Mechatronics Unit 1 & 4 Notes PDF

MECHATRONICS
Unit – I
INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS:
 Consider the modern auto-focus, auto-exposure camera. To use the
m
camera all you need to do is point it at the subject and press the button
to take the picture. The camera automatically adjusts the focus so that
.co
the subject is in focus and automatically adjusts the aperture and
shutter speed so that the correct exposure is given.
 Consider a truck smart

tas
suspension. Such suspension adjusts to
uneven loading to maintain a level platform, adjusts to cornering,
moving across rough ground. etc. to maintain smooth ride.

lda
 Consider an automated production line. Such a line may involve a
number of production processes which are all automatically carried

vi
out in the correct sequence and in the correct way.
 The automatic camera, the truck suspension and the automatic

Ci
production line are examples of a marriage between electronic
control systems and mechanical engineering. Such control systems

w.
generally use microprocessors as controllers arid have electrical
sensors extracting information from the mechanical inputs and

ww
outputs via electrical actuators to mechanical systems.
 The term mechatronics is used for this integration of microprocessor
control systems, electrical systems and mechanical system. A
mechatronics system is not just a marriage of electrical and mechanical
1
systems and is more than just a control system; it is a complete
integration of all of them.
 In the design now of cars, robots, machine tools, washing machines,
cameras, and very many other machines, such an integrated and
interdisciplinary approach to engineering design is increasingly being
m
adopted Mechatronics has to involve a concurrent approach to these
.co
disciplines rather than a sequential approach of developing, say, a
mechanical system then designing the electrical part and the
microprocessor part.
Definition: tas
“Mechatronics is the synergetic integration of mechanical engineering
lda
with electronics and intelligent computer control in the design and
manufacturing of industrial products and processes”.

vi
SYSTEMS:
Mechatronics involves what are termed as systems. A system can be

Ci
thought of as a box which has an input, and an output and where we are
w.
not concerned with what goes on inside the box but only the
relationship between the output and the input. Thus for example, a
ww
motor may be thought of as a system which has as input electric power
and as output the rotation of a shaft.
Example: A Motor.
A motor has input as electric power as input and rotation as output.
The following figure shows the representation.
2
Fig: System
Basically in mechatronics we divide the systems in to 2 types
1. Measurement System.
2. Control System.
Now we will discuss in detail about these 2 systems.
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM:
A Measurement system can be defined as a black box which is used for
making measurements. It has an input the quantity being measured and its
output the value of that quantity.
Example: A temperature measurement system. i.e. Thermometer
Fig: Measurement system
3
Elements of Measurement system
Measurement System can be considered to be made up of three elements as
shown in figure.
m
.co
ta s
1. A sensor which responds to the quantity being measured by giving as
its output a signal which is related to the quantity. Ex. a thermocouple
is a temperature sensor.
lda
2. A signal conditioner takes the signal from the sensor and manipulates it
into a condition which is suitable for either display or in the case of a

ivi
control system, for use to exercise control. Thus for example the output
from a thermocouple is a rather small e.m.f and might be fed through an

.C
amplifier to obtain a bigger signal. The amplifier is the
signal conditioner.
w
3. A display system where the output from the signal conditioner is
displayed. This might, for example be a pointer moving across a scale or

ww
a digital readout.
As an example, consider a digital thermometer. This has an input of
temperature to a sensor probably a semiconductor diode. The potential
difference across the sensor is a constant current.
4
CONTROL SYSTEM:
A control system can be defined as a block box which can be used to
control its output to some particular value.
Example: a domestic central heating control system.
We can set the required temperature on the thermostat or controller
and the pump can be adjusted to supply water through radiators. So the
m
required temperature can be maintained in the house.
.co
ta s
lda
In a system when the output quantity is controlled by varying the input
quantity then the system is called as Control system.

ivi
The output quantity is called as controlled variable or response and
the input quantity is called as command signal or excitation.
In Control system, we have two types

.C
1. Open loop control system. 2. Closed loop control system.
OPEN AND CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS:

w
There are two basic forms of control system one being called and Open
ww
loop and other closed-loop systems. The difference between these can be
illustrated by a simple example.
Consider an electric fire which has a selection switch which allows a 1
KW or a 2 kW heating element to be selected. If a person used the heating
element to heat a room, he or she might just switch on the 1 kW element if
the room is not required to be at too high a temperature.
5
The room will heat up and reach a temperature which is only
determined by the fact the 1 kW element was switched on, and not the 2
kW elements. If there are changes in the conditions perhaps someone
opening a window, there is no way the heat output is adjusted to
compensate.
This is an example of open loop control in that there is no information fed
back to the element to adjust it and maintain a constant temperature.
The heating system with the heating element could be made a closed loop
system if the person has a thermometer and switches the 1 kW and 2 kW
elements on or off, according to the difference between the actual
temperature and the required temperature, to maintain the temperature of
the room constant.
In this situation there is feedback, the input to the system being
adjusted according to whether its output is the required temperature. This
means that the input to the switch depends on the deviation of the actual
temperature from the required temperature.
The difference between them determined by a comparison element. The
person in this case.
6
Illustration of a motor:
To illustrate further the differences between open and closed-loop
systems, consider a motor.
With an open-loop system the speed of rotation of the shaft might be
determined solely by the initial setting of a knob which affects the voltage
applied to the motor.
Any changes in the supply voltage, the characteristics of the motor as a
result of temperature changes, or the shaft load will change the shaft speed
but not be compensated for.
There is no feedback loop. With a closed-loop system, however, the initial
setting of the control knob will be for a particular shaft speed and this will
be maintained by feedback, regardless of any changes in supply voltage,
motor characteristics or load.
In an open-loop control system the output from the system has no effect
on the input signal. In a closed-loop control system the output does have
an effect on the input signal, modifying it to maintain an output signal at
the required value.
OPEN-LOOP SYSTEMS have the advantage of being
 Relatively simple and
 Consequently low cost with generally good
reliability.
However, there are disadvantages like,
 Inaccurate since there is no correction for error.
CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS have the advantage of being
 Relatively accurate in matching the actual to the required values.
7
However, there are disadvantages like,
 More complex
 So more costly and
 A greater chance of breakdown as a consequence of the greater
number of components.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF A CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEM:
Generally the closed loop system consists of the following elements
1. Comparison element.
2. Control element.
3. Correction element.
4. Process dement
5. Measurement element.
Comparison element
 This compares the required or reference value of the variable condition
being controlled with the measured value of what is being achieved
and produces an error signal.
 It can be regarded as adding the reference signal, which is
positive, to the measured value signal, which is negative in this case:
Error signal = reference value signal - measured value signal.
8
 The symbol used, in, general, for an element at which signals are
summed is a segmented circle, inputs going into segments.
 The inputs are all added; hence the feedback input is marked as negative
and the reference signal positive so that the sum gives the difference
between the signals.
Control element
 This decides what action to take when it receives an error
signal.
 It may be for example, a signal to operate a switch or open a
valve.
 The control plan being used by the element may be just to supply a
signal which switches on or off when here is an error, as in a room
thermostat or perhaps a signal which proportionally opens or closes a
valve according to the size of the error.
Correction element
 The correction element produces a change in the process to correct or
change the controlled condition.
 Thus it might be a switch which switches on a heater and so increases
the temperature of the process or a valve which opens and allows more
liquid to enter the process.
 The term actuator is used for the element of a correction unit that
provides the power to carry out the control action.
Process element
 The process is what is being controlled. It could be a room in a house
with its temperature being controlled or a tank of water with its level
being controlled.
9
Measurement element
 The measurement element produces a signal related to the variable
condition of the process that is being controlled.
 For example, a switch which is switched on when a particular position is
reached or a thermocouple which gives an e.m.f related to the
temperature.
FOR TEMPERATURE CONTROLLED CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
With the closed-loop system illustrated in Fig. above, for a
person controlling the temperature of a room, the various elements are:

Controlled variable - the room temperature
Reference value - the required room temperature
Comparison element - the person comparing the measured value with the required
value of temperature
Error signal - the difference between the measured and required
temperatures.
Control unit - the person
Correction unit - the switch on the fire
Process - the heating by the fire
Measuring device - a thermometer
AUTOMATIC WATER LEVEL CONTROLLER:
Fig. The automatic control of water level

An automatic control system for the control of the room temperature
could involve a temperature sensor, after Suitable signal conditioning,
feeding an electrical signal to the input of a computer where it is compared
10
with the set value and an error signal generated. This is then acted on by
the computer to give at its output a signal, which, after suitable signal
conditioning, might be used to control a heater and hence the room
temperature. Such a system can readily be programmed to give different
temperatures al different times of the day.
The above figure shows an example of a simple control system used
to maintain a constant water level in a tank. The reference value is the
initial setting of the lever arm arrangement so that it just cuts off the water
supply at the required level. When water is drawn from the tank the float
moves downwards with the water level. This causes the lever arrangement
to rotate and so allows water to enter the tank. This flow continues until
the ball has risen to such a height that it has moved the lever arrangement
to cut off the water supply. It is closed loop control system with the
elements being:
Controlled variable - the water level in the tank
Reference value - initial setting of the float and lever position
Comparison clement - the lever
Error signal - the difference between the actual and initial
settings of the lever positions
Control unit - the pivoted lever
Correction unit - the flap opening or closing the water supply
Process - the water level in the tank
Measuring device - the floating ball and lever
SEQUENTIAL CONTROLLERS:
When a controller operates in a sequence way i.e. Step by step, then that
type of controllers is called as sequence controllers.
In sequential controllers, step 2 is started only after completing step 1
and after completing step 2 step 3 will be started. In sequential controllers,
11
the control .actions are ordered in time, which is obtained by an electrical
circuit with sets, of relays or cam operated switches which are wired up in
such a way as to give the required sequence.
Now-a-days hardwired circuits and relays are replaced by a microprocessor
controlled system, the sequencing are controlled by software program
Example: Washing machine.
Consider a washing machine; the numbers of sequential operations carried
out are,
1. Pre wash cycle -the clothes in the drum are washed with cold water.
2. Main wash cycle - the clothes are washed with hot water.
3. Rinse cycle - the washed clothes are rinsed with cold water number of
times.
4. Spinning - the rinsed clothes are spinned to remove water.
12
Visit : www.Civildatas.com
The above figure shows the basic washing machine system and gives
a rough idea of its constituent elements.
The system that is used for the washing machine controller was a
mechanical system which involved a set of cam-operated switches, i.e
mechanical switches. Figure below show the basic principle of one such
switch.
When the machine is switched on, a signal electric motor slowly
rotates its shaft, giving an amount of rotation proportional no tune.
The rotation turns the controller cams so that each in turn operates
electrical switches and so switches on circuits in the correct sequence. The
contour of a cam determines the time at which it operates a switch.
The contours of the cams and the means by which the program is
specified and stored in the machine. The sequence of instructions and the
instructions used in a particular washing program are determined by the set
of cams chosen.
With modern washing machines the controller is a
microprocessor and the program is not supplied by the mechanical
13
arrangement of cams but by a software program.
For the pre-wash cycle an electrically operated valve is opened when a
current is supplied and switched off when it ceases. This valve allows cold
water into the drum for a period of time determined by the profile of the
cam or the output from the microprocessor used to operate its switch.
However, since the requirement is a specific level of water in
the washing machine drum, there needs to be another mechanism which
will stop the water going into the tank, during the permitted time, when it
reaches the required level.
A sensor is used to give a signal when the water level has reached the
preset level and give art output front the microprocessor which is used
to switch off the current to the valve. In the case of a cam-controlled valve,
the sensor actuates a switch which closes the valve admitting water to the
washing machine drum.
When this event is completed die microprocessor, or the rotation of
the cams, initiates a pump to empty the drum.
For the main wash cycle, the microprocessor gives an output which
starts when lie pre-wash part of the program is completed: in the case
of the cam-operated system the cam has a profile such that it starts in
operation when the pre-wash cycle is completed. It switches a current into
a circuit to open a valve to allow cold water into the drum. This level is
sensed and the water shut off when tine required level is reached.
The microprocessor or cam then supplies a current to activate a
switch which applies a larger current to an electric heater to heat the
water. A temperature sensor is used to switch off the current when the
water temperature reaches the preset value.
14
The microprocessor or cams then switch on the drum motor to rotate
the drum. This will continue for the time determined by the microprocessor
or cam profile before switching off. Then the microprocessor or a cam
switches on the current to a discharge pump to empty the water from the
drum.
The rinse part of the operation is now switched as a sequence of
signals to open valves which allow cold water into the machine. Switch it
off, operate the motor to rotate the drum, operate a pump to empty the
water from the drum, and repeat this sequence a number of times.
MICROPROCESSOR BASED CONTROLLERS:
Microprocessors are rapidly replacing the mechanical cam operated
controllers. These microprocessors are used to control the function. In many
simple systems, an embedded micro controller is used to control or perform
the particular task.
A more adaptable form of controller is the programmable logic
controller. The programmable logic controller is defined as a sequential logic
device that generates output signals according to logic operations performed
on the input signals. The PLC is a microprocessor based controller which
uses programmable memory to store instructions and to implement
functions such as logic sequence, timing counting and arithmetic to control
events. This PLC can be easily reprogrammed for different tasks. The PLC is
shown below.
15
The example for input devices are switches relays and limit switches. The
examples for output devices are motor to be controlled, Lamp, relay and
solenoid. The controller monitors the inputs and outputs according to the
program stored in the PLC by the operator. PLC are similar to computers but
have certain features which are specific to their use of controllers. These are,
1. They are rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature,
humidity and noise.
2. The interfacing for inputs and outputs is inside the controllers.
3. They are easily programmed and have an easily understood programming
language. The Programming is primari1y concerned with logic and switching
operations.
Note:
Micro controller: - Microprocessor with integrated peripherals is called as
micro controller
Some of the microprocessor based control system is discussed below.
16
AUTOMATIC CAMERA:
 The modern camera is likely to have automatic focusing and exposure.
Figure 1.10 illustrates the basic aspects of a microprocessor-based
system that can’ t be used to control the focusing and exposure.
 When the switch is operated to activate the system and the camera
pointed at the object being photographed, the microprocessor takes the
input from the range sensor and sends an output to the lens position
drive to move the lens to achieve focusing. The lens position is fed back
to the microprocessor so that the feedback signal can’ t be used to
modify the lens position according to the inputs from the range sensor.
 The light sensor gives an input to the microprocessor which then gives
an output to determine, if the photographer has selected the shutter
controlled rather than aperture controlled mode, the time for which the
shutter will be opened. When the photograph has been taken, the
microprocessor gives an output to the motor drive to advance the film
ready for the next photograph.
17
 The program for the microprocessor is a number of steps
where the microprocessor is making simple decisions of the form: is
there an input signal of a particular input line or not and if there is
output a signal on a particular output line. The decisions are logic
decisions with the input and output signals either being low or high
to give on-off states.
 A few steps of the program for the automatic camera might be of the
form:
begin
if battery check input OK
then continue
otherwise stop
loop
read input from range sensor calculate lens
movement output signal to lens position drive
input data from lens position encoder
compare calculated output with actual output stop output when lens in
correct
position
send in-focus signal to viewfinder display
etc.
18
THE ENGINE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM:
 The engine management system of a car is responsible for managing
the ignition and fuelling requirements of the engine.
 With a four-stroke internal combustion engine there are several
cylinders, each of which has a piston connected to a common crankshaft
and each of which carries out a four-stroke sequence of operations.
 When the piston moves down a valve opens and the air-fuel mixture is
drawn into the cylinder.
 When the piston moves up again the valve closes and the air-fuel
mixture is compressed.
 When the piston is near the top of the cylinder the spark plug ignites the
mixture with a resulting expansion of the hot gases. This expansion
causes the piston to move back down again and so the cycle is repeated.
 The pistons of cacti cylinder are connected to a common crankshaft and
their power strokes occur at different times so that here is
continuous power for rotating the crankshaft.
Fig. Four Stroke Sequence

 The power and speed of the engine are controlled by varying the ignition
timing and the air - fuel mixture.
 With modem car engines this is done by a microprocessor. Figure shows
the basic elements of a microprocessor control system.
19
 For ignition timing, the crankshaft drives a distributor which makes
electrical contact for each spark plug in turn and a timing wheel.
This timing wheel generates pulses to indicate he crankshaft position.
 The microprocessor then adjusts the timing at which high voltage
pulses are sent to the distributor so they occur at the right moments of
time.
 To control the amount of air fuel mixture entering a cylinder during the
intake strokes, the microprocessor varies the time for which a solenoid is
activated to open the intake on the basis of inputs received of the
engine temperature and the throttle position.
 The amount of fuel to be injected into the air stream can be
determined by an input from a sensor of the mass rate of air flow, or
computed from other measurements, and the microprocessor then
gives an output to control a fuel injection valve.
20
Visit : www.Civildatas.com Visit : www.Civildatas.com
MECHATRONICS APPROACH:
The domestic washing machine that used cam operated switches in order
to control the washing cycle is out of date. Such mechanical switches are being
replaced by microprocessor. A microprocessor may be considered as being
essentially a collection of logic gates and memory elements that are not wired
up is individual components but whose logical functions are implemented by
m
means of software.
The microprocessor- controlled washing machine can be considered an
.co
example of a mechatronics approach in that a mechanical system has become
integrated with electronic controls. As a consequence, a bulky mechanical

ta s
system is replaced by a much more compact microprocessor system which is
readily adjustable to give a greater variety of programs.
Mechatronics brings together a number of technologies like, mechanical

lda
engineering, Electronic Engineering, electrical engineering, information
technology, computer technology and control engineering. This can be

ivi
considered as the application of Computer based digital control techniques,
through electronic and electric interfaces to mechanical engineering problems.
There are many applications of mechatronics in the mass produced

.C
products used in home. Microprocessor based controllers are to be found in
domestic washing machines, dish washers, microwave ovens, cameras,

w
camcorders, watches, hi-fi and video recorder systems, central heating controls,
ww
sewing machines, etc.. They are to be found in cars in the active suspension,
antiskid brakes, engine control, speedometer display, transmission etc. A large
scale application of mechatronics is a flexible manufacturing engineering
system (FMS) involving computer controlled machines, robots, automatic
material conveying and overall supervisory control.
21
PART – A –TWO MARK QUESTIONS
1. Write about Mechatronics?
2. What are the components in a Mechatronics system?
3. What is the use of actuators and sensors?
4. What is the use of digital devices?
5. What is the function of conditioning and interfacing Circuits and graphical displays?
6. Give some examples of Mechatronics systems?
m
7. What are the important sub-systems involved in Mechatronic system?
8. What is the use of control system?
.co
9. What are the important elements of measurement system?
10. What is the function of sensor?
11. What is the function of signal conditioner?
12. What is the use of Display system?
13. How the control system is classified?

ta s
14. What is meant by open loop control system?
lda
15. What is meant by closed loop control system in CNC machine?
16. What are the import elements of a closed loop control system?
17. What is the use of comparison element?
18. What is meant by error signal?

ivi
19. What is the use of control element?
20. What is the function of the correction element?
21. What is meant by process element?

.C
22. What is meant by sequence control?
23. Why mechatronic systems are also known as smart devices?

w
PART – B QUESTIONS
1. Explain the closed loop system with example.

ww
2. What are the basic components of closed loop system? Explain.
3. Describe the sequential controllers.
4. Explain the microprocessor controlled automatic camera.
5. Explain the microprocessor controlled engine management system.
6. Explain the mechatronics approach with its advantages.

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

1.0 INTRODUCTION:
+ Sensor is used to produce a varying signal according to the quantity
being measured.
+ Sensor is an element in a mechatronic system which acquires a
physical parameter and changes it into signal that can be processed by
the system.
+ The active element of a sensor is known as transducer.
+ Transducer converts the measured quantity, property (or) condition
into a usable electrical output.
+ The mechatronic system requires sensors to measure physical
quantities such as position, distance, force, strain, temperature,
vibration and acceleration. Simply sensors are also called transducers.
2.0 PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY:
+ The function of the sensor (or) transducer is to sense (or) detect a
parameter such as pressure, temperature flow, motion, resistance,
voltage, current and power.
+ The sensor should be capable of faithfully and accurately detecting
any changes that occur in the measured parameter.
+ The performance of transducers can be defined by using the following terms:
1. Range and span
2. Error
3. Accuracy
4. Sensitivity
5. Hysteresis error
6. Non linearity error
7. Repeatability/Reproducibility
8. Reliability
9. Stability
10. Dead band/time
11. Resolution
12. Backlash
13. Output impedance
26
1. Range and Span:
+ The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input can vary.
+ The difference between the limits (maximum value - minimum value) is
known as span.
+ For example a load cell is used to measure force. An input force can vary from
20 to 100 N. Then the range of load cell is 20 to 100 N. And the span of load
cell is 80 N (i.e., 100-20)
2. Error:
+ If the transducer is ideally designed and made from appropriate materials
with ideal workmanship, then output will indicate the true value. But in
actual practice the output of the transducer will deviate from the true value.
+ The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the
measured parameter is termed as the error of the device.
+ Error = Indicated value —true value
+ For example, if the transducer gives a temperature reading of 30° C when
the actual temperature is 29° C, then the error is + 1° C. If the actual
temperature is
3 1° C, then the error is —1° C.
3. Accuracy:
+ Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated by the
measurement system would be wrong.
+ Accuracy is the summation of all possible errors that are likely to occur.
+ For example, a thermocouple has an accuracy of ± 1° C. This means
that reading given by the thermocouple can be expected to lie within + 1° C (o
r) —
1° C of the true value.
+ Accuracy is also expressed as a percentage of the full range output (or)
full- scale deflection.
+ For example, a thermocouple can be specified as having an accuracy of ±4
% of full range output. Hence if the range of the thermocouple is 0 to 200°
C, then the reading given can be expected to be within + 8° C (or) —8° C of
the true reading.
4. Sensitivity:
+ The sensitivity is the relationship showing how much output we can get per
unit input.
+ ie sensitivity = Output / Input
5. Hysteresis error:
+ When a device is used to measure any parameter plot the graph of output
Vs value of measured quantity.
+ First for increasing values of the measured quantity and then for decreasing
values of the measured quantity.
+ The two output readings obtained usually differ from each other.
27
Fig.1.1 Hysteresis error
+ This is because of a certain amount of internal (or) external friction in the

response of the sensing element.
+ The maximum difference in between any part of output readings so obtained
is known as hysteresis error.
+ The hysteresis error can be reduced by proper design and selection of
the mechanical components, introducing greater flexibility and providing
suitable heat treatment to the materials.
6. Non-linearIty error:
+ A linear relationship is assumed between the input and output and hence,
a straight line is drawn in the graph as shown here.
Fig.1.2
+ Some transducers, do not have linear relationship and errors occur as a

result of the assumption of linearity.
+ The error is defined as the maximum difference from the straight line.
+ There are three methods to find the the numerical error. They are
namely, (i) End range value
(ii) Best straight line for all values
(iii) Best straight line, through zero point.
+ In the first method, (fig 1.2), the straight line is drawn by joining the output
values at the end points of the range.
28
+ In the next method, the straight line is drawn by using the method of least
squares to determine the best fit line by considering all data values are in
error. Refer fig (1.3).
+ In the last method, the straight line is drawn by using the method of
least squares to determine the best fit line which passes through the zero
point.
Fig.1.3 Fig.1.4
7. Repeatability/Reproducibility:
+ The repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are its ability to give the
same output for repeated applications of the same input value.
+ Repeatability is also defined as the measure of the deviation of test
results mean value.
8. Reliability:
+ The reliability of a system is defined as the possibility that it will perform its
assigned functions for a specific period of time under given conditions.
+ The reliability of a device (or) system is affected not only by the choice of
individual parts in system but also by manufacturing methods, quality of
maintenance and the type of user.
9. Stability:
+ The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to
measure a constant input over a period of time.
+ The term drift is the change in output that occurs over time.
+ The drift can be expressed as a percentage of the full range.
+ Zero drift means if there is change in output when there is zero input.
10. Dead band / time:
+ There will be no output for certain range of input values. This is known as
dead band. There will be no output until the input has reached a
particular value.
+ The length of time from the application of an input until the output begins to
respond and change is known as Dead time.
29
11. Resolution:
+ Resolution is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value
that can be detected.
+ The resolution is the smallest change in the input value which will
produce an observable change in the input.
+ Resolution is also known as the degree of fineness with which
measurements can be made.
+ For example, if a micrometer with a minimum graduation of 1mm is.
used to measure to the nearest 0.5 mm, then by interpolation, the
resolution is estimated as 0.5 mm.
12. Backlash:
+ Backlash is defined as the maximum distance (or) angle through
which any part of a mechanical system can be moved in one
direction without causing any motion of the attached part.
+ Backlash is an undesirable phenomenon and is important in the
precision design of gear trains.
13. Output Impedance:
+ Before defining impedance, we should know about Ohm’ s law.
+ Ohm’ s law is used to define the relationship between voltage V, Current I
and
Resistance
R.
(i.e.,) V=IR
+ Ohm’ s law can be extended to the AC circuit analysis of resistor,
capacitor and inductor elements as
v=ZI
where Z is called impedance of the elements. So impedance is
similar to resistance.
+ The sensors produce electrical output.
+ When these sensors are interfaced with an electronic circuit, it is
necessary to know the output impedance.
+ This impedance is connected in either series (or) parallel with that
circuit and the inclusion of the sensor will modi1 the behaviour of the
system to which it is connected.
3.0 DISPLACEMENT, POSITION AND PROXIMITY
Displacement Sensors:
The measurement of the amount by which some object has been moved.
1. Potentiometer,
2. Resistance strain gauge,
3. LVDT,
4. Push pull displacement sensor.
30
Position Sensors:
+ The determination of the position of some object with reference to
some reference point.
1. Photo electric sensors,
2. H
sensors.
Proximity Sensors:
+ Used to determine when an object has moved to within some particular

critical distance.
1. Pneumatic proximity sensor,
2. Eddy current proximity sensor,
3. Inductive proximity switch,
4. Micro switch,
5. Reed switch.
Factors to be considered while selecting displacement, Position and

Proximity sensors:
1. The accuracy required
2. The resolution required
3. The size of the displacement
4. Displacement type (linear or angular)
5. The cost and material made
1. Contact Sensors:
+ The measured object is mechanical contact with the sensor.

+ In the contact sensors there is a sensing shaft which is direct contact
with the object being monitored.
+ The movement of the shaft may be used to make changes in electrical
voltage, capacitance, resistance.
2. Non-contact sensors:
+ The measured object is no physical contact between the measured

object and the sensor.
+ In the non-contact sensors the measured object causing a change in the
air
pressure in the sensor, or a change in inductance or capacitance.
3.1 DISPLACEMENT SENSORS:
+ A potentiometer can be used to convert rotary or linear

displacement to a voltage.
+ The potentiometers can be classified into three types.
31
1. Potentiometer Sensor
+ Potentiometers consists of a resistance element with a sliding contact

and the sliding contact can be moved over the length of the
element. This sliding contact is called Wiper.
+ The motion of the sliding contact may be linear or rotational.
+ The Fig.1.5 shows the linear potentiometer and the Fig.1.6 shows the
rotary potentiometer.
+ The rotary potentiometer consists of a circular wire-wound track over
which a rotatable sliding contact can be rotated.
+ The wire-wound track may be single turn or helical turn.
Displacement and Position Sensor Types:
The displacement and position sensors are grouped into:

1. Contact sensors
2. Non-contact sensors
1. Rotary
2. Linear
3. Helical potentiometers
Fig.1.5
Fig.1.6
32
Fig.1.7
Advantages of Resistance Potentiometers:

1. They are simple and in expensive,
2. Electrical efficiency is high,
3. Simple in operation.
4. Useful for measurement of large amplitudes of displacement
2. Strain Gauged Element:
+ The change in length divided by original length is called strain.

+ The strain gauge consists of metal wire, metal foil strip. When
subject to strain, the resistance ‘ R’ changes, and the change in
resistance L is proportional to strain E.
where G is a constant (gauge factor).

+ In the Fig.1.9 the strain gauge is attached to flexible elements in the form
of cantilevers, rings, U shapes.
+ When the flexible element is bent, as a result of this the electrical
resistance will change due to force applied by a contact point.
+ The change in resistance is the measure of displacement.
+ The Fig.1.8 and 1.9 shows the strain gauges and strain gauged elements.
+ The major types of strain gauges are
I. Metal wire strain gauges,
2. Metal foil strain gauges,
33
3. Semiconductors strain
gauges.
Fig.1.8
Fig.1.9
34
+ In Metal Wire Strain Gauges a wire stretched between two points
in an insulating medium such as air.
+ The wires may be made of various copper nickel, chrome nickel or nickel
iron alloys. They are about 0.003 mm in diameter and gauge factor of 2.
The length of wire is 25 mm or less.
+ In Metal foil strain gauge the foil is usually made up of constantan, and it
is etched in a grid pattern onto a thin plastic backing material, usually
polyimide. The foil is terminated at both ends with large metallic pads.
+ The size of the entire gauge is very small and has a length of 5 mm to
15 mm length.
+ In Semiconductor strain gauges the p type and n type silicon
semiconductors are used.
+ The semiconductor strain gauges have the gauge factors of about +100 or
—
100. In p-type gauges resistance increases with tensile strain. While in n-
type,
resistance decreases. Typical thickness is about 0.25 mm and
effective length range from 1.25 to 12 mm.
4. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Fig.1.10
Fig.1.11
35
+ It consists of three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube.

+ The central coil is primary and other two are secondary.
+ A magnetic core is moved through the central tube, so that the
displacement being monitored.
+ When voltage is supplied to the primary coil, alternating e.m.f.s are
induced in the secondary coils.
+ Suppose the magnetic core is in central, the e.rn.f. induced in each coil
is same because of magnetic material in each coil is same and oppose
to each other. So there is no output.
+ If the core is displaced from the central position there is a greater
amount of magnetic core in one coil than the other. This will create a
higher e.m.f. in one coil and lesser e.m.f. in the other coil. This will
make a net difference in two e.m.f.s and the displacement being
monitored.
+ The formulas which are used in LVDT are:
1. The e.m.f.s induced in the two secondary coils 1 and 2 are:
where K1, K2 are degree of coupling between the primary and

secondary coils.
Advantages of L VDT:
1. High range
2. Friction and electrical isolation
3. Low hysteresis
4. Power consumption is less.
5.Push Pull Displacement Sensor:
+ It has three plates with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the
lower pair forming another capacitor.
+ There is a non-linear relationship form between the change in capacitance
AC
and the displacement X.
+ The displacement moves the central plate between the two other plates.
+ The result of this, the central plate moving downwards and to
increase the plate separation of the upper capacitor and decrease the
separation of the lower capacitor.
+ Therefore, the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
where C1 is in one arm of an a.c. bridge,

36
C2 is in an other arm of an a.c. bridge.

= Relative permittivity of the dielectric between the
= Permittivity of free space
constant, x = Displacement,
A = The area of overlap between the two plates,
d = The plate separation.
3.2 POSITION SENSORS

+ position sensors report the position of an object with respect to a
reference part.
+ The information can be an angle as in many degree a dish antenna has
turned.
+ The following are the position sensors.
1. Photoelectric Sensors
+ It is used to detect the object by breaking a beam of light (Refer
Fig.1.12(a)) or radiation falling on a device or by detecting the light
reflected back by the object (Refer Fig.1.12(b)).
Fig.1.12
2. Hall effect Sensors
+ Hall effect: Hall effect is defined as when a beam of charged particles

passes through magnetic field, the beam is deflected from its straight
line path due to the forces acting on the particles.
+ A current flowing in a conductor like a beam is deflected by a magnetic field.
Fig.1.13
+ The working principle of a Hall effect sensor is that if a strip of

conducting material carries a current in the presence of a transverse
ngne1i shown in Fig.1.13.
37
+ The difference of potential is produced between the opposite edges

of the conductor. The magnitude of the voltage depends upon the
current and magnetic field.
+ In the Fig. the current is passed through leads 1 and 2 of the strip. The
output leads connected with Hall strip.
+ When a transverse magnetic field passes through the strip the
voltage difference occur in the output leads.
+ The hail effect sensor have the advantages of being able to operate as
switches and it operate upto 100 KHz.
Fig.1.14
Applications of Hall Effect Sensors:
1. It is used as a Magnetic to electric transducer.

2. It is used for the measurement of the position or displacement of a
structural element.
3. It is used for measurement of current.
4. It is used for measurement of power.
Digital Optical Encoder:
+ A digital optical encoder is a device that converts motion into a

sequence of digital pulses.
+ By counting or decoding these bits and the pulses can be converted
into
relative or absolute position measurements.
+ Encoders are in Rotary, linear configurations.
+ The Rotary encoders are in two forms.
1. Absolute encoder
2. Incremental encoder.
1. Absolute Encoder:
+ The absolute encoder is designed to produce a digital word that

distinguishes
‘ N’ distinct positions of the shaft.
38
Fig. 1.15. Components of an optical

encoder
+ The Fig.1.15 shows the basic form of an absolute encoder.

+ The rotating disc has four concentric circles of slots and four sensors to
detect the light pulses.
+ The slots are arranged in such a way that the output is made in the
binary
code.
+ The number of bits in the binary number will be equal to the number of
tracks.
+ The most common types of numerical encoding used in the absolute
encoder are gray and natural binary codes.
+ To illustrate the action of an absolute encoder, the gray code and
natural binary code disk track patterns for a simple 4 track (4-bit)
encoder is shown in Fig.1.16
Fig. 1.16 4-bit gray code absolute encoder disk track

patterns
2. Incremental Encoder:
+ Working: A beam of light passes through the slots in a disc and it is
detected by a suitable light sensor.
+ When the disc is rotated, the output is shown in terms of pulses
and these pulses being proportional to the angle of disc rotation.
39
Fig. 1.17. Incremental
encoder
+ So the angular position of the disc is determined by the number of

pulses produced. In the above Fig. three tracks and three sensors are
used.
+ The inner track has just one hole and other two tracks have a series of
equally
spaced
holes.
+ The angle is determined by the number slots on the disc.
3.3 PROXIMITY SENSOR
+ A proximity simply tells the contra! system whether a moving part is

at a certain place.
+ Proximity sensors come under the non contact type sensors.
+ The following are the some of the proximity sensors.
1. Pneumatic proximity sensor:

+ Working: Low-pressure air is allowed and to escape through a port which
is placed in the front position of the sensor. This escaping air
reduces the pressure in the nearby sensor output port, when there is no
close by object.
Fig. 1.18. Pneumatic proximity

sensor
40
+ If there is a close by object means the air will not escape readily,
so the pressure increases in the sensor output port. This output
from the sensor depends on the proximity of objects.
2. Eddy current proximity sensors:
Fig. 1.19. Eddy current

sensor
+ Working: When alternating current is supplied to the coil

means the alternating magnetic field is produced. If there is a metal
object in close proximity to this alternating magnetic field the eddy
current is induced in it. This eddy current will produce a magnetic field
themselves and the impedance of the coil changes the amplitude of the
alternating current.
+ The above Fig. shows the basic form of such sensor and it is used
for the detection of non-magnetic conductive materials.
3. Inductive proximity switch:

+ It is used for the detection of metal objects and it consists of a coil
wound around a core.
+ The metal object is close to the coil means it will produce a inductance
change in the coil. This inductive change is being monitored.
4. Microswitch:
+ It is used for determining the presence of an item on a conveyor belt
and this might be actuated by the weight of the item on the belt
depressing the belt by a spring loaded platform nearer to the sensor
the presence of item in the conveyor is determined.
+ The closeness of switch is done by movement of this spring loaded
platform.
Fig. 1.20.
Microswitch
5. Reed switch:
+ It is a non-contact proximity switch. It is used for checking the
closure of doors.
41
+ It consists of two magnetic switch contacts sealed in a glass tube.
Fig. 1.21. Reed

switch
+ When a magnet is brought close to the switch, the magnetic reeds are
attracted each other and close the switch contacts.
4.0 VELOCITY AND MOTION:
To detect and monitor the velocity and motion the following sensors are used.
4.1 VELOCITY MEASUREMENT

+ Velocity sensors or tachogenerators are devices that give an
output proportional to angular velocity.
+ These sensors find wide application in motor speed control systems.
+ The following are the various velocity sensors.
1. Electro Magnetic Transducer,

+ The most commonly used transducer for measurement of linear
velocities is electromagnetic transducer.
+ The electromagnetic transducers are classified into two categories.
1. Moving Magnet Type:
2. Moving coil
type.
+ In moving magnet type the sensing element is a rod that is rigidly

coupled to the device whose velocity is being measured.
+ This rod is a permanent magnet. This permanent magnet is
surrounded by a coil.
+ The motion of the magnet induces a voltage in the coil and the
amplitude of the voltage is directly proportional to the velocity.
42
Fig. 2.22. Moving magnet type

transducer
2. Moving coil type velocity transducer:
+ It is operated through the action of a coil moving in a magnetic field.

+ A voltage generated in the coil is proportional to the velocity of the coil.
+ This is a more satisfactory arrangement due to it forms a closed
magnetic circuit with a constant air gap and the device is contained an
antimagnetic case which reduces the effects of stray magnetic field.
Fig. 2.23. Moving coil type velocity

transducer
3. Tachogenerators:
+ A sensor that converts speed of rotation directly into electrical signal is

called a tachogenerator.
+ It is used to convert angular speed into a directly dependent voltage signal.
(a) Toothed Rotor Variable Reluctance Tachogenerator:
+ It is used to measure angular velocity.
+ This tachogenerator consists of a metallic toothed rotor mounted on the
shaft whose speed is to be measured.
+ A magnetic pick up is placed near the toothed rotor and this magnetic pick
up
consists of a housing, and the housing containing a small permanent
43
magnet with a coil wound around it.
+ When the rotor rotates, the reluctance of the air gap between pickup and
the toothed rotor changes and the rise in e.m.f. is induced in the
pickup coil. Finally the output is in the form of pulses and wave shapes.
+ The pulses induced depend upon the number of teeth in the rotor
and the rotational speed. When the speed is known, the rotational
speed is calculated by measuring the frequency pulses.
Fig. 2.24. Toothed rotor tachometer

generator
+ Suppose the rotor has ‘ n’ teeth and the speed of rotation is ‘ N’

r.p.s. and number of pulses per second is ‘ p’ .
+ The number of pulses per revolution = ‘ n’ = n
The advantage of toothed rotor variable reluctance tachogenerator is the

information from this device can be easily transmitted and easy to calibrate.
4. A. C. Generator Form of Tachogenerator:

+ It consists of rotor, which rotates with the rotating shaft and a coil.
+ When the coil rotates in the magnetic field the e.m.f. is induced.
+ The magnet may be in the form of stationary permanent
magnet or electromagnet.
+ The frequency of this alternating e.m.f. is used to measure the
angular velocity.
+ The output voltage is rectified and it is measured with a permanent
magnet
moving coil (PMCC)
voltmeter.
44
Fig. 2.25. A.C Tachometer
generator
45
4.2 MOTION SENSORS
1. Stroboscope:
+ Stroboscope is a simple portable manually operated device for
periodic or rotary motions measurement.
+ It is a variable frequency flashing light instrument and the flashing is
set by the operator.
+ If a strong light is caused to flash on a moving object at the time
each flash occurs. The stroboscope occupies a given position, and the
object will appear to be stationary.
+ The flashing light whose frequency can be varied and controlled,
and this source is called strobotron.
2 Pyroelectric Sensors:
+ It consists of a polarised pyroelectric crystal with thin metal film
electrodes on opposite faces. (Pyro electric materials, e.g., lithium
tantalate are crystalline materials which generate charge in response to
heat flow. When such materials heated to about 610° C in an electric
field, the electric dipoles within the material line up and it becomes
polarised as shown in Fig.).
+ Due to the crystal is polarised with charged surfaces, the ions are
drawn from the surrounding air and electrons from any measurement
circuit is connected to the sensor to balance the surface charge as
shown in Fig.
+ For measurement of a human or heat source motion, the sensing
element has to differentiate between general background heat radiation
and a moving heat source. For that a single pyroelectric sensor is not
capable to use and dual pyroelectric sensors are used as shown in
Fig.
+ In this dual pyroelectric sensors the sensing element has the one
front electrode and two back electrodes. When two sensors being
connected means both sensors are receive the same heat signal and
their outputs are cancelled.
46
Fig. 2.26. Pyroelectric

sensors
47
+ Suppose a heat source moves from its position means the heat radiation
moves from one of the sensing elements to the other, then the current
is alternates in one direction first and then reversed to the other
direction second.
+ A moving human gives an alternating current of 1O A. When the
infrared radiation is incident on the dual pyroelectric sensor material and
changes its temperature, the polarisation in the crystal is reduced. A
focusing device is needed to direct the infrared radiation onto the
sensor.
5.0 FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS

+ The devices which are used to monitor fluid pressure in industrial
processes is diaphragms, bellows, capsules and tubes.
+ The types of pressure measurements required are
(1) Absolute pressure measurement,
(2) Differential pressure measurements.
+ In absolute pressure measurements the measurement is related to
vacuum pressure (zero pressure) and in differential pressure
measurement the difference in pressure is measured. The types of
pressure measurement devices are discussed below.
1. Diaphragms
+ In this the pressure to be measured is applied to the diaphragm, causing
it to deflect, and the deflection being proportional to the applied
pressure. This movement can be monitored by some form of
displacement sensor. (Example for displacement sensor is strain
gauge) and it is shown in Fig.2.27.
Fig. 2.27. Diaphragm pressure gauge
48
Fig. 2.28. Diaphragm type strain gauge pressure
transducer
+ A specially designed strain gauge is also used for measuring pressure

and it consisting of four strain gauges with, two measuring the strain in a
circumferential direction while remaining two measure strain in a
radial direction. The four strain gauges are connected to form the
arms of a wheatstone bridge a shown in Fig.2.28.
+ The deflection at any point is shown in terms of +ve and —ye sign. The
stress distribution on the diaphragm surface is almost ideal for
practical purposes, since both compressive and tensile stresses exit. So
this will allow the use of a four arm wheatstone bridge where all the
gauges are active and consequently there is a large output.
+ The strain gauges I and 4 are placed at close to the centre and oriented
to read tangential strain and its value is +ve maximum at this point.
+ The gauges 2 and 3 are oriented to read radial strain and it is placed
close to the edge as possible.
2. Bellows
+ A metallic bellows is a series of circular parts as shown in Fig.2.29
and the parts are formed or joined in such a manner that they are
expanded or contracted axially by change in pressure.
Fig. 2.29.
49
+ The Fig.2.30 shows the bellows can be combined with a LVDT to
give a pressure sensor with an electrical output.
+ The bellows are made up of materials like stainless steel, phosphor
bronze, nickel, rubber and nylon.
+ The output pressure is calibrated through the LVDT.
Fig. 2.30. L VDT with

bellows
3. Capsule
Fig. 2.31.
Capsule
+ Capsules are one of the pressure measuring device and it can be

considered to be just two corrugated diaphragms combined and give
even greater sensitivity.
+ The capsules are more sensitive in measuring pressure.
4. Tube Pressure Sensors
Fig. 2.32. Tube pressure

sensors
+ In tube pressure measurement the increase in pressure in a tube is

cause the tube in circular cross-section. It is shown in the above Fig.
The tubes having greater sensitivity while the pressure increases.
+ The tubes are made up of stainless steel and phosphor bronze.
5. Tactile Sensor
51
+ It is one form of pressure sensor and it is used to determine the pressure
in
Robotics in such a form fingertips of robotics contact with the
object.
52
+ These type of sensors also used in ‘ touch display screens’ where
physical contacts to be sensed.
+ The above Fig.2.33 shows the one form of tactile sensor.
+ It uses piezo electric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film.
+ There are two layers of such film is used and it is separated by a
soft film which transmits vibrations.
Fig. 2.33. PVDF tactile

sensor
+ The alternating voltage is supplied in the lower PVDF film and this
results in mechanical oscillations of the film.
+ The intermediate film transmits these vibrations to the upper PVDF film.
+ Due to the piezoelectric effect the vibrations formed are cause an
alternating voltage to be produced across the upper film.
+ So the pressure is applied to the upper PVDF film and its vibrations
are
affected the output voltage.
6. Piezoelectric sensor
Fig. 2.34. Sensor equivalent

circuit
+ The electrical circuit for a piezo electric sensor is a charge

generator in parallel with capacitance Cs and in parallel with Resistance
Rs.
+ The effective circuit is as shown by the Fig. when the sensor is
connected via a cable of capacitance C and resistance RA.
+ The sensor is charged subject to pressure change and the
capacitor will discharge with time. The discharge time depends on the
time constant of the circuit.
LIQUID FLOW SENSORS

+ There are many devices used to measure the liquid flow.
+ The basic principle in measuring flow is the fluid flowing through the pipe
per second is proportional to square root of pressure difference.
+ The following flow measuring devices are used to measure the liquid flow.
53
1. Turbine Flowmeter
+ The Fig.2.35 shows the turbine flowmeter and it consists of a multi-
bladed rotor which is supported in the pipe along with the flow occurs.
+ The rotor rotation depends upon the fluid flow and the angular
velocity is proportional to the flow rate.
+ The rotor rotation is determined y the magnetic pick-up, which is
connected to the coil.
+ The revolution of the rotor is determined by counting the number of
pulses produced in the magnetic pick up. The accuracy of this
instrument is ± 3%.
Fig.
2.35.
2. Orifice Plate
+ It is a simple disc with a central hole and it is placed in the tube through
which the fluid flow.
Fig. 2.36. Orifice

plate
+ From the above Fig.2.36 the pressure difference measured between

a point equal to the diameter of the tube upstream and half the
diameter of down stream.
+ The accuracy of this instrument is ±1.5%.
LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT

The liquid level measurement is done by using
1. Differential pressure sensor and
2. Float system.
54
1. Differential Pressure Sensor
+ In this the differential pressure cell determines the pressure difference
between base of the liquid and atmospheric pressure.
+ The differential pressure sensor can be used in either form of open or
closed vessel system.
Fig.
2.37.
2. Float System
+ In this method the level of liquid is measured by movement of a float.
+ The movement of float rotates the arm and slider will move across
a potentiometer.
+ The output result is related to the height of the liquid.
Fig.
2.38.
6.0 TEMPERATURE SENSORS

+ Temperature measurements are amongst the most common and
the most important measurements made in controlling industrial
processes.
+ Changes that are commonly used to monitor temperature are, the
expansion or contraction of solids, liquids or gases, the change in
electrical resistance of conductors, semiconductors and
thermoelectric e.m.f.s. The control system which are used to measure
the temperature is as follows
1 Thermocouples
+ The most common electrical method of temperature measurement
uses the thermocouples.
+ The basic principle of this is, if two different metals are joined
together, a potentiometer difference occurs across the junction.
+ The potential difference depends on the metals used and the
temperature of the junction.
+ When both junctions are at the same temperature, there is no net e.ni.f.
But if there is a difference in temperature between the junction the
e.m.f. will be produced.
55
+
Fig. 2.39.
Thermocouple
+ There are three e.m.f.s present in a thermoelectric circuit. In this the

Seebeck e.m.f. is caused by the junction of dissimilar metals and the
Pettier e.m.f. is caused by a current flow in the circuit, and the Thomson
e.m.f. which results from a temperature gradient in the materials.
+ It is observed that all thermocouple circuits must involve at
least two junctions. In that one of the junctions senses the desired
or unknown temperature.
+ This junction is called the hot or measuring junction. The other
junction is usually maintained at a known fixed temperature and this
junction is called the cold or reference junction.
+ If the temperature of the reference or cold junction is known, the
temperature of the hot or the measuring junction can be
calculated by using the thermoelectric properties of the materials.
+ If thermocouple circuit can have other metals in the circuit and they will
have
no effect on the thermoelectric e.m.f.
+ A thermocouple can be used with the reference junction at a
temperature other than
+ 0° C.
+ For that we assume a 0° C junction and the correction has to be
applied using the law of intermediate temperatures.
The equation used in this is
Fig. 2.41. Las’ of intermediate

temperature
57
+ Here to maintain the 0° C at one junction a compensation circuit is
Used to provide an e.m.f. which varies with the temperature of the cold
junction.
+ When it is added to the thermocouple e.m.f. it will generate a combined
e.m.f.
This is shown in Fig.2.42.
Fig. 2.42. Compensation thermocouple
+ In the above Fig.2.42, the wires from the measuring junction are
screwed directly to an isothermal block terminal strip.
+ The temperature of the block is ambient temperature.
+ This reference temperature is measured by semiconductor
sensor and compensation circuitry develops a voltage Ecomp which
is combined with measuring junction and the net voltage across the
voltmeter = T (Temperature being measured).
+ The isothermal block can accept many thermocouple pairs in
multichannel instruments with microprocessor computing power
since the T (reference junction sensor now sends its temperature
data to the computer which computes the needed voltage correction
for each thermocouple.
+ The thermocouples like E, J, K and T are relatively cheap and it has
accuracies
of about ± ito 3%.
+ The noble metal thermocouples are very high cost compared with this
and it has accuracies of about ±1% better than the base metal
thermocouples.
+ Thermocouples are used in applications ranging from measurement
of room air temperature to that of a liquid metal bath. The problems
which may be encountered are
1. Faulty reference junction,
2. Installation faults,
3. Junctions formed by users may involve excessive temperatures
or faulty soldering techniques,
4. Gross errors can result due to wrong installation of thermocouple.
2. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
+ Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) or resistance thermometers

are basic instruments for measurement of resistance.
+ The materials used for RTDs are Nickel, Iron, Platinum, Copper,
58
Lead,
Tungsten, Mercury, Manganin, Silver, etc.
+ The resistance of most metals increases over a limited temperature
range and the relationship between Resistance and Temperature is
shown below.
+
Fig. 2.43. Resistance temperature
detector
+ The Resistance temperature detectors are simple, and resistive

elements in the form of coils of wire and it is shown in the above
Fig.2.44.
+ The equation which is used to find the linear relationship in RTD is
Fig. 2.44. RTD

element
Constructional Details ofRTDs:

+ The platinum, nickel and copper in the form wire are the most
commonly used materials in the RTDs.
+ Thin film platinum elements are often made by depositing the metal on
a
suitable substrate wire- wound elements involving a platinum wire
held by a high temperature glass adhesive inside a ceramic tube.
+ This is shown in Fig.2.45.
Fig. 2.45.
60
Salient Features ofRTDs:
1. High degree of accuracy.
2. Resistance thermometer is interchangeable in a process without
compensation or recalibration.
3. It is normally designed for fast response as well as accuracy to
provide close control of processes.
3. Thermistors
+ Thermistor is a semiconductor device that has a negative
temperature coefficient of resistance in contrast to positive coefficient
displayed by most metals.
+ Thermistors are small pieces of material made from mixtures of metal
oxides,
such as Iron, cobalt, chromium, Nickel, and Manganese.
+ The shape of the materials is in terms of discs, beads and rods.
+ The thermistor is an extremely sensitive device because its resistance
changes rapidly with temperature.
+ The resistance of conventional metal-oxide thermistors decreases in
a very non-linear manner with an increase in temperature is shown in
the Fig.2.46 below.
+ The change in resistance per degree change in temperature is
considerably
larger than that which occurs with metals.
Fig. 2.46.
Thermistors
+ The simple series circuit for measurement of temperature using a

thermistor and the variation of resistance with temperature for a
typical thermistor is shown in the below Fig.2.47.
Fig. 2.47.
Thermistor
+ The thermistor is an extremely sensitive device because its resistance

changes rapidly with temperature.
+ Thermistors have many advantages when compared with other
temperature sensors.
+ The main disadvantage is highly non-linear behaviour.
61
4. Thermodiodes and Transistors
(a) Thermodiodes:
+ Thermodiode is widely used method for measuring temperature.
When the temperature of doped semiconductors changes, the
mobility of their charge carriers changes and this affects the rate at
which electrons and holes can diffuse across ap-n junction.
1. Measurement of temperature,
2. Control of temperature,
3. Temperature compensation,
4. Measurement of thermal conductivity,
5. Measurement of power at high frequencies,
6. Measurement of composition of gases,
7. Providing time delay,
8. Vacuum measurements.
+ The difference in voltage and current through the junction is a function of

the temperature. The equation which is used to find the I is
+ From the above equation the voltage ‘ V’ is proportional to the

temperature on Kelvin scale and the potential difference
measurement across a diode at constant current is used to measure
the temperature.
(b) Transistor:
+ In Thermo transistor the voltage across the junction between the base
and the emitter depends on the temperature.
+ A common method is use of two transistors with different collector
current
and finding the difference in the base-emitter voltages between them,
and this difference is the measure of temperature.
Fig. 2.48.
Transistor
+ The thermotransistors can be combined with circuit components on a

single chip to give a temperature sensor.
+ This is shown in the above Fig.2.48.
62
5. Bimetallic
strips
Fig. 2.49. Bimetallic thermostat
+ A Bimetallic thermostat consists of two different metal strips

bounded together and they cannot move relative to each other.
+ These metals have different coefficients of expansion and
when the temperature changes the composite strips bends into a
curved strip, with the higher coefficient metal on the outside of the curve.
+ The basic principle in this is all metals try to change their physical
dimensions at different rates when subjected to same change in
temperature.
+ This deformation may be used as a temperature- controlled switch, as in
the simple thermostat.
+ The Fig.2.49 shows the Bimetallic thermostat which was commonly used
with domestic heating systems.
7.0 LIGHT SENSORS

1. Photodiodes
+ Diodes like photodiodes and semiconductor diodes are connected into
a circuit in reverse bias giving a very high resistance.
+ When light falls on the junction the resistance of the diode will drop and
the current in the circuit will rise.
Fig.
2.50.
63
+ If the diode is sufficiently reverse biased, it will breakdown.
+ The current passing through the diode when forward biased only.
+ If an A.C. voltage is applied across a diode, it can be regarded
as only switching on when forward bias it and being off in the reverse
direction.
+ The photodiodes have a very fast response to light and it can be
used as a variable resistance device controlled by the light incident on
it.
2. Photo Transistors
The transistors are come in two forms 1. npn, 2. pnp.
Fig.
2.51.
+ The main current flows in at the collector and out at the emitter
in npn transistor.
+ The main current flowing in at the emitter and out at the collector in
pnp
transistor
.
+ The phototransistors have a light sensitive collector-base p-n junction.
+ There is a very small collector to emitter current when there is no
incident light. Suppose the light is incident a base current is produced
and it is proportional to the light intensity.
+ So this will produce a collector current and it is used for measure of the
light
intensity.
+ The example for photo transistors is photo Darlington arrangement.
Fig. 2.52. Photo Darlington

arrangement
3. The Photo Resistor

+ Its resistance depends on the intensity of light falling on it, and the
resistance will decrease linearly as the intensity increases.
+ The photoresistor like cadmium sulphide has most responsive to
65
the light having wavelengths of about 520 mm to 700 mm.
4. Array of Light Sensors
+ This will be used in small space like rooms to determine the variations
of light intensity across that space.
e.g., Automatic camera
66
8.0 SELECTION OF SENSORS
The factors to be considered while selecting sensors are
1. The nature of output required from the sensor.

2. The nature of measurement required.
3. The accuracy of the sensor.
4. The cost of the sensor.
5. The power requirement of the sensor.
6. The speed response of the sensor.
7. The linearity of the sensor.
8. The Reliability and Maintainability of the sensor.
9. Environmental conditions under which the measurement is to be made.
10. Signal conditioning requirements.
11. The nominal and range of values of the sensor.
12. Suitable output signals from the measurement.
PART- A
1. What is the use of sensors and transducers?

2. Differentiate between Range and Span.
3. Give the formula for finding the repeatability of a transducer.
4. What is hysteresis error?
5. What is the difference between ‘ Accuracy’ and ‘ Precision’ ?
6. What is threshold?
7. What is Dead time and Dead zone?
8. What is resolution?
9. What is Rise time and Settling time?
10. What is meant by Hall effect?
11. What are the velocity and motion sensors?
12. What is non-linearity error?
13. Give the example for measuring force.
14. What are the fluid pressure sensors?
15. What are the liquid flow measuring devices?
16. What are the two types diaphragms?
17. What are the Temperature measuring devices?
18. Give the example for light sensors.
19. What is the basic principle in thermocouples?
20. Give some materials used in thermocouples
21. What is offset voltage of an operational amplifier
22. What is the equation for V of an integrator?
23. What is a precision diode?
67
24. What is a
comparator?
25. Name an application of a Schmitt trigger.
26. Why integrators are preferred over differentiators in analog
computers?
27. What is a voltage follower?
28. What is the advantage of CMOS Schmitt trigger?
PART-B
1. Explain the terminologies used in transducers.
2. What are all the displacement sensors? Explain each one briefly.
3. Explain the position sensors with neat figure.
4. Define proximity and explain the proximity sensors.
5. What are all the velocity and Motion sensors?
6. How the pressure is measured? Explain the pressure sensors neatly.
7. Explain the temperature measurement sensors.
8. Explain the light sensors with neat figure.
9. What are all the points to be considered while selecting the sensors?
10. Explain the signal processing.
11. Explain some applications of operational amplifier.
12. Explain the operation of successive approximation ADC.
13. How do a dual slope ADC and single slope ADC differ?
14. What is Flash ADC ? Discuss.
15. Explain the construction of R-DR ladder DAC.
16. Discuss the various terms associated with ADC.
68
MECHATRONICS (UNIT – IV)
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

A programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is defined as a digital electronic
device that uses a programmable memory to store instructions and to implement
functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic in order to
control machines and processes.
Features of PLC as a Controller:

PLC’s are rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity and
noise. The interfacing for inputs and output is inside the controller. PLC’s are easily
programmable and have an easily understandable programming language.
Programming is primarily concerned with logic and
Switching operations.
BASIC STRUCTURE
The fig. shows the basic internal structure of a PLC. It consists essentially of a central
processing unit (CPU), memory and input/output (I/0) circuitry. The CPU controls and
processes all the operations within the PLC. It is supplied with a clock of frequency
typically between 1 and 8 MHz. This frequency determines the operating speed of the
PLC and provides the timing and synchronization for all elements in the system. A
bus system carries information and data to and from the CPU, memory and
input/output units. There are several memory elements: a system ROM to give
permanent storage for the operating system and fixed data; RAM for the user's
program, and temporary buffer storage for I/0 channels. The programs in RAM can be
changed by the user. However, to prevent the loss of these programs during power
failure, a battery is likely to be used in the PLC to hold the RAM contents for a period
of time.
1
After a program has been developed in RAM, it may be loaded into an EPROM
memory chip and so made permanent. The I/0 unit provides the interface between the
system and the outside world. Programs are entered into the system through input
devices like key pad or sometimes through Personal Computer (PC) which is loaded
with an appropriate software package. The I/0 channels have signal conditioning and
isolation units, so that sensors and actuators can be generally directly connected to
them without the need for any other circuitry. The figure shows the basic form of an
input channel. Common input voltages are 5V and 24VCommon output voltages are
24V and 240V.
2
There are three types of output
1) Relay type.
2) Transistor type.
3) Triac type
1) Relay Type
With relay type, the signal from the PLC output is used to operate a relay and so is
able to switch currents of the order of few amperes in an external circuit. The relay
isolates the PLC from the external circuit and can be used for both d.c and a.c
switching Relays are relatively slow to operate.
2) Transistor type
The transistor type of output (fig) uses a transistor to switch current through the
external circuit. This provides a faster switching action. Opto isolators are used with
transistor switches to provide isolation between the external circuit and the PLC. The
transistor output is only for D.C. switching.
3) Triac type:
Triac outputs can be used to control external loads which are connected to the a.c.
power supply. Opto isolators are again used to provide isolation.
3
INPUT / OUTPUT PROCESSING
The programming commonly used with PLC is ladder programming. This involves
each program task being specified as through a rung of a ladder. This each rung
could be specify that the state of switches A&B.The inputs, be examined and if A&B
are both closed then a solenoid, the output is energized. The sequence followed by a
PLC when carrying out a program can be as follows
1. Scan the inputs associated with one rung of the ladder program.
2. Solve the logic operation involving those inputs.
3. Set/reset the output for that rung.
4. Move on the next rung and repeat the operations 1, 2, 3.
Thus a PLC is continuously running through its program and updating it as a result of
input signal. Each such loop is termed as cycle. This continues until the program is
competed.
There are two methods that can be used for I/0 processing:
1. Continuous updating
In this method, the CPU scans input channels as they occurring the program
instructions. Each input is examined individually and its effect on the program
determined. there involves a time delay, typically about 3 ms, when each input is
scanned in order to ensure that only valid input signals are read by the
microprocessor.
This delay enable CPU to avoid counting an input signal twice, A number of inputs
may have to be scanned, each with a 3 ms delay, before the program has the
instruction for a logic operation to be executed and an output to occur. The outputs
are latched so that they retain their status until the next update. The 3 ms built-in
delay for each input is, for ensuring the signals read by the CPU is the valid one. or
more frequently, if there is contact bounce at a switch.
2. Mass I/0 Copying
In the above method, with 3 ms delay on each input, the time taken to examine
several hundred I/0 points can become comparatively long. To allow a more rapid
execution of a program, a specific area of RAM is used as a buffer store between the
control logic and I/0 units. Each I/0 have and address in this memory. At the start of
each program is executed the stored input data is read, as required, from RAM and
the logic operations carried out. The resulting output signals are stored in the
4
reserved I/0 section RAM. At the end of each program cycle, all the outputs are
transferred from RAM to the output channels. The outputs are latched so that they
retain their status until the next update.
PROGRAMMING
Ladder diagram
PLC’s are programmed using ladder diagram techniques. A special standard
schematic representation of the physical components arrangement (hardware) and its
way of connections made between them is called as ladder diagram. These are line
diagram the represent both the system hardware and the process controller.
A ladder diagram consists of two vertical lines called power power rails are connected
along with I/O devices and other components as horizontal lines between the two
vertical lines known as rungs.
Rules followed in ladder diagram
1. The vertical lines of the diagram represent the power rails, and the horizontal lines
representing the rungs.
2. Each rung on the ladder defines one operation in the control process.
3. A ladder diagram must read from left to right and from top to bottom. when the
scanning of first rung is completed then the second rung starts from left to right.
4. Each rung must start with an input and must end with an output.
5. Each rung must have more than one input but only one output.
6. The input must always located at the rung left and the output at the right end of the
rung.
7. Electrical devices are shown in their normal condition.
Ladder diagram can be entering from a monitor screen by using mouse. When
entered, they translated by the PLC into machine language for microprocessor to
understand it. The nature of input determines whether the output is to be energized or
not.
The Ladder programming is one of the basic forms of programming commonly used
with PLC’s. In this type of programming, each program task being specified as though
a rung of ladder. Circuits are connected between these two vertical lines as horizontal
lines, i.e. the rungs of the ladder. Fig. shows the basic symbols that are used in the
ladder diagram.
5
Ladder Symbols
Precede outputs and depending on, the different PLC manufacturer, different
notations are used. For example, the Mitsubishi F series of PLC’s precedes inputs
elements by an X and output elements by a Y and uses the following numbers:
Numbering schemes are followed for inputs and outputs and depending on, the
different PLC manufacturer, different notations are used. For example, the Mitsubishi
F series of PLC’s precedes inputs elements by an X and output elements by a Y and
uses the following numbers:
Inputs X300 - 307,310 - 313
X600 - 607,610 - 61 3
(24 possible inputs)
Outputs Y330-337
Y 430 - 437
(1 6 possible outputs)
To illustrate the drawing of a ladder diagram, consider a situation where the output
from the PLC is to energies a solenoid when a normally open start switch connected
to the input is activated by being closed (Fig. (a)). the program required is shown in
Fig. (b).
6
Starting with the input, we have the normally open symbol 11. This might have an
input addressX400. The line terminates with the output, the solenoid, with the symbol
0. This might have the output address Y430. To indicate the end of the program the
end rung is marked. When the switch is closed the solenoid is activated. This might,
for example, be a solenoid valve which opens to allow water to enter a vessel.
LOGIC FUNCTIONS
Logic functions may be obtained through various combinations of switches. Also it is
explained how one can write ladder program using such combinations.
1. And function
Only when both the switches are closed simultaneously, the lamp will be lit, otherwise
it is put off. Thus, this situation corresponds to an AND logic function. The ladder
diagram representing the AND function is shown in Fig.(b). The switches A and B are
represented as input 1 and input 2 and lamp is represented as an output.
2. OR function
Consider a situation shown in Fig.
7
If either one of the switch A or B is closed, then the lamp will be lit. If both switches
are opened simultaneously, then lamp will be put off. This situation Corresponds to an
OR system. The ladder diagram representing the OR function is shown in fig.(b) The
switches A and B are represented as output.
3. Nor function
Consider a situation show in Fig. (a)
When neither A nor B have an input (i.e., neither switch A nor switch B is opened) the
lamp will be lit. When there is input to A or B (i.e., if switch A or B is opened) the lamp
will be put off. This situation corresponds to a NOR system. The ladder diagram
representing NOR function is shown in Fig. (b) Switch A and B are represented as
input 1 and input 2; and lamp is represented as output. In this case the switches A
and B are normally closed. When input occurs, the corresponding switch is opened.
There will be output if neither of the input occurs. There will not be output if any of the
input occurs.
4. NAND Function
Consider a situation show in Fig. (a)
8
The lamp will not be lit, when both A and B have input simultaneously (i.e., when both
are opened simultaneously the lamp will be lit if both inputs did not occur
simultaneously (i.e., when both are not opened simultaneously). The ladder diagram
is shown in Fig. (b)
5. EXCLUSIVE-OR (XOR) function
Consider a situation shown in Fig. (a) In this system, there will be output (i.e., the
lamp will be lit) if any one of the input occurs. There will not be output if both inputs
occur or if both do not occur. The ladder diagram is shown in Fig (b) Note that, it is
represented, each input by two sets of contacts, one normally open and one normally
closed.
LATCHING
There are often situation where it is necessary to hold a coil energized, even when
the input which energized it ceases. The term latch circuit is used for the circuit used
to carry out such and operation. It is a self-maintaining circuit in that, after being
energized, it maintains that state until another input is received. It remembers its last
state.
An example of a latch circuit is shown in Fig (a) when input 1 is energized and closes,
there is an output. However, when there is an output, a set of contacts associated
with the output is energized and closes. These contact OR the input 1 contacts. Thus,
even if input 1 contact open, the circuit will still maintain the output energized. The
only way to release the output is by operating the normally closed contact input 2.As
an example of the use of a latching circuit, consider the requirement for a PLC to
9
control a motor so that when the start signal button is momentarily pressed the motor
starts and when the stop switch is used the motor switches off, signal lamps
indicating when the motor is off and when on. Figure B shows a possible program.
With no inputs, the signal lamp for the motor indicates that it is off.
The motor contacts which are normally closed have the off lamp on. When the start
button is pressed, the normally open contacts are closed and the motor switched on.
This is latched on by the motors contact in parallel with the start contacts. Also, other
motor contacts which are normally closed opens and the off lamp goes off and motor
contacts which are normally open closes and the on lamp goes on. The motor is
stopped by the stop switch which opens the previously closed contacts.
SEQUENCING
There are often control situations where sequences of outputs are required, with the
switch from one output to another being controlled by sensors.
10
Consider the requirement for a ladder program for a pneumatic system (Fig) with
double solenoid valves controlling two double-acting cylinders A and B if limit
switches a-, a+, b-, b+ are used to detect the limits of the piston rod movements in the
cylinders and the cylinder activation sequence A+, B+, A-, B- is required.
Fig. shows a possible program. A start switch input has been included in the first
rung. Thus cylinder extension for A, i.e., the solenoid A+ energized, only occurs when
the start switch is closed and the b- switch is closed, this switch indicating that the B
cylinder is retracted. When cylinder A is extended, the switch a+, which indicates the
extension of A, is activated. This then leads to an output to solenoid B+ which results
in B extending. This closes the switch indicating the extension of B, i.e. the b+ switch,
and leads to the output to solenoid A-. and the retraction of cylinder A.
This retraction closes limit switch a- and so gives the output to solenoid B- which
results in B retracting. This concludes the program cycle and leads to the first rung
again, which await the closure of the start switch before being repeated.
MNEMONICS
Each horizontal rug on the ladder in a ladder program represents a line in the
program and the entire ladder gives the complete program in 'ladder language'. The
programmer can enter the program into the PLC using a keyboard with the graphic
symbols for the ladder elements, or using a computer screen and a mouse to select
11
symbols, and the program panel or computer then translates these symbols into
machine language that can be stored in the PLC memory.
There is an alternative way of entering a program and that is to translate the ladder
program into mnemonics, each code corresponding to a ladder element, and then
enter these into the programming panel or computer. These are then translated into
machine language. The mnemonics used by different PLC manufacturers differ. For
the Mitsubishi F series PLCs, mnemonics use are:
LD -Start a rung with an open contact
OUT -An output
AND -A series element and so an AND logic instruction
OR -Parallel elements and so an OR logic instruction
I -A NOT logic instruction
.... I -Used in conjunction with other instructions to indicate the
inverse
OR1 -An OR NOT logic function
AN1 -An AND NOT logic function
LDI - Start a rung with a closed contact
ANB -AND used with two sub circuits
ORB -OR used with two sub circuits
RST -Reset shift register/counter
SHF -Shift
K - Insert a constant
END -End ladder
The following examples show how individual rungs on a ladder are entered.
The AND gate shown in Fig. would be entered as :
An AND System
12
An OR System
An NAND System
An NOR System
An XOR System
13
TIMERS
When timer circuits are activated, they result in closing or opening of input contacts
after some preset time. Fig. shows part of a program involving a delay-on timer.
When input occurs, the timer is activated, and after some preset time, the contacts
associated with timers close and output occurs. When we want to introduce larger
time delays, it may not be possible with one timer circuit, hence we may cascade
more timers as shown in Fig.
When input contacts close, timer 1 is activated; after its time delay, its contacts close
and timer 2 is activated; after its time delay, its contacts close and output occurs.
ON-OFF CYCLIC TIMER
14
Normally PLC’s are provided with delay-on timer. The diagram shown in Fig.
Explains how a delay-off timer can be devised. When the input contacts are
momentarily closed, the output is energized and the timer is activated. The outputs
contacts and latch the input and keep the output on. After the reset time of the timer,
the timer contact breaks the latch circuits and hence the output is put off.
INTERNAL RELAYS
The terms internal relay, auxiliary relay and marker is considered as internal relay in
the PLC. In reality they are not Relays. How ever they are simulated by the software
within the PLC. They are useful in implementing switching sequences. Internal relays
are used in a situation where occurrence of output depends on two different input
arrangements. Fig. shows the ladder diagram for such an arrangement. In the
diagram, first rung shows one input arrangement used to control the internal relay
IR1. The second rung shows the other input arrangement used to control the internal
15
relay IR2. The contacts of the two relays are to control the output. Another use of
internal relays is for the starting of multiple outputs.
Fig. shows the ladder diagram. When start contacts are closed, the internal relay is
activated and latches the input. It also starts output 1 and makes it possible for
outputs2 and 3 to be activated.
Another example of use of internal relay is resetting a latch. Fig. shows the ladder
diagram. When the input 1 is momentarily pressed, the output occurs. Then the
output is latched. The output can be unlatched by opening the internal relay contact.
This can happen by the close of input 2 contacts.
16
COUNTERS
As the name implies, counters are used for counting operations. It is an in-built
operation in any PLC. For example, in a packaging section of an industry, assume
that the finished products are passing along a conveyor into boxes. The counters can
be used to count how many products have passed into one box, so that the next box
can be replaced after a particular count.
Two types of counters are possible, namely, up-counter and down-counter. In the
down counter the counter counts down a preset value to zero, whereas in the up
counter the counter starts from zero and count up to a preset value. In both the
cases, as tie counter operation comes to an end, its 'contact' changes state, i.e., it
may close or open.
17
The counter is basically represented by a rectangle spanning two lines. (Refer fig.)
One line is used to reset the counter. The other line is used as 'OUT' line and the
symbol K10indicates that the counter contact will change state on the 10th count.
When the input 1 closes momentarily, the counter is reset to the set value, in this
case '10'. Now the counter starts counting as the input 2 closes and opens. When the
input 2closes and opens for 10 times, then the counter contact close and the output is
switched on. In case, before 10 pulses are received from input 2, if input 1
momentarily closes, then the counter will reset back to 10.
Example: Draw a ladder diagram to direct 6 items along path 1 for packaging in a box
and then 12 items along path 2for packaging in another box.
Two counters are used. One counter is used to count six and another to count twelve.
When input 1 momentarily closes, both counters are reset and preset to their
respective counts 6and 12. As items pass up to to the junction in the paths, input
18
2contacts can be made to close and open. After 6 items pass into one box, counter 1
contact closes and activates the output which in turn closes one path and opens
another. Counter 1also has contacts which close and enables counter 2 to start
counting. When counter 2 has counted 12 items it resets both counters and opens
counter 1 contacts which deactivates the output and the items will start falling into 6
items box.
SHIFT REGISTERS:
A number of internal relays can be grouped together to forma register which can
provide a storage area for a series of sequence of individual bits.
Registers are used to store a bit sequence, for example a4-bit sequence 1101 can be
stored using 4 internal registers. Similarly an eight-bit sequence can be stored using
eight internal registers. A number of internal relays can be grouped together to form a
register array.
In shift registers the bits are shifted along the register array by one bit when there is a
suitable input fed to the register. Consider a 4 bit shift register with its bit sequence as
Assume. a 0 is fet to this shift register, then the bits are shifted along the register by
one bit and the last bit overflows:
When the 'shift register' function is selected at the control panel of a PLC, then a
number of auxiliary registers are automatically grouped together to form a shift
register. In Mitsubishi PLC a programming function 'SFT' is to be used against the
auxiliary relay number, which is the first in the register array. For example if it is a 4-
bitregister to be formed, and if we select M 140 to be the first relay number then
automatically, the 4consecutive relays fromM140 will be assigned to form a 4-bit shift
register, ie M140, MI41, MI42 andMI43. A shift register has three inputs, namely OUT
SFT1 and RST. OUT is used to load data into the first element of the shift register.
SFT in used to shift the bits by one bit and RST (Reset) in used to clear all the bits of
the shift register to 0.
19
MASTER AND JUMP CONTROLS:
Master Relay:
More than one output or a block outputs arranged in each output rung can be
simultaneously turn off or on by using one internal relay contact. If this single relay
contact is switched on or off, then it affects every one of the rungs. When the contact
input 1 close then master relay MC1 is activated and simultaneously the block
m
program rungs controlled by the relay MC1 follows. In the ladder shown, OUTI, OUT2
& OUT3 also simultaneously activated. The end of master relay controller section is
indicated by the reset MCR.
.c o
When contact input 2 close then master relay MC2 is activated and simultaneously
the block program rungs controlled by the relay MC2 follows. If there are no inputs to
input 1 &2, then the next input to be checked is for input 9 whose controlled output is
OUT 6. Therefore this branching program operates as -there is input I, then branch to
tas
follow MC1 controlled path, input 2, then branch to follow MC2 controlled path,
otherwise neither input occurs follow the rest of the program & ignore the branches.
In a Mitsubishi PLC, an internal relay can be assigned as a master control relay by
lda
programming it. The instruction MCMI00 is used to program as internal relay MI00 as
master control relay. To indicate the end of master relay controlled section, the
instruction MCR MI00 is used.
ivi
Jumps
Conditional Jump is a function provided in PLCs.

.C
If a certain condition exists, then a section of the program

is ignored and the program control is jumped. In the ladder
diagram shown, program A is followed by input1 and the
w
conditional jump relay CJP. If input 1 is OFF, the

program B follows. The end of program B is indicated by
ww
EJP end of jump relay coil. If input 1 is ON, then the

program jumps to the program 'C' skipping program B.
20
m
.c o
DATA HANDLING: tas
In some cases, it may be required to deal with related group of bits, i.e. a block of
eight inputs and operate on them as data word. The operations that may be carried
lda
out with a PLC on data words normally include.
1. Data movement
2. Data comparison
3. Arithmetic operations
ivi
4. Conversions between BCD, binary & octal.

We know that the individual bits are stored in memory locations specified by unique
addresses. These addresses are preceded by the letter 'A'. The PLC memory
.C
locations allocate for data storage are called data registers. Each data register can
store either 8 bits or 16 bits & its address may be specified as DO, Dl, D2 etc. Every
instruction has three parts-one specify the source data register, second to specify the
w
destination data register and third to specify the 'operation' to be performed on the
data.
ww
Data movement
Data movement instruction has move instruction, source address of the data and
destination address of the data. For example, to move from Dl to D2,
21
m
Data Comparison:
Data comparisons include less than (<or LES), equal to (=orEQU), less than or equal
to (or LEQ), greater than (> or GRT), greater than or equal to (  or GEQ) and not
.c o
equal to (# or <> or NEQ)
tas
lda
For example to compare the data available in Dl & D2, the ladder program rung would
be of the form shown in fig.
Example: Draw a ladder diagram that the alarm keeps sounding when the sensor
temperature is above 80°C and stops sounding when the temperature falls below
ivi
70°C.
The sensor temperature is fed as input data to the source address. The destination
address has the set value, here it80°C. When the input temperature rises to 80°C or
above, the source data becomes greater than or equal to destination data and output
.C
alarm sound which in turn is latched in the input. When the temperature falls to 70°C
or lower, the source data is less than or equal to destination data (shown in second
w
rung of the ladder) and IR output occurs. Now in the first line (the ladder, the IR
contact opens and alarm is switched off.
ww
22
Arithmetic Operations:
Addition and subtraction operations are commonly found in all PLCs. Even more
arithmetic operations are possible in some PLCs. ADDISUB instruction contains
address of the addend, augend and the result registers along with the arithmetic
operation to be performed. These operations may be used to change the preset
m
values of the timers or counters.
.c o
Code Conversions:
tas
In a PLC, all the internal operations are carried out in binary form only. However, it
lda
may be required to handle decimal or octal numbers at the input or output in which
case a conversion from binary to decimal to octal or a conversion from decimal/octal
to binary is required. For example to convert a BCD number in the source register to
a binary number and store the result in destination register, refer the fig.
ivi
.C
ANALOG INPUT/OUTPUT:
w
In PLCs, analog signals might be given as inputs and the actuators at the output
might also require analogue signals. in such cases, an analog-to-digital converters &
ww
digital-to-analog converters may be used at the input & output channel respectively.
Example 1 : Draw a ladder diagram to show the speed of motor increasing at a
steady rate from zero to its maximum value :
23
An on/off switch is used at the input. When the switch is in OFF position, the data
register has 'OO', as its contents and hence DAC output is zero & so the motor is at
zero speed. But as the switch closes, the data register is incremented. As the
program loops through theses two rungs of the ladder, the data register keeps
incrementing by one, &the DAC output increases steadily and hence the motor
speeds up at a steady rate. The motor reaches its full speed when the data register
contents has the word 11111111.
SELECTION OF A PLC:
The factors to be considered in selecting a PLC for a particular task are:

1. Input/output capacity and its expansion capability for future needs.
2. Types of inputs/outputs required, i.e. isolation, on-board power supply for I/0, signal
conditioning, etc.
3. The size of memory required.
4. The speed and power of the CPU. This is related to the number of instructions that
can be handled by a PLC.
As the types of I10 increases or/and the number of I/0 increases, the faster CPU is
required.
24

Mechatronics Unit 1 & 4 Notes PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mechatronics Unit 1 & 4 Notes PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mechatronics Unit 1 & 4 Notes PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MECHATRONICS

 Consider the modern auto-focus, auto-exposure camera. To use the

shutter speed so that the correct exposure is given.

 Consider a truck smart

uneven loading to maintain a level platform, adjusts to cornering,

moving across rough ground. etc. to maintain smooth ride.

number of production processes which are all automatically carried

out in the correct sequence and in the correct way.

 The automatic camera, the truck suspension and the automatic

production line are examples of a marriage between electronic

control systems and mechanical engineering. Such control systems

generally use microprocessors as controllers arid have electrical

sensors extracting information from the mechanical inputs and

outputs via electrical actuators to mechanical systems.

 The term mechatronics is used for this integration of microprocessor

control systems, electrical systems and mechanical system. A

mechatronics system is not just a marriage of electrical and mechanical

integration of all of them.

 In the design now of cars, robots, machine tools, washing machines,

cameras, and very many other machines, such an integrated and

interdisciplinary approach to engineering design is increasingly being

mechanical system then designing the electrical part and the

manufacturing of industrial products and processes”.

Mechatronics involves what are termed as systems. A system can be

motor may be thought of as a system which has as input electric power

and as output the rotation of a shaft.

A motor has input as electric power as input and rotation as output.

The following figure shows the representation.

Now we will discuss in detail about these 2 systems.

A Measurement system can be defined as a black box which is used for

output the value of that quantity.

Example: A temperature measurement system. i.e. Thermometer

Fig: Measurement system

Measurement System can be considered to be made up of three elements as

its output a signal which is related to the quantity. Ex. a thermocouple

into a condition which is suitable for either display or in the case of a

from a thermocouple is a rather small e.m.f and might be fed through an

amplifier to obtain a bigger signal. The amplifier is the

3. A display system where the output from the signal conditioner is

displayed. This might, for example be a pointer moving across a scale or

As an example, consider a digital thermometer. This has an input of

temperature to a sensor probably a semiconductor diode. The potential

difference across the sensor is a constant current.

A control system can be defined as a block box which can be used to

control its output to some particular value.

Example: a domestic central heating control system.

We can set the required temperature on the thermostat or controller

quantity then the system is called as Control system.

The output quantity is called as controlled variable or response and

the input quantity is called as command signal or excitation.

In Control system, we have two types

1. Open loop control system. 2. Closed loop control system.

OPEN AND CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS:

illustrated by a simple example.

Consider an electric fire which has a selection switch which allows a 1

KW or a 2 kW heating element to be selected. If a person used the heating

element to heat a room, he or she might just switch on the 1 kW element if

the room is not required to be at too high a temperature.

kW elements. If there are changes in the conditions perhaps someone