesive forces inside the fluid are

symmetric and have no preferred direction. However, there are
no molecules.

To raise a surface molecule out of the fluid, energy must

be supplied. Work must be done to overcome internal forces
pulling the molecules back towards the surface. Thus, the
surface of a fluid is said to behave like a stretched elastic
membrane.

This time, release the balloon; what happens to its shape?

Once the air is let out, the spherical balloon in its extended state
contracts its original shape. The stretched balloon tends to
decrease its surface to attain a state of minimum potential
energy.
PAUSE&THINK

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 Have you ever wondered why hanging drops of liquids and
raindrops are spherical? The spherical nature of raindrops is a
manifestation of surface forces in a liquid.

Surface defined as the force per unit length across any line drawn on the
Tension surface.

Fig 2. Surface
Tension

Source: Bing Wall

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Source: QS Study

Fig. 3 Surface Tension of Water

Factors Affecting Surface Tension
Impurities present in a liquid appreciably affect surface tension. A highly
soluble substance like salt increases the surface tension, whereas sparingly
soluble substances like soap decrease the surface tension.

The surface tension decreases with rising temperatures. The temperature at

which a liquid's surface tension becomes zero is called the liquid's critical
temperature. Oxygen in the atmosphere is known to decrease the surface
tension of various substances.

Key points of Factors affecting surface tension:

Temperature ↑ surface tension ↓

Critical temperature Surface tension: Zero
The critical temperature of water 3744K
Increase with impurity.

Let’s consider the effects of these four conditions on surface tension:

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 Temperature

As temperature decreases, surface tension increases. The further the

temperature increases, we can say surface tension decreases. On the other
hand, as surface tension decreases strongly, molecules become more
dynamic, with an increase in temperature becoming zero at its boiling point
and desertion at decisive temperature.

Chemical Additions

Adding chemicals to a liquid will transform its surface tension

characteristics. You can transform surface tension by adding other
chemicals. The consequence of adding an unrelated chemical to a material,
and thereby changing its surface tension, is confirmed by the example of
putting soap (a surfactant) in water to decrease the surface tension, which
allows the dirt on your hands to more merely mix with the water. The
examples which our teachers used to give us includes accumulation soap to
water

Oxidation

Oxidation straight affects surface tension. When surface tension increases,

intermolecular forces increase. As surface tension increases, intermolecular
forces increase. Oxygen in the atmosphere is known to reduce the surface
tension of a variety of substances.

The Presence of Impurities

The presence of impurities on the surface of, or dissolved in, a material

straight affects the liquid's surface tension. The surface tension of water,
for example, will increase when extremely soluble impurities are added to
it.

Surfactant

Now that we've measured the effects of dissimilarity in temperature, the

addition of chemicals, oxidation, and the incidence of impurities on surface
tension, perhaps we should subsequently think about the impact of a

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surfactant over time and how we monitor and determine this effect.

Table .1 Surface Tension of some Liquids

Fluid In contact with Temperature(°C) Surface Tension
(J/m2)
Helium Its vapor -269 1.20x10-3
Nitrogen Its vapor -183 6.60x10-3
Ether Air 20 1.70x10-2
Acetone Air 20 2.37x10-2
Water Air 100 5.89x10-2
Water Air 20 7.28x10-2
water Air 0 7.56x10-2
mercury Air 20 0.47
aluminum Air 700 0.84
copper air 1000 1.10

Table 2. Effects of impurities on the surface tension of water.

Impurity Conc of impurity Temperature Surface Tension
% (°C) (x 10-3 n/m
None 20 75.70
Sucrose 55 25 72.75
Acetic acid 1 30 68.00
Acetone 5 25 55.50
Phenol 2 20 54.00
Soaps &
detergents 27.00
Source: UPOU Physics A Book
Capillarity

Activity1

Materials
Capillarity tube or empty plastic tube of a used ball pen
Colored water
Bottle cover or crown
Soap or detergent

Procedure:
Fig. 4 Capillarity in ball pen tube.

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 a. Dip a small capillarity tube into colored water. Observe what happens,
wash the tube, and dip the tube in the colored water again.
b. Add a little amount of soap or detergent to the water then dip the
c. capillarity tube again. Observe what happens to the water.

Fig 5. Capillarity of liquids Source: Google Image

EXPLAIN Surface Tension

If you have studied the two tables carefully, you may have inferred that the surface
tension of a liquid depends on the following:
 The kind of liquid
 The type of gas with which liquid forms an interface
 Impurities present in the liquid
You must also observe that there are two ways of decreasing the surface tension of a
liquid.
 Increasing the temperature and
 Adding certain types of impurity

The two types of substances that reduce water surface tension are fatty acids, soaps,
and detergents. Fatty acids are insoluble in water, while soaps and detergents are soluble.

Capillarity
Why did the water rise inside the tube? The climbing up of liquids inside the narrow
tubes appears to defy the downward pull of gravity. This phenomenon, called capillarity
is a demonstration of surface tension.

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Fig. 6 Capillarity Images Source: Google Image

Contact Angle

When kerosene rests on the glass surface, the liquid-sold interface meets at a
particular angle in which equilibrium is made possible. The equilibrium angle is called
the contact angle and is measured through the liquid. In the case of the kerosene glass
interface, the contact angle is 26º.

Adhesion
Meniscus
In the capillarity rise, a liquid, the forces of adhesion between the liquid and the
solid molecules are bigger than the cohesive force between the liquid molecules. Thus
the liquid surface curves upward, and the resulting meniscus(top surface of the liquid) is
concave

Not all liquids can wet tube material. When the cohesive forces are relatively larger
than the adhesive forces, then a capillarity depression of the liquid results instead. The
liquid curves downward, and the meniscus is convex. The contact angle exceeds 90º
and the liquid is depressed in the bore of the capillary tube. The angle of contact between
mercury and glass is 140º. Mercury does not wet glass.

Fig. 7 Capillary depression of a liquid

Source: UPOU Physics A Book
SAQ5. See Evaluation

Capillarity action explains many familiar phenomena in nature. It also plays a vital
role as a means of transporting fluids upward. We can predict how high a fluid will rise
or be depressed in a tube by merely applying Newton's First Law of Motion.

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 Fig 8. Finding the height of the raised liquid.
Sources: UPOU Physics A Book & Google Image
The upward forces due to surface tension support the weight of the raised column of
liquid.

EXTEND/EL
ABORATE
The energy needed to remove all surface molecules out of the range of the cohesive
forces Es is found to be proportional to the surface area A. In symbols,

Es α A

Equation 1 Es= A

Where is the surface tension, and is the constant proportionality between energy
Es and surface area A of fluid?

The surface tension of fluid is thus defined as the amount of Work or energy
necessary to increase the fluid's surface area by a unit area.
Equation 2 = Es
A

The vertical component of the surface tension force or action on any small part of the
edge of the liquid is cos θ. The circumference of the circle on which all surface tension
forces are acting 2ᴨr. The total upward force is due to surface tension is equal to (σcosθ)

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 (2πr) in Equation1.6.

Density

The weight of the liquid column is equal to mg. The mass of the liquid, however, can
be related to its density. Density, a physical quantity of matter, is defined as

Equation: 1.7 ρ =m
v

where ρ (rho)= density of the liquid

m= mass of the body
v= volume of the body

Now, neglecting the upper meniscus of the liquid, the volume of the raised liquid
column is πr2h. The inner radius of the tube is r, and h is the height of the raised liquid.
The mass of the liquid can be expressed as

Equation 1.8 m= ρ /v = ρ (πr2h)

The weight of the liquid can now be written as

Equation 1.9 mg = ρgV= ρ (πr2h)g

The net upward force due to surface tension 2σπrcosθ is equal in magnitude to the
gravitational force on the liquid column ρπr2hg

Equation 1.10 2σπrcosθ = ρπr2hg

Therefore, the height of the liquid in the tube is

Equation 1.11 h= 2σcosθ

ρgr

Evaluation: SAQ1. Can you identify which phase of matter (solid or liquid) exhibits the
following properties?
a. Fixed position of molecules_______________
b. Random position of molecules_____________
c. Weak internal forces _______________
d. Strong internal forces _______________
e. Continuous deformation _______________
f. Elastic property _______________
SAQ2. a. Water surface behaves like a stretched membrane. However, why are
falling raindrops not exactly spherical?
b. Explain how specific bugs and spiders can walk on the surface of a pond.

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SAQ3. a. Is surface tension affected by the surface area of a fluid? Base your
answer on equation1.
b. Express surface tension (equation 2) in SI units
c. Show the sigma can also be expressed in N/m

SA4. a. Examine Table 1 well and identify some factors that affect a liquid's
surface.
b. Make a general statement about the relationship between surface tension and
temperature from Table 1.
c. what happens to the surface tension of water when contaminating materials are
added?
d. In table 2 which type of impurity has the greatest effect on water's surface
tension?

SAQ5. Recall the Activity in Fig 1 and fig 4.

a. What is the effect of soap on the surface tension of the colored
water? (See also Table 2)
b. Compare the height of the water before soap was added with the
rise in liquid column afterward.
c. What happened to the angle of contact between the water and the
tube?
d. Therefore, what is the effect of the additive like soap on the
contact angle and the level of liquid in the tube?
SAQ6. Explain in your own words
a. how fuel rises in a wick inside a kerosene lamp
b. how groundwater rises in soil

SAQ7 a. To what physical quantities are density-dependent on?

b. From what law in mechanics is Equation 1. 11 based on? Why?
c. Describe how the different factors determine how high a liquid can
rise in a tube.
d. For what value of the contact angle is the height of the liquid
column maximum?
e. Why do you think soap and detergents are goπod in cleaning
fabrics that are difficult to “wet”?

SA8. Problem Solving.

1. Determine the downward pull due to surface tension on a solid glass rod of
diameter 3 cm when it stands vertically with its lower end submerged in
water. The surface tension of the water is 0.073 N/m.
Hint: l= πd
Where d= diameter of the rod
F= σπd

2. How much Work must be done in blowing a spherical soap bubble 20cm in
diameter? The surface tension of the soap solution is 0.032 N/m or J/m 2.

Hint: Area of the bubble A=πd2 or A=4πr2 A=2πd2

Energy or Work = surface tension x increase in Surface area

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 3. When a capillary tube with a 0.80 mm diameter is dipped into methanol,
the methanol rises to a height of 15.0mm. If the angle of contact is 0º find
the surface tension of methanol (p of methanol is 0.79x103kg/m3)

References:
Hsu, T. et al., 2010. Foundations of Physical Science, CPO Science
UPOU, 2000, Physics of Motion Physics A Book, University of the Philippines

Note:
SAQ123 will serve as your written Work
SAQ456 will serve as your performance work
SAQ78 will serve as your quiz

Good Luck and God Bless!

If you have questions, just message through my messenger pinky norella pagayonan

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Preliminary Examination
Fluid Mechanics

I – Definition. Define each of the terms below that was introduced in this unit in your
understanding. ( 2pts each)

Fluids
Cohesion
Adhesion
Surface
Tension
Contact Angle
Density
Capillarity
Liquid
Intermolecular
Forces
meniscus

II- Explanation. Explain the following of how they were introduced in this unit in your
understanding. (3 pts each)

Can you now site the importance of surface tension in nature?

Can you explain the role of capillarity in the upward transport of fluids?

Were you able to solve numerical problems on surface tension and capillarity?

III- Problem Solving. Feel free to look back at the different concepts and equations in
your Learning Plan. (5 pts each)
A wire 10 cm long and 0.8 mm in diameter is pulled out of the water surface with each
length parallel to the surface. What force, in addition to the weight of the wire, is
needed? Surface tension of water =0.073N/m
What is the size of a steel sphere that will float on water with precisely half the sphere
submerged? Assume that only the upward cohesive forces support the weight of the
sphere. The density of steel is 7.9 x 103 kg/m3
Two glass plates, each of width 1, are held parallel to one another with a spacing of
0.2 mm. If the plates are dipped vertically into the water(20°C), to what height above
the surface will the water rise between the plates if the contact angle is 25.5°.

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