Corona treatment

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Corona treatment of webs is widely used in the printing, coating and laminating processes to
improve adhesion.

Air plasma delivery systems are used to treat dimensional objects.

Corona treatment (sometimes referred to as air plasma) is a surface treatment process that
improves the bonding characteristics of most materials such as: paper, films, foils, and polymers
by raising surface energy (dyne level).

All materials have an inherent surface energy (dyne level). Surface Treatment systems are
available for virtually any surface format including dimensional objects, sheets and roll goods
that are handled in a web format. Corona treatment is the standard surface treatment method in
the plastic film, extrusion, and converting industries.

The Corona treatment was invented by the Danish engineer Verner Eisby in the 1950s.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Materials
 2 Equipment
 3 Pre-treatment
  4 Other technologies
o 4.1 Atmospheric plasma
o 4.2 Flame plasma
o 4.3 Chemical plasma
 5 See also
 6 External links

[edit] Materials
Most plastics, such as polyethylene and polypropylene, have chemically inert and nonporous
surfaces with low surface tensions causing them to be non-receptive to bonding with printing
inks, coatings, and adhesives. Although results are invisible to the naked eye, surface treating
modifies surfaces to improve adhesion.

Polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, vinyl, PVC, PET, metalized surfaces, foils, paper, and
paperboard stocks are commonly treated by this method. It is safe, economical, and delivers high
line speed throughput. Corona treatment is also suitable for the treatment of injection and blow
molded parts, and is capable of treating multiple surfaces and difficult parts with a single pass.

[edit] Equipment
Corona discharge equipment consists of a high-frequency power generator, a high-voltage
transformer, a stationary electrode, and a treater ground roll. Standard utility electrical power is
converted into higher frequency power which is then supplied to the treater station. The treater
station applies this power through ceramic or metal electrodes over an air gap onto the material’s
surface.

[edit] Pre-treatment
All substrates provide a better bonding surface when they are treated at the time they are
produced. This is called “pre-treatment.” The effects of corona treatment diminish over time.
Therefore many surfaces will require a second “bump” treatment at the time they are converted
to ensure bonding with printing inks, coatings, and adhesives.

[edit] Other technologies

Other technologies used for surface treatment include in-line atmospheric (air) plasma, flame
plasma, and chemical plasma systems.

[edit] Atmospheric plasma

Atmospheric-pressure plasma is very similar to corona but there are a few differences between
them. Both systems use one or more high voltage electrodes which positively charge the
surrounding blown air ion particles. However in atmospheric plasma systems, the rate oxygen
molecules bonding to a material’s molecule ends develops up to a 100x more. From this increase
of oxygen, a higher ion bombardment occurs. This results in stronger material bonding traits and
increased reception for inks and coatings. Atmospheric plasma treatment technology also
eliminates a possibility of treatment on a material's non-treated side; also known as backside
treatment.

[edit] Flame plasma

Flame plasma treaters generate more heat than other treating processes, but materials treated
through this method tend to have a longer shelf-life. These plasma systems are different from air
plasma systems because flame plasma occurs when flammable gas and surrounding air are
combusted together into an intense blue flame. Objects’ surfaces are polarized from the flame
plasma affecting the distribution of the surface’s electrons in an oxidation form.

[edit] Chemical plasma

Chemical plasma is based on the combination of air plasma and flame plasma. Much like air
plasma, chemical plasma fields are generated from electrically charged air. But, instead of air,
chemical plasma relies on a mixture of other gases depositing various chemical groups onto the
treated surface

Sewage treatment
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Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (February 2010)
The objective of sewage treatment is to produce a disposable effluent without causing harm to the
surrounding environment and prevent pollution.[1]

Sewage treatment, or domestic wastewater treatment, is the process of removing

contaminants from wastewater and household sewage, both runoff (effluents) and domestic. It
includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove physical, chemical and
biological contaminants. Its objective is to produce an environmentally-safe fluid waste stream
(or treated effluent) and a solid waste (or treated sludge) suitable for disposal or reuse (usually as
farm fertilizer). Using advanced technology it is now possible to re-use sewage effluent for
drinking water, although Singapore is the only country to implement such technology on a
production scale in its production of NEWater[2].

Contents
[hide]

 1 Origins of sewage
 2 Process overview
o 2.1 Pre-treatment
 2.1.1 Screening
 2.1.2 Grit removal
 2.1.3 Fat and grease removal
o 2.2 Primary treatment
o 2.3 Secondary treatment
 2.3.1 Activated sludge
 2.3.2 Surface-aerated basins (Lagoons)
 2.3.3 Constructed wetlands
 2.3.4 Filter beds (oxidizing beds)
 2.3.5 Soil Bio-Technology
 2.3.6 Biological aerated filters
 2.3.7 Rotating biological contactors
 2.3.8 Membrane bioreactors
 2.3.9 Secondary sedimentation
o 2.4 Tertiary treatment
 2.4.1 Filtration
 2.4.2 Lagooning
 2.4.3 Nutrient removal
 2.4.3.1 Nitrogen removal
 2.4.3.2 Phosphorus removal
o 2.5 Disinfection
o 2.6 Odour Control
 3 Package plants and batch reactors
 4 Sludge treatment and disposal
o 4.1 Anaerobic digestion
 o 4.2 Aerobic digestion
o 4.3 Composting
o 4.4 Incineration
o 4.5 Sludge disposal
 5 Treatment in the receiving environment
o 5.1 Effects on Biology
 6 Sewage treatment in developing countries
 7 See also
 8 References
 9 External links

[edit] Origins of sewage

Sewage is created by residential, institutional, and commercial and industrial establishments and
includes household waste liquid from toilets, baths, showers, kitchens, sinks and so forth that is
disposed of via sewers. In many areas, sewage also includes liquid waste from industry and
commerce.

The separation and draining of household waste into greywater and blackwater is becoming more
common in the developed world, with greywater being permitted to be used for watering plants
or recycled for flushing toilets. Most sewage also includes some surface water from roofs or
hard-standing areas and may include stormwater runoff.

Sewerage systems capable of handling stormwater are known as combined systems or combined
sewers. Such systems are usually avoided now since they complicate and thereby reduce the
efficiency of sewage treatment plants owing to their seasonality. The wide variability in flow,
affected by precipitation, also leads to a need to construct much larger, more expensive,
treatment facilities than would otherwise be required. In addition, heavy storms that contribute
greater excess flow than the treatment plant can handle may overwhelm the sewage treatment
system, causing a spill or overflow. Modern sewered developments tend to be provided with
separate storm drain systems for rainwater.[3]

As rainfall travels over roofs and the ground, it may pick up various contaminants including soil
particles and other sediment, heavy metals, organic compounds, animal waste, and oil and
grease. (See urban runoff.)[4] Some jurisdictions require stormwater to receive some level of
treatment before being discharged directly into waterways. Examples of treatment processes used
for stormwater include retention basins, wetlands, buried vaults with various kinds of media
filters, and vortex separators (to remove coarse solids). Sanitary sewers are typically much
smaller than storm sewers, and they are not designed to transport stormwater. In areas with
basements, backups of raw sewage can occur if excessive stormwater is allowed into a sanitary
sewer system.

[edit] Process overview

Sewage can be treated close to where it is created, a decentralised system, (in septic tanks,
biofilters or aerobic treatment systems), or be collected and transported via a network of pipes
and pump stations to a municipal treatment plant, a centralised system, (see sewerage and pipes
and infrastructure). Sewage collection and treatment is typically subject to local, state and federal
regulations and standards. Industrial sources of wastewater often require specialized treatment
processes (see Industrial wastewater treatment).

Sewage treatment generally involves three stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary
treatment.

 Primary treatment consists of temporarily holding the sewage in a quiescent basin where heavy
solids can settle to the bottom while oil, grease and lighter solids float to the surface. The settled
and floating materials are removed and the remaining liquid may be discharged or subjected to
secondary treatment.
 Secondary treatment removes dissolved and suspended biological matter. Secondary treatment
is typically performed by indigenous, water-borne micro-organisms in a managed habitat.
Secondary treatment may require a separation process to remove the micro-organisms from the
treated water prior to discharge or tertiary treatment.
 Tertiary treatment is sometimes defined as anything more than primary and secondary
treatment in order to allow rejection into a highly sensitive or fragile ecosystem (estuaries, low-
flow rivers, coral reefs,...). Treated water is sometimes disinfected chemically or physically (for
example, by lagoons and microfiltration) prior to discharge into a stream, river, bay, lagoon or
wetland, or it can be used for the irrigation of a golf course, green way or park. If it is sufficiently
clean, it can also be used for groundwater recharge or agricultural purposes.

Process Flow Diagram for a typical large-scale treatment plant

Process Flow Diagram for a typical treatment plant via Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands (SFCW)
[edit] Pre-treatment

Pre-treatment removes materials that can be easily collected from the raw waste water before
they damage or clog the pumps and skimmers of primary treatment clarifiers (trash, tree limbs,
leaves, etc.).

[edit] Screening

The influent sewage water is screened to remove all large objects carried in the sewage stream.[5]
This is most commonly done with an automated mechanically raked bar screen in modern plants
serving large populations, whilst in smaller or less modern plants a manually cleaned screen may
be used. The raking action of a mechanical bar screen is typically paced according to the
accumulation on the bar screens and/or flow rate. The solids are collected and later disposed in a
landfill or incinerated. Bar screens or mesh screens of varying sizes may be used to optimize
solids removal. If gross solids are not removed they become entrained in pipes and moving parts
of the treatment plant and can cause substantial damage and inefficiency in the process.[6]:9
[edit] Grit removal

Pre-treatment may include a sand or grit channel or chamber where the velocity of the incoming
wastewater is adjusted to allow the settlement of sand, grit, stones, and broken glass. These
particles are removed because they may damage pumps and other equipment. For small sanitary
sewer systems, the grit chambers may not be necessary, but grit removal is desirable at larger
plants.[6]:10

An empty sedimentation tank at the treatment plant in Merchtem, Belgium.

[edit] Fat and grease removal

In some larger plants, fat and grease is removed by passing the sewage through a small tank
where skimmers collect the fat floating on the surface. Air blowers in the base of the tank may
also be used to help recover the fat as a froth. In most plants however, fat and grease removal
takes place in the primary settlement tank using mechanical surface skimmers.

[edit] Primary treatment

In the primary sedimentation stage, sewage flows through large tanks, commonly called
"primary clarifiers" or "primary sedimentation tanks." The tanks are used to settle sludge while
grease and oils rise to the surface and are skimmed off. Primary settling tanks are usually
equipped with mechanically driven scrapers that continually drive the collected sludge towards a
hopper in the base of the tank where it is pumped to sludge treatment facilities.[6]:9-11 Grease and
oil from the floating material can sometimes be recovered for saponification.

The dimensions of the tank should be designed to effect removal of a high percentage of the
floatables and sludge. A typical sedimentation tank may remove from 60 to 65 percent of
suspended solids, and from 30 to 35 percent of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) from the
sewage.
[edit] Secondary treatment

Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biological content of the sewage
which are derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent. The majority of
municipal plants treat the settled sewage liquor using aerobic biological processes. To be
effective, the biota require both oxygen and food to live. The bacteria and protozoa consume
biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain carbon
molecules, etc.) and bind much of the less soluble fractions into floc. Secondary treatment
systems are classified as fixed-film or suspended-growth systems.

 Fixed-film or attached growth systems include trickling filters and rotating biological contactors,
where the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over its surface.
 Suspended-growth systems include activated sludge, where the biomass is mixed with the
sewage and can be operated in a smaller space than fixed-film systems that treat the same
amount of water. However, fixed-film systems are more able to cope with drastic changes in the
amount of biological material and can provide higher removal rates for organic material and
suspended solids than suspended growth systems. [6]:11-13

Roughing filters are intended to treat particularly strong or variable organic loads, typically
industrial, to allow them to then be treated by conventional secondary treatment processes.
Characteristics include filters filled with media to which wastewater is applied. They are
designed to allow high hydraulic loading and a high level of aeration. On larger installations, air
is forced through the media using blowers. The resultant wastewater is usually within the normal
range for conventional treatment processes.

A generalized, schematic diagram of an activated sludge process.

A filter removes a small percentage of the suspended organic matter, while the majority of the
organic matter undergoes a change of character, only due to the biological oxidation and
nitrification taking place in the filter. With this aerobic oxidation and nitrification, the organic
solids are converted into coagulated suspended mass, which is heavier and bulkier, and can settle
to the bottom of a tank. The effluent of the filter is therefore passed through a sedimentation
tank, called a secondary clarifier, secondary settling tank or humus tank.

[edit] Activated sludge

Main article: Activated sludge

In general, activated sludge plants encompass a variety of mechanisms and processes that use
dissolved oxygen to promote the growth of biological floc that substantially removes organic
material.[6]:12-13

The process traps particulate material and can, under ideal conditions, convert ammonia to nitrite
and nitrate and ultimately to nitrogen gas. (See also denitrification).

A Typical Surface-Aerated Basin (using motor-driven floating aerators)

[edit] Surface-aerated basins (Lagoons)

Many small municipal sewage systems in the United States (1 million gal./day or less) use
aerated lagoons.[7]

Most biological oxidation processes for treating industrial wastewaters have in common the use
of oxygen (or air) and microbial action. Surface-aerated basins achieve 80 to 90 percent removal
of BOD with retention times of 1 to 10 days.[8] The basins may range in depth from 1.5 to 5.0
metres and use motor-driven aerators floating on the surface of the wastewater.[8]

In an aerated basin system, the aerators provide two functions: they transfer air into the basins
required by the biological oxidation reactions, and they provide the mixing required for
dispersing the air and for contacting the reactants (that is, oxygen, wastewater and microbes).
Typically, the floating surface aerators are rated to deliver the amount of air equivalent to 1.8 to
2.7 kg O2/kW·h. However, they do not provide as good mixing as is normally achieved in
activated sludge systems and therefore aerated basins do not achieve the same performance level
as activated sludge units.[8]

Biological oxidation processes are sensitive to temperature and, between 0 °C and 40 °C, the rate
of biological reactions increase with temperature. Most surface aerated vessels operate at
between 4 °C and 32 °C.[8]

[edit] Constructed wetlands

Constructed wetlands (can either be surface flow or subsurface flow, horizontal or vertical flow),
include engineered reedbeds and belong to the family of phytorestoration and ecotechnologies;
they provide a high degree of biological improvement and depending on design, act as a primary,
secondary and sometimes tertiary treatment, also see phytoremediation. One example is a small
reedbed used to clean the drainage from the elephants' enclosure at Chester Zoo in England;
numerous CWs are used to recycle the water of the city of Honfleur in France and numerous
other towns in Europe, the US, Asia and Australia. They are known to be highly productive
systems as they copy natural wetlands, called the "Kidneys of the earth" for their fundamental
recycling capacity of the hydrological cycle in the biosphere. Robust and reliable, their treatment
capacities improve as time go by, at the opposite of conventional treatment plants whose
machinery age with time. They are being increasingly used, although adequate and experienced
design are more fundamental than for other systems and space limitation may impede their use.

[edit] Filter beds (oxidizing beds)

Main article: Trickling filter

In older plants and those receiving variable loadings, trickling filter beds are used where the
settled sewage liquor is spread onto the surface of a bed made up of coke (carbonized coal),
limestone chips or specially fabricated plastic media. Such media must have large surface areas
to support the biofilms that form. The liquor is typically distributed through perforated spray
arms. The distributed liquor trickles through the bed and is collected in drains at the base. These
drains also provide a source of air which percolates up through the bed, keeping it aerobic.
Biological films of bacteria, protozoa and fungi form on the media’s surfaces and eat or
otherwise reduce the organic content.[6]:12 This biofilm is often grazed by insect larvae, snails, and
worms which help maintain an optimal thickness. Overloading of beds increases the thickness of
the film leading to clogging of the filter media and ponding on the surface. Recent advances in
media and process micro-biology design overcome many issues with Trickling filter designs.

[edit] Soil Bio-Technology

Main article: Soil Bio-Technology

A new process called Soil Bio-Technology (SBT) developed at IIT Bombay has shown
tremendous improvements in process efficiency enabling total water reuse, due to extremely low
operating power requirements of less than 50 joules per kg of treated water.[9] Typically SBT
systems can achieve chemical oxygen demand (COD) levels less than 10 mg/L from sewage
input of COD 400 mg/L.[10] SBT plants exhibit high reductions in COD values and bacterial
counts as a result of the very high microbial densities available in the media. Unlike conventional
treatment plants, SBT plants produce insignificant amounts of sludge, precluding the need for
sludge disposal areas that are required by other technologies.[11]

In the Indian context, conventional sewage treatment plants fall into systemic disrepair due to 1)
high operating costs, 2) equipment corrosion due to methanogenesis and hydrogen sulphide, 3)
non-reusability of treated water due to high COD (>30 mg/L) and high fecal coliform (>3000
NFU) counts, 4) lack of skilled operating personnel and 5) equipment replacement issues.
Examples of such systemic failures has been documented by Sankat Mochan Foundation at the
Ganges basin after a massive cleanup effort by the Indian government in 1986 by setting up
sewage treatment plants under the Ganga Action Plan failed to improve river water quality.

[edit] Biological aerated filters

Biological Aerated (or Anoxic) Filter (BAF) or Biofilters combine filtration with biological
carbon reduction, nitrification or denitrification. BAF usually includes a reactor filled with a
filter media. The media is either in suspension or supported by a gravel layer at the foot of the
filter. The dual purpose of this media is to support highly active biomass that is attached to it and
to filter suspended solids. Carbon reduction and ammonia conversion occurs in aerobic mode and
sometime achieved in a single reactor while nitrate conversion occurs in anoxic mode. BAF is
operated either in upflow or downflow configuration depending on design specified by
manufacturer.

Schematic diagram of a typical rotating biological contactor (RBC). The treated effluent clarifier/settler is
not included in the diagram.

[edit] Rotating biological contactors

Main article: Rotating biological contactor

Rotating biological contactors (RBCs) are mechanical secondary treatment systems, which are
robust and capable of withstanding surges in organic load. RBCs were first installed in Germany
in 1960 and have since been developed and refined into a reliable operating unit. The rotating
disks support the growth of bacteria and micro-organisms present in the sewage, which break
down and stabilise organic pollutants. To be successful, micro-organisms need both oxygen to
live and food to grow. Oxygen is obtained from the atmosphere as the disks rotate. As the micro-
organisms grow, they build up on the media until they are sloughed off due to shear forces
provided by the rotating discs in the sewage. Effluent from the RBC is then passed through final
clarifiers where the micro-organisms in suspension settle as a sludge. The sludge is withdrawn
from the clarifier for further treatment.

A functionally similar biological filtering system has become popular as part of home aquarium
filtration and purification. The aquarium water is drawn up out of the tank and then cascaded
over a freely spinning corrugated fiber-mesh wheel before passing through a media filter and
back into the aquarium. The spinning mesh wheel develops a biofilm coating of microorganisms
that feed on the suspended wastes in the aquarium water and are also exposed to the atmosphere
as the wheel rotates. This is especially good at removing waste urea and ammonia urinated into
the aquarium water by the fish and other animals.

[edit] Membrane bioreactors

Membrane bioreactors (MBR) combine activated sludge treatment with a membrane liquid-solid
separation process. The membrane component uses low pressure microfiltration or ultra filtration
membranes and eliminates the need for clarification and tertiary filtration. The membranes are
typically immersed in the aeration tank; however, some applications utilize a separate membrane
tank. One of the key benefits of an MBR system is that it effectively overcomes the limitations
associated with poor settling of sludge in conventional activated sludge (CAS) processes. The
technology permits bioreactor operation with considerably higher mixed liquor suspended solids
(MLSS) concentration than CAS systems, which are limited by sludge settling. The process is
typically operated at MLSS in the range of 8,000–12,000 mg/L, while CAS are operated in the
range of 2,000–3,000 mg/L. The elevated biomass concentration in the MBR process allows for
very effective removal of both soluble and particulate biodegradable materials at higher loading
rates. Thus increased sludge retention times, usually exceeding 15 days, ensure complete
nitrification even in extremely cold weather.

The cost of building and operating an MBR is usually higher than conventional wastewater
treatment. Membrane filters can be blinded with grease or abraded by suspended grit and lack a
clarifier's flexibility to pass peak flows. The technology has become increasingly popular for
reliably pretreated waste streams and has gained wider acceptance where infiltration and inflow
have been controlled, however, and the life-cycle costs have been steadily decreasing. The small
footprint of MBR systems, and the high quality effluent produced, make them particularly useful
for water reuse applications.[12]

[edit] Secondary sedimentation

Secondary Sedimentation tank at a rural treatment plant.

The final step in the secondary treatment stage is to settle out the biological floc or filter material
through a secondary clarifier and to produce sewage water containing low levels of organic
material and suspended matter.

[edit] Tertiary treatment

The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a final treatment stage to raise the effluent quality
before it is discharged to the receiving environment (sea, river, lake, ground, etc.). More than one
tertiary treatment process may be used at any treatment plant. If disinfection is practiced, it is
always the final process. It is also called "effluent polishing."

[edit] Filtration

Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter.[6]:22-23 Filtration over activated
carbon, also called carbon adsorption, removes residual toxins.[6]:19

[edit] Lagooning

A sewage treatment plant and lagoon in Everett, Washington, United States.

Lagooning provides settlement and further biological improvement through storage in large man-
made ponds or lagoons. These lagoons are highly aerobic and colonization by native
macrophytes, especially reeds, is often encouraged. Small filter feeding invertebrates such as
Daphnia and species of Rotifera greatly assist in treatment by removing fine particulates.

[edit] Nutrient removal

Wastewater may contain high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. Excessive release
to the environment can lead to a build up of nutrients, called eutrophication, which can in turn
encourage the overgrowth of weeds, algae, and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). This may cause
an algal bloom, a rapid growth in the population of algae. The algae numbers are unsustainable
and eventually most of them die. The decomposition of the algae by bacteria uses up so much of
oxygen in the water that most or all of the animals die, which creates more organic matter for the
bacteria to decompose. In addition to causing deoxygenation, some algal species produce toxins
that contaminate drinking water supplies. Different treatment processes are required to remove
nitrogen and phosphorus.

[edit] Nitrogen removal

The removal of nitrogen is effected through the biological oxidation of nitrogen from ammonia
to nitrate (nitrification), followed by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas.
Nitrogen gas is released to the atmosphere and thus removed from the water.

Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process, each step facilitated by a different type of
bacteria. The oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2−) is most often facilitated by
Nitrosomonas spp. (nitroso referring to the formation of a nitroso functional group). Nitrite
oxidation to nitrate (NO3−), though traditionally believed to be facilitated by Nitrobacter spp.
(nitro referring the formation of a nitro functional group), is now known to be facilitated in the
environment almost exclusively by Nitrospira spp.

Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to encourage the appropriate biological communities

to form. It is facilitated by a wide diversity of bacteria. Sand filters, lagooning and reed beds can
all be used to reduce nitrogen, but the activated sludge process (if designed well) can do the job
the most easily.[6]:17-18 Since denitrification is the reduction of nitrate to dinitrogen gas, an
electron donor is needed. This can be, depending on the wastewater, organic matter (from
faeces), sulfide, or an added donor like methanol.

Sometimes the conversion of toxic ammonia to nitrate alone is referred to as tertiary treatment.

Many sewage treatment plants use axial flow pumps to transfer the nitrified mixed liquor from
the aeration zone to the anoxic zone for denitrification. These pumps are often referred to as
Internal Mixed Liquor Recycle (IMLR) pumps. The sludge in the anoxic tanks must be mixed
well (mixture of recirculated mixed liquor, return activated sludge [RAS], and raw influent) by
using submersible mixers in order to achieve the desired denitrification.

[edit] Phosphorus removal

Phosphorus removal is important as it is a limiting nutrient for algae growth in many fresh water
systems. (For a description of the negative effects of algae, see Sewage treatment#Nutrient
removal). It is also particularly important for water reuse systems where high phosphorus
concentrations may lead to fouling of downstream equipment such as reverse osmosis.

Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced biological phosphorus

removal. In this process, specific bacteria, called polyphosphate accumulating organisms
(PAOs), are selectively enriched and accumulate large quantities of phosphorus within their cells
(up to 20 percent of their mass). When the biomass enriched in these bacteria is separated from
the treated water, these biosolids have a high fertilizer value.
Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by chemical precipitation, usually with salts of iron
(e.g. ferric chloride), aluminum (e.g. alum), or lime.[6]:18 This may lead to excessive sludge
production as hydroxides precipitates and the added chemicals can be expensive. Chemical
phosphorus removal requires significantly smaller equipment footprint than biological removal,
is easier to operate and is often more reliable than biological phosphorus removal. Another
method for phosphorus removal is to use granular laterite.

Once removed, phosphorus, in the form of a phosphate-rich sludge, may be stored in a land fill
or resold for use in fertilizer.

[edit] Disinfection

The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of waste water is to substantially reduce the number
of microorganisms in the water to be discharged back into the environment. The effectiveness of
disinfection depends on the quality of the water being treated (e.g., cloudiness, pH, etc.), the type
of disinfection being used, the disinfectant dosage (concentration and time), and other
environmental variables. Cloudy water will be treated less successfully, since solid matter can
shield organisms, especially from ultraviolet light or if contact times are low. Generally, short
contact times, low doses and high flows all militate against effective disinfection. Common
methods of disinfection include ozone, chlorine, ultraviolet light, or sodium hypochlorite.[6]:16
Chloramine, which is used for drinking water, is not used in waste water treatment because of its
persistence.

Chlorination remains the most common form of waste water disinfection in North America due
to its low cost and long-term history of effectiveness. One disadvantage is that chlorination of
residual organic material can generate chlorinated-organic compounds that may be carcinogenic
or harmful to the environment. Residual chlorine or chloramines may also be capable of
chlorinating organic material in the natural aquatic environment. Further, because residual
chlorine is toxic to aquatic species, the treated effluent must also be chemically dechlorinated,
adding to the complexity and cost of treatment.

Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of chlorine, iodine, or other chemicals. Because no
chemicals are used, the treated water has no adverse effect on organisms that later consume it, as
may be the case with other methods. UV radiation causes damage to the genetic structure of
bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, making them incapable of reproduction. The key
disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for frequent lamp maintenance and replacement
and the need for a highly treated effluent to ensure that the target microorganisms are not
shielded from the UV radiation (i.e., any solids present in the treated effluent may protect
microorganisms from the UV light). In the United Kingdom, UV light is becoming the most
common means of disinfection because of the concerns about the impacts of chlorine in
chlorinating residual organics in the wastewater and in chlorinating organics in the receiving
water. Some sewage treatment systems in Canada and the US also use UV light for their effluent
water disinfection.[13][14]

Ozone (O3) is generated by passing oxygen (O2) through a high voltage potential resulting in a
third oxygen atom becoming attached and forming O3. Ozone is very unstable and reactive and
oxidizes most organic material it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many pathogenic
microorganisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because, unlike chlorine which
has to be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of an accidental release), ozone is
generated onsite as needed. Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-products than
chlorination. A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone generation
equipment and the requirements for special operators.

[edit] Odour Control

Odours emitted by sewage treatment are typically an indication of an anaerobic or "septic"

condition.[15] Early stages of processing will tend to produce smelly gases, with hydrogen sulfide
being most common in generating complaints. Large process plants in urban areas will often
treat the odours with carbon reactors, a contact media with bio-slimes, small doses of chlorine, or
circulating fluids to biologically capture and metabolize the obnoxious gases.[16] Other methods
of odour control exist, including addition of iron salts, hydrogen peroxide, calcium nitrate, etc. to
manage hydrogen sulfide levels.

[edit] Package plants and batch reactors

To use less space, treat difficult waste and intermittent flows, a number of designs of hybrid
treatment plants have been produced. Such plants often combine at least two stages of the three
main treatment stages into one combined stage. In the UK, where a large number of wastewater
treatment plants serve small populations, package plants are a viable alternative to building a
large structure for each process stage. In the US, package plants are typically used in rural areas,
highway rest stops and trailer parks.[17]

One type of system that combines secondary treatment and settlement is the sequencing batch
reactor (SBR). Typically, activated sludge is mixed with raw incoming sewage, and then mixed
and aerated. The settled sludge is run off and re-aerated before a proportion is returned to the
headworks.[18] SBR plants are now being deployed in many parts of the world.

The disadvantage of the SBR process is that it requires a precise control of timing, mixing and
aeration. This precision is typically achieved with computer controls linked to sensors. Such a
complex, fragile system is unsuited to places where controls may be unreliable, poorly
maintained, or where the power supply may be intermittent.

Package plants may be referred to as high charged or low charged. This refers to the way the
biological load is processed. In high charged systems, the biological stage is presented with a
high organic load and the combined floc and organic material is then oxygenated for a few hours
before being charged again with a new load. In the low charged system the biological stage
contains a low organic load and is combined with flocculate for longer times.

[edit] Sludge treatment and disposal

Main article: Sewage sludge treatment
The sludges accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must be treated and disposed of in a
safe and effective manner. The purpose of digestion is to reduce the amount of organic matter
and the number of disease-causing microorganisms present in the solids. The most common
treatment options include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, and composting. Incineration is
also used albeit to a much lesser degree.[6]:19-21

Sludge treatment depends on the amount of solids generated and other site-specific conditions.
Composting is most often applied to small-scale plants with aerobic digestion for mid sized
operations, and anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale operations.

[edit] Anaerobic digestion

Main article: Anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion is a bacterial process that is carried out in the absence of oxygen. The
process can either be thermophilic digestion, in which sludge is fermented in tanks at a
temperature of 55°C, or mesophilic, at a temperature of around 36°C. Though allowing shorter
retention time (and thus smaller tanks), thermophilic digestion is more expensive in terms of
energy consumption for heating the sludge.

Anaerobic digestion is the most common (mesophilic) treatment of domestic sewage in septic
tanks, which normally retain the sewage from one day to two days, reducing the BOD by about
35 to 40 percent. This reduction can be increased with a combination of anaerobic and aerobic
treatment by installing Aerobic Treatment Units (ATUs) in the septic tank.

One major feature of anaerobic digestion is the production of biogas (with the most useful
component being methane), which can be used in generators for electricity production and/or in
boilers for heating purposes.

[edit] Aerobic digestion

Aerobic digestion is a bacterial process occurring in the presence of oxygen. Under aerobic
conditions, bacteria rapidly consume organic matter and convert it into carbon dioxide. The
operating costs used to be characteristically much greater for aerobic digestion because of the
energy used by the blowers, pumps and motors needed to add oxygen to the process.

Aerobic digestion can also be achieved by using diffuser systems or jet aerators to oxidize the
sludge.

[edit] Composting

Composting is also an aerobic process that involves mixing the sludge with sources of carbon
such as sawdust, straw or wood chips. In the presence of oxygen, bacteria digest both the
wastewater solids and the added carbon source and, in doing so, produce a large amount of heat.
[6]:20
[edit] Incineration

Incineration of sludge is less common because of air emissions concerns and the supplemental
fuel (typically natural gases or fuel oil) required to burn the low calorific value sludge and
vaporize residual water. Stepped multiple hearth incinerators with high residence time and
fluidized bed incinerators are the most common systems used to combust wastewater sludge. Co-
firing in municipal waste-to-energy plants is occasionally done, this option being less expensive
assuming the facilities already exist for solid waste and there is no need for auxiliary fuel.[6]:20-21

[edit] Sludge disposal

When a liquid sludge is produced, further treatment may be required to make it suitable for final
disposal. Typically, sludges are thickened (dewatered) to reduce the volumes transported off-site
for disposal. There is no process which completely eliminates the need to dispose of biosolids.
There is, however, an additional step some cities are taking to superheat sludge and convert it
into small pelletized granules that are high in nitrogen and other organic materials. In New York
City, for example, several sewage treatment plants have dewatering facilities that use large
centrifuges along with the addition of chemicals such as polymer to further remove liquid from
the sludge. The removed fluid, called centrate, is typically reintroduced into the wastewater
process. The product which is left is called "cake" and that is picked up by companies which turn
it into fertilizer pellets. This product is then sold to local farmers and turf farms as a soil
amendment or fertilizer, reducing the amount of space required to dispose of sludge in landfills.
Much sludge originating from commercial or industrial areas is contaminated with toxic
materials that are released into the sewers from the industrial processes.[19] Elevated
concentrations of such materials may make the sludge unsuitable for agricultural use and it may
then have to be incinerated or disposed of to landfill.

[edit] Treatment in the receiving environment

The outlet of a wastewater treating plant flows into a small river

Many processes in a wastewater treatment plant are designed to mimic the natural treatment
processes that occur in the environment, whether that environment is a natural water body or the
ground. If not overloaded, bacteria in the environment will consume organic contaminants,
although this will reduce the levels of oxygen in the water and may significantly change the
overall ecology of the receiving water. Native bacterial populations feed on the organic
contaminants, and the numbers of disease-causing microorganisms are reduced by natural
environmental conditions such as predation or exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, in
cases where the receiving environment provides a high level of dilution, a high degree of
wastewater treatment may not be required. However, recent evidence has demonstrated that very
low levels of specific contaminants in wastewater, including hormones (from animal husbandry
and residue from human hormonal contraception methods) and synthetic materials such as
phthalates that mimic hormones in their action, can have an unpredictable adverse impact on the
natural biota and potentially on humans if the water is re-used for drinking water.[20] In the US
and EU, uncontrolled discharges of wastewater to the environment are not permitted under law,
and strict water quality requirements are to be met. (For requirements in the US, see Clean
Water Act.) A significant threat in the coming decades will be the increasing uncontrolled
discharges of wastewater within rapidly developing countries.

[edit] Effects on Biology

Sewage treatment plants can have multiple effects on nutrient levels in the water that the treated
sewage flows into. These effects on nutrients can have large effects on the biological life in the
water in contact with the effluent. Treatment ponds can include any of the following:

 Oxidation ponds, which are aerobic bodies of water usually 1-2 meters in depth that receive
effluent from sedimentation tanks or other forms of primary treatment.

* Dominated by algae

 Polishing ponds are similar to oxidation ponds but receive effluent from an oxidation pond or
from a plant with an extended mechanical treatment.

* Dominated by zooplankton

 Raw sewage lagoons or sewage lagoons are aerobic ponds where sewage is added with no
primary treatment other than coarse screening.
 Anaerobic lagoons are heavily loaded ponds.

* Dominated by bacteria

 Sludge lagoons are aerobic ponds, usually 2-5 meters in depth, that receive anaerobically
digested primary sludge, or activated secondary sludge under water.

* Upper layers are dominated by algae

[21]

Phosphorous limitation is a possible result from sewage treatment and results in flagellate-
dominated plankton, particularly in summer and fall.[22]
At the same time a different study found high nutrient concentrations linked to sewage effluents.
High nutrient concentration leads to high chlorophyll a concentrations, which is a proxy for
primary production in marine environments. High primary production means high phytoplankton
populations and most likely high zooplankton populations because zooplankton feed on
phytoplankton. However, effluent released into marine systems also leads to greater population
instability.[23]

A study done in Britain found that the quality of effluent effected the planktonic life in the water
in direct contact with the wastewater effluent. Turbid, low-quality effluents either did not contain
ciliated protozoa or contained only a few species in small numbers. On the other hand, high-
quality effluents contained a wide variety of ciliated protozoa in large numbers. Due to these
findings, it seems unlikely that any particular component of the industrial effluent has, by itself,
any harmful effects on the protozoan populations of activated sludge plants.[24]

The planktonic trends of high populations close to input of treated sewage is contrasted by the
bacterial trend. In a study of Aeromonas spp. in increasing distance from a wastewater source,
greater change in seasonal cycles was found the furthest from the effluent. This trend is so strong
that the furthest location studied actually had an inversion of the Aeromonas spp. cycle in
comparison to that of fecal coliforms. Since there is a main pattern in the cycles that occurred
simultaneously at all stations it indicates seasonal factors (temperature, solar radiation,
phytoplankton) control of the bacterial population. The effluent dominant species changes from
Aeromonas caviae in winter to Aeromonas sobria in the spring and fall while the inflow
dominant species is Aeromonas caviae, which is constant throughout the seasons.[25]