Dinesh Singh Dhami dineshsingh.dhami@yahoo.

com

Simple Network:

Users no longer are limited to sharing information with their officemate. They can share information
throughout the building, the city, the country, and the world. This is possible due to the wide variety of
options for connecting networks. Some of these options include satellites, lasers, and telephone lines.
This is most evident in the Internet. With the increased popularity of the Internet, users not only gather
and share information with other users in their company but also with their clients throughout the
world.

Network Components:

 Server: Powerful computer that provides services to the other computers on the network.
 Client: Computer that uses the services that a server provides. The client is usually less powerful
than the server.
 Peer: A computer that acts as both a client and a server.
 Media: Physical connection between the devices on a network.
 Resources: Anything available to a client on a network is considered a resource. Printers, data,
fax devices, and other networked devices and information are resources.
 User: Any person that uses a client to access resources on the network.
 Protocol: Protocols are written rules used for communications. They are the languages that
computers use to talk to each other over a network.

Different Network Types:

Computer networks can consist of two different types: Server-based and Peer-to-peer. A server-based
network is the type that typically comes to mind when one mentions networks. These networks consist
of clients that make requests to a server. The other type of network is peer-to-peer. In this type of
network, each machine can act as both a client and a server, requesting and providing resources. In fact,
most networks consist of a combination of the two types.

Peer-to-Peer Networking:

The simplest form of networking is peer-to-peer. In a peer-to-peer network, each workstation acts as
both a client and server. There is no central repository for information and no central server to maintain.
Data and resources are distributed throughout the network, and each user is responsible for sharing
data and resources connected to their system.

Advantages of Peer-to-Peer networks:

 Inexpensive
 Easy to setup
 Easy maintenance

Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer networks:

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 No central administration
 Scattered data
 Difficult to locate resources
 Weak security
 Dependent on user training

Which operating systems can you use?

A number of operating systems support peer-to-peer networking. Some operating systems have this
capability built-in, while others can have the capability added. The following operating systems have
peer-to-peer networking built-in:

Windows 95

Windows for Workgroups

Windows NT Workstation

OS/2

Server-Based Networks:

When a network comes to mind, most people think of the server-based network. In a server-based
network, you have one computer – usually larger than the clients, which is dedicated to handing out
files and/or information to clients. The server is not only a faster computer with a better processor, but
it also requires much more storage space to contain all the data that needs to be shared to the clients.
Having these tasks handled by the server allows the clients to be less powerful because they only
request resources. Since the server is dedicated to handing out files and/or information, it cannot be
used as a workstation. Its purpose is strictly to provide services to other computers, not to request
services. Servers are optimized to hand out information as fast as possible.

Advantages of server-based networks:

 Centralized security
 Dedicated servers
 Easy accessibility
 Easy back-up
 Synchronized files

Disadvantages of server-based networks:

 Dependent on an administrator
 Expensive server
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Network Services:

Networks are meant to make us more productive by providing services to make us more efficient. Some
common services are:

File Services

Print Services

Message Services

Directory Services

Application Services

File Services:

The primary reason for networking computer is for the file services that a network can provide. Instead
of having to copy files to a floppy disk, users can now easily and seamlessly share files. The following
jobs use file services:

File transfer

File storage and migration

File update synchronization

Archiving

File transfer:

Transferring files electronically is the simplest and most common service on the network. The ability to
share files and information across a network allows users to share any information they need and make
them more productive than ever. The need for security also becomes evident with this service. It is
important that only authorized users access files. Methods such as access rights, passwords, and
encryption are used to keep unauthorized people from accessing information.

File storage and migration:

Data can be stored on many different media, such as hard disks, CD-ROMs, and magnetic tape. Data is
said to be stored online, offline, or near-line, depending upon the media on which it’s stored. Files
update synchronization. This network keeps track of different versions of the same file. If two clients
open a file at the same time and then try to save the changes that each have made, one file will
overwrite the other. File update synchronization tries to co-ordinate these changes.

Archiving:
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Archiving is the processes of backing up data in a case of a hard disk failure. This important task must
not be overlooked. Without a well-designed backup plan, there is the potential of losing important data
that can be difficult to reproduce.

Print services:

Another major service that networks provide is the ability to share print devices. Before networks, users
had to have their own printer attached to their workstation. This was costly, especially if a user needed
to print multiple types of forms or paper, since they would need a different printer for each. With
network print services, companies need only buy small numbers of printers and share them among.

Message services:

Message services allow for e-mails with attachment files. Many people have come to rely on e-mail
attachments as a way of transferring information, so message services have become a necessity on most
networks for all their users.

Directory services:

One of the newest services on the networking scene is directory services. Directory services let you
maintain information about all of the objects in your network. An object is anything you can store
information about, such as users, printers, shared resources, services, and so on.

Application services:

Normally with application services, a small application is loaded on the client computers, and the main
application and data is loaded on the server. The small application on the client is usually just a front
end to give the user an interface.

Database services:

One major consideration of a networked database is the co-ordination of multiple changes. All or part of
the databases may also be replicated to other servers on a network to distribute the load. Database
services are responsible for updating replicated databases and keeping them current.

Local Area Networks:

The smallest network size is a local area network, or LAN. LANs are normally contained in a building or
small group of buildings. Some characteristics of a LAN are high speed, small error counts, and
inexpensive price.

 Small areas, usually in one office or building

 High speed
 Most inexpensive equipment
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 Low error rates

Metropolitan Area Networks:

A metropolitan area network or MAN is a group of LANs located in a city. For example, if a college had
campuses with networks at each spread over the majority of a city, they could be connected them to
create a MAN.

 Larger area than a LAN – usually a large campus or organization spread over a city-size area
 Slower than a LAN, but faster than a WAN
 Expensive equipment
 Moderate error rates

Wide Area Networks:

The largest network size is a wide area network or a WAN. WANs are interconnected any number of
LANs and MANs. They can connect networks across cities, states, countries, or even the world.

 Can be as large as worldwide

 Usually much slower than LAN speed
 Highest possible error rate of all three network types
 Expensive equipment
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OSI Model

In 1984 the International Standards Organization (ISO) released a model to be used as guide for future
network protocols. This model is called the Open Systems Interconnection Model. The OSI model depicts
the stream of information down the seven layers of the model on the source device, across intermediate
devices, and up through the seven layers on the destination device. These devices can be any type of
network equipments. Networked computers, printers and faxes, as well as internetworking devices such
as routers and switches, are all the examples of these devices.

PLEASE DO NOT TAKE SALES PERSON’S ADVICE

Application Layer Messages (Data)

Presentation Layer Packets
Session Layer Packets
Transport Layer Datagrams and Segments
Network Layer Datagrams
Data Link Layer Frames
Physical Layer Bits
Advice
Person’s
Sales
Take
Not
Do
Please

OSI Layers Functions

Application Layer: Interface between the user’s application and the network.

Presentation Layer: Negotiates data exchange formats.

Session Layer: Allows users to establish connections using easily remembered names.

Transport Layer: Provides end-to-end, reliable connections.

Network Layer: Routes data through a large internetwork.

Data Link Layer: Determines access to the network media

Physical Layer: Transforms data into bits that are sent across the physical media.
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Physical Layer:

The first layer of the OSI model is the Physical Layer. The function of this layer is the transmission of bits
over the network media. It provides a physical connection for the transmission of data among the
network devices. The physical layer is responsible for making sure that data is read the same way on the
destination device as it was sent from the source device. The physical layer specifies the mechanical,
electrical, and functional means to establish and maintain physical connections. For example, the
Physical Layer specifications on a network include the amount of voltage on a cable, how a signal
changed to signify a 1 or 0 being sent, and in what orders a signal was sent.

The Physical Layer:

 Transmits bits
 Specifies the requirements for how transmission occurs
 Ensures compatible data transmission with other devices

Data Link Layer:

The second layer of the OSI model is the Data Link Layer. The main purpose of this layer it provides a
reliable method of transmitting data across the physical media. This layer breaks the input data into
frames, transmits the frames sequentially, and process the acknowledged frames sent back by the
receiver. It adds a header and trailer to the frames it creates. These allow the destination device to see
when a frame begins or ends on the physical media. The Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layer,
the Media Access Control (MAC) and Logical Link Control (LLC).

The Data Link Layer:

 Packages data into frames

 Transmits data sequentially
 Processes acknowledged frames sent from the receiver

Network Layer:
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The third layer of the OSI model is the Network Layer. This layer is responsible for routing information
from one network device to another. The Network Layer decides what path data will take if the
destination device is located on another network. Data passes through the network by devices called
intermediate devices. The source and destination devices are end systems. The Network Layer accepts
message from the source host, converts them to packets, and makes sure that the packets are directed
toward the destination. The Network Layer is also responsible for deciding on the best route the packet
should take through the network. It does this by checking to see if the destination device is on another
network. If it is, then the Network Layer must decide where to send the packet to so it will reach the
final destination.

The Network Layer:

 Routes information from sender to receiver

 Converts data into packets
 Uses connectionless transmissions

Transport Layer:

The Transport Layer is the fourth layer of the OSI model. It provides a transport service between the
Session Layer and the Network Layer. This service takes information from the Session Layer and splits it
up if necessary. It then passes this information to the Network Layer and checks to make sure the
information arrived at the destination device successfully. The Transport Layer is a true source-to-
destination layer. This means that a program on the source device carries on a dialogue with another
program on the destination device by using message headers and control messages. These message
headers and control messages are used for error detection, sequencing, and flow control.

The Transport Layer:

 Breaks up and restores data

 Provides end-to-end reliability
 Uses connection-oriented transmission of data

Session Layer:

The fifth layer of the OSI model is Session Layer. This layer lets users establish a connection called a
session between the devices. Once the connection has been established, the Session Layer can manage
the dialogue. Sessions can be set up so that they are:

Half-Duplex (a two ways alternate method of communication)

Simplex (simple one way communication)

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Full-Duplex (full two way communication)

The Session Layer:

 Allows users to establish connections between the devices

 Manages dialogue
 Uses remote address to establish the connections

Presentation Layer:

The sixth layer of the OSI model is the Presentation Layer. It negotiates and establishes the format in
which the data is exchanged. This layer is responsible for any character set or numeric translations
needed between devices. It is also responsible for data compression to reduce the amount of data
transmitted, as well as encryption. There are number of ways it translates information between different
types of network devices. Some devices read bits and bytes in different directions. Three such
translation services are bit order, byte order, and character order.

The Presentation Layer:

 Establishes format for data exchange

 Handles character set and numeric translations
 Performs data compression

Application Layer:

The top layer of the OSI model is the Application Layer. This layer is the interface between the user’s
application and the network. It allows the application that the user sees to transfer files, send e-mail,
and do anything else it needs to on the network. This should be confused with the actual application
that the user is running.

The Application Layer:

 Serves as the interface between the user applications and the network
 Enables user applications to interact with the network
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Network Adapters:

The networks adapters, commonly known as network interface cards (NICs) or simply network cards are
responsible for moving data from the computers to the transmission media. The network adapter
transforms data into signals that are carried across the transmission media to its destination. Once the
signals reach the destination device, the NICs translate the signals back into information the computer
can process. Exactly how the adapter functions can vary according to the type adapter being used.

Network adapters work at the Data Link Layer of the OSI model. Because of this, they provide the MAC
and LLC sub layer functions of that layer.

Network adapters basically convert computer data into a signal that can be transmitted over media.
When a network adapter transmits the data, it first receives the data from the computer. It attaches its
own header containing a checksum and the network card’s address. The data is then converted to
signals that are passed over the network media. During the conversion, the data may be changed to 5-
volt (V) electric current signals transmitted over coaxial cable or to pulses of light when sent over fiber-
optic cable. The circuitry on the card that does the conversion of the signal is known as a transceiver.
Ethernet can run over a few different cable types, but the main circuitry on all the Ethernet cards should
be the same, only the transceiver should be different.
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Physical Topologies:

The way devices on the network are physically connected is known as the topology. Topology can
include such aspects as the transmission media, adapters, and physical design of the network.
Topologies specify which of these devices are used to connect system on the network. The four main
topologies are Bus, Start, Ring and Mesh.

Bus Topology:

The Bus topology is the simplest to install. All the devices on the network are connected to one primary
trunk cable. The Bus topology is a passive technology that requires no special equipment to amplify or
regenerate the signal, although amplification can be used to extend the signal. Bus topology is typically
used with a connection network. When a device wants to transmit across the Bus, it has to determine
whether the media is in use. If no other device is transmitting, the signal is sent. Each device receives the
signal and then determines whether its address matches that of the recipients. Messages that weren’t
addressed to the device are disregarded. When dealing with Bus networks, it is important to pay careful
attention to termination. Each end of the trunk cable needs to be properly terminated. Without
termination the signal will bounce back down the cable causing collisions. Bus topologies use coaxial
cable. The sections are connected with BNC connector.

Advantages of Bus Topology:

 Easy to install and configure

 Inexpensive
 Easily extended

Disadvantages of Bus Topology:

 Performance degrades
 Barrel connectors used to extend the cable lengths can weaken the signal
 Troubleshooting a Bus can be quite difficult

Star Topology:
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The Star topology uses a separate cable for each workstation. The cable connects the workstation to a
central device, typically a hub. This configuration provides a more reliable network that is easily
expanded. With the Star, there is no central point of failure in the cable. If there is a problem with the
cable, only the station connected to that cable is affected. To add more workstation, simply connect
another hub.

Advantages of Star Topology:

 Easily expanded
 Easier to troubleshoot
 Multiple cable types supported by hubs

Disadvantages of Star Topology:

 The hub can be single point of failure

 Requires more cables than most other topologies

Ring Topology:

Ring network provides high performance for a large number of users. Data flow on a ring network
travels from computer to computer in one direction. The signal is actually retransmitted by each system
when passed on to its neighbor. This provides a reliable signal that can travel a large network. Token
passing is frequently used on a Ring Topology. With this system, a token is passed around the network.
The workstation that has control of the token can transmit data. The data travels the ring to its
destination. The destination device returns an acknowledgement to the sender. The token is then given
to another device, giving it the ability to transmit. This happens much quicker than it sounds, and
creates a high-speed, orderly network.

Advantages of Ring Topology:

 It provides an orderly network in which every device has access to the token and can transmit
 It performs well under heavy load

Disadvantages of Ring Topology:

 Malfunctioning workstations and cables create problems for the entire network
 Changes made when adding or removing a device affect the entire network

Mesh Topology:
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The Mesh Topology provides the highest level of fault tolerance. A true Mesh network uses separate
cables to connect each device to every other device on the network, providing a straight
communications path.

Advantages of Mesh Topology:

 Enhanced fault tolerance provided by redundant links

 Easy to troubleshoot

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:

 Difficult to install and maintain

 Costly to provide redundant links

Routable Protocols:

LANs are often connected using routers. One consideration of connecting LANs is the ability of protocols
to work properly across the router to the different networks. A protocol with the ability to communicate
across the router is known as a routable protocol. Routable protocols are usually because they need
extra layers to handle the routing features.

Non-routable Protocols:

Non-routable protocols cannot operate across a router. Besides being simpler than routable protocols,
non-routable protocols are also usually faster and provide better transfer speeds, due to less overhead.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite:

The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol suite, also known as the Internet
Protocols, is a suite of Industry-standard protocols. The TCP/IP suite is made up of many protocols, not
just TCP and IP, and has a broad features set due to its large number of open standard protocols. Over
the years the individual components have evolved to handle almost any need a network user may have.
TCP/IP has also evolved over the years, and today it is the main protocol used on the worldwide Internet
(due to its being included in the UNIX operating system, which was the main operating system for early
users of the Internet). TCP/IP has also become the protocol of choice for most companies for the
following reasons: no one company has control of the usage of standards; almost any network software
or equipment is capable of running over it; and, unlike other protocols such as NetBEUI, it is routable,
which enables you to connect multiple LANs into one large internetwork.
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TCP/IP and OSI Model:

The original designs for TCP/IP were started long before the OSI model was developed; instead of OSI’s
seven layer model, TCP/IP was based on a DoD model with four layers. The four layers can be loosely
matched to the OSI model in the following ways:

Network Access Layer: This layer corresponds to the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model.
When TCP/IP was developed, it was made to use existing standards for these two layers so it could work
with such protocols as Ethernet and Token Ring. Over the years, TCP/IP has been shown to run over
almost any type of network connection from FDDI to radio wave.

Internet Layer: This layer of the DoD model roughly matches up with the Network Layer of the OSI
model. Both of these layers are responsible for moving data to other devices on the network. Internet
Protocol (IP) is mainly responsible for this job.

Host-to-Host Layer: This one is similar to the Transport Layer of the OSI model. The job of both of these
layers is to communicate between peers on the network. As a result, almost all devices on a TCP/IP
network are considered hosts, whether they’re workstations, servers, or network attached printers.

Process/Application Layer: This fourth layer does the same job as the top three layers of the OSI model,
which is to provide network services.

TCP/IP Addressing:

Before two computers on a network can communicate, they need to know how to contact each other.
Just as every computer has hardware address called a MAC address that is encoded into the network
card, computers also have what is called a logical address. This is an address that is usually set by the
administrator, though it is sometimes automatically set by the network protocol suite used. Every host
on a TCP/IP network is given an IP address. This address is a unique 4-byte address in dotted notation.
For example, 56.88.1.231. IP addresses are handed out by a single organization, called interNIC, so each
computer has its own unique addresses; however, organizations should request their IP addresses from
the Internet provider to which they are connecting. IP addresses are divided into classes. IP address
classes are used to segment the pool of addresses into sizes corresponding to various organization sizes.
When an organization requests a range of IP addresses, they receive a block from one of these classes:

Class A: Class A addresses have one byte for the network and three bytes for the host. For example, the
address 56.88.1.231 has a network number of 56, and the remaining number signify the host. The first
byte of Class A network addresses is always between 1 and 127.
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Class B: Class B addresses have 2 bytes for the network address and the remaining two for the host
address. With this arrangement each Class B network can have more than 65,000 hosts. The first byte of
Class B addresses is always between 128 and 191.

Class C: Class C addresses are the most common. They use the first 3 bytes of the address for the
network portion and the final byte for the host. This allows for a great number of network addresses
given out, with more than 250 hosts on each network. Class C addresses always have the first byte as
between 192 and 223.

Besides the IP addresses, the subnet mask completes a computer’s address on a TCP/IP network, and
thus is required. The subnet mask is responsible for separating the IP address into the host position and
the network position. Class A address has one byte for the network and three bytes for the host. It has a
subnet mask of 255.0.0.0. The 255 in the first byte signifies that it is a network address. A Class B
address has two bytes for the network and two for the host. It has a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0.

Network Class IP Address range Subnet Mask Bytes

Class A 1 to 127 (127.0.0.1 is the 255.0.0.0 1 byte for the network and 3 for
loop back address.) the host.
Class B 128 to 191 255.255.0.0 2 bytes for the network and 2 for
the host.
Class C 192 to 223 255.255.255.0 3 bytes for the network and 1 for
the host.

Internet Protocol:

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a connectionless protocol that sits in the Network Layer of the OSI model.
The job of IP is to address and route packets accordingly through the network. An IP header is attached
to each packet (also referred to as a datagram) and includes the source address, destination address,
and other information used by the receiving host.

Domain Name System:

Domain Name System, DNS (not to be confused with Microsoft domains), is the system that converts
user-friendly names such as http://www.iitcollge.com to the correct IP address. To resolve the
aforementioned name to the correct IP address, a client first goes to one of the main DNS servers, which
tells the client which the server to contact for the iitcollege.com domain. The client then goes to that
server to resolve the full name to an IP. This way the main servers only need to point a client to a closer
server. (This is just as well, as the main servers could not possible handle the load needed to resolve
every computer name on the Internet to an IP address.) Administrators at IIT College books can then
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make changes to their computer names any time they want without having constantly update a main
server.

File Transfer Protocol:

File Transfer Protocol (FTP), is the file sharing protocol most commonly used in a TCP/IP environment.
This protocol allows users to remotely log on to other computers on a network and browse, download,
and upload files. One of the main reasons FTP is still very popular is that it is platform independent.

Telnet:

Telnet allows a user to remotely log in to another computer and run applications. The computer at
which the user is physically working effectively becomes a dumb terminal – no processing is done on
that computer; it is only used for display. Telnet clients are available for almost every operating system
on the market today. Windows 95 and Windows NT come with a Telnet client out of the box.

NetBEUI:

NetBIOS Extended User Interface or NetBEUI (pronounced as net-buoy) is a small, very fast protocol
used in Microsoft networks. It has some advantages and some disadvantages that must be considered
for its use. The main advantages of NetBEUI are its speed and ease of configuration. NetBEUI is one of
the fastest, if not the fastest, protocols you can use to share files. Configuration is simple because all
that is needed is a computer name – no network or logical addresses are required.

NetBIOS:

NetBEUI stands for NetBIOS Extended User Interface. Originally NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output
System) and NetBEUI were considered the same protocol, but that is no longer the case. NetBIOS has
been ‘separated’ from NetBEUI and is now distinct Session Layer protocol that can be used on top of
other Transport Layer protocols. NetBIOS is still very prominent today, even with NetBEUI. Most
Microsoft systems use NetBIOS commands for communications. Most file sharing and administrations
done on Microsoft networks use the NetBIOS interface on top of TCP/IP or IPX/SPX.
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Repeaters:

One of the easiest devices you can use to extend the distance of a network is a repeater. Repeaters are
normally two-port boxes that connect two segments. As a signal comes in on port, it is regenerated and
sent out the other port. Usually the repeater does more than just amplify the electrical signal. The signal
is read as the binary 1’s and 0’s and retransmitted as the 1’s and 0’s so the noise in the signal can be
cleaned out. Repeaters send and receive data at the speed of the network, but signal regeneration does
take a small amount of time.

Advantages of repeaters:

 Repeaters easily extend the length of a network.

 They require no processing overhead, so very little, if any, performance degradation occurs
 You can connect segments from the same network type that use different types of cable

Disadvantages of repeaters:

 Repeaters cannot be used to connect segments of different network types

 They cannot be used to segment traffic on a network to reduce congestion
 Many types of networks have limits on the number of repeaters that can be used at once

Hubs:

Hubs are basically just multiport repeaters for UTP cable. Hubs range in size from four ports up to
several hundred and are specific to the network type. Some hubs are just repeaters; they work the same
way and follow the same rules. Hubs just repeat the signal given to them, and no intelligence is built into
the system. You can only have up to four hubs between any two points on a network to follow the 5-4-3
rule. There are two types: Passive and Active. There are some hubs that have the intelligence of a bridge
built-in. They are called switches.

Advantages of hubs:

 Hubs need almost no configuration

 Active hubs can extend maximum network media distance
 No processing is done at the hub to slow down performance

Disadvantages of hubs:

 Passive hubs can greatly limit maximum media distance

 Hubs have no intelligence to filter traffic, so all data is sent out all ports whether it is needed or
not
 Since hubs can act as repeaters, networks using them must follow the same rules as repeaters
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Passive Hubs:

Passive hubs provide no signal generation. They are simply cables connected together so that a signal is
broken out to other nodes without regeneration. These are not used often today because of the loss of
cable length that is allowed. Active hubs act as repeaters and regenerate the data signal to all ports.
They have no real intelligence to tell whether the signal the signal needs to go to all ports, it is blindly
repeated.

Bridges:

Where repeaters do not do any type of filtering of traffic that they pass, bridges do. Bridges work at the
Data Link Layer of the OSI model and, like a repeater, attach two different network segments and pass
data. What it does that a repeater does not is filter the data on whether it needs to be passed. Suppose
we have workstation and a server on one side of a bridge that is communicating. Does the data they are
sending need to pass through the bridge? No. The bridge knows this and blocks the traffic. If this had
been a repeater, the data would have been passed only help congest the other network segment.

Advantages of bridges:

 Bridges extend network segments by connecting them together to make one logical network
 They segment traffic between networks by filtering data if it does not need to pass
 Like repeaters, the can connect similar network types with different cabling
 Special translational bridges can connect different network types together

Disadvantages of bridges:

 Bridges process information about the data they receive, which can slow performance
 Bridges pass all broadcasts
 The cost more than repeaters due to extra intelligence

Switches:

Switches are multiport bridges. They filter traffic between the ports on the switch by using the MAC
address of computer transmitting through them. Switches can be used when greater performance is
needed or when collisions need to be reduced. With the use of switches, the load can be cut down
dramatically. Switches can be an inexpensive way to add bandwidth to a congested network. Connecting
a server to a switching hub can provide a boost to clients that access that server since the server is not
affected by other traffic on the network.
Dinesh Singh Dhami [email protected]

Internet Working Devices:

Now we look at the devices we use to connect LANs. Several pieces of hardware that enable you to
connect LANs include:

Modems

Multiplexers

Routers

Brouters

CSU/DSUs

Gateways

Devices OSI Layers

Repeater Physical
Bridge Data Link
Router Network
Gateway All Seven Layer

Modems:

Modems are small devices that connect networks, though at a slow speed, over normal telephone lines.
Modems handle the conversion of signals between computers and telephone lines. They’re needed
because computers are all digital, using 1’s and 0’s encoding in an electric signal to communicate.
Telephone lines are analog in nature and do not understand the digital 1’s and 0’s approach. With a
modem we can connect networks together over inexpensive telephone lines. Because of their low
speed, modem should not be used to connect networks that frequently need to exchange information.
Most analog modems operate at speed from 14.4kbps up to a theoretical limit of 56kbps, and have the
capability of compression.

Common modem protocols as define by ITU:

 V.32: 9600bps communication speed

 V.32bis: 14.4kbps communication speed
 V.34: 28.8kbps communication speed
 V.42: Modem error control
 V.42bis: Compression protocol
 V.17: Faxing capability
Dinesh Singh Dhami [email protected]

Windows NT provides the necessary software to connect LANs through a modem. By dialing in to a
Windows NT server, computers with Remote Access Service installed act as routers to move data
through the modem connection.

Advantages of modems:

 Inexpensive hardware and telephone lines

 Easy to set up and maintain
 Mature standards and multiple vendors

Disadvantages of modems:

 Very slow performance

Multiplexers:

Multiplexers (MUXes) are what we use to send multiple signals across one transmission media.
Multiplexing (MUXing) takes the different signals and combines them to form one single signal. One
popular example of MUXing is cable television. Each individual television channel is one signal. With the
use of MUXes, the cable company can take all those different signals and send them through one piece
of coaxial cable. Without multiplexers you would need one piece of cable coming into your home for
each channel.

Routers:

Routers are used to connect complicated networks with many segments. They do more than just filter
traffic; they make intelligent decisions on the path of the data. Routers can use either MAC addresses or
administratively assigned logical addresses (such as IP addresses) to handle data routing. This allows you
to segment your network into what are called subnets. A subnet is a network connected to another
network via a router. Routers operate at the Network Layer of the OSI model. Routers have become very
popular in the last few years, as they are a powerful way to connect networks together. Know the
advantages and disadvantages of router for the exam.

Advantages of routers:

 They use the highest level of intelligence to route data accordingly

 Routers can also act as a bridge to handle non-routable protocols such as NetBEUI

Disadvantages of routers:

 Higher level of intelligence takes more processing time, which can affect performance
Dinesh Singh Dhami [email protected]

 Routers are very complicated, which makes installation and maintenance difficult

Gateways:

Gateways can operate at all seven layers of the OSI model. Their function is to do any necessary
conversion of protocols between networks. Gateways are customized and designed to perform a
specific function and are used on a case-by-case basis. Gateways may do anything from converting
protocols to converting application data. There is no limit. One example of a gateway is for e-mail. Most
large companies upgrade their e-mail system at one time or another. During the upgrade process, there
will normally be two e-mail systems, the original system and the new system, running at once. Users will
still need to mail others on the old system after they are upgraded. To accomplish this, you can install an
e-mail gateway between the two systems until the migration to the new system is finished. This gateway
would be written just to connect the two specific mail systems together.

Wireless Networks:

Wireless is a term used to describe communications in which electromagnetic waves, rather than some
form of wire, carry the signal over part or the entire communication path. A communication system
characterized by data distribution over unbounded medium. Wireless networks use the radio frequency
spectrum or microwave network for voice, data, Internet and video signals. WECA (Wi-Fi) the Wireless
Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA) is targeted more at office use than home networks, Wi-Fi (for
Wireless Fidelity) is essentially a sea of approval that say the manufacturer’s product is compliant with a
variation of the IEEE 802.11 specification known as IEEE 82.11b. The original standard was 802.11
(802.11a/802.11b/802.11g.)

Common terminologies used in Wireless Networks:

SSID (Service Set Identifier):

A 32 character unique identifier attached to the header of packets sent over a WLAN that acts as a
password when a mobile device tries to connect to the BSS (also called ESSID). The SSID differentiates
one WLAN from another, so all access points and all devices attempting to connect to a specific WLAN
must use the same SSID. A device will not be permitted to join the BSS unless it can provide the unique
SSID. Because an SSID can be sniffed in plain text from a packet, it does not supply any security to the
network. An SSID is also referred to as a Network Name because essentially it is a name that identifies a
wireless network. SSID is case sensitive.

BSS (Basic Service Set):

Dinesh Singh Dhami [email protected]

BSS stands for Basic Service Set. A Basic Service Set is comprised of a WAP and all the LAN PCs that are
associated with it. The WLAN MAC address of the access point is the BSSID (Basic Service Set Identifier)
of a BSS.

ESS (Extended Service Set):

ESS (ESS-ID, SSID) stands for Extended Service Set. More than one BSS is configured to become an
Extended Service Set. LAN mobile users can roam between different BSS’s in an ESS (ESS-ID, SSID).
Access Points can also be used to extend the reach of a wireless network, which can be termed as
wireless bridging. This concept is better explained in the following way.

Bridging:

More than one WAP (Wireless Access Points) can be used to increase the wireless coverage in a wireless
LAN. The diagram below shows two WPAs configured to extend coverage beyond that of a single WAP.
The overlapping area of each BSS is called an Extended Service Set (ESS). When a wireless computer
enters the ESS, the signal strength and link quality is evaluated by the computer and the computer
chooses the WAP with the best quality signal and link. This activity is known as roaming. To configure
WAPs to allow roaming inside of the wireless network, each WAP will be assigned the same Service Set
Identifier (SSID). Strategically placing multiple WAPs around an office or inside of the home can extend
the wireless coverage to the entire premise. The illustration below shows two basic Service Sets
overlapping to form an Extended Service Set. The above diagram is an example of a wireless bridging
wherein the laptop can seamlessly roam from one BSS to another BSS with breakage of wireless link.

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum):

Acronym for direct sequence spread spectrum. DSSS is one of the two types of spread spectrum radio.
DSSS is a transmission technology used in WLAN transmissions where a data signal at the sending station
is combined with a higher data rate bit sequence, or chipping code, that divides the user data according
to a spreading ratio. The chipping code is a redundant bit pattern for each bit that is transmitted, which
increases the signal’s resistance to interference. If one or more bits in the pattern are damaged during
transmission, the original data can be recovered due to the redundancy of the transmission.

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum):

Acronym for Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum. FHSS is one of two types of spread spectrum radio.
FHSS is a transmission technology used in WLAN transmissions where the data signal is modulated with
a narrowband carrier signal that ‘hops’ in a random but predictable sequence from frequency to
frequency as a function of time over a wide band of frequencies. The signal energy is spread in time
domain rather than chopping each bit into small pieces in the frequency domain. This technique reduces
interference because a signal from a narrowband system will only affect the spread spectrum signal if
both are transmitting at the same frequency at the same time. If synchronized properly, a single logical
channel is maintained.
Dinesh Singh Dhami [email protected]

IEEE – 802.11 Standards

The WLAN base Standard, 802.11 was begun in 1997 and supports 1mbps to 2mbps. The standard used
three mechanisms to protect wireless LAN networks

 SSID (Service Set Identifier)

 MAC (Media Access Control)
 WEP (Wireless Equivalent Privacy)

This standard has been enhanced. These changes are recognized by the addition of a letter as extension
to the original 802.11 standard. Details of various standards are provided below:

Standard Data Max. Frequency Channels Max. Backward Features

s Rate Data Band Range Compatibility
Support Rate
802.11g 54, 48, 54 2.4 GHz (2.4 3 non- Up to 802.11b Replacement of
36, 24, Mbps to 2.4835 overlapping 1000ft 802.11b with
18, 12, 9, GHz) channels, up higher data rate
6, 11, to 13 and better
5.5, 2, 1 overlapping security
Mbps
802.11b 11, 5.5, 11 2.4 GHz (2.4 3 non- Up to N/A Most widely
2, 1 Mbps to 2.4835 overlapping 1000ft deployed today
Mbps GHz) channels, up
to 13
overlapping
802.11a 54, 48, 54 5 GHz (5.725 12 non- Up to N/A Ideal for high-
36, 24, Mbps GHz to 5.850 overlapping 500ft density
18, 12, 9, GHz) channels environments
6 Mbps

802.11 Standards
Dinesh Singh Dhami [email protected]

Standards Application

802.11a 54Mbps standard, 5Ghz signaling (ratified 1999)

802.11b 11Mbps standard, 2.4Ghz signaling (ratified 1999)
802.11c Operation of bridge connections (moved to 802.1)
802.11d Worldwide compliance with regulations for use of wireless signal spectrum (2001)
802.11e Quality of Service (QoS) support (not yet ratified)
802.11f Protocol for communication between access points to support roaming clients (2003)
802.11g 54Mbps standard, 2.4Ghz signaling (2003)
802.11h Enhanced version of 802.11a to support European regulatory requirements (2003)
802.11i Security improvements for the 802.11 family (2004)
802.11j Enhancements to 5Ghz signaling to support Japan regulatory requirements (2004)
802.11k WLAN system management (in progress)
802.11l Skipped to avoid confusion with 802.11i
802.11m Maintenance of 802.11 family documentation
802.11n Future 100+ Mbps standard (in progress)

Wireless Network – Topology:

Wireless Networking Topology can be broadly classified as:

 Ad-hoc Mode (Peer-to-Peer)

 Infrastructure Mode (Access Point)

Ad-hoc Mode:

Ad-hoc, or Peer-to-Peer, refers to a configuration where each computer in the wireless network
communicates directly with another. An Ad-hoc wireless LAN consists of a group of computers, each
equipped with a wireless adapter, connected directly via radio signals to form an independent wireless
LAN. Computer in a specified Ad-hoc wireless LAN must be configured to the same radio channel to
communicate with one another. More than one Ad-hoc networks can exist in the same space if it is
configured to operate on a different channel. There are a varying number of channels depending on the
part of the world you are operating in. The US has 11 channels, Europe has 13 channels, and Japan has
14 channels.

Infrastructure Mode:

A client setting providing connectivity to an access point. As compared to Ad-hoc mode, whereby PCs
communicate directly with each other, client set in Infrastructure Mode all pass the data through a
central access point as shown in the figure below. The access point not only mediates wireless network
traffic in the immediate neighborhood, but also provides communication with the wired network.
Dinesh Singh Dhami [email protected]

Access Points:

A wireless LAN transceiver or ‘bas station’ that can connect a wired LAN to one or many wireless
devices. Access points can also bridge to each other. There are various types of access points and base
stations used in both wireless and wired networks. These include bridges, hubs, switches, routers and
gateways. The differences between them are not precise, because certain capabilities associated with
one can also be added to another. For example, a router can perform bridging functions, and a hub may
serve as a switch. But they are all involved in making sure data is transferred from one to another. A
bridge connects devices that all use the same kind of protocol. A router can connect networks that use
differing protocols. It also reads the addresses included in the packets and routes them to the
appropriate computer station, working with any other routers in the network to choose the best path to
send the packets on. A wireless hub or access point adds a few capabilities such as roaming and provides
a network connection to a variety of clients, but it does not allocate bandwidth. A switch is a hub that
has extra intelligence: It can read the address of a packet and send it to the appropriate computer
station. A wireless gateway is an access point that provides additional capabilities such as NAT routing,
DHCP, firewalls.

Wireless Security:

Wireless technology as the name implies is a technology without wires, the level of security and safety in
a wireless network is to a large extent compromised by the very nature of it being wireless. Any wireless
client can hack or snoop into an unprotected wireless network, as the wireless networks by default
announce of their presence by broadcasting the SSID (Service Set Identifier), which also called the
Network Name. The physical protection that the wired networks have is absent in a wireless network, to
overcome these shortcomings in the wireless networks IEEE came out with Encryption standards called
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) to add a semblance of safety.

WEP, a security protocol for wireless local area networks (WLANs) defined in the 802.11b standard. WEP
is designed to provide the same level of security as that of a wired LAN. LANs are inherently more secure
than WLANs because LANs are somewhat protected by the physicalities of their structure, having some
or all part of the network inside a building that can be protected from unauthorized access. WLANs,
which are over radio waves, do not have the same physical structure and therefore are more vulnerable
to tampering. WEP aims to provide security by encrypting data over radio waves so that it is protected
as it is transmitted from one end point to another. However, it has been found that WEP is not as secure
as one believed. WEP is used at the two lowest layers of the OSI model – Data Link and Physical Layers; it
therefore does not offer end-to-end security.

The translation of data into a secret code. Encryption is the most effective way to achieve data security.
To read an encrypted file, you must have access to a secret key or password that enables you to decrypt
it. Unencrypted data is called plain text; encrypted data is referred to as cipher text. There are two main
Dinesh Singh Dhami [email protected]

types of encryption: Asymmetric Encryption (also called public-key encryption) and Symmetric
Encryption.

The IEEE 802.11b standard defines two types of Authentication: Open System and Shared Key. Open
System Authentication allows any device to join the network assuming that the Station’s SSID matches
the Access Point’s SSID (or the Station can use ‘ANY’ SSID option to associate with any available Access
Point within range, regardless of its configured SSID). Shared Key Authentication requires that the
Station and the Access Point have the same WEP Key to authenticate. These two authentication
procedures are described below:

Open System Authentication:

Open System Authentication is the default authentication protocol for 802.11. As the name implies,
open system authentication authenticates anyone who requests authentication. Essentially, it provides
an NULL authentication process. Experimentation has shown that stations do perform a mutual
authentication using this method when joining a network.

The following steps occur when two devices use Open System Authentication:

1. The Station sends an authentication request to the Access Point.

2. The Access Point authenticates the Station.
3. The Station associates with the Access Point and joins the network.

Shared Key Authentication:

Shared Key Authentication uses a standard challenge and response along with a share secret key to
provide authentication. The station wishing to authenticate, the Initiator, sends an authentication
request management frame indicating that they wish to use ‘Shared Key’ authentication. The recipient
of the authentication request, the responder, responds by sending an authentication management
frame containing 128 octets of challenge text to the Initiator. The challenge text is generated by using
the WEP pseudo-random number generator (PRNG) with the ‘shared secret’ and random initialization
vector (IV) 2. Once the initiator receives the management frame from the responder, they copy the
contents of the challenge text into a new management frame body. This new management frame body
is then encrypted with WEP using the ‘shared secret’ along with a new IV selected by the initiator. The
encrypted management frame is then sent to the responder. The responder decrypts the received frame
and verifies that the 32 bit CRC integrity check value (ICV) is valid, and that the challenge text matches
that sent in the first message. If they do, then authentication is successful. If the authentication is
successful, then the initiator and the responder switch roles and repeat the process to ensure mutual
authentication.

The following steps occur when two devices use Shared Key Authentication:

1. The Station sends an authentication request to the Access Point.

2. The Access Points sends challenge text to the Station.
3. The Station uses its configured 40-bit or 128-bit Default Key to encrypt the challenge text.
Dinesh Singh Dhami [email protected]

4. The Station sends the encrypted text to the Access Point.

5. The Access Point decrypts the encrypted text using its configured WEP Keys that corresponds to
the Station’s Default Key.
6. The Access Point compares the decrypted text with the original challenge text.
7. If the decrypted text matches the original challenge text, then the Access Point and the Station
share the same WEP Key and the Access Point authenticates the Station. The Station then sends
and association request to the Access Point.
8. If the decrypted text does not match the original challenge text (i.e., the Access Point and
Station do not share the same WEP Key), then Access Point will refuse to authenticate the
Station and the Station will be unable to communicate with either the 802.11b network or
Ethernet network.

Initiator -----------Authentication Request---------- Responder

---------Authentication Challenge--------
------------Authentication Response--------
--------- Authentication Result-------------

Mutual Station Authentication using shared keys

WEP encryption can be classified into 2 based on the keys provided for encryption:

1. 64bit/40bit where one needs to provide 10bit hexadecimal digits (or 5 pairs of hexadecimal
digits). E.g. af-98-55-9c-1b
2. 128bit/104bit where one needs to provide 26 bit hexadecimal digits (or 13 pairs of hexadecimal
digits). E.g. ae-23-ef-4c-b5-9d-8e-ff-51-43-7c-5a-2a
(NOTE: Hexadecimal digits range from 0-9, a-f)

WPA Authentication:

802.1x authentication is required in WPA. In the 802.11 standard, 802.1x authentication was optional.

For environments without a RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service) infrastructure, WPA
supports the use of a PSK (Pre Shared Key). For environments with a RADIUS infrastructure, EAP
(Extensible Authentication Protocol) and RADIUS is supported.

WPA Key Management:

With 802.1x, the rekeying of unicast encryption keys is optional. Additionally, 802.11 and 802.1x provide
no mechanism to change the global encryption key used for multicast and broadcast traffic. With WPA,
rekeying of both unicast and global encryption keys is required. For the unicast encryption key, the TKIP
(Temporal Key Integrity Protocol) changes the key for every frame, and the change is synchronized
Dinesh Singh Dhami [email protected]

between the wireless client and the wireless AP (Access Point). For the global encryption key, WPA
includes a facility for the wireless AP to advertise the changed key to the connected wireless clients.

TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol):

For 802.11, WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) encryption is optional. For WPA, encryption using TKIP is
required. TKIP replaces WEP with a new encryption algorithm that is stronger than the WEP algorithm
but that uses the calculation facilities present on existing wireless devices to perform encryption
operations. TKIP also provides for the following:

 The verification of the security configuration after the encryption keys is determined.
 The synchronized changing of the unicast encryption key for each frame.
 The determination of a unique starting unicast encryption key for each Pre-Shared key
authentication.

AES Support:

WPA defines the use of AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) as an additional replacement for WEP
encryption. Because you may not be able to add AES support through a firmware update to existing
wireless equipment, support for AES is optional and is dependent on vendor driver support.