Genetic Linked, Crossing

Over, and Gene mapping

GENETICS
Group 4
ARIFAH CICILIA RATU HSB TISHA TABITHA
Molecular Basis of Mendel’s Postulate
What are Mendel’s Postulate?

● Principles of Paired Factors

 A pair of genes controls a trait
● Principle of Dominance / recessiveness
 For different alleles, one will be expressed over the other
● Law of Segregation or Law of Purity of Gametes (Mendel’s First Law of
Inheritance).
 Chromosomes separate during meiosis.
● Law of Independent Assortment (Mendel’s Second Law of Inheritance).
 Genes for different traits are assorted independently of each other
during gamete formation.
 LINKED GENE
 Genes located near each other on the same
chromosome tend to be inherited together in
genetic crosses, such genes are said to be
genetically linked and are called

 Chromosomes are called linked group.

• They contain a group of genes that are
linked together

 Classical genetics analyzes the frequency of allele

recombination in progeny of genetic crosses

• New associations of parental alleles are

recombinants, produced by genetic
recombination.
• Tests crosses determine which genes are
linked, and a linkage map (genetic map) is
constructed for each chromosome.
 LINKED GENE
The gene link can be divided into two :

The genes that are strung are located very close together, so during meiosis
the genes do not change their location. So that the genes together go to the
gametes.

The genes that are strung on one chromosome are not located close to each
other, so that the genes can undergo a change in location due to the
exchange of segments of the chromatids on a homologous pair of
chromosomes.
 LINKED GENE
In the linked gene there are two gene arrangements
that indicate the location of the allele on the
chromosome, namely :

Dominant genes are strung on one chromosome,

while recessive genes are strung on the homologous
chromosome. (a)

Dominant genes are linked with recessive genes that

are not alleles on one chromosome, while recessive
genes from the first cell and dominant genes from
the second cell are strung on the homologous
chromosome. (b)
Fig 1.
Fig 2.
Fig 3.
How does linkage between two genes affect inheritance of characters?
Experiment Morgan wanted to know whether the genes
for body color and wing size are genetically linked and, if
so, how this affects their inheritance. The alleles for
body color are b+ (gray) and b (black), and those for wing
size are vg+ (normal) and vg (vestigial).
Conclusion Since most offspring had a parental (P
generation) phenotype, Morgan concluded that the
genes for body color and wing size are genetically linked
on the same chromosome. However, the production of
a relatively small number of offspring with non parental
phenotypes indicated that some mechanism
occasionally breaks the linkage between specific alleles
of genes on the same chromosome.
Let’s represent the cross by the following Punnett square:
Notice in this Punnett square that one-half of
the offspring are expected to inherit a
phenotype that matches either of the
phenotypes of the P (parental) generation
originally crossed to produce the F1 dihybrid.
These matching offspring are called parental
types.

But two non parental phenotypes are also found

among the offspring. Because these offspring have
new combinations of seed shape and color, they are
called recombinant types, or recombinants for short.
Crossing Over
01
 A random exchange of DNA between two non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes.

 Results in recombination of genetic material.

 Prevalence of recombination is dependent on the distance between linked

genes
Chromosomal Crossing over
 Crossing over

Crossing over or chromosomal cross over ) is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chro
mosomes that results in recombinant chromosomes

Crossing over is the swapping of genetic material that occurs in the germ
line.
During the formation of egg and sperm cells, also known as meiosis, pair
ed chromosomes from each parent align so that similar DNA sequences f
rom the paired chromosomes cross over one another.

Crossing over results in a shuffling of genetic material an

d is an important cause of the genetic variation seen amon
g offspring
 Crossing over
In meiosis, they're lined up on the meiotic plates, and those paired chromosomes t
hen have to have some biological mechanism that sort of keeps them together. An
d it turns out that there are these things called chiasmata,
 Crossing over and Chiasmata

Chiasmata is the point where two

homologous non-sister chromatid
s exchange genetic material durin
g crossing over during meiosis
 Theories of Crossing over

1. Contact first theory :

According to this theory the inner two chromatids of the hom
ologous chromosomes undergoing crossing over , first touch e
ach other and the cross over . At the point of contact breakage
occurs . The broken segment again united to form new combi
nation .

2. The breakage – first theory

According to this theory the chromatids undergoing crossi
ng over , first of all break into two without any crossing ov
er and after that the broken segments reunited to form the
new combinations .
Factors that affecting Crossing over
1. Sex :
There is a tendency of reduction of crossing over in male mammals
2. Mutation
Mutation reduces crossing over
3. Temperature :
High and low temperature variations increase the percentage of crossing over in certai
n parts of the chromosomes
4. X-ray effects
X-ray irradiations increase crossing over near centromere .
5. Age
Older age increases the rate of crossing over
 Single crossing over

Types of Crossing over

Multiple crossing over

Single cross over ( SCO ) Events

In single crossing over , there is only one chiasma where the chromatids of homolog
ous chromosomes contact . The chromosomes break only at one point along their en
tire length .
 Single cross over ( SCO ) Events
Single Crossing over occur in two events :

1. Occurrence “ outside “ Linked genes

• Not phenotypically detectable .

2. Occurrence between linked genes

• parental gametes and recombined ga
metes
• Max 50 % gametes show recombinat
ion
• Analysis of the genetic behaviour of three or
more linked loci may show evidence of multiple
cross-overs.
• When three loci are involved, there will be two
parental types, four recombinant classes with
single cross-overs and two recombinant types
showing cross-overs between all three loci ( =
double cross-over).
• The two parental types will be most abundant,
the four single cross-over (SCO) recombinants
will be next while the two double cross-over
(DCO) recombinants will be least abundant.
• The phenomenon of a cross - over
occurs when homologous chromatids
in the tetrad (one from each of the
two parents) exchange segments of
varying length during prophase
• The point of crossover is known as a
chiasma (pl. chiasmata)
• Multiple crossover is the event when
there is two or more crossover
between 2 sister chromatids
• Multiple crossover requires 3 linked
gene pairs to observe
Parental:
a+b+c+
abc
Multiple Crossover Single Crossover
How often crossing over occured?
Depends on the distance of two
genes,
(the closer the genes the less likely
crossover happens)

Why are double crossover events

expected in lower frequency?

Because crossover occur If two mutations show 0% recombination

randomly along the lengths of in linkage experiments they may be ___?
chromosome, within any
1) in different genes but so close to
region, the occurence of 2
eachother that crossovers are never
events is less likely than the
detected
occurence of 1 event
or
2) mutations in the same gene
• Recombination frequency is a
measure of genetic linkage and is The purple gene, with a dominant
used in the creation of a genetic
linkage map. Recombination pr+ allele that specifies normal,
frequency (θ) is red eyes and a recessive pr allele
the frequency with which a single
chromosomal crossover will take that specifies purple eyes.
place between two genes during
meiosis.

• One way that recombination

frequencies have been used The vestigial gene, with a
historically is to build linkage dominant vg+ allele that specifies
maps, chromosomal maps based
on recombination frequencies. normal, long wings and a
recessive vg allele that specifies
• The example would be Drosophila short, "vestigial" wings
melangaster
Recombinant Freguency

𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡
× 100%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡
× 100%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
151 + 154
× 100% = 10.7%
1334 + 1195 + 151 + 154

The recombination frequency between the purple and vestigial genes

is 10.7%
Recombination frequency and linkage maps

One way that recombination frequencies have been used historically is to

build linkage maps, chromosomal maps based on recombination frequencies. In fact,
studying linkage helped early geneticists establish that chromosomes were in fact
linear, and that each gene had its own specific place on a chromosome.
Recombination frequency is not a direct measure of how physically far apart
genes are on chromosomes. However, it provides an estimate or approximation of
physical distance.
Importantly, recombination frequency "maxes out" at 50%, percent (which
corresponds to genes being unlinked, or assorting independently). That is, 50%,
percent is the largest recombination frequency we'll ever directly measure between
genes.

1
(continue from previous)

Comparison of recombination frequencies can also be used to figure out the order of genes on
a chromosome. For example, let's suppose we have three genes, A, B, and C, and we want to
know their order on the chromosome Specifically, the pair of genes with the largest
recombination frequency must flank the third gene:

2
(continue from previous)
By doing this type of analysis with more and more genes (e.g., adding in genes D, E, and F and
figuring out their relationships to A, B, and C) we can build up linkage maps of entire chromosomes.
There's a direct relationship among these values: a 1%, percent recombination frequency is
equivalent to 1 centimorgan or 1 map unit.

Sometimes, the directly measured recombination frequency between two genes is not the most
accurate measure of their map distance. That's because, in addition to the single crossovers we've
discussed in this article, double crossovers (two separate crossovers between the two genes) can
also occur:

3
 (continue from previous)
Double crossovers are "invisible" if we're only monitoring two genes, in that they put
the original two genes back on the same chromosome (but with a swapped-out bit in the middle).
For example, the double crossover shown above wouldn't be detectable if we were just looking at
genes A and C, since these genes end up back in their original configuration.
Because of this, double crossovers are not counted in the directly measured
recombination frequency, resulting a slight underestimate of the actual number of recombination
events. This is why, in the example below, the recombination frequency directly measured
between A and C is a bit smaller than the sum of the recombination frequencies between A-
B and B-C. When B is included, double crossovers between A and C can be detected and
accounted for.
 Linkage Distance
The linkage distance is calculated by dividing the total number of recombinant gametes into the total number
of gametes. This is the same approach we used with the two-point analyses that we performed earlier. What
is different is that we must now also consider the double-crossover events. For these calculations we include
those double-crossovers in the calculations of both interval distances. Now let's try a problem
from Drosophila. The following table gives the results we will analyze.
 (continue from previous)
Step 1: Determine the parental genotypes.
The most abundant genotypes are the partenal types. These genotypes are v cv+ ct+ and v+ cv ct. What
is different from our first three-point cross is that one parent did not contain all of the dominant alleles
and the other all of the recessive alleles.

Step 2: Determine the gene order

To determine the gene order, we need the parental genotypes as well as the double crossover
geneotypes As we mentioned above, the least frequent genotypes are the double-crossover
geneotypes. These geneotypes are v cv+ ct and v+ cv ct+. From this information we can determine the
order by asking the question: In the double-crossover genotypes, which parental allele is not
associated with the two parental alleles it was associated with in the original parental cross. From the
first double crossover, v cv+ ct, the ct allele is associated with the v and cv+ alleles, two alleles it was
not associated with in the original cross. Therefore, ct is in the middle, and the gene order is v ct cv.

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 COLOR GUIDELINES

Step 3: Determing the linkage distances.

v - ct distance caluculation. This distance is derived as follows: 100*((89+94+3+5)/1448) = 13.2 cM
ct - cv distance calculation. This distance is derived as follows: 100*((45+40+3+5)/1448) = 6.4 cM

Step 4. Draw the map.

THANKS!