Pulse Code Modulation And

Demodulation
Pulse code modulation is a method  that is used to convert an analog signal into a
digital signal so that a modified analog signal can be transmitted through the
digital communication network. PCM is in binary form, so there will be only
two possible states high and low(0 and 1). We can also get back our analog
signal by demodulation. The Pulse Code Modulation process is done in three
steps Sampling, Quantization, and Coding. There are two specific types of
pulse code modulations such as differential pulse code modulation(DPCM)
and adaptive differential pulse code modulation(ADPCM)

diagram of PCM
Here is a block diagram of the steps which are included in PCM.

In sampling, we are using PAM sampler that is Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Sampler which converts continuous amplitude signal into Discrete-time-
continuous signal (PAM pulses). The basic block diagram of PCM is given
below for better understanding.

What is a Pulse Code Modulation?

To get a pulse code modulated waveform from an analog waveform at
Pulse Code Modulation And
Demodulation
Pulse code modulation is a method that is used to convert an analog signal into a
digital signal so that a modified analog signal can be transmitted through the
digital communication network. PCM is in binary form, so there will be only
two possible states high and low(0 and 1). We can also get back our analog
signal by demodulation. The Pulse Code Modulation process is done in three
steps Sampling, Quantization, and Coding. There are two specific types of
pulse code modulations such as differential pulse code modulation(DPCM)
and adaptive differential pulse code modulation(ADPCM)

Block
diagram of PCM
Here is a block diagram of the steps which are included in PCM.

In sampling, we are using PAM sampler that is Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Sampler which converts continuous amplitude signal into Discrete-time-
continuous signal (PAM pulses). The basic block diagram of PCM is given
below for better understanding.

What is a Pulse Code Modulation?

To get a pulse code modulated waveform from an analog waveform at the
transmitter end (source) of a communications circuit, the amplitude of the
analog signal samples at regular time intervals. The sampling rate or a
number of samples per second is several times the maximum frequency. The
message signal converted into the binary form will be usually in the number of
levels which is always to a power of 2. This process is called quantization.

Basic Elements of PCM System

At the receiver end, a pulse code demodulator decodes the binary signal back
into pulses with the same quantum levels as those in the modulator. By further
processes, we can restore the original analog waveform.

Pulse Code Modulation Theory

This above block diagram describes the whole process of PCM. The source of
the continuous-time message signal is passed through a low pass filter and then
sampling, Quantization, Encoding will be done. We will see in detail step by
step.
Sampling
Sampling is a process of measuring the amplitude of a continuous-time signal
at discrete instants, converts the continuous signal into a discrete signal. For
example, conversion of a sound wave to a sequence of samples. The Sample
is a value or set of values at a point in time or it can be spaced. Sampler
extract samples of a continuous signal, it is a subsystem ideal sampler
produces samples that are equivalent to the instantaneous value of the
continuous signal at the specified various points. The Sampling process
generates flat- top Pullse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) signal.
 Analog and Sampled
Signal
Sampling frequency, Fs is the number of average samples per second also
known as the Sampling rate. According to the Nyquist Theorem sampling rate
should be at least 2 times the upper cutoff frequency. Sampling frequency,
Fs>=2*fmax to avoid Aliasing Effect. If the sampling frequency is very higher
than the Nyquist rate it becomes Oversampling, theoretically a bandwidth-
limited signal can be reconstructed if sampled at above the Nyquist rate. If the
sampling frequency is less than the Nyquist rate it will become
Undersampling.

Basically two types of techniques are used for the sampling process. Those
are 1. Natural Sampling and 2. Flat- top Sampling.

Quantization
In quantization, an analog sample with an amplitude that converted into a
digital sample with an amplitude that takes one of a specifically defined set of
quantization values. Quantization is done by dividing the range of possible
values of the analog samples into some different levels and assigning the
center value of each level to any sample in the quantization interval.
Quantization approximates the analog sample values with the nearest
quantization values. So almost all the quantized samples will differ from the
original samples by a small amount. That amount is called quantization error.
The result of this quantization error is we will hear a hissing noise when
playing a random signal. Converting analog samples into binary numbers that
are 0 and 1.

In most cases, we will use uniform quantizers. Uniform quantization is

applicable when the sample values are in a finite range (Fmin, Fmax). The
total data range is divided into 2n levels, let it be L intervals. They will have an
equal length Q. Q is known as Quantization interval or quantization step size.
In uniform quantization, there will be no quantization error.

Uniformly Quantized Signal

As we know,
L=2n, then Step size Q = (Fmax – Fmin) / L
Interval i is mapped to the middle value. We will store or send only the index
value of quantized value.

An Index value of quantized value Qi (F) = [F – Fmin / Q]

Quantized value Q (F) = Qi (F) Q + Q / 2 + Fmin

But there are some problems raised in uniform quantization those are

 Only optimal for the uniformly distributed signal.

 Real audio signals are more concentrated near zeros.
 The Human ear is more sensitive to quantization errors at small values.
The solution to this problem is using Non- uniform quantization. In this
process, the quantization interval is smaller near zero.

Coding
The encoder encodes the quantized samples. Each quantized sample is
encoded into an 8-bit codeword by using A-law in the encoding process.
 Bit 1 is the most significant bit (MSB), it represents the polarity of the sample.
“1” represents positive polarity and “0” represents negative polarity.
 Bit 2,3 and 4 will defines the location of the sample value. These three bits
together form a linear curve for low level negative or positive samples.
 Bit 5,6,7 and 8 are the least significant bits (LSB) it represents one of the
segments quantized value. Each segment is divided into 16 quantum levels.
PCM is two types of Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM) and Adaptive
Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM).

In DPCM only the difference between a sample and the previous value is
encoded. The difference will be much smaller than the total sample value so
we need some bits for getting the same accuracy as in ordinary PCM. So that
the required bit rate will also reduce. For example, in 5-bit code 1 bit is for
polarity and the remaining 4 bits for 16 quantum levels.
ADPCM is achieved by adapting the quantizing levels to analog signal
characteristics. We can estimate the values with the preceding sample values.
Error estimation is done as same as in DPCM. In 32Kbps ADPCM method
difference between the predicted value and sample, value is coded with 4 bits,
so that we’ll get 15 quantum levels. In this method data rate is half of the
conventional PCM.

Pulse Code Demodulation

Pulse Code Demodulation will be doing the same modulation process in reverse.
Demodulation starts with the decoding process, during transmission the PCM
signal will be affected by noise interference. So, before the PCM signal sends
into the PCM demodulator, we have to recover the signal into the original level
for that we are using a comparator. The PCM signal is a series pulse wave
signal, but for demodulation, we need a wave to be parallel.
By using a serial to parallel converter the series pulse wave signal will be
converted into a parallel digital signal. After that the signal will pass through
the n-bits decoder, it should be a Digital to Analog converter. Decoder
recovers the original quantization values of the digital signal. This quantization
value also includes a lot of high-frequency harmonics with original audio
signals. For avoiding unnecessary signals we utilize a low-pass filter at the
final part.

Pulse Code Modulation Advantages

 Analog signals can be transmitted over a high- speed digital communication
system.
 The probability of occurring error will reduce by the use of appropriate coding
methods.
 PCM is used in Telkom system, digital audio recording, digitized video special
effects, digital video, voice mail.
 PCM is also used in Radio control units as transmitters and also a receiver for
remote-controlled cars, boats, planes.
 The PCM signal is more resistant to interference than normal signals.
This is all about Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation. We believe that the
information given in this article is helpful for you for a better understanding of
this concept. Furthermore, any queries regarding this article or any help in
implementing electrical and electronics projects, you can approach us by
commenting in the comment section below. Here is a question for you, What
are the applications of Pulse Code Modulation?
Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier signal in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the message signal.
The message signal is the signal which is being transmitted for communication and the
carrier signal is a high frequency signal which has no data, but is used for long
distance transmission.
There are many modulation techniques, which are classified according to the type of
modulation employed. Of them all, the digital modulation technique used is Pulse
Code Modulation PCMPCM.
A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into a binary
sequence, i.e., 1s and 0s. The output of a PCM will resemble a binary sequence. The
following figure shows an example of PCM output with respect to instantaneous values
of a given sine wave.

Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits, and hence this
process is called as digital. Each one of these digits, though in binary code, represent
the approximate amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.
In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a sequence of coded
pulses. This message signal is achieved by representing the signal in discrete form in
both time and amplitude.
Basic Elements of PCM
The transmitter section of a Pulse Code Modulator circuit consists of Sampling,
Quantizing and Encoding, which are performed in the analog-to-digital converter
section. The low pass filter prior to sampling prevents aliasing of the message signal.
The basic operations in the receiver section are regeneration of impaired signals,
decoding, and reconstruction of the quantized pulse train. Following is the block
diagram of PCM which represents the basic elements of both the transmitter and the
receiver sections.

Low Pass Filter

This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input analog signal
which is greater than the highest frequency of the message signal, to avoid aliasing of
the message signal.

Sampler

This is the technique which helps to collect the sample data at instantaneous values of
message signal, so as to reconstruct the original signal. The sampling rate must be
greater than twice the highest frequency component W of the message signal, in
accordance with the sampling theorem.
Quantizer

Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and confining the data. The
sampled output when given to Quantizer, reduces the redundant bits and compresses
the value.

Encoder

The digitization of analog signal is done by the encoder. It designates each quantized
level by a binary code. The sampling done here is the sample-and-hold process. These
three sections LPF,Sampler,andQuantizerLPF,Sampler,andQuantizer will act as an
analog to digital converter. Encoding minimizes the bandwidth used.

Regenerative Repeater

This section increases the signal strength. The output of the channel also has one
regenerative repeater circuit, to compensate the signal loss and reconstruct the signal,
and also to increase its strength.

Decoder

The decoder circuit decodes the pulse coded waveform to reproduce the original
signal. This circuit acts as the demodulator.

Reconstruction Filter

After the digital-to-analog conversion is done by the regenerative circuit and the
decoder, a low-pass filter is employed, called as the reconstruction filter to get back the
original signal.
Hence, the Pulse Code Modulator circuit digitizes the given analog signal, codes it and
samples it, and then transmits it in an analog form. This whole process is repeated in a
reverse pattern to obtain the original signal.
Pulse Code Modulation Working
and Application
Differential pulse code modulation is a technique of analog to digital signal
conversion. This technique samples the analog signal and then quantizes the
difference between the sampled value and its predicted value, then encodes
the signal to form a digital value. Before going to discuss differential pulse
code modulation, we have to know the demerits of PCM (Pulse Code Modulation).
The samples of a signal are highly correlated with each other. The signal’s
value from the present sample to the next sample does not differ by a large
amount. The adjacent samples of the signal carry the same information with a
small difference. When these samples are encoded by the standard PCM
system, the resulting encoded signal contains some redundant information
bits. The below figure illustrates this.

Redundant
Information Bits in PCM

The above figure shows a continuing time signal x(t) denoted by a dotted line.
This signal is sampled by flat-top sampling at intervals Ts, 2Ts, 3Ts…nTs.
The sampling frequency is selected to be higher than the Nyquist rate. These
samples are encoded by using 3-bit (7 levels) PCM. The samples are
quantized to the nearest digital level as shown by small circles in the above
figure. The encoded binary value of each sample is written on the top of the
samples. Just observe the above figure at samples taken at 4Ts, 5Ts, and
6Ts are encoded to the same value of (110). This information can be carried
only by one sample value. But three samples are carrying the same
information means redundant.
Now let consider the samples at 9Ts and 10Ts, the difference between these
samples only due to the last bit and first two bits are redundant since they do
not change. So in order to make the process this redundant information and to
have a better output. It is an intelligent decision to take a predicted sampled
value, assumed from its previous output and summarise them with the
quantized values. Such a process is called a Differential PCM (DPCM)
technique.

Principle of Differential Pulse Code Modulation

If the redundancy is reduced, then the overall bitrate will decrease and the
number of bits required to transmit one sample will also reduce. This type of
digital pulse modulation technique is called differential pulse code modulation.
The DPCM works on the principle of prediction. The value of the present
sample is predicted from the previous samples. The prediction may not be
exact, but it is very close to the actual sample value.

Differential Pulse Code Modulation Transmitter

The below figure shows the DPCM transmitter. The transmitter consists of a
comparator, quantizer, prediction filter, and an encoder.
 Di
fferential Pulse Code Modulator

The sampled signal is denoted by x(nTs) and the predicted signal is indicated
by x^(nTs). The comparator finds out the difference between the actual
sample value x(nTs) and the predicted value x^(nTs). This is called signal
error and it is denoted as e(nTs)

e(nTs)= x(nTs)- x^( nTs) …….(1)

Here the predicted value x^(nTs) is produced by using a prediction filter(signal

processing filter). The quantizer output signal eq(nTs) and the previous
prediction is added and given as input to the prediction filter, this signal is
denoted by xq(nTs). This makes the prediction closer to the actually sampled
signal. The quantized error signal eq(nTs) is very small and can be encoded
by using a small number of bits. Thus the number of bits per sample is
reduced in DPCM.
The quantizer output would be written as,

eq(nTs)= e(nTs)+ q(nTs) ……(2)

Here q(nTs) is quantization error. From the above block diagram the
prediction filter input xq(nTs) is obtained by sum of x^(nTs) and the quantizer
output eq(nTs).

i.e, xq(nTs) = x^(nTs)+ eq(nTs).………. (3)

by substituting the value of eq(nTs) from the equation (2) in equation (3) we
get,
xq(nTs) = x^(nTs)+ e(nTs)+ q(nTs)……. (4)

Equation (1) can written as,

e(nTs)+ x^( nTs) = x(nTs)……. (5)

from the above equations 4 and 5 we get,

xq(nTs) = x(nTs)+ x(nTs)

Therefore, the quantized version of signal xq(nTs) is the sum of original

sample value and quantized error q(nTs). The quantized error can be positive
or negative. So the output of the prediction filter does not depend on its
characteristics.

Differential Pulse Code Modulation Receiver

In order to reconstruct the received digital signal, the DPCM receiver (shown
in the below figure) consists of a decoder and prediction filter. In the
absenteeism of noise, the encoded receiver input will be the same as the
encoded transmitter output.
 Differential Pulse
Code Modulation Receiver

As we discussed above, the predictor undertakes a value, based on the

previous outputs. The input given to the decoder is processed and that output
is summed up with the output of the predictor, to obtain better output. That
means here first of all the decoder will reconstruct the quantized form of the
original signal. Therefore the signal at the receiver differs from the actual
signal by quantization error q(nTs), which is introduced permanently in the
reconstructed signal.

Pulse Code Modulation Differential Pulse Code Mo

S. NO Parameters (PCM) (DPCM)
It uses 4, 8, or 16 bits per
1 Number of bits sample < PCM bits
2 Levels, step size Fixed step size. Cannot varied A fixed number of levels are
3 Bit redundancy Present Can permanently remove
Slope overload distortion and
Quantization error and Depends on the number of noise are present but very les
4 distortion levels used PCM
Higher bandwidth has been
The bandwidth of the required since the number of
5 transmission channel bits is absent Lower than PCM bandwidth
6 Feedback No feedback in Tx and Rx Feedback exists
7 Complexity of notation Complex Simple
8 Signal to noise ratio Good Fair
 (SNR)

Applications of DPCM
The DPCM technique mainly used Speech, image and audio signal
compression. The DPCM conducted on signals with the correlation between
successive samples leads to good compression ratios. In images, there is a
correlation between the neighboring pixels, in video signals, the correlation is
between the same pixels in consecutive frames and inside frames (which is
the same as correlation inside the image).

This method is suitable for real-Time applications. To understand the

efficiency of this method of medical compression and real-time application of
medical imaging such as telemedicine and online diagnosis. Therefore, it can
be efficient for lossless compression and implementation for lossless or near-
lossless medical image compression.

This is all about Differential Pulse Code Modulation working. We consider that
the information given in this article is helpful for you to a better understanding
of this concept. Furthermore, any queries regarding this article or any help in
implementing electrical and electronics projects, you can approach us by
commenting in the comment section below. Here is a question for you, What
is the role of the predictor in the DPCM technique?
In practice, DPCM is usually used with lossy compression
techniques, like coarser quantization of differences can be used,
which leads to shorter code words. This is used in JPEG and in
adaptive DPCM (ADPCM), a common audio compression method.
ADPCM can be watched as a superset of DPCM.
In ADPCM quantization step size adapts to the current rate of
change in the waveform which is being compressed.
Different ADPCM implementations have been studied. The more
popular is IMA ADPCM, this ADPCM implementation is based on the
algorithm proposed by Interactive Multimedia Association. IMA
ADPCM standard specifies compression of PCM from 16 down to 4
bits per sample.
The good side of the ADPCM method is minimal CPU load, but it has
significant quantization noise and only mediocore compression rates
can be achieved(4:1).
DELTA MODULATION
Basics : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vzkLq0tcmhw
Problems : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8zuIYubCao

Receiver : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qEEop0IVTKU
ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATION :::::::

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lCnc8rG1BPc
Delta Modulation With It’s Block
Diagram
When signals are transmitted over long distances, they get affected by noise
and interference. There are several methods invented for effective
transmission of signals over long distances without any error. The conversion
of analog signals to into digital form has brought a game-changing revolution
in the field of communication. Modulation is the common term used in
communication systems. Communication systems use modulation and
Demodulation methods for effective transmission of low-frequency signals.
When modulation is used along with digital signals it solved many drawbacks
of analog communication. Some of the digital signal processing methods used
in communication systems are Pulse code modulation, Differential pulse code
modulation, Delta modulation, etc…
What is Delta Modulation?
Delta modulation has its roots in Differential pulse code modulation method. It
is also known as the simplified form of Differential pulse code modulation.
Delta modulation is a scheme to permit the use of a simple quantizing strategy
for constructing the encoded signals which are over-sampled purposely, to
increase the correlation between adjacent samples of the signal, as seen in
Differential pulse code modulation method.

This modulation is also called one bitter two-level version of Differential pulse
code modulation. It provides a staircase approximation of over-sampled base-
band signal. Here, the difference between the present sample and previous
approximated sample is quantized into two levels i.e. ±δ.

If the previous approximation is below the present sample value, then the
error is quantized by +δ. If the approximation is above the present sample
value then the error is quantized by -δ.

Delta Modulation Theory

Delta modulation is well-known for its simplicity. The basic principle of this
technique can be formalized in three discrete-time relations as below-

1. e(nTs) = m(nTs) – mq (nTs – Ts )

2. eq(nTs) = δ sgn[e(nTs)]
3. mq(nTs) = mq(nTs – Ts) + eq(nTs)
where m(t) is the input signal and mq(t) is its staircase approximation. In the
equations above, Ts is the sampling period, e(nTs) is an error signal
representing the difference between the present sample value m(nTs) of the
input signal and the latest approximation to it. eq(nTs) is the quantized version
of e(nTs).
There are two types of quantizing errors that affect this Modulation system.
They are the slope overload distortion and granular noise. Slope overload
error occurs when the step size is too small relative to local slope
characteristics of the input waveform. In contrast to slope overload error,
granular noise occurs when step size is too large.

In this Modulation method, a larger step size leads to the accommodation of a

wide dynamic range and small step size is required for the accurate
representation of relatively low-level signals.

Thus, to compromise between slope overload distortion and granular noise

errors, an optimum step size should be selected that can minimize the mean-
square value of the quantizing error in a linear Delta modulator.

Block Diagram
Delta modulation uses the over-sampling technique to achieve high signal-to-
noise ratio. In delta modulation system, the transmitter circuit is composed of
a Summer, Quantizer, Accumulator and an Encoder interconnected with each
other.
 Delta-Modulation-
and-Demodulation
Here, the integrator circuit contains a delay of Ts. The output of the integrator
is a staircase approximation delayed by Ts. This staircase approximation is
compared with the present sampled input signal at the summer and the
difference gives the error signal.

This error signal is given to the quantizer circuit which consists of a hard
limiter with an input-output relationship. Here, the error is quantized into two
values i.e. ±δ. Then the output of the quantizer is coded to produce the
desired Delta modulated wave.

At the receiver circuit, demodulation is done using an integrator and a low

pass filter. The modulated wave is first decoded using a decoder and then the
staircase approximation is reconstructed by  passing the positive and negative
pulses produced at the decoder to the integrator.

The out-of-band quantizing noise in the high-frequency staircase waveform is

removed by passing the signal through a low-pass filter whose bandwidth is
equal to the original signal bandwidth.
Advantages of Delta Modulation
Some of the advantages of Delta Modulation in comparison with other digital
modulation techniques are given below-

 It was found that at lower bit rates Delta Modulation is better than the standard
PCM. In a Delta modulation system, operating on voice signals under optimum
conditions, the SNR is increased by 9dB by doubling the bit rate.
 The increase of SNR with bit rate is much more dramatic for Pulse code
modulation than for Delta modulation. Therefore this modulation is recommended
only in certain special circumstances such as when it is necessary to reduce the bit
rate below 40 kilobytes per second and limited voice quality is tolerable.
 This modulation method is used if extreme circuit simplicity is of over-riding
importance and the accompanying use of a high-bit rate is acceptable.
 Delta modulation works with lower channel bandwidth. This makes the system
cost-effective and simple to implement. The feedback mechanism present in this
Modulation system ensures the quick and robust delivery of data bits.
Applications
Some of the applications of this modulation are given below –

 Voice transmission systems such as telephone and radio communications

highly prefer this Modulation technique.
 Delta Modulation is most useful in systems where timely data delivery at the
receiver is more important than the data quality.
 This modulation is applied to ECG waveform for database reduction and real-
time signal processing.
 For analog-to-PCM encoding, this Modulation method is used.
 Delta Modulation is applied in television systems.
In this Modulation, there is a restriction on the amplitude of the input signal. In
Delta Modulation only the error or the difference between the present sample
and the previous sample is sent over the channel. In a case where there is no
difference between samples, the modulated signal remains at the same 0 or 1
state of the previous sample. Some of the derived forms of delta modulation
are Continuously Variable Slope Delta modulation, Delta-sigma modulation, and
Differential modulation. Which is the superset of Delta Modulation?
I assume here that you know what Quantization is. As per wikipedia: “Quantization, in
mathematics and digital signal processing, is the process of mapping a large set of input
values to a (countable) smaller set.”

Now if you want to map the number of values into x output values, you’ll be using a ⌈log2x⌉
⌈log2⁡x⌉ quantizer.
So, basically a 1-bit quantizer will map the input set into 2 values. Since a single bit can be
used to represent 2 classes, hence the process will be called 1-bit quantization.

How is it relevant in training of neural networks?

It is shown that 1-bit quantization can reduce the bandwidth requirement for data exchange
in data parallelism without affecting the accuracy much. Obviously there will be a reduction
in accuracy, but the overall performance improvement would be significant.
Reference: 1-Bit Stochastic Gradient Descent and Application to Data-Parallel Distributed
Training of Speech DNNs - Microsoft Research

The digitization of analog signals involves the rounding off of the values which are
approximately equal to the analog values. The method of sampling chooses a few
points on the analog signal and then these points are joined to round off the value to a
near stabilized value. Such a process is called as Quantization.

Quantizing an Analog Signal

The analog-to-digital converters perform this type of function to create a series of
digital values out of the given analog signal. The following figure represents an analog
signal. This signal to get converted into digital, has to undergo sampling and
quantizing.

Difference between Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) and

Delta Modulation (DM)
Last Updated: 25-09-2019

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM):

It is that the technique used for reworking analog signal into digital signal. PCM has
good or sensible signal to noise ration. For transmission, Pulse Code Modulation wants
high transmitter bandwidth. PCM technique is split into three elements, initial is that the
transmission at the provision end, second regeneration at the transmission path and
conjointly the receiving end.
Delta Modulation(DM):
Delta modulation is an analog to digital and digital to analog signal conversion
technique. Delta modulation is employed to realize high signal to noise ratio. It uses one
bit PCM code to realize digital transmission of analog signal. With delta modulation,
instead of transmit a coded illustration of a sample solely one bit is transmitted, that
merely indicates whether or not the sample is larger or smaller than the previous
sample. it’s the best type or simplest type of Differential Pulse Code Modulation. Delta
modulation signal is smaller than Pulse Code Modulation system.
 If signal is large, the next bit in digital data is 1 otherwise 0.

Difference between Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) and Delta Modulation (DM):

S.NO PCM DM

1. PCM stands for Pulse Code Modulation. DM stands for Delta Modulation.

2. In PCM, feedback does not exist in transmitter or receiver. While in DM, feedback exists in transmitter.

3. Per sample 4, 8, or 16 bits are used. Here, only one bit is used per sample.

4. PCM requires highest transmitter bandwidth. DM requires lowest transmitter bandwidth.

While DM is simple in terms of complexity of

5. PCM is complex in terms of complexity of implementation. implementation.

6. PCM has good signal to noise ratio. While DM has poor signal to noise ratio.

7. PCM is costly. DM is cheap.

S.NO PCM DM

PCM may be a technique wont to digitally represent sampled

8. analog signals. Digital to analog and analog to digital converter.

9. In PCM, signal requires encoder and decoder both sides. In DM, signal can modulate and demodulate.

10

. PM is mostly used in video telephony and audio telephony. DM is mostly used in speeches as well as images.

Attention reader! Don’t stop learning now. Get hold of all the important DSA concepts
with the DSA Self Paced Course at a student-friendly price and become industry
ready.

The quantizing of an analog signal is done by discretizing the signal with a number of
quantization levels. Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude
by a finite set of levels, which means converting a continuous-amplitude sample into a
discrete-time signal.
The following figure shows how an analog signal gets quantized. The blue line
represents analog signal while the brown one represents the quantized signal.
Both sampling and quantization result in the loss of information. The quality of a
Quantizer output depends upon the number of quantization levels used. The discrete
amplitudes of the quantized output are called as representation
levels or reconstruction levels. The spacing between the two adjacent representation
levels is called a quantum or step-size.
The following figure shows the resultant quantized signal which is the digital form for
the given analog signal.
This is also called as Stair-case waveform, in accordance with its shape.

Types of Quantization
There are two types of Quantization - Uniform Quantization and Non-uniform
Quantization.
The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are uniformly spaced is
termed as a Uniform Quantization. The type of quantization in which the quantization
levels are unequal and mostly the relation between them is logarithmic, is termed as
a Non-uniform Quantization.
There are two types of uniform quantization. They are Mid-Rise type and Mid-Tread
type. The following figures represent the two types of uniform quantization.
Figure 1 shows the mid-rise type and figure 2 shows the mid-tread type of uniform
quantization.
 The Mid-Rise type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a raising
part of the stair-case like graph. The quantization levels in this type are even in
number.
 The Mid-tread type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a tread of
the stair-case like graph. The quantization levels in this type are odd in number.
 Both the mid-rise and mid-tread type of uniform quantizers are symmetric about
the origin.

Quantization Error
For any system, during its functioning, there is always a difference in the values of its
input and output. The processing of the system results in an error, which is the
difference of those values.
The difference between an input value and its quantized value is called a Quantization
Error. A Quantizer is a logarithmic function that performs
Quantization roundingoffthevalueroundingoffthevalue. An analog-to-digital converter
(ADC) works as a quantizer.
The following figure illustrates an example for a quantization error, indicating the
difference between the original signal and the quantized signal.
Quantization Noise

It is a type of quantization error, which usually occurs in analog audio signal, while
quantizing it to digital. For example, in music, the signals keep changing continuously,
where a regularity is not found in errors. Such errors create a wideband noise called
as Quantization Noise.

Companding in PCM
The word Companding is a combination of Compressing and Expanding, which
means that it does both. This is a non-linear technique used in PCM which compresses
the data at the transmitter and expands the same data at the receiver. The effects of
noise and crosstalk are reduced by using this technique.
There are two types of Companding techniques. They are −

A-law Companding Technique

 Uniform quantization is achieved at A = 1, where the characteristic curve is

linear and no compression is done.
 A-law has mid-rise at the origin. Hence, it contains a non-zero value.
 A-law companding is used for PCM telephone systems.
µ-law Companding Technique

 Uniform quantization is achieved at µ = 0, where the characteristic curve is linear

and no compression is done.
 µ-law has mid-tread at the origin. Hence, it contains a zero value.
 µ-law companding is used for speech and music signals.
µ-law is used in North America and Japan.

The sampling rate of a signal should be higher than the Nyquist rate, to achieve better
sampling. If this sampling interval in a Differential PCM (DPCM) is reduced
considerably, the sample-to-sample amplitude difference is very small, as if the
difference is 1-bit quantization, then the step-size is very small i.e., Δ (delta).

What is Delta Modulation?

The type of modulation, where the sampling rate is much higher and in which the
stepsize after quantization is of smaller value Δ, such a modulation is termed as delta
modulation.
Features of Delta Modulation

 An over-sampled input is taken to make full use of a signal correlation.

 The quantization design is simple.
 The input sequence is much higher than Nyquist rate.
 The quality is moderate.
 The design of the modulator and the demodulator is simple.
 The stair-case approximation of output waveform.
 The step-size is very small, i.e., Δ (delta).
 The bit rate can be decided by the user.
 It requires simpler implementation.
Delta Modulation is a simplified form of DPCM technique, also viewed as 1-bit DPCM
scheme. As the sampling interval is reduced, the signal correlation will be higher.

Delta Modulator
The Delta Modulator comprises of a 1-bit quantizer and a delay circuit along with two
summer circuits. Following is the block diagram of a delta modulator.
A stair-case approximated waveform will be the output of the delta modulator with the
step-size as delta (Δ). The output quality of the waveform is moderate.

Delta Demodulator
The delta demodulator comprises of a low pass filter, a summer, and a delay circuit.
The predictor circuit is eliminated here and hence no assumed input is given to the
demodulator.
Following is the block diagram for delta demodulator.
Low pass filter is used for many reasons, but the prominent one is noise elimination for
out-of-band signals. The step-size error that may occur at the transmitter is
called granular noise, which is eliminated here. If there is no noise present, then the
modulator output equals the demodulator input.

Advantages of DM over DPCM

 1-bit quantizer
 Very easy design of modulator & demodulator
However, there exists some noise in DM and following are the types of noise.

 Slope Over load distortion (when Δ is small)

 Granular noise (when Δ is large)

Adaptive Delta Modulation

In digital modulation, we come across certain problems in determining the step-size,
which influences the quality of the output wave.
The larger step-size is needed in the steep slope of modulating signal and a smaller
stepsize is needed where the message has a small slope. As a result, the minute
details get missed. Hence, it would be better if we can control the adjustment of step-
size, according to our requirement in order to obtain the sampling in a desired fashion.
This is the concept of Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM).

What is Slope Overload

distortion and Granular Noise in
Delta Modulation and how it is
removed in ADM
COMMUNICATION BY SASMITA MAY 8, 2018
The delta modulation has two major drawbacks as under :

1. Slope overload distortion

2. Granular or idle noise
Now, we will discuss these two drawbacks in detail.

1. Slope Overload Distortion

This distortion arises because of large dynamic range of the input signal.

Fig.1: Quantization Errors in Delta Modulation

We can observe from fig.1 , the rate of rise of input signal x(t) is so high that the
staircase signal can not approximate it, the step size ‘Δ’ becomes too small for
staircase signal u(t) to follow the step segment of x(t).

Hence, there is a large error between the staircase approximated signal and the
original input signal x(t).

This error or noise is known as slope overload distortion .

To reduce this error, the step size must be increased when slope of signal x(t) is
high.
 2. Granular or Idle Noise
Granular or Idle noise occurs when the step size is too large compared to small
variation in the input signal.

This means that for very small variations in the input signal, the staircase signal
is changed by large amount (Δ) because of large step size.

Fig.1 shows that when the input signal is almost flat , the staircase signal u(t)
keeps on oscillating by ±Δ around the signal.

The error between the input and approximated signal is called granular noise.
The solution to this problem is to make the step size small .

Solution
In order to overcome the quantiza tion errors due to slope overload and granular
noise, the step size (Δ) is made adaptive to variations in the input signal x(t).
Particularly in the steep segment of the signal x(t), the step size is increased.
And the step is decreased when the input is varying slowly.

This method is known as Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM).

The adaptive delta modulators can take continuous changes in step size or
discrete changes in step size.
Adaptive Delta Modulation – Block
Diagram and Applications
In communication systems, the modulation methods are used to transmit
signals over long distances. In the modulation process, the properties of a
high-frequency signal such as amplitude, phase, etc… are changed according
to the low-frequency base-band signal. With the increase in digital technology
and advancements in signal processing techniques demand of digital
communication increased. Many methods for Digital – to- analog and Analog-
to-digital conversion of sampled signals were introduced for digital
communication. Pulse code modulation, Differential pulse code modulation, Delta
modulation, and Adaptive Delta Modulation are popular methods used for
signal processing in digital communication. In this article let us take a look at
Adaptive Delta Modulation method.
What is Adaptive Delta Modulation?
This Modulation is the refined form of delta modulation. This method was
introduced to solve the granular noise and slope overload error caused during
Delta modulation.

This Modulation method is similar to Delta modulation except that the step
size is variable according to the input signal in Adaptive Delta Modulation
whereas it is a fixed value in delta modulation.

Block Diagram
 Adaptive-
Delta-Modulation-Transmitter

The transmitter circuit consists of a summer, quantizer, Delay circuit, and a

logic circuit for step size control. The baseband signal X(nTs) is given as input
to the circuit. The feedback circuit present in the transmitter is an Integrator.
The integrator generates the staircase approximation of the previous sample.

At the summer circuit, the difference between the present sample and
staircase approximation of previous sample e(nTs) is calculated. This error
signal is passed to the quantizer, where a quantized value is generated. The
step size control block controls the step size of the next approximation based
on either the quantized value is high or low. The quantized signal is given as
output.

At the receiver end Demodulation takes place. The receiver has two parts.
First part is the step size control. Here the received signal is passed through a
logic step size control block, where the step size is produced from each
incoming bit. Step size is decided based on present and previous input. In the
second part of the receiver, the accumulator circuit recreates the staircase
signal. This waveform is then applied to a low pass filter which smoothens the
waveform and recreates the original signal.

Adaptive Delta Modulation Theory

In Adaptive Delta Modulation, the step size of the staircase signal is not fixed
and changes depending upon the input signal. Here first the difference
between the present sample value and previous approximation is calculated.
This error is quantized i.e. if the present sample is smaller than the previous
approximation, quantized value is high or else it is low. The output of the one-
bit quantizer is given to the Logic step size control circuit where the step size
is decided.
 Adaptive-Delta-
Modulation-Waveform

At the logic step size control circuit, the output is decided based on the
quantizer output. If the quantizer output is high, then the step size is doubled
for the next sample. If the quantizer output is low, the step size is reduced by
one step for the next sample.

Advantages
Some of the advantages of this modulation method are listed below-

 Adaptive delta modulation decreases slope error present in delta modulation.

 During demodulation, it uses a low pass filter which removes the quantized
noise.
 The slope overload error and granular error present in delta modulation are
solved using this modulation. Because of this, the signal to noise ratio of this
modulation is better than delta modulation.
 In the presence of bit errors, this modulation provides robust performance. This
reduces the need for error detection and correction circuits in radio design.
 The dynamic range of Adaptive delta modulation is large as the variable step
size covers large range of values.
Differences between Delta Modulation and Adaptive Delta
Modulation
The differences between adaptive delta modulation and delta modulation are
listed below-

 In Delta Modulation step size is fixed for the whole signal. Whereas in
Adaptive delta modulation, the step size varies depending upon the input signal.
 The slope overload and granular noise errors which are present in delta
modulation are not seen in this modulation.
 The dynamic range of Adaptive delta modulation is wider than delta
modulation.
 This modulation utilizes bandwidth more effectively than delta modulation.
Applications
Some of the applications of this modulation method are listed below-

 This modulation is used for a system which requires improved wireless voice
quality as well as speed transfer of bits.
 In television signal transmission this modulation process is used.
 This modulation method is used in voice coding.
 This modulation is also used as a standard by NASA for all communications
between mission control and spacecraft.
 Motorola’s SECURENET line of digital radio products uses 12kbits/sec
Adaptive Delta Modulation.
 To provide voice detection quality audio at deployed areas, military uses 16 to
32 kbit/sec modulation system in TRI-TAC digital telephones.
 US army forces use 16kbit/sec rates to conserve bandwidth over tactical links.
 For improved voice quality US Air Forces uses 32kbits/sec rates.
 In Bluetooth-services to encode voice signals, this modulation is used with
32bits/sec rates.
 HC55516 decoder is used in various arcade games such as sinistar and smash tv
and pinball machines such as gorgor or space shuttle, to play pre-recorded sounds.
 Adaptive delta modulation is also known as continuously variable slope delta
modulation.
This modulation encodes at 1-bit per sample. Here the encoder maintains a
reference sample and a step size.  Before deciding the step size of the input
signal it is compared with the reference sample. This modulation method
compromise between simplicity, low bitrate, and quality.

This modulation method was first published by Dr. John E. Abate in 1968 at
NJ Institute of technology. By using this modulation method many minute
details of the signal can be preserved. Thus, this modulation method provides
good quality output in addition to fast encoding. This modulation is the first
step in the conversion of the analog signal to a digital signal. The next step is
the representation of this digital signal in mathematical form, for which
digital multiplexing techniques are introduced. Adaptive Delta Modulation is also
known as?

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