Engineering Physics Material prepared by Dr. L.

Srinivasa Rao VNRVJIET Hyd

UNIT-I: WAVE OPTICS

(Part-I: Interference)

1. What is superposition principle? What are its consequences? Give some

examples.

Superposition principle:
This principle states that the resultant displacement of a particle of the medium acted upon by
two or more waves simultaneously is the algebraic sum of the displacements of the same
particle due to individual waves, in absence of others.
Suppose y1 is the displacement of the particle at a certain point at any instant is due to first
wave in absence of second wave.

And y2 is the displacement of the particle at the same point at any instant is due to second
wave in absence of the first wave.

If two waves propagate in the same direction then the resultant displacement of the particle
due to two waves acting together at that point is y = y1 + y2.

If two waves propagate in opposite direction then the resultant displacement of the particle
due to two waves acting together at that point is y = y1 - y2.

Examples:
1. Formation of stationary waves in a stretched string.
2. Formation of Beats.
3. Interference of light.

Applications:
Superposition principle used in
1. Tuning of musical instruments and recording the musical album.
2. Network analysis by superposition of electric signals.
3. Rolling motion is the superposition of two motions: translation without rotation, and
rotation without translation.
4. Quantum computing for defining qubits.
5. Interferometry for wave analysis like ultrasonic interferometer, Michelson
interferometer, signals transmission and antenna systems etc.
6. Analysis of water waves and earth quakes etc.
7. The superposition principle is applied in hydrogeology to the drawdown of two or
more water wells pumping in an ideal aquifer.

Consequences of superposition principle:

1. Law of conservation of energy is well validated by the superposition principle.
2. Linearity of the wave equation is also the consequence of the superposition principle.

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2. Explain the mathematical description of superposition principle.

(OR)
Derive expression for resultant amplitude and resultant intensity due to
interference of two light waves at a point by using superposition principle.
Let us consider the case of two simple harmonic waves of same frequency moving in the
same positive direction with two different amplitudes a1 and a2 having phase difference ϕ.
The wave equations are as follows:
y1 = a1Sint ------ (1)

y2 = a2 Sin(t+ϕ) ------ (2)

From superposition principle, the resultant displacement is given by

y = y1 + y2 ------ (3)

y = a1Sint + a2 Sin(t+ϕ)

y = a1Sint + a2SintCosϕ + a2SinϕCost

y = Sint [a1+ a2Cosϕ] + Cost [a2Sinϕ] ------ (4)

put [a1+ a2Cosϕ] = ACosθ ------ (5)

[a2Sinϕ] = ASinθ ------ (6)

Substituting (5) and (6) in (4)

y = ASint Cosθ + ACost Sinθ

y = ASin(t +θ) ------ (7)

Equation (7) shows the resultant displacement of the resultant wave with amplitude A and
phase θ. It also reveals the linearity of wave equation.

Expression for resultant amplitude (A):

Take (5)2 + (6)2,
[a1+ a2Cosϕ]2 = A2Cos2θ

[a2Sinϕ]2 = A2Sin2θ
-------------------------------------------------------

𝑎12 + 𝑎22 Cos2ϕ + 2a1a2Cosϕ + 𝑎22 Sin2ϕ = A2Cos2θ + A2Sin2θ

𝑎12 + 𝑎22 [Cos2ϕ + Sin2ϕ] + 2a1a2Cosϕ = A2 [Cos2θ + Sin2θ]

𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2a1a2Cosϕ = A2

A = [𝒂𝟐𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐𝟐 + 2a1a2Cosϕ]1/2 ------ (8)

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This is expression for resultant amplitude; it depends on phase difference of the two waves.

Case (i): superposition of two waves in the same phase:

i.e., ϕ = 2nπ = 0, ±2π, ±4π, ±6π,----- (where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,----)

then Cosϕ = 1. Hence equation (8) becomes

A = [𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2a1a2]1/2

A = [a1 + a2] ------ (9)

Thus, the resultant amplitude is sum of the amplitudes of individual waves.

Now, if a1 = a2 then A = 2a ------ (10)

This is the maximum amplitude.

Case (ii): superposition of two waves in the out of phase:

i.e., ϕ = (2n+1)π = ±π, ±5π, ±7π,----- (where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,----)

then Cosϕ = -1. Hence equation (8) becomes

A = [𝑎12 + 𝑎22 - 2a1a2]1/2

A = [a1 - a2] ------ (11)

Thus, the resultant amplitude is difference of the amplitudes of individual waves.

Now, if a1 = a2 then A = 0 ------ (12)

This is the minimum amplitude.

Expression for resultant intensity (I):

The intensity of superposition waves is given by

I α A2

I = kA2 ------ (13)

Substituting equation (8) in (13)

I = k [𝒂𝟐𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐𝟐 + 2a1a2Cosϕ] ------ (14)

This is expression for resultant intensity; it also depends on phase difference of the two
waves.

Case (i): superposition of two waves in the same phase:

i.e., ϕ = 2nπ = 0, ±2π, ±4π, ±6π,----- (where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,----)

then Cosϕ = 1. Hence equation (14) becomes

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I = k [𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2a1a2]

I = k [a1 + a2]2

Now, if a1 = a2 then Imax = k 4a2 ------ (15)

Now let us consider initial intensity (Io),

Io α a2

Io = k a2 ------ (16)
(16) 𝐼
Take ; =4
(17) 𝐼𝑜

Imax = 4 Io ------ (17)

This is the maximum intensity.

Relation between path difference () and phase difference (ϕ) is
𝛅 𝛟
= 𝟐𝝅 ------ (18)
𝝀

since in this case, ϕ = 2nπ; equation (18) becomes

𝛅 𝟐𝐧𝛑
=
𝝀 𝟐𝝅

δ = nλ ------ (19)
The path difference must be integral multiple of wavelength for maximum intensity.

Case (ii): superposition of two waves in the out of phase:

i.e., ϕ = (2n+1)π = ±π, ±5π, ±7π,----- (where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,----)

then Cosϕ = -1. Hence equation (14) becomes

I = k [𝑎12 + 𝑎22 - 2a1a2]

I = k[a1 - a2]2

Now, if a1 = a2 then Imin = 0 ------ (20)

This is the minimum intensity.

Using Relation between path difference () and phase difference (ϕ) from (19)
𝛅 𝛟
= 𝟐𝝅
𝝀

since in this case, ϕ = (2n+1)π;

𝛅 (𝟐𝐧+𝟏)𝛑
𝝀
= 𝟐𝝅

δ = (n + ½) λ ------ (20)

The path difference must be half-integral multiple of wavelength for minimum intensity.

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Fig. Intensity distribution curve

(4I o + 0)
Conclusion: The average intensity of light is given by Iavg = = 2Io --------- (21), which
2

is the sum of initial intensities (Io+Io) of the two individual sources. Thus, the Superposition
principle (interference of light) holds the law of conservation of energy.

3. What is interference of light? Define constructive interference and

destructive interference.
Superposition of two coherent light waves at a point in space forms the resultant wave with
the maximum or minimum intensity than the two interacting waves. This phenomenon is
called Interference of light.
If the path difference between two coherent waves is integral multiple of their wavelength (or
if two waves are in phase), the resultant intensity becomes maximum and it forms bright
fringe on the screen. Such interference is called constructive interference.

(a) Constructive interference. (b) Destructive interference.

Fig. interference of two coherent light waves
If the path difference between two coherent waves is half-integral multiple of their
wavelength (or if two waves are in out phase), the resultant intensity becomes minimum and
it forms dark fringe on the screen. Such interference is called destructive interference.

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4. What is coherence of light? What are different types of coherence?

Propagation of the wave produced by a light source with constant phase difference between
two points maintaining fixed amplitude and fixed frequency is called Coherence of that light
source.

The coherence of the light source is of two types:

1) Temporal coherence
2) Spatial coherence.

1) Temporal coherence:

Temporal coherence is a measure of the correlation between the phases of a light wave at
different points along the direction of propagation. If the phase difference of the wave
crossing the two points lying along the direction of propagation is independent of time, then
the wave is said to be temporal coherence. Temporal coherence is also known as longitudinal
coherence. Temporal coherence tells us how monochromatic a source is. In other words, if
light source is temporal coherence then it maintains constant wavelength infinitely.

Let us consider a wave propagating in x- direction.

A B

If Φ(A) is phase of point A and Φ(B) is phase of point B at time t1, then phase difference
between these point is given by ΔΦ = Φ(A) – Φ(B).

If Φ′(A) is phase of point A and Φ′(B) is phase of point B at time t2, then phase difference
between these point is given by ΔΦ′ = Φ′(A) – Φ′(B).

Then ΔΦ = ΔΦ′ => Φ(A) – Φ(B) = Φ′(A) – Φ′(B) ---------(1)

Thus the wave has temporal coherence.

2) Spatial coherence:

Spatial coherence is a measure of the correlation between the phases of a light wave at
different points, transverse to the direction of propagation. If the phase difference of the wave
crossing the two points lying on a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation is
independent of time, then the wave is said to be spatial coherence. Spatial coherence tells us

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how directional a source is. In other words, if light source is spatial coherence then it
maintains constant amplitude infinitely.

Let us consider vibration of a wave in y- direction.

A B

If Φ(A) is phase of point A and Φ(B) is phase of point B at time t1, then phase difference
between these point is given by ΔΦ = Φ(A) – Φ(B).

If Φ′(A) is phase of point A and Φ′(B) is phase of point B at time t2, then phase difference
between these point is given by ΔΦ′ = Φ′(A) – Φ′(B).

Then ΔΦ = ΔΦ′ => Φ(A) – Φ(B) = Φ′(A) – Φ′(B) --------- (2)

Thus the wave has spatial coherence.

Coherence time and Coherence length:

The time interval over which the phase of a wave remains constant is called the coherence
time (Δt). The distance travelled by the light wave during coherent time is called coherence
length (ΔL). For a perfectly monochromatic wave, the coherence time and coherence length
are infinity. For light waves, ΔL = C Δt. In case of laser sources, the coherence length is
about 30-40 Km, where as coherence time is several micro seconds.

5. What are coherent sources?

Propagation of the wave produced by a light source with constant phase difference between
two points maintaining fixed amplitude and fixed frequency is called Coherence of that light
source.

Two light sources must be coherent for interference of light. In other words, the waves
emerging through two sources should satisfy following conditions:

1. Two waves should have constant phase difference.

2. Two waves should have same amplitude.
3. Two waves should have same frequency.

Such light sources are called coherent sources.

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6. Why two independent light sources never be acted as coherent sources?

(OR) Why are two independent sources incoherent?
Two independent light sources can have the variable life time of the atoms with their unequal
transition rate between ground state and excited state. Thus they emit the waves of different
phase change, different amplitude and different wavelength at any point in the medium.
Hence two independent light sources can never be acted as coherent sources.

7. What are the methods to obtain coherent light sources? Explain briefly,
with examples.
There are two methods to produce coherent light waves (sources).
1) Division of wavefront method (Wavefront splitting)
2) Division of amplitude method (Amplitude splitting)

1) Division of wavefront method:

This method uses slits, lenses, prisms and mirrors for dividing a single wavefront into two
coherent wavefronts by reflection, refraction or diffraction.

These two wavefronts are made to travel unequal distances and superimpose each other to
produce interference pattern. This method is useful with small sources.

Examples:
1. Young’s double slit experiment 2. Lloyd’s mirror 3. Fresnel’s bi-prism

1. YDSE 2. Lloyd’s mirror 3. Fresnel’s bi-prism

2) Division of amplitude method:

The method, which is used to produce two coherent sources from a common source, is called
division of amplitude that maintains the same width but reduced amplitude passing through
glass plates, lenses or films by reflection or refraction.

These two waves of approximately equal amplitudes are made to travel unequal distances and
superimpose each other to produce interference pattern. This method is useful with extended
(large) sources.

Examples: 1. Interference at thin films 2. Newton rings experiment 3. Michelson

interferometer.

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1. Interference at thin films 2. Newton rings experiment 3. Michelson interferometer.

8. Explain interference in thin films by reflected light with examples.

(OR) Derive condition for constructive and destructive interference at a
thin film of thickness ‘t’ and refractive index ‘μ’

Let us consider a thin film of refractive index (μ) and thickness (t). AB light ray is used to
incident on the upper surface of the film with an angle of incidence (i). The light ray (AB) is
partly reflected as BER ray and partly refracted as BC ray with an angle of refraction (r). The
BC ray is reflected as CDR1 ray at lower surface. Now, the two reflected light rays BER ray
and CDR1 ray interfere with each other and make the film appear brightly or darkly due to
constructive or destructive interference respectively. This is called interference in thin films
by reflected light.

Fig. Interference in thin films by reflected light.

The optical path difference between the two reflected light rays (BR and DR1) is given by

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∆ = Path (BC + CD) in film – Path BE in air

∆ = μ(BC + CD) – BE ------------------(1)
But, μ = sin i/sin r = (BE/BD) / (FD/BD) = BE/FD
BE = μ(FD) --------------------- (2)

Sub (2) in (1)

∆ = μ(BC + CD) – μ(FD)

∆ = μ(BC + CF + FD) – μ(FD)
∆ = μ(BC + CF) (BC= PC)
∆ = μ(PC + CF)
∆ = μ(PF) --------------------------- (3) (PC + CF = PF)
From BPF, cos r = PF/BP
PF = BP cos r (BP = 2t)
PF =2t cos r ------------------ (4)
Sub (4) in (3),
∆ = μ (2t cos r)
∆ = 2μt cos r ------------------ (5)
For the reflected rays the phase change of π gives path difference λ/2. Hence, the effective
path difference is given by
∆ = 2μt cos r ± λ/2 ------------------ (6)
Case (1): For constructive interference, the effective path difference should be equal to
integral multiple of λ.
i.e. ∆ = nλ (where n = 1, 2, 3…)
2μt cos r - λ/2 = nλ
2μt cos r = nλ + λ/2
2μt cos r = (n + ½ ) λ ---------------------- (7)
This is the condition for Maxima and film appears bright.
Case (2): For destructive interference, the effective path difference should be equal to half-
integral multiple of λ.
∆ = (n + ½) λ
2μt cos r + λ/2 = (n + ½) λ
2μt cos r + λ/2 = nλ + λ/2
2μt cos r = nλ ---------------------- (8)
This is the condition for Minima and film appears dark.

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Thus reflection of light at thin film depends on wavelength of the light, thickness and refractive index
of the film.

Examples:
1. The colors that we can see when sunlight falls on soap bubbles, oil slick and ruby-throated
humming bird are caused by the interference of light waves reflected from the front and back
surfaces of thin films.
2. Thin films deposited on optical components such as camera lenses can reduce reflection and
enhance transmission of light.
3. Thin coatings on window glasses can enhance the reflectivity for IR radiation while having
less effect on the visible radiation. In this it is possible to reduce the heating effect of the Sun
light on a building.
4. Thin coatings on jewelry stones is also the good example.
5. LCD projector lens is coated with a thin film.
6. Monitors of TV, Computer and laptop are made up of thin film diodes.

9. Explain Newton rings experiment to determine wavelength of a

monochromatic source. (OR)
Derive formula for wavelength of a monochromatic light source in Newton rings
experiment by reflected light. (OR)
Show that diameter of the Newton ring is directly proportional to the square root
of the integer (order).
Newton’s rings experiment is used to determine wavelength (λ) of a monochromatic source
for known value of Radius of curvature (R) of a plano-convex lens or vice-versa.

Experimental set-up:

Fig. 1 Experimental set-up

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When a plano-convex lens (L) with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate (P), an
air film of gradually increasing thickness outward is formed between the lens and the glass
plate. The thickness of film at the point of contact is zero. If the monochromatic light
(Sodium lamp) is allowed to fall normally on the lens by focusing on another glass plate (G)
held at angle 45o. Now, the air film is viewed through microscope in reflected light, alternate
bright and dark concentric rings are seen around the point of contact. These rings were first
discovered by Newton, that’s why they are called Newton’s Rings.

Working Principle:

Fig. 2 working principle of Newton rings

Newton’s rings formed due to interference between the light waves reflected from the top and
bottom surfaces of the air film formed between the plano-convex lens (L) and glass plate (P).
Interference occurs between the two waves which interfere constructively if the path
difference between them is (n+ ½)λ and destructively if path difference between them is nλ,
producing alternate bright and dark rings.

Determination of wavelength of the source:

The wavelength can be determined by using following equation:

D 2 −D 2
m n
λ = 4R(m−n) ---------- (I)

Where, R= The Radius of curvature of plano-convex lens.

Dm and Dn = Diameter of mth and nth rings.
The diameter of the rings can be measured by travelling microscope. The travelling
microscope should be moved only in one direction to eliminate back lash error.

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Graph: Relation between order of the rings and the square of the diameter of the rings is a
straight line passing through the origin. From graph, by calculating the slope of the straight
line, we can determine the wavelength of the source.

Fig.3 Square of diameter verses order of the ring

The wavelength of the source:
slope
λ= ---------- (9)
4R

10. What are the characteristics of Newton’s rings?

Characteristics of Newton’s rings:

1. Newton’s rings are concentric dark and bright rings alternately formed by interference
phenomena of light.
2. The rings are finite.
3. Central spot is dark by reflection of light.
4. Central spot is bright by transmission of light.
5. The area between any two successive rings remains constant.
6. Fringe separation between the two successive rings deceases as their order increases.
7. Relation between order of the dark rings and the square of the diameter of the rings is
a straight line passing through the origin.
8. When white light is used. The interference pattern will be an overlapping of rings of
different colors over each other.
9. Newton’s rings experiment is also a consequence of law of conversation of energy.

11. What are the applications of Newton’s rings experiment?

Applications of Newton’s rings:
1. Radius of curvature of Plano-convex lens can be determined.
2. The refractive index of a thin film formed by various oils, chemicals, liquids etc. can
be determined.
3. Wavelength of monochromatic light can be determined.
4. Thickness of thin film can be determined.

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UNIT-I: WAVE OPTICS (Part-II: Diffraction)

1. Define diffraction of light. What is condition for diffraction? Give any four
examples.
Bending of light at sharp edges of the obstacles is called diffraction. As a result the wavefronts
can be splitting into tiny parts, known as wavelets. The superposition of secondary wavelets forms
the pattern of dark and bright alternative fringes. Such pattern is called diffraction pattern. The
diffraction supports the wave nature of the light.
The essential condition: The wavelength of incident light must be comparable with size the
obstacle (i.e. λ ≈ b ).
Examples:
1. Airy disc around the sun, the moon, the stars etc.
2. Diffraction at grooves of a CD, DVD etc.
3. Diffraction at bar code, QR code, etc.
4. Diffraction at single slit, double slit, pin hole and N-slits.

2. Distinguish diffraction and interference.

S.No. Interference Diffraction
1 Superposition takes place between two Superposition takes place between secondary
separate wave fronts originating from the two wavelets originating from different points of the
coherent sources. exposed parts of the same wavefront.
2 In the interference pattern the regions of In the diffraction pattern the regions of minimum
minimum intensity are usually almost intensity are usually not perfectly dark.
perfectly dark.
3 The fringe widths may or may not be equal. The fringe widths are never equal.
4 All maxima are of same intensity. All maxima are of varying intensity.
5 Condition for interference is that the two Condition for diffraction is that size of the object
waves must be coherent. must be comparable with wavelength of source.
6 Examples: Newton rings experiment, YDSE, Examples: Diffraction at single slit, double slit,
Thin film interference etc. circular aperture and N-slits.
7 Applications: Used to find wavelength of Applications: Used to find wavelength of source,
source, radius of curvature, refractive index slit width, telescope, microscope, WDM,
of glasses, thin films in rhine stones, camera biometry, etc.
lenses etc.

3. Distinguish Fresnel’s diffraction and Fraunhofer’s diffraction.

S.No. Fresnel’s diffraction Fraunhofer’s diffraction
1

2 Source and screen are placed at finite distance Source and screen are placed at infinity.
from the aperture of the obstacle having sharp
edges.
3 No lenses are used for making the rays parallel or Lenses are used for making the rays parallel or
convergent. convergent.
4 The incident wave-fronts are either spherical or The incident wave-fronts are plane.
cylindrical.

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4. Explain Fraunhofer diffraction at single slit. Derive condition for

diffraction minima and maxima. Also, discuss the intensity
distribution.

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Note: The intensity at a point P on the screen can be derived by phasor approach (vector model) as
shown in below equation:

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5. Explain Fraunhofer diffraction at double slit. Derive condition for

exclusive diffraction and interference. Also, discuss the intensity
distribution.

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6. Derive condition for absent spectra in Double slit experiment. Show that
interference maxima disappear when they fall on diffraction minima in
a double slit experiment.

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7. Explain Fraunhofer diffraction at multiple slits (N-slits). Derive

expression for wavelength of the source and maximum number of order.

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Maximum number of orders possible at θ = 90o, then eq.(6) becomes

1
nmax = --------------- (7)
λN

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8. Explain Fraunhofer diffraction at circular aperture. Derive expression

for radius of the Airy disc. (OR) Show that the radius of the Airy disc
due to blue is smaller than that of red.

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CONCLUSIONS:
1. In view of equation (6), the radius of the Airy disc is directly proportional to the
wavelength of the incident light. Hence, the size (radius) of the Airy disc due to blue
(450 – 490 nm) is smaller than that of red (630 – 750 nm).
2. For shorter wavelengths of the source, the radius becomes small and the object
appears clearly, this is working principle of microscope.
3. For larger diameter of the lens, the radius becomes small and the object appears
clearly, this is working principle of telescope.
*******

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