Lecture 02

Vector Analysis (Contd.)

1 / 35
Outline

1 Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors

Position Vector
Infinitesimal Displacement Vector
Separation Vector

2 The Operator ∇

3 Gradient
Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient

4 The Divergence
Geometrical Interpretation of divergence

5 The Curl
Geometrical Interpretation of curl
2 / 35
Outline (contd.)

6 Product rules for gradient, divergence and curl

3 / 35
Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors
Position Vector

The location of a point in three dimensions can be described by

listing its Cartesian coordinates(x, y, z).
Position Vector: It is given by
~r =xî + yĵ + zk̂ with magnitude
p
1
r = x2 + y2 + z2 = x2 + y2 + z2 2
The unit vector of it is
~r xî + yĵ + zk̂
r̂ = = p
r x2 + y2 + z2

4 / 35
Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors
Infinitesimal Displacement Vector

The infinitesimal displacement vector, from (x, y, z) to

(x + dx, y + dy, z + dz), is

d~l = dxî + dyĵ + dzk̂

5 / 35
Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors
Separation Vector

In electrodynamics we frequently encounter problems involving

two points − typically, a source point,~r0 , where an electric
charge is located, and a field point,~r, at which we are calculating
the electric or magnetic field (Figure 1).

Figure 1
6 / 35
Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors
Separation Vector (contd.)

The separation vector from the source point to the field point is

r
~ = (~r −~r0 )

= (x − x0 )î + (y − y0 )ĵ + (z − z0 )k̂

The unit vector of separation vector is given by

r̂ = ~rr = p(x(x−−xx)î)++(y(y−−y y)ĵ)++(z(z−−z )zk̂)

0

0 2
0

0 2
0

0 2

7 / 35
The Operator ∇

The vector differential operator del (nabla), defined in Cartesian

coordinates as
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
Of course, del is not a vector, in the usual sense. Indeed, it is
without specific meaning until we provide it with a function to
act upon.
There are three ways the operator ∇ can act:
1 On a scalar function T : ∇T (the gradient);
2 On a vector function~v, via the dot product: ∇ ·~v (the
divergence);
3 On a vector function~v, via the cross product: ∇ ×~v ( the curl).
8 / 35
Gradient

Suppose that we have a function of three variables− say, the

temperature T(x, y, z) in a room. A theorem on partial derivatives
states that
     
∂T ∂T ∂T
dT = dx + dy + dz (1)
∂x ∂y ∂z

This tells us how T changes when we alter all three variables by the
infinitesimal amount dx, dy, dz.
Equation (1) can be written as
 
∂T ∂T ∂T

dT = î + ĵ + k̂ · dx î + dy ĵ + dz k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
= (∇T) · d~l
9 / 35
Gradient (contd.)

∂T ∂T ∂T
where ∇T = î + ĵ + k̂ is the gradient of T
∂x ∂y ∂z

10 / 35
Gradient
Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient

   
dT = (∇T) · d~l = |∇T| d~l cos θ
 

where θ is the angle between ∇T and d~l

 
Now, if we fix the magnitude d~l and search around in various
 

directions, the maximum change in T evidently occurs when θ = 0

 
for then cos θ = 1. That is, for a fixed distance d~l, dT is greatest
 

when we move in the same direction as ∇T. Thus:

11 / 35
Gradient
Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient (contd.)

The gradient ∇T points in the direction of maximum increase of the

function T
Moreover:
The magnitude |∇T| gives the slope (rate of increase) along this
maximal direction.
Example 1
Suppose that the temperature T at the point (x, y, z) is given by the
equation T = x2 − y2 + xyz + 273. In which direction is the
temperature increasing most rapidly at (−1, 2, 3) and at what rate?

12 / 35
Gradient
Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient (contd.)

Solution:
Here, T = x2 − y2 + xyz + 273

∂T ∂T ∂T
∇T = î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ 2 ∂ 2
x − y2 + xyz + 273 î + x − y2 + xyz + 273 ĵ



=
∂x ∂y
∂ 2
x − y2 + xyz + 273 k̂


+
∂z
= (2x + yz) î + (−2y + xz) ĵ + (xy) k̂

= 4î − 7ĵ − 2k̂ at (−1, 2, 3)

13 / 35
Gradient
Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient (contd.)

The increase in temperature is fastest in the direction of this vector.

The rate of increase is
q √
|∇T| = (4)2 + (−7)2 + (−2)2 = 69

14 / 35
Gradient
Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient (contd.)

Note:
Gravitational Potential Energy near the Earth
U = mgz
where z is the height from some arbitrary reference level

∂U ∂U ∂U
∇U = î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= (mgz) î + (mgz) ĵ + (mgz) k̂ = mgk̂
∂x ∂y ∂z

Gravitational force, ~F = −mgk̂ = −mgk̂ = −∇U So, the maximum change in

gravitational potential energy is vertically upwards from the centre of Earth.

15 / 35
Gradient
Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient (contd.)

Gradient of a scalar field T

∂T ∂T ∂T
∇T = î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z

∇, turns a scalar field into a vector field.

∇T points in the direction of maximum increase of T.

|∇T| is the rate of maximum increase.

16 / 35
The Divergence

The divergence of a vector ~F, written div~F or, ∇ · ~F is defined as

follows:
The divergence of a vector is the limit of its surface integral per unit
volume as the volume enclosed by the surface goes to zero. That is,

1
I
div~F = ∇ · ~F = lim ~F · d~a
V→0 V S

The divergence is clearly a scalar point function (scalar field), and it is

defined at the limit point of the surface integration.
In Cartesian coordinate it can be expressed as

div ~F = ∇ · ~F

17 / 35
The Divergence (contd.)

 
~ ∂ ∂ ∂

∇ · F = î + ĵ + k̂ · Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ Fx ∂ F y ∂ Fz
∇ · ~F = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

18 / 35
The Divergence
Geometrical Interpretation of divergence

The divergence of a vector function~v, i.e. ∇ ·~v is a measure of

how much the vector~v spreads out (diverges) from the point in
question.

19 / 35
The Divergence
Geometrical Interpretation of divergence (contd.)

For example,
The vector function in Figure 2 has a large positive divergence.

Figure 2
20 / 35
The Divergence
Geometrical Interpretation of divergence (contd.)

Figure 3

The vector function in Figure 3 has zero divergence.

21 / 35
The Divergence
Geometrical Interpretation of divergence (contd.)

Imagine you are standing at the edge of a pond. Sprinkle some

sawdust or pine needles on the surface. If the material spreads
out, then you dropped it at a point of positive divergence; if it
collects together, you dropped it at a point of negative
divergence. (The vector function~v in this model is the velocity
of water.)

A point of positive divergence is a source, or “faucet”; a point of

negative divergence is a sink, or “drain”.

22 / 35
The Divergence
Geometrical Interpretation of divergence (contd.)

If at some point P,

∇ ·~v > 0, then~v has a source at P

∇ ·~v < 0, then~v has a sink at P.

∇ ·~v = 0, then~v is said to be solenoidal

23 / 35
The Divergence
Example:

1 Calculate the divergence of vector function~v = xî + yĵ + zk̂.

Solution:

∂ vx ∂ vy ∂ vz
∇ ·~v = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= (x) + (y) + (z)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 1+1+1

=3

24 / 35
The Divergence (contd.)
Example:

2 If ~A = x2 zî − 2y3 z2 ĵ + xy2 zk̂, find ∇ ·~A at point (1, −1, 1).
Solution:

∂ 2
∂
∂
∇ ·~A = −2y3 z2 + xy2 z


x z +
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2xz − 6y2 z2 + xy2

= 2 (1) (1) − 6(−1)2 (1)2 + (1) (−1) 2 at (1, −1, 1)

= 2−6+1

=−3

25 / 35
The Curl

The curl of a vector function ~F is written as curl~F or ∇ × ~F and

defined as follow.
The component of curl ~F in the direction of the unit vector n̂ is the
limit of a line integral per unit area , as the enclosed area goes to
zero, this area being perpendicular to n̂. That is,

1
I
n̂ · curl ~F = n̂ · (∇ × ~F) = lim ~F · d~l
S→0 S C

where the curve C , which bounds the surface S, is in a plane normal

to n̂.

26 / 35
The Curl (contd.)

In Cartesian coordinate, the curl of a vector function~v can be

expressed as:

curl~v = ∇ ×~v
 
∂ ∂ ∂

= î + ĵ + k̂ × vx î + vy ĵ + vz k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
     
∂ vz ∂ vy ∂ vx ∂ vz ∂ vy ∂ vx
= î − + ĵ − + k̂ −
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
 
 î ĵ k̂ 

∂ ∂ ∂ 
=


∂x ∂y ∂z
 
 vx vy vz 

27 / 35
The Curl
Geometrical Interpretation of curl

The curl of a vector function~v , ∇ ×~v is a measure of how much

the vector~v “curls around” the point in question.
For example,
The vector function in Figure 4 has a substantial curl, pointing in
the z-direction, as the natural right-hand rule would suggest.

28 / 35
The Curl
Geometrical Interpretation of curl (contd.)

Figure 4

29 / 35
The Curl
Geometrical Interpretation of curl (contd.)

Imagine you are standing at the edge of a pond. Float a small

paddle-wheel (a cork with toothpicks pointing out radially would
do); if it starts to rotate, then you placed it at a point of nonzero
curl. (The vector function~v in this model is the velocity of
water.)
A whirlpool would be a region of large curl.

If ∇ ×~v = 0, then~v is irrotational.

30 / 35
The Curl
Examples:

1 Calculate curl of the vector function~v = xĵ − yî.

Solution:
 
 î ĵ k̂ 

   ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ ×~v = ∇ × xĵ − yî =  
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
 −y x 0
   
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= î (0) − (x) − ĵ (0) − (−y)
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z
 
∂ ∂
+ k̂ (x) − (−y)
∂x ∂y
= î [0] − ĵ [0 − 0] + k̂ [1 − (−1)] = 2k̂

31 / 35
The Curl (contd.)
Examples:

2 If ~A = xz3 î − 2x2 yzĵ + 2yz4 k̂, find ∇ ×~A at point (1, −1, 1).
Solution:

 
 î ĵ k̂ 

 3 2 4
  ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ ×~v = ∇ × xz î − 2x yzĵ + 2yz k̂ =  
∂x ∂y ∂z 
 
xz3 −2x2 yz 2yz4 
   
∂ 4

∂ 2

∂ 4

∂ 3


= î 2yz − −2x yz − ĵ 2yz − xz
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z
 
∂
∂
−2x2 yz − xz3


+ k̂
∂x ∂y

32 / 35
The Curl (contd.)
Examples:

= î 2z4 + 2x2 y − ĵ 0 − 3xz2 + k̂ [−4xyz − 0]

   

= 2z4 + 2x2 y î + 3xz2 ĵ − 4xyzk̂

 
h i
= 2(1)4 + 2(1)2 (−1) î + 3 (1) (1)2 ĵ − 4 (1) (−1) (1) k̂, at (1, −1, 1)

= 3ĵ + 4k̂

33 / 35
Product rules for gradient, divergence and curl

There are six product rules as shown in Eq. (2) to (7), two for gradients:

∇(fg) = f ∇g + g∇f (2)

∇(~A ·~B) = ~A × (∇ ×~B) +~B × (∇ ×~A) + (~A · ∇)~B + (~B · ∇)~A (3)

two for divergences:

∇ · (f~A) = f (∇ ·~A) +~A · (∇f ) (4)

∇ · (~A ×~B) = ~B · (∇ ×~A) −~A · (∇ ×~B) (5)

two for curls:

∇ × (f~A) = f (∇ ×~A) −~A × (∇f ) (6)

∇ × (~A ×~B) = (~B · ∇)~A − (~A · ∇)~B +~A(∇ ·~B) −~B(∇ ·~A) (7)

34 / 35
End of Lecture 02
Thank you

35 / 35