BIOLOGY 1 ASB0204

TOPIC 7

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

ERRA NOORFAZIRA BINTI BANDONG

Biology Unit
Centre of Foundation Studies for Agricultural Science
Universiti Putra Malaysia
 Biology
Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 7
Photosynthesis

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Outline

• 7.1 Photosynthetic Organisms

• 7.2 The Process of Photosynthesis
• 7.3 Plants Convert Solar Energy
• 7.4 Plants Fix Carbon Dioxide
• 7.5 Other Types of Photosynthesis
7.1 Photosynthetic Organisms
Learning outcomes
By the end of this video lecture, you will be able to:

1. Explain how autotroph are able to produce their own food.

2. Describe the component of chloroplast.
3. Compare the role of oxygen and carbon dioxide in autotroph
and heterotroph.

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Where does the oxygen we breathe come from?

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https://www.arborday.org/
7.1 Photosynthetic Organisms

Cyanobacteria Algae Plant

Photosynthetic organisms transform solar energy into the

chemical energy of carbohydrates.

Called autotrophs because they produce their own food

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
Energy ends
up stored in a
Transforms carbohydrate
solar energy
Captures solar into chemical
energy energy

• Photosynthesizers produce food energy.

• Feed themselves as well as heterotrophs.
• Heterotrophs are also known as consumers.

• Both autotrophs and heterotrophs use organic molecules

produced by photosynthesis as a source of chemical energy
for cellular work.

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Photosynthesis takes place in the green portions of plants.
• The leaf of the flowering plant contains mesophyll tissue.
• Cells containing chloroplasts are specialized to carry out
photosynthesis.
 SUNLIGHT
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
O2
The raw materials for photosynthesis are
carbon dioxide and water.
• Roots absorb water that moves up
vascular tissue.
• Carbon dioxide enters a leaf
through small openings called C6H12O6
stomata and diffuses into
chloroplasts in mesophyll cells
The thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts
contain chlorophyll and other pigments
that can absorb the solar energy that
drives photosynthesis.
• Electrons are energized in the
process. CO2
• Then, carbon dioxide is reduced
to form a carbohydrate.
• In the stroma, CO2 combines with
H2O to form C6H12O6 (sugar). H2O 9
7.2 The Process of Photosynthesis
Learning outcomes
By the end of this video lecture, you will be able to:

1. Describe the overall process of photosynthesis.

2. Compare energy input and output of the light reaction.
3. Compare carbon input and output of the Calvin cycle.

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 11

7.2 The Process of Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis involves oxidation and reduction.
• Oxidation is the loss of electron and reduction is the gain of electrons.
• In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is reduced and water oxidized.

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The Role of NADP+/NADPH in Photosynthesis

• Electrons needed to reduce CO2 are carried by

coenzyme.
• NADP+ is the coenzyme of redox.
• When NADP+ is reduced, it accepted 2e and 1H atom

NADP+ + 2e- + H+ NADPH

• When NADPH is oxidized, it gives up its e.

NADPH NADP+ + H+ + 2e-

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 2 Set Of Reaction In Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis

Calvin cycle
Light reaction
reaction

Synthesis the
Capture the Occur in Occur in
Carbohydrate
light (solar) thylakoids stroma
(CHO)

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 Light Reaction
• Light reactions take place only in the
presence of light.
H2O
• They are energy-capturing reactions. solar
• Chlorophyll absorbs solar energy. energy
• This energizes electrons.
• Electrons move down an electron
transport chain.
• Energy is released and captured
ADP + P
to produce ATP.
NADP+
• Electron transport chain is used
to make ATP out of ADP, and Light
NADPH out of NADP. reactions
NADPH
• Electron transport chain
ATP
pumps H+ into thylakoids.

• SOLAR TO CHEMICAL ENERGY

(ATP & NADPH)
thylakoid
membrane
• Water is split so that oxygen is O2
released 14
 Calvin Cycle reactions
CO2

Calvin cycle reactions take

place in the stroma.
• CO2 is reduced to a
carbohydrate.
ADP + P • Reactions use ATP and
NADP+ NADPH to produce
Calvin carbohydrate.
cycle
reactions • Reactions were named
NADPH
after Melvin Calvin, who
used a carbon isotope to
trace carbon in
ATP photosynthesis.

stroma

CH2O
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H2O CO2

solar
energy

ADP + P
NADP+ Calvin
cycle
Light reactions
reactions NADPH

ATP

stroma

thylakoid
membrane CH2O
O2

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7.3 Plants Convert Solar Energy
Learning outcomes
By the end of this video lecture, you will be able to:

1. Explain the role of photosynthetic pigments in harnessing solar

energy.
2. Examine how ATP and NADPH are produced from redox
reactions and membrane gradients.

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7.3 Plants Convert Solar Energy
Pigments and photosystems:
• Pigments are chemicals that absorb certain wavelengths of light.
Wavelengths that are not absorbed by pigments are
reflected/transmitted.
• Photosystem consists of a pigment complex & electron acceptor
molecules within the thylakoid membrane.
• 2 photosystems: PS I & PS II

https ://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/biology/photosynthesis/revise-it/pigments-and-the-absorption-of-light 18
HOW DO WE SEE THE COLOR OF THE PLANT?

https://thegrassisgreensh.weebly.com/why-does-it-appear-green.html 19
 Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Absorption spectrum
• Pigments found in chlorophyll absorb various portions of visible light.
• An absorption spectrum is a graph showing relative absorption of the
various colors of the rainbow.
• Chlorophyll is green because it absorbs much of the reds and blues of
white light and reflects green light.
• Carotenoids are accessory pigments which absorb light in the violet-
blue-green range and reflect yellow and orange light. 20
Organization of the Thylakoid Membrane
PS II:
Consists of a pigment complex and electron acceptors
Receives electrons from the splitting of water
Oxygen is released as a gas.

Electron transport chain:

Consists of cytochrome complexes and plastoquinone (Pq)
Carries electrons between PS II and PS I
Also pumps H+ from the stroma into the thylakoid space

PS I:
Has a pigment complex and electron acceptors
Adjacent to the enzyme that reduces NADP+ to NADPH

ATP synthase complex:

Has a channel for H+ flow
H+ flow through the channel drives ATP synthase to join ADP and Pi to
each other.

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Organization of the Thylakoid Membrane

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• The light reactions consist of two alternate electron
pathways:
• Noncyclic pathway (PS II & PS I)
• Cyclic pathway (PS I)

• Both cyclic and noncyclic pathways produce ATP.

• The noncyclic pathway also produces NADPH.

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 Noncyclic Pathway

• Takes place in the thylakoid sun

membrane
• Uses two photosystems: PS I and PS II
• Noncyclic pathway begins with electron
acceptor
photosystem II

energy level
1. PS II captures light energy
2. Passed from one pigment to the e–
others until it is concentrated in
reaction center.
3. Electrons in reaction center become
e–
so energized.
4. Causes an electron to be ejected from reaction center

the reaction center (chlorophyll a)

5. Replaced with an electron from pigment
complex
water, which is split to form O2 and H+ Photosystem II
• This causes H+ to accumulate in e–

thylakoid chambers (inside). H2O

• The H+ gradient is used to 1

produce ATP. 2H+ ½
2 O2
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H2O CO2
solar
energy
6. Electron travels down
ADP+ P
electron transport chain
sun Light
NADP +
Calv in
cycle
to PS I
reactions
NADPH

ATP

7. As the electrons pass from

electron
acceptor
thylakoid
membrane one carrier to the next,
energy is captured and
energy level

O CH2O

stored in the form of H+

gradient.
e–

ATP
8. When H+ flow down their
electrochemical gradient
e– through ATP synthase
reaction center complexes, ATP is
Photosystem produced.
pigment
I
complex
e– Photosystem II
• ATP is used by Calvin
H2O CO2 CH2O cycle in stroma to
Calvin cycle reduce carbon dioxide to
2H+
1
– O2
2
reactions
CHO.

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H 2O CO2
solar
energy

ADP+ P
NADP+
Calvin
Light cycle sun
reactions NADPH

ATP

thylakoid
membrane
electron
acceptor
O
energy level
CH 2O

9. PS I captures light energy

e–
and ejects an electron. e–
e–
NADP+
The electron is transferred H+
ATP
permanently to a molecule
of NADP+. e– NADPH

reaction center

10. Accept 2 e- and one H+ to pigment

become NADPH. Photosystem I

complex

CO2 CH2O
Calvin cycle
reactions

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H 2O CO2
solar
energy

ADP+ P
NADP+
Calvin
sun Light cycle sun
reactions NADPH

ATP

electron thylakoid
membrane
electron
acceptor acceptor
O CH 2O
energy level

e–
e–
e– e– NADP+

H+
ATP

e– e– NADPH

reaction center reaction center

pigment
pigment complex
complex Photosystem I
Photosystem II
e–
CO2 CH2O
H2O
Calvin cycle
reactions
1– 27
2H+ O2
2
 28

Cyclic Pathway

• Occur in prokaryotes & at high Electron acceptor

oxygen levels in eukaryotes.
• Electrons leave and return to Ferredoxin (Fd)

photosystem I.
2 e-
• Energized electrons leaves the
Electron transport
PSI reaction center chain

• Taken up by electron acceptor, Photosystem

I
which pass them down an ETC
before return to PSI
• Only ATP production occurs.
 ATP PRODUCTION

1. The thylakoid space acts as a reservoir for hydrogen ions (H+).

2. Each time water is oxidized, 2 H+ remain in the thylakoid space.
3. Transfer of electrons in the electron transport chain yields energy
(redox reaction).
4. This energy is used to pump H+ across the thylakoid membrane.
5. Protons move from the stroma into the thylakoid space.
• More H+ in the thylakoid space than stroma.
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 ATP PRODUCTION

6. The flow of H+ (from high to low concentration) across the

thylakoid membrane provides kinetic energy & energizes ATP
synthase.
7. ATP synthase enzymatically produces ATP from ADP + Pi.
8. This method of producing ATP is called chemiosmosis
because ATP production is tied to the establishment of an H+
30
gradient.
7.4 Plants Fix Carbon Dioxide
Learning outcomes
By the end of this video lecture, you will be able to:

1. Describe the three steps of the Calvin cycle and when ATP
and/or NADPH is needed.
2. Evaluate the significance of RUBP carboxylase enzyme to
photosynthesis
3. Explain how G3P is used to produce other necessary plant
molecules.

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7.4 Plants Fix Carbon Dioxide
• A cyclical series of reactions
• Utilizes atmospheric carbon dioxide to produce
carbohydrates
• Known as Calvin cycle
• Involves three stages:
• Carbon dioxide fixation
• Carbon dioxide reduction
• RuBP regeneration

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 3Co2

Rubisco

CO2 fixation 3 RuBP

• CO2 is attached to 5-carbon RuBP

by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase.
3 C6
• Results in a 6-carbon molecule intermediate

• This splits into two 3-carbon

molecules known as
3-phosphoglycerate (3PG)
• Reaction is accelerated by
RuBP carboxylase (Rubisco)
• CO2 is now “fixed” because it is part
of a carbohydrate.
6 3PG

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 NADPH
NADP+

6 G3P

CO2 Reduction

• 3PG is reduced to 1,3-Biphosphoglycerate (BPG).

• BPG is then reduced to Glycerate-3-Phosphate (G3P).
• Electrons and energy are required for this stage.
• This stage utilizes NADPH and some ATP produced in the light reactions.
• G3P is reduced and chemically able to store more energy and form larger
organic molecules such as glucose.

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 TO MAKE GLUCOSE!

P H H P P P

P H H P P P

P H H P P P

3 ATP 3 ADP + 3 P
6 G3P 3 RuBP

RuBP Regeneration

• RuBP used in CO2 fixation must be replaced

• Five molecules of G3P (a 3-carbon molecule) are used to
remake three RuBP (a 5-carbon molecule)
• 5 X 3 (C in G3P) = 3 X 5 (C in RuBP)

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H2O CO2

The Calvin Cycle Reactions

solar
energy

ADP +
P
NADP +

Calvin
cycle
Light
reactions NADPH

ATP

Metabolites of the Calvin Cycle

stroma RuBP ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate

O2 CH2O
3PG 3-phosphoglycerate
3CO2

intermediate BPG 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate

G3P glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
3 C6

6 3PG
3 RuBP C3
C5 CO2 6
fixation ATP

These ATP and

CO2
Calvin cycle 6 ADP + 6 P NADPH molecules
3 ADP + 3 P reduction
were produced by
the light reactions.
regeneration
of RuBP
6 BPG
C3
These ATP
molecules were 3
produced by the ATP 5 G3P 6 NADPH
light reactions. C3
6 G3P
C3
6 NADP+

net gain of one G3P

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Other organic molecules Glucose
Plants Fix Carbon Dioxide

Importance of the Calvin cycle:

G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) can be
converted to many other molecules.
The hydrocarbon skeleton of G3P can form:
Fatty acids and glycerol to make plant oils
Glucose phosphate (simple sugar)
Fructose (which with glucose = sucrose)
Starch and cellulose
Amino acids

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 Fate of G3P

G3P

glucose fatty acid amino acid

phosphate synthesis synthesis

+
fructose
phosphate

Sucrose (in leaves, Starch (in roots Cellulose (in trunks,

fruits, and seeds) and seeds) roots, and branches)

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© Herman Eisenbeiss/Science Source Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
7.5 Other Types of Photosynthesis
Learning outcomes
By the end of this video lecture, you will be able to:

1. Compare the internal location of photosynthesis in C3 and C4

plant.
2. Contrast C3/C4 modes of photosynhtesis with CAM
photosynthesis.
3. Explain how different ways of achieving photosynthesis allow
plants to adapt to particular environment.

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 7.5 Other Types of Photosynthesis
• The majority of plants carry out C3 photosynthesis.
• These use RuBP carboxylase to fix CO2 to RuBP in the mesophyll cells.

• In hot, dry climates

• Stomata must close to avoid wilting.
• CO2 decreases and O2 increases.
• O2 starts combining with RuBP, leading to the production of CO2.
• This is called photorespiration.

• C4 plants solve the problem of photorespiration.

• Fix CO2 to PEP (a C3 molecule)
• PEP carboxylase (PEPCase)
• The result is oxaloacetate, a C4 molecule
• In hot and dry climates
• C4 plants avoid photorespiration.
• Net productivity is about 2 to 3 times greater than C3 plants.
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• In cool, moist environments, C4 plants can’t compete with C3 plants.
41
Chloroplast Distribution in C4 vs. C3 Plants
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C3 Plant (Parallel) C4 Plant (Around)

mesophyll
cells

bundle sheath vein bundle sheath vein

cell stoma cell stoma
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CO2

RuBP
Calvin

CO2
cycle
3PG

Fixation in G3P
mesophyll cell

C3 and C4 a. CO2 fixation in a C3 plant, wildflowers

Plants CO2

mesophyll
C4
cell

bundle CO2
sheath
cell
Calvin
cycle

G3P

b. CO2 fixation in a C4 plant, corn, Zea mays 43

7.12a: © Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF; 7.12b: © USDA/Doug Wilson, photographer
Other Types of Photosynthesis

• CAM Photosynthesis
• Crassulacean-acid metabolism (WATER CONTAINING PLANT)
• CAM plants partition carbon fixation by time
• During the night
• CAM plants fix CO2
• Form C4 molecules (malate)
• Stored in large vacuoles

• During daylight
• NADPH and ATP are available
• Stomata are closed for water conservation
• C4 molecules release CO2 to Calvin cycle

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CO2 Fixation in a CAM Plant
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

night CO2

C4

day CO2

Calvin
cycle

G3P

CO2 fixation in a CAM plant, pineapple, Ananas comosus

© S. Alden/PhotoLink/Getty RF

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Photosynthesis and Adaptation to the
Environment
• The different methods of photosynthesis each have advantages
and disadvantages.
• Depends on the climate

• C4 plants most adapted to:

 High light intensities
 High temperatures
 Limited rainfall

• C3 plants better adapted to:

 Cold (below 25°C)
 High moisture

• CAM plants are better adapted to extreme aridity.

• CAM occurs in 23 families of flowering plants.
• They are also found among non-flowering plants. 46
Summary
Photosynthetic
organism consist of
cyanobacteria, algae
and plants.

C3 plant
photosynthesize in Are redox reaction,
various environment. which consist of light
C4 plants avoid reactions at thylakoid
photorespiration and membrane and Calvin
CAM plants well cycle reactions at
adapted in hot, dry stroma.
environment

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

3 steps in Calvin cycle

Light reaction consist
which are CO 2 fixation,
of cyclic and noncyclic
CO2 reduction and
pathway
regeneration of RuBP

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References

1. Mader, S. S., & Windelspecht, M. (2019). Biology (13th ed.). McGraw-Hill

Education. (page: 129-135)

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THANK YOU

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