Topics to be Discussed

 Superposition Theorem.
 Thevenin’s Theorem.
 Norton’s Theorem.
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for AC
Circuits.
 Millman’s Theorem.
 Reciprocity Theorem.

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Network Theorems
 Some special techniques, known as network
theorems and network reduction methods, have
been developed.
 These drastically reduce the labour needed to
solve a network.
 These also provide simple conclusions and good
insight into the problems.

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 Superposition Principle

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 Superposition Theorem
 The response (current or voltage) in a linear network
at any point due to multiple sources (current and/or
emf) (including linear dependent sources),
 can be calculated by summing the effects of each
source considered separately,
 all other sources “turned OFF” or “made
inoperative”.

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“Turning off” the sources

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Linear Dependent Source
 It is a source whose output current or voltage is
proportional only to the first power of some current
or voltage variable in the network or to the sum of
such quantities.
 Examples :
v s  0.6i1  16v 2 is linear,
but, v s  0.6i
2
1 or
v s  0.6i1v 2 is not linear.

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Application
 Problem : Consider two 1-V batteries in
series with a 1-Ω resistor. Let us apply the
principle of superposition, and find the
power delivered by both the batteries.

 Solutions : Power delivered by only one

source working at a time is
P1 = 1 W

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 Therefore, the power delivered by both the
sources,
P = 2P1 = 2 W

 The above answer is obviously wrong,

because it is a wrong application of
the superposition theorem.

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Example 1
Find the current I in the network given,
using the superposition theorem.

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Solution :

0.5  0.3  0.15

I1     0.375 A
0.1  0.3 0.4

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 80  10 3
I2   0.2 A
0.1  0.3
 I  I 1  I 2  0.175 A

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Example 2
Using superposition theorem, find current ix in the
network given.

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Solution :

10
i1   0.05A
50  150
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 150
i2  40   30 A
50  150

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 50
i3  120   30 A
50  150

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 ix  i1  i2  i3
 0.05  30  30
 0.05 A

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Benchmark Example 3
Find voltage v across 3-Ω resistor by applying
the principle of superposition.

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Solution :

Using current divider,

1 2
i  4  A
1  (2  3) 3

 v4  i  R  (2/3 A)  (3 Ω)  2.0 V

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Using current-divider, the voltage v5 across 3-Ω

 1 
v5   5  A   (3 )  2.5V
 1  (2  3) 

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 By voltage divider,
3
v6  6   3.0 V
1 2  3

 v   v4  v5  v6  2.0  2.5  3.0  2.5 V

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Example 4
Find current i2 across R2 resistor by applying the
principle of superposition. Where R1=R2=R3=1-Ω
and VS=10V, Vb= 5V, α = 2.

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Thevenin’s Theorem
 It was first proposed by a French telegraph
engineer, M.L. Thevenin in 1883.
 There also exists an earlier statement of the
theorem credited to Helmholtz.
 Hence it is also known as Helmholtz-Thevenin
Theorem.
 It is useful when we wish to find the response
only in a single resistance in a big network.

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Thevenin’s Theorem
 Any two terminals AB of a network
composed of linear passive and active
elements may by replaced by a simple
equivalent circuit consisting of
1. an equivalent voltage source Voc, and
2. an equivalent resistance Rth in series.

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 The voltage Voc is equal to the potential
difference between the two terminals AB caused
by the active network with no external
resistance connected to these terminals.

 The series resistance Rth is the equivalent

resistance looking back into the network at the
terminals AB with all the sources within the
network made inactive, or dead.

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Illustrative Example 3
 Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current in
resistor R2 of 2 Ω.

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Solution :
1. Designate the resistor R2 as “load”.

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2. Pull out the load resistor and enclose the remaining
network within a dotted box.

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3. Temporarily remove the load resistor R2, leaving
the terminals A and B open .

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4. Find the open-circuit voltage across the terminals A-
B,
28  7 21
I   4.2 A;
4 1 5
VAB  7  4.2  1  11.2 V

5. This is called Thevenin voltage, VTh = VAB = 11.2 V.

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6. Turn OFF all the sources in the circuit

Find the resistance between terminals A and B. This is

the Thevenin resistance, RTh. Thus,
1 4
RTh  1  || 4    0.8 Ω
1 4
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7. The circuit within the dotted box is replaced by the
Thevenin’s equivalent, consisting of a voltage source of
VTh in series with a resistor RTh,

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8. The load resistor R2 is again connected to Thevenin’s
equivalent forming a single-loop circuit.
• The current I2 through this resistor is easily calculated,

VTh 11.2
I2   4 A
RTh  R2 0.8  2

Important Comment
The equivalent circuit replaces the circuit within the
box only for the effects external to the box.

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Example 4
 Using Thevenin’s Theorem, find the current in the
ammeter A of resistance 1.5 Ω connected in an
unbalanced Wheatstone bridge shown.

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Solution :

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 12
I1   0.75 A and
12  4
12
I2   1.5 A
26
 Voc  VAB  VAD  VBD
 0.75  4  1.5  6  6 V

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 Ans. -1 A

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Benchmark Example 5
Again consider our benchmark example to determine
voltage across 3-Ω resistor by applying Thevenin’s
theorem.

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Solution :
• We treat the 3-Ω resistor as load.
• Thevenin voltage VTh is the open-circuit voltage
(with RL removed).
• We use source transformation.

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  VTh  5 1  5 V

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To compute RTh, we turn off all the sources in the
circuit within box and get the circuit

Thus, RTh = 3 Ω.

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 3
VL  5   2.5 V
33
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Norton’s Theorem
 It is dual of Thevenin’s Theorem.
 A two terminal network containing linear
passive and active elements can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit of a constant-
current source in parallel with a resistance.

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 The value of the constant-current source is
the short-circuit current developed when
the terminals of the original network are
short circuited.

 The parallel resistance is the resistance

looking back into the original network with
all the sources within the network made
inactive (as in Thevenin’s Theorem).

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Example 6
 Obtain the Norton’s equivalent circuit with respect to
the terminals AB for the network shown, and hence
determine the value of the current that would flow
through a load resistor of 5 Ω if it were connected
across terminals AB.

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 Solution : When terminals A-B are shorted

10 5
 I N  I1  I 2    2.5 A
5 10

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Turning OFF the sources,

5 10 10
 RN   Ω
5  10 3

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 RN (10 / 3)
IL  IN  2.5   1A
RN  RL (10 / 3)  5

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Power Transferred to the Load
 Consider the circuit :

r
p RL
E (Variable)

Source Load

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 p Maximum power is transferred when
RL = r.
pmax

0 RL = r RL

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 Proof
2
 E 
p    RL
 RL  r 
dp ( R  r ) 2
1  RL  2( RL  r ) 1
 E 2 L
dRL ( RL  r ) 4

For maximizing, we put numerator equal to zero.

( RL  r ) ( RL  r )  2 RL   0
 r  RL   0

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Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
 Maximum power is drawn form a source
when the Load Resistance is equal to the
Source Internal Resistance.
 When maximum power transfer condition is
satisfied, we say that the load is matched
with the source.
 Under maximum power transfer condition,
the efficiency of the source is only 50 %.

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 Available Power
What is the maximum power that a source
of emf E and internal resistance r can
ever deliver ?
Click

2
Ans.
E
4r

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 Prove that under maximum power transfer
condition, the efficiency of the source is only
50 %.

2
Po I RL
  2  100 %
Pin I ( RL  r )
 50 %

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Example 7
The open-circuit voltage of a standard car-battery is 12.6
V, and the short-circuit current is approximately 300 A.
What is the available power from the battery ?
Click
Solution : The output impedance of the battery,
Voc 12.6
Ro    0.042 
I sc 300
Therefore, the available power Click
2 2 2
V V (12.6)
Pavl   Th
 oc
 945 W
4 RTh 4 Ro 4  0.042
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Millman’s Theorem
 A number of parallel voltage sources V1, V2, V3 …,
Vn with internal resistances R1, R2, R3…, Rn,
respectively can be replaced by a single voltage
source V in series with equivalent resistance R.

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 Equivalent Circuit

V1G1  V2G2  V3G3 ...  VnGn

V
G1  G2  G3 ...  Gn
1 1
and R 
G G1  G2  G3 ...  Gn

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Reciprocity Theorem
 In a linear bilateral network, if a voltage source V
in a branch A produces a current I in any other
branch B, then the same voltage source V acting
in the branch B would produce the same current I
in branch.
 The ratio V/I is known as the transfer
Click
resistance.
 Let us verify the reciprocity theorem by
considering an example.

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Example 8
• In the network shown, find the current in branch B due
to the voltage source of 36 V in branch A.
• Now transfer the voltage source to branch B and find
the current in branch A.
• Is the reciprocity theorem established ?
• 0Also, determine the transfer resistance from branch A
to branch B.

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Solution : The equivalent resistance for the voltage
source,
Req  2  [12 || (3  1)]  4  2  3  4  9 

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The current supplied by the voltage source = 36/9 = 4 A.
Using current divider, the current I in branch B,
12
I  4 3A
12  4
Now, transferring the voltage source to branch B,

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The equivalent resistance for the voltage source,
Req  3  [12 || (2  4)]  1  3  4  1  8 

The current supplied by the voltage source = 36/8 =

4.5 A. Using current divider, the current I’ in branch
A,
12
I '  4.5  3A
12  6
The transfer resistance

V 36
Rtr    12 Ω
I 3

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Review
 Superposition Theorem.
 Thevenin’s Theorem.
 Norton’s Theorem.
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for AC Circuits.
 Millman’s Theorem.
 Reciprocity Theorem.

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