NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY AWKA ANAMBRA

STATE

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

A SEMINAR PRESENTATION

ON

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELORS

DEGREE IN ENGINEERING (B.ENG)

PRESENTED BY

BROWN EMMANUEL ONYINYEOMA

REG. NUMBER: 2011244067

SUPERVISED BY:

Dr SOLOMON NWIGBO

MAY 2015

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 Dedication

This seminar is dedicated to almighty God for His unending grace.

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 Abstract

Error and uncertainty are inherent in the process of making any measurement and in the
instrument with which the measurements are made. This material points out the various
types of errors commonly found in engineering measurements. The gross errors,
systematic errors, and random errors. It also discusses errors inherent in an assembled
component irrespective of the ingenuity employed by the designer. This material points
out the common sources of errors, what brings about errors in a particular design, such
as noise etc. Some simple measuring instruments used in engineering, their principle of
operation, construction details where also treated in this write-up such as: the
dynamometer, manometers, bourdon tube pressure gauge, liquid in glass thermometer,
thermocouple.

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 Table of CONTENT

Preliminary........................................................................................................ i-iv

i. Title page ………………………………………………………………. i

ii. Dedication ……………………………………………………………... ii
iii. Table of content ……………………………………………………….. iii
iv. Abstract ………………………………………………………………... iv

Chapter one 1

Errors in measurement ...................................................................1

Types of errors ...................................................................................................1

i. Gross errors ……………………………………………………...1

ii. Systematic errors ………………………………………………...2
iii. Random errors …………………………………………………...5

Sources of errors ................................................................................................5

Chapter two 5

Simple measuring instruments ...........................................................................6

i. Dynamometer…………………………………………………….6
ii. Manometers ……………………………………………………..11
iii. Bourdon tube pressure gauge ………………………………...…13

Temperature measurement ..............................................................................14

i. Liquid-in-glass-thermometer …………………………………...14
ii. Thermocouple …………………………………………………..16

Chapter three 17

Conclusion ........................................................................................................17

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Recommendation ..............................................................................................18

References ........................................................................................................19

List of figures

Figures:

1. Prony brake dynamometer ................................. ...................................8

2. Rope brake dynamometer ......................................................................10
3. Diagram of bourdon tube pressure gauge .............................................13
4. Liquid in glass thermometer ..................................................................15
5. Thermocouple ........................................................................................16

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 Chapter one

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
Error can be defined as The difference between the measured result and the true
value (unknown). We do not know the true value; hence we do not know the error.
We can discuss an error and we can estimate (guess) an error, but we can never know
it’s actual magnitude. If we wish to assign a value to our estimate of error, then we
commonly refer to that number as uncertainty. Uncertainty is our best estimate of
error.

Error and uncertainty are inherent in the process of making any measurement and in
the instrument with which the measurements are made. The study of error is
important as a step in finding ways of reducing them, and also as a means of
estimating the reliability of final results.

The accuracy and precision of a measuring instrument depends upon it’s design,
proper selection of materials for each and every part, and skill of manufacturing.

Types Of Errors
Types of errors commonly found in engineering measurement can be classified as
follows;

 Gross errors
 Systematic errors
i. Instrumental errors
ii. Environmental error
iii. Observational errors
 Random errors

Gross Errors
These errors occur due to human mistakes in reading instrument, recording and
calculating results of measurement. Although it is probably impossible eliminate the
gross errors completely, yet one should try to anticipate and correct them.The
mathematical analysis of gross error is impossible since these may occur in different
amounts. While some gross error may be easily detected, others may go unnoticed.
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These errors can be avoided by adopting two means:
i. Immense care should be taken while taking the reading and recording the data.
ii. Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity measured.

Systematic Errors
These errors are errors repeated consistently with the repetition of the experiment and
are caused by such as ;- sensitivity shift; zero off-set and unknown non linearity.

These errors can be located only by having repeated measurement under different
conditions or with different equipment and where possible by an entirely different
method.

Systematic errors may be;

 instrumental,
 environmental, or
 observational errors.

 Instrumental errors;
These errors are inherent in the instruments due to construction, calibration, or
operation of the instruments. These errors may cause the instrument to read too
low or too high. These errors arise due to
 inherent shortcoming in the instrument,
 misuse of the instrument,
 loading effect of the instruments

Some examples of such errors are;

(a) Mechanical friction and wear, backlash, yielding or supports, pen or pointer
during and hysteresis of elastic members due to aging.
(b) Constructional faults resulting from finite width of knife edges, excessive
friction of the mating parts, last motion due to necessary clearance in gear teeth
etc.

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 (c) Improper selection and poor maintenance of the instrument.
(d) Unavoidable physical phenomenon due to friction, capillary attraction and
imperfect rarefaction.

Assembly Errors.
These are errors that occur due to the following reasons;

(a) Displaced scale ie: incorrect fitting of the scale zero with respect to the actual
position of the movement.
(b) Non-uniform division of the scale
(c) Bent or distorted pointer.

The assembly errors do not change with time, so these can be easily discovered and
rectified.

Misuse of instrument; a good instrument used in an intelligent way may give

erroneous results.

Loading effect; in several measurement techniques, the detector/sensor utilizes the

energy of the mewling, thus altering slightly the parameter that will be measured,
resulting in errors.

Hysteresis; lag in effect; a delayed response by an object to as in the force acting on

it.

 Environmental errors.
The environmental errors are due to the conditions external to the measuring device
(eg effects of pressure, temperature, humidity, dust, vibration, and external
magnetic or electro static fields). These errors are much more troublesome than
assembly errors.

Environmental errors can be eliminated by taking the following measures;

(a) Using the instrument in controlled conditions of pressure temperature, humidity

in which it is originally calibrated and assembled.
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 (b) Measure deviations in the local conditions from the calibrated ones and then
apply suitable correction to the instrument readings.
(c) Automatic compensation for the departure from the calibrated conditions by
using sophisticated devices.
(d) Make a complete new calibration under the local conditions.
(e) In case it is suspected that external magnetic or electrostatic shield can affect
the readings of the instruments, magnetic or electrostatic shield may be
provided.
(f) Apply computed corrections. Normally, efforts are made to avoid the use of
application of computed corrections, but where these corrections are needed and
are necessary, they are incorporated for computation of the results.

 Observational errors
These errors occur due to carelessness of operators. Evan when an instrument has
being proper selected, carefully installed and faithfully calibrated, shortcomings in
the measurement occur due to certain failures on the part of the observer.
The observational errors maybe due to the following reasons;
(a) Parallax- since the parallax error errors on an account of the pointer and the
scale not in the plane, we can eliminate this error by having the pointer and
the scale in the plane.
(b) Wrong scale reading and wrong recording of data.
(c) Inaccurate estimate of average reading, lack of ability to interpolate properly
between graduations.
(d) Incorrect conversion of units in-between consecutive readings, and non
simultaneous observation of independent quantities.
(e) Tendency to read high or low, anticipate a signal and read too soon-personal
bias.

Modern electrical instrument have digital display of output which completely

eliminate the errors on account of human observation or serving power as the
output is in the form of digits.

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Random Errors
 The random errors are accidental, small, and independent.
 They vary unpredictable manner.
 The magnitude and direction of these errors cannot be predicted from
knowledge of measurement system; however these errors are assumed to
follow the law of probabilities;
The common causes of these errors are;
(a) Friction in instrument movement
(b) Back lash in the movement
(c) Parallax errors between pointer and scale
(d) Finite dimensions of the pointer and scale divisions
(e) Hysteresis in elastic members
(f) Mechanical vibration

Sources Of Errors
Besides the errors so far enumerated ( of the physical and mechanical nature) and
errors which necessarily result from the faulty calibration of a measuring
instrument, the errors arise from the following sources also;
(i) Noise: it is defined as any signal that does not convey any useful
information. Noise signal/errors can be reduced to a minimum level
through filtering, careful selection of components, shielding and isolation
of the entire measuring system.
(ii) Response time: it is defined as the time taken by the instrument to show
63.2% change in a reading to a step input. This factor contributes to the
uncertainty of the measurement.
(iii) Design limitation: in the design of the instrument, certain inerrable
factors such as friction and resoling power lead to uncertainty of
measurements.
(iv) Energy exchange by interaction. As earlier pointed out, whenever the
energy required for operating the measuring system is extended from the
measured, the value of the later is altered to a greater or lesser extent.
This alteration is dependent upon the capacity of the system.
(v) Transmission: during the transmission of information from the primary
sensing element to the indicator, the signal maybe alternated due to any
of the following reasons:
 It may suffer loss through leakage
 It may be absorbed or otherwise consumed in the communication
channel
 It may be distorted by resonance, attenuation or delay phenomenon
whose actions are selective on various signal components.
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 Chapter two

SIMPLE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

DYNAMOMETER: A dynamometer is a device used to measure the torque
being exerted along a rotating shaft so as to determine the shaft power input or output
of power-generator, transmitting and absorbing machinery.

The dynamometer re classified as follows:

a. Absorption dynamometer,
b. Transmission dynamometer,
c. Driving dynamometer.

Absorption dynamometers:
This dynamometer works on the principle that the power measured is converted
into heat by friction or by other means. The power absorbed is lost as heat and
dissipated to the surroundings where it serves no useful purpose.

Examples of Absorption dynamometers are:

(i) Mechanical brake
 Prony brake
 Rope brakes
(ii)Hydraulic or fluid friction brake
(iii) Eddy current dynamometer

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Transmission dynamometer
These dynamometers work on the principle that the power being transmitted
either to or from the dynamometer is not absorbed or dissipated. After
measurement, the energy is conveyed to the surroundings in a useful
mechanical or electrical form.

Examples of transmission dynamometers are;

(i) Torsion and belt dynamometers

(ii) Epicyclical train dynamometers
(iii) Strain gauge dynamometers

Driving dynamometers.
This dynamometer is an instrument that measures power and also supplies
energy to operate the tested device.

Example of driving dynamometer is an electric cradled dynamometer.

Mechanical Brakes
The prony and rope brakes are the two types of mechanical brakes widely used
for the measurement of power.

The prony brake dynamometers;

The figure below shows the schematic arrangement of the simplest form of
absorption dynamometer.

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Fig 1. Prony brake dynamometers

Construction of an absorption dynamometer (prony brake):

It consists of two wooden blocks placed around a pulley, fixed to the shaft of
an engine whose power I required to be measured. The blocks are clamped by
means of two bolts and nuts. A helical spring is provided between the nut and
the upper block to adjust the pressure on the pulley to control it’s speed. The
upper block has a long lever attached to it and carries a weight W. at it’s outer
end. A counter weight is placed at the other end of the lever which balances the
brake when unloaded. In order to limit the motion of the lever, two stops are
shown in the fig. above.

Operation of the prony brake dynamometers:

When the brake is to be operated, the long end of the lever is loaded with
suitable weight W and nut are tightened until the engine shaft runs at a
constant speed and the lever is in horizontal position. Under these conditions,
the moment due to the weight W must balance the moment of frictional
resistance between the blocks and the pulley.

Let W = weight at the end of the lever, N (Newton)

L = horizontal distance of the weight W from the center of the pulley, m.

F = frictional resistance between the block and the pulley, N

R = radius of the pulley, mm and

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 N = speed of the shaft r.p.m

Now, the moment of the frictional resistance or torque of the shaft

T = W × L = F × R (Nm)

Work done in one revolution = T × Δ ( angle turned) = T × 2π (Nm)

Work done per minute = T × 2πN (Nm)

Brake power of the engine

BP = 2πNT / 60 = (W × L) × 2πN / 60 (watt)

Note; When the driving torque on the shaft is not uniform, this dynamometer is
subjected to severe oscillations.

The rope brake dynamometer

This kind of absorption dynamometer is most commonly used. It’s schematic

arrangement is shown below;

Fig 2. The rope brake dynamometer.

Construction of the rope brake dynamometer

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It consists of one, two or more ropes wound around the wheel or rim of a pulley
fixed rigidly to the shaft of the engine. The upper end of the rope is attached to a
spring balance while the lower end of the rope is kept in position by applying a
dead weight as shown in the figure. In order to prevent the slipping of the rope
over the flywheel, wooden blocks are placed at intervals around the circumference
of the flywheel.

Operation of the rope brake dynamometer

For the operation of the rope brake dynamometer, the engine is made to run at a
constant speed. The frictional torque, due to the rope, must be equal to the torque
being transmitted the engine.

Let; W = weight at the end of the rope (N)

S = spring balance reading (N)

N = engine speed, (rpm)

D = diameter of the brake wheel (m)

D = diameter of the rope,( m) and

(D + d) = effective diameter of the brake wheel

Then, work/revolution = torque × angle turned per revolution

= (W – S) × (D + d) × 2π / 2 = (W – S) × (D + d) × π

Work done/min = (W – S) π (D + d) × π

Work done/sec = (W – S) π (D + d) N/ 60

Brake power, BP = (W – S) T (D + d) N/ 60 × 1000 ( KW)

= (W – S) TDN/ 60 × 1000 (KW) ……….if d is neglected

or = T × 2TN/ 60 × 1000 (KW)

since the energy produced by the engine is absorbed by the frictional resistance of
the brake and is converted into heat, therefore it is necessary to brake the wheel
cool with soapy water. The water is kept continually flowing into the rim and is
drained away by a sharp edge scoop on the other side.

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Manometers
Manometers are defined as the device used for measuring the pressure at a point in
a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of liquid.
The manometers are treated as the standard for pressure and differential pressure
measurements, because they are virtually free from any friction or hysteresis
effects. These are classified as follows;

1. Simple manometers and

2. Differential manometers

Simple Manometers is one which consist of a glass tube whose one end is
connected to point where pressure is to be measured and the other end remains
open to the atmosphere.

Common types are;

i. Piezometer,
ii. U- tube manometer and
iii. Single column manometer ( micro manometer)

Differential Manometer is used to measure the difference in pressure between

two points in a pipe or in two different pipes. In it’s simplest form a differential
manometer consists of a U- tube, containing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are
connected to the points, whose difference of pressure is required to be found out.
The most commonly used types of differential manometers are;

i. U – tube differential manometer and

ii. Inverted U – tube differential manometer

The manometers mentioned above are suitable for comparatively low pressure. For
high pressures they become unnecessarily larger even when they are filled with
heavy liquids. Therefore for measuring mediums and pressures, it is suitable to
make use of elastic pressure gauges. They employed different forms of elastic
systems such as tubes, diaphragms or bellows etc. to measure pressure. The elastic
deformation of these elements is used to show the effect of pressure. Since these
elements are deformed within the elastic limit only, these gauges are sometimes

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called elastic gauges. Sometime they are also called secondary instruments, which
imply that they must be calibrated by comparism with primary instruments.

Some of the important types of these gauges are:

- Bourdon tube pressure gauge,

- Diaphragm gauge,
- Vacuum gauge.

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

They are used to measure high as well as low pressures.

Fig 3. Schematic diagram of a Bourdon tube pressure gauge

Construction Of A Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge:

A simple form of this gauge is shown in the figure above. The pressure elements
consist of a metal tube of approximate elliptical cross section. This tube is bent in
the form of a segment of a circle and responds to pressure changes.

When one end of the tube which is attached to the gauge case is connected to the
source of pressure, the internal pressure causes the tube to expand, whereby
circumferential stress ( ie, loop tension) is set up. The free end of the tube moves
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and in turn connected by suitable lever to a rack, which engages with a small
pinion mounted on the same spindle as the pointer. Thus the pressure applied to the
tube causes the rack and pinion to move. The pressure is indicated by the pointer
over a dial which can be graduated in a suitable scale.

The Bourdon tubes are generally made of bronze or mild steel. The former is
generally used for low pressures and the latter for high pressures.

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Instruments for measuring ordinary temperatures are known as thermometers and
those for measuring high temperatures are known as pyrometers.

They are classified as;

1. Expansion thermometers:
i. Liquid in glass thermometer
ii. Bimetallic thermometer
2. Pressure thermometers:
i. Vapor pressure thermometers
ii. Liquid –filled thermometers
iii. Gas filled thermometers
3. Thermocouple thermometer
4. Resistance thermometers
5. Radiation thermometers
6. Optical pyrometers

Liquid – In - Glass – Thermometer

Liquid – in - glass – thermometer is a familiar type of thermometer.

Principle of operation of Liquid in glass thermometer;

The expansion thermometer makes use of the differential expansion of two

different substances. In liquid in glass thermometer it is the difference in expansion
of the liquid and the containing glass.

Construction of Liquid in glass thermometer;

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A usual type of these thermometers is in the diagram below. It’s essential elements
are relatively large bulb at the lower end, a capillary tube with scale, and a liquid
filling both the bulb and a portion of the capillary. In addition, an expansion
chamber is generally incorporated at the upper end to serve as a safety reservoir
when the intended temperature range is exceeded. The upper limit for mercury – in
glass thermometer is about 600°C. As th upper limit is far above the boiling point
of mercury, some inert gas ie. Nitrogen is introduced above the mercury to prevent
boiling.

Fig 4. Liquid in glass thermometer

Working operation of Liquid in glass thermometer:

As the temperature is raised when the thermometer is brought into contact with a
body of higher temperature, the greater expansion of the liquid compared with that
of the glass causes it to rise in the capillary or stem of the thermometer, and the
height of rise is used as a measure of temperature.

Thermocouple
A thermocouple in it’s simplest form consists of two dissimilar metals or alloys
which develops e.m.f, when the reference and measuring junctions are at different
temperatures. The reference junction or cold junction is usually maintained at some
constant temperature such as 0°C

19
 Fig
5. Thermocouple

The figure above shows a simple circuit of a thermocouple temperature measuring

device. In many industrial installations the instruments are equipped with
automatic compensating devices for temperature changes of the reference junction,
hence eliminating the necessity of maintaining this junction at constant
temperature.

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 Chapter three
Conclusion

Though there is never a perfect system, and errors in measurement are

unavoidable in engineering practices. But with carefully designed tools, continued
improvement on existing designs, and strict adherence to the proper handling
procedure and precautions with the use of engineering hand tools, errors
encountered in engineering measurement can be minimized.

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 Recommendation

Having made this study, I will recommend that general enlightenment program or
manual be issued to persons who intend to use, transport, store, sale or even design
a measuring tool before they are allowed to handle such tool. This to a good extent
will reduce most errors found on measuring tool designs or on the finished product.

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 References
Engr. Onubi (2011) (lecture material on Errors in Measurement)
Lecturer at National Metallurgical Training Institute Onitsha Anambra
state.
W.A.J Chapman (1995) Fourth Edition part 1 and 2 Workshop Technology.
Google search www.simpleworkshopmeasuring tools.com

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