Brigita Kolčavová Sirková,

Monika Vyšanská
Methodology for Evaluation
of Fabric Geometry on the Basis
of the Fabric Cross-Section
Technical University of Liberec, Abstract
Faculty of Textile Engineering, A woven fabric structure is defined by mutual threads interlacing in the fabric as well as the
Department of Textile Technology, basic parameters of the fabric. The interrelation among fabric parameters can be obtained
Liberec, Czech Republic, by considering a geometrical model of the fabric and specific experimental methods. The
E-mail: [email protected], geometrical model is mainly concerned with the shape taken up by the yarn in the warp or
[email protected]
weft cross-section of the fabric. This article provides a possible methodology for evaluation
of geometric parameters of threads in the real longitudinal and transverse cross-sections of
fabric. From an individual cross-section of the fabric using image analysis it is possible to
define the diameter of threads, their deformation, thread spacing, the maximum displace-
ment (height of binding wave) of the thread axis, the angle of the thread axis (interlacing
angle), the length of the thread axis in the cross-section of the fabric, the crimp of threads
in the fabric, and the real shape of the binding wave through wave coordinates. The pa-
rameters mentioned are possible to use as input for mathematical modelling of the fabric
structure and for prediction of mechanical and end-use properties of fabrics.

Key words: fabric geometry, interlacing, cross-section, waviness, height, binding waves.

the mechanical and end-use properties The thread density and its cover factor
n Introduction of fabrics such as handle, elongation, of the fabrics are limited by the possible
crimp, maximal density, and weight [1, mutual positions of the warp and weft
All the process of weaving is binding 6]. The fabric structure also determines threads in the space of the binding cell [3,
point formation. Their dimensions and the weavability of fabrics and weav- 18]. The mutual positions of the threads
tension gradually change from the cloth ing process. To describe the dependen- in the woven fabric create and describe
fell in the forming zone to as far as some cies among the fabric structure, weaving the spatial geometry of the interlacing of
place of the steady state in the fabric. process and resultant fabric properties, it the woven fabric.
Each irregularity in the balance of the
is not possible to operate with theoretical
variable forces, in the deformation of the
models only. In some cases it is neces-
binding point (cell), in the accessibility
sary to operate with empirical findings
Geometry of woven fabric
of the sets, in the stability of the weav-
which have an acceptable table format
– description of basic
ing etc. can be deduced from the descrip-
or mathematical formulation. The same parameters
tion of the mutual relations between the
fabric construction (identical density, The basic geometrical characteristics of
tension and geometrical changes in the
material, yarn count) woven in different the fabric structure of the binding cell are
binding cell [2 - 5]. For the weave of the
conditions or on different weaving looms possible to summarise as a vector of the
fabric, it is characteristic that its pattern
can have different variations in the spa- input geometric structural parameters [1].
of binding is repeated regularly (periodi-
tial geometry of woven fabric. Empirical This vector consists of the parameters
cally) across the whole fabric width and
is continuous. In the forming zone it is findings are possible to use not only for mentioned: [dwarp, weft (yarn diameter);
possible to evaluate changes in the inter- determination of the fabric structure but hwarp, weft (height of the binding wave),
lacing which are given by the different they also establish a basis for calculation ewarp, weft (relative waviness), Dwarp,
warp as well as weft tension. In a steady of selected fabric properties, for a de- weft (thread’s sett), A (weft distance), B
state it is necessary to respect the regular- scription of various changes in the fabric (warp distance), Lwarp, weft (length of
ity of the thread interlacing. This regular- geometry, etc. yarn between yarn intersections), Cwarp,
ity defines the final quality of woven fab- weft (crimp of threads), t (thickness of a
ric; cross sections in this case have to be The foundation for a study of the ar- fabric). In real woven fabric it generally
identical. Each irregularity or difference eal geometry of fabric is the binding cell does not apply that the warp and weft
in the cross section determines the fabric (the crossing of an end and pick) in a binding points lie in the same plane [2],
fault. The structure of the woven fabric is plan view [11]. The initial idea of the see balanced and unbalanced fabric in
usually defined by the weave, the mate- areal structure is a model of woven fab- Figures 1 & 2 (see page 42).
rial of the yarn, thread density, and yarn ric which has crossing points formed in
count [4]. These specifications determine one plane. This geometry operates with The interlacing of one end and pick creates
the areal geometry of woven fabric. Ar- hundred-per-cent cover of the fabric and the binding cell of the woven fabric. The
eal geometry defines only some selected with the possibility of mutual recalcula- size of the binding cell is defined by the
properties of the fabric. A significant role tion of thread densities and yarn count for actual spacing of the weft and warp yarn.
in describing woven fabric behaviour is the same cover factor of the fabric and The spacing of the weft yarn presents
played by the three-dimensional geom- weaving resistance. This creates a false the depth of the binding cells along the
etry. The spatial geometry is affected by impression that it is possible to weave longitudinal axis and the spacing of the
the type and adjustment of the weaving however dense woven fabric in any com- warp yarn presents the binding cell in
loom. The fabric geometry influences bination of the warp and weft density. the direction of the transverse axis. The

Kolčavová Sirková B, Vyšanská M. Methodology for Evaluation of Fabric Geometry on the Basis of the Fabric Cross-Section. 41
FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2012; 20, 5(94): 41-47.
 the limits of possible fabric densities,
about the stability of the weaving etc.
can be deduced from the description of
mutual relations between tension and
geometrical changes in the binding cell.
The condition of the mathematical for-
mulation of the binding wave and yarn
cross-section for individual interlacing
is given in [2]. Many attempts have been
made to find a suitable model describ-
ing the binding cell, i.e. to express math-
Figure 1. Geometry of the unit cell for non- Figure 2. Geometry of the unit cell for bal-
balanced woven fabric in plain weave [2]. anced woven fabric in plain weave [2]. ematically the shape of the binding wave
in a given thread crossing in a fabric in a
steady state. The Peirce model [12, 27],
hyperbolic model, and sine shape are
the models most used, which are related
to plain weave, as is known. The model
must be equally operative, and must de-
scribe the binding repeat of the threads of
both sections (longitudinal and transverse
sections) as well as the influence of the
bending rigidity and material profile on
the shape of the threads interlacing in the
Figure 3. Definition of the binding wave for the longitudinal and transverse fabric cross- passage from the right side on the reverse
section [2]. side of the fabric and by contraries [1].

general formulation of thread spacing is The height of the binding wave hwarp and Previous geometric models result from
given by Equations 1 and 2. hweft is given by Equations 5 - 6. initial geometric assumptions about yarn
axes and cross-sections [2]. The central
1
weft distance = (1) hwarp = ewarp .d s axes of the binding wave are formed only
D weft [ piks / 100mmm]] (5)
hweft = (1 − ewarp ). d s from abscissas or from ring arches and
(6) abscissas, from other curves. The yarn
1 d warp + d weft cross-section at the binding points of the
warp distance = ds = (7)
(2)
Dwarp [ends / 100
100mmm]] 2 fabric is possible to substitute by circular
or other shapes [14].
The thickness of the woven fabric t is
For calculation of thread spacing for oth-
the double value of the maximum from
er than plain kinds of interlacing [1], i.e.
values h0+d0/2 and hu+du/2 [3]. We can The problems with the application of
bindings where many combinations of
express the thickness of the fabric by the Peirce’s model [12] or other models are
non-interlacing (floating) threads exist in in the description of some real parameters
following Equation 8.
an interlacing of warp or weft, it is pos- of the woven fabric (values dwarp, dweft,
sible to use Equations 3 and 4.  100  hwarp, hweft, etc.) which usually we do
.n 2 . 4. (d s ) − (d s )  2hwarp   d warp   2hweft   d weft 
2 2

 D2  t = (d + d ). max  



+  not know.
,  Estimationof + these geometric


    + d weft im-
wrp weft
weft distance =  d warp + d weft   d warp parameters
+ d weft   d warp
can +bed weft
realised
  d by
warp using 
p 1 . 4. (d s ) − (d s ) + d 2 .(n2 − p 1 ).
2 2
age analysis through fabric cross-section
 100  2  (3)
2hwarp   d warp   2hweft   d 
t.n =2 (d. wrp
4. (+d sd)weft−).(max
d s ) 
2
 + ,   +  (8) weft processing
 [15]. From the woven fabric
 D2       
weft distance =   d warp + d weft   d warp + d weft   d warp + d weft   d warp + dcross-section weft   it is possible to evaluate the
p 1 . 4. (ds ) −2h(d s ) + d 2 .(n2 −dp100 )
2 2
.   shape of the binding wave and yarn de-
t = (d wrp + d weft ). max  − (d s ) + 
 warp .n1 ., 4.(d 2s )h2weft d weft
1 2
warp
+  formation.
   D   
+ d weft  =  d warp + od weft   d warp + d weft   d warp + d weft 
d warp distance 
warp
p 2 . 4.(d s(4))2 − (d For
s ) + d 1 .(n1 − p 2 )
2
 100  balanced fabric the fabric thickness The shape of the binding wave and that
.n1 . 4.(d s ) − (d s )
2 2
 of individual yarns in the woven fabric
 Do  given by Equation 9:
warp distance = cross-section are possible to evaluate
p 2 . 4.(d s ) − (d s ) + d1 .(n1 − p ) t t = (d wrp + d weft )
2 2
2 (9) from the real woven fabric cross-section
[1, 6, 7, 8, 11, 26, 28] on the basis of
The waviness ewarp, eweft, of interlac- n central axes of the binding wave (cen-
ing is given by the height of the binding tral axesare important for determina-
Analysis of the binding wave
wave in the woven fabric. The height of tion of the real length of the binding
the warp binding wave hwarp and that
and yarn shape in a real fabric
wave as well as for the thread crimp),
of the weft binding wave hweft, see Fig-
cross-section n individual coordinates of the binding
ure  3, is the maximum displacement of All necessary information about the bal- wave, see Figures 4 & 5 (individual
the thread axis normal to the plane of the ance of variable forces, about the defor- coordinates are possible to use for
woven fabric. mation of binding points (cells), about simulation of the thread interlacing as

42 FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2012, Vol. 20, No. 5 (94)
 well as for comparison with theoreti-
cal models) [1, 26].
the yarn shape in cross-section, which
n
influences input parameters of the fab-
ric; generally we can obtain bigger or
Figure 4. Binding wave coordinates in the Figure 5. Binding wave coordinates in
smaller compression in comparison longitudinal cross-section of the woven the transverse cross-section of the woven
with the diameter of free yarn [5]. The fabric. fabric.
shape of yarn (Figure 6) in the fabric
cross-section is possible to substitute
on the basis of the models mentioned
the circular shape, Kemp model [13],
n
ellipse (Figure 7), and lens model.

Experimental methods for determina-

tion of fabric geometry parameters Figure 6. Real shape of yarn in the cross- Figure 7. Elliptic substitution of the yarn
- objective approach with interference section of the woven fabric. shape in the cross-section of the woven
of the user fabric.
Image analysis NIS Elements software is
a product of the Czech company Labora-
tory Imaging. NIS-Elements is a software
package aimed to be utilised in laborato-
ries, research centres, and at universities,
where image analysis is needed. There
are three levels of NIS-Elements accord-
ing to how demanding the task is:
Figure 8. Colour image (RGB) of the woven fabric cross-section.
1) Advanced Research (Ar),
2) Basic Research (Br),
3) Documentation (D) [9]. marked can be magnified or decreased by are evaluated. In the case of the nonze-
mouse scrolling, and thus the overlay im- ro Orientation the real thickness of the
The special procedure (so called macro age and binary image, respectively, of the woven fabric is calculated according to
[10]) for woven fabric cross-section (see colour woven fabric cross-section image Equation 10.
Figure 8) parameter measurement is re- can be precisely defined, see Figure 9.
Thickness = MinimalFeret .
alised in an environment of the software . cos(Orientation) (10
mentioned. The convex hull is applied on the binary
image of the woven fabric cross-section, The object defined by the convex hull is
This procedure is semi-objective with which is the nearest set of binary image eliminated from the central line – fabric
user intervention and works according to convex curves [10], see Figure 10. axis, the coordinates of which are meas-
the following philosophy: ured. The original overlay (binary) image
Parameters of the Minimal Feret Diam- of the fabric cross-section (Figure 9) is
The user is asked to open a colour im- eter (minimal perpendicular distance of invoked from the reference level [10],
age (like on Figure 8) and consequently two tangents to the object surface [10] – the user clears cross-sections of yarns in
marks the whole fabric cross-section by i.e. the distance is equal to the thickness the fabric cross-section (Figure 11 – blue
auto-detection in the binary image editor of woven fabric in a perfectly horizontal circle tool), and a new overlay image of
of the image analysis system. In practice position of threads in the fabric cross- just the binding wave of the fabric cross-
the user clicks on a characteristic place section) and orientation (angle between section is originated.
inside the cross-section and the image the main axis of the woven fabric cross-
analysis system automatically detects section object and x axis in the system of The binding wave is eliminated from the
pixels with similar properties. The places NIS Elements [10], ideally equal to 0°) central line – the axis of the binding wave,

Figure 9. Segmented woven fabric cross-section through auto- Figure 10. Convex hull applied on the whole segmented woven
detection (depiction of colour and overlay image). fabric cross-section.

FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2012, Vol. 20, No. 5 (94) 43
Figure 11. Cleaning of yarns’ cross-sections. Figure 12. Overlay (binary) image of yarns’ cross-sections in the
fabric cross-section.

Figure 13. Overlay (binary) image of yarns’ cross-sections in the Figure 14. PP fabric in plain weave, longitudinal and transverse
fabric cross-section defined by the convex hull. cross-section of PP fabric.

its coordinates together with its Length image of the whole fabric cross-section n Perimeter – perimeter of the real ob-
and Maximal Feret Diameter (maximal (B) (from reference level [10]) and the ject,
perpendicular distance of two tangents actual binary image of the binding wave n Maximal Feret Diameter – the longest
to object surface [10] – i.e. the distance (A), and we get an overlay (binary) im- distance of two tangents to the object
of the binding wave endpoints) is meas- age of the yarns’ cross-sections in the surface [10],
ured. Then the weft or warp crimp can fabric cross-section (Figure 12). n Minimal Feret Diameter – the shortest
be calculated according to Equation 11. distance of two tangents to the object
The following parameters are measured surface [10],
Length − MaximalFeret
MaximalFeret
Crimp = (11) on these binary objects: n Circularity – shape parameter, ratio
MaximalFeret
MaximalFeret
n Equivalent Diameter – diameter of a between the real area of the object and
The image arithmetic – logical operation circle with the same area as the real the circle area, which has the same pe-
(B)/(A) is executed between the binary shape , rimeter as the real object. The circular
shape has a circularity equal to 1 [10],
n CenterX – x coordinate of center of
gravity, CenterY – y coordinate of
center of gravity. Then on the basis of
the yarns’ cross-section parameters it
mm

mm

is possible to describe the shape fac-

tor of yarn for individual yarns in the
cross-section. The shape factor is cal-
culated according to Equation 12.
mm mm
Perimeter
Shape factor = −1
Figure 15. Longitudinal cross-section of PP Figure 17. Transverse cross-section of PP π .Equivalent Diameter
fabric – individual coordinates of binding fabric – individual coordinates of the bind- (12)
wave axis, central line of fabric and centres ing wave, central line of fabric and centres
of gravity of yarns’ cross-sections. of gravity of yarns’ cross-sections. The same parameters are also measured
for yarns’ cross-sections in the fabric
cross-section defined by the convex hull,
see Figure 13.

Measuring of the woven fabric

geometry parameters – concrete
example
Figure 16. Longitudinal cross-section of Figure 18. Transverse cross-section of PP This example (Figure 14) is from a series
PP fabric. fabric. of PP fabric in plain weave. For the warp

44 FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2012, Vol. 20, No. 5 (94)
and weft system two-ply yarn is used. Table 1. Fabric geometry parameters (longitudinal cross-section) defined by experimental
The yarn count is 25 × 2 tex, the warp method mentioned.
density - 16  ends/cm, and the weft is 9 The woven fabric parameters Parameters of binding wave
picks/cm. MinFeret, Orienta- Fabric MaxFeret, Line- Warp
μm tion, μm thickness, μm Length, crimp,
mm μm %
The -output of the description of the
684.647 166.000 0.664 2620.330 2962.980 13.077
longitudinal as well as transverse cross- Parameters of yarns´ cross-section in fabric cross-section (without contour correction)
section are the geometric parameters of EqDiame- Perimeter, MaxFeret, MinFeret, Circulari- CentreX, - CentreY, - Shape
the woven fabric, the binding wave and ter, μm μm μm μm ty, - factor, -
yarns’ cross-sections mentioned in Ta- 342.4 1608.7 493.8 280.1 0.447 267.9 303.0 0.496
392.4 1978.8 684.6 269.7 0.388 2273.1 349.5 0.605
bles 1 & 2. On the basis of individual co-
362.6 1541.7 533.2 280.1 0.546 1198.7 420.3 0.353
ordinates of the binding wave and yarns’
Parameters of yarns´ cross-section in fabric cross-section (defined by convex hull)
cross-sections (Figure 15, 17) it is pos- EqDiame- Perimeter, MaxFeret, MinFeret, Circulari- CentreX, - CentreY, - Shape
sible to compare the theoretical shape of ter, μm μm μm μm ty, - factor, -
interlacing with a real shape. 361.4 1229.8 495.9 284.2 0.852 264.9 294.6 0.083
413.8 1550.2 684.6 273.9 0.703 2263.8 342.5 0.192
Verification of methodology accuracy 378.4 1296.6 533.2 280.1 0.841 1200.3 425.6 0.091

Geometric parameters measured on the

basis of the methodology mentioned Table 2. Fabric geometry parameters (transverse cross-section) defined by experimental
above must satisfy the basic conditions method mentioned.
of interlacing. Validation of this method- The woven fabric parameters Parameters of binding wave
ology can be done by comparing warp MinFeret, Orientation, Fabric MaxFe- Line- Warp
and weft waviness values as well as μm μm thickness, ret, μm Length, crimp,
mm μm %
thickness values. Identical warp and weft 744.8 18.0 0.708 2211.6 2330.9 5.39
threads are possible to display in two dif- Parameters of yarns´ cross-section in fabric cross-section (without contour correction)
ferent fabric cross-sections. EqDiameter, Perimeter, MaxFeret, MinFeret, Circularity, CentreX, CentreY, - Shape
μm μm μm μm - - factor, -
375.9 1537.4 539.4 307.1 0.590 275.1 201.8 0.302
The values of warp waviness measured
367.8 1947.3 651.5 253.1 0.352 1499.9 194.9 0.685
from longitudinal cross-sections must be
367.0 1752.9 688.8 251.0 0.433 784.3 604.1 0.521
identical with those of the warp waviness
355.6 1725.2 585.1 259.3 0.419 1916.1 638.0 0.544
measured in the transverse cross-section Parameters of yarns´ cross-section in fabric cross-section (defined by convex hull)
(the same conditions have to be valid for EqDiameter, Perimeter, MaxFeret, MinFeret, Circularity, CentreX, CentreY, - Shape
the weft waviness), see Figures 19 - 21 μm μm μm μm - - factor, -
(pages 46). 386.3 1319.3 539.4 307.1 0.846 276.2 199.0 0.087
384.7 1477.9 651.5 230.3 0.669 1502.9 190.8 0.223
388.4 1537.8 688.8 251.0 0.630 782.6 610.0 0.260
The same conditions have to be valid for
373.0 1351.0 585.1 259.3 0.752 1909.6 642.0 0.153
the thickness value. The thickness meas-
ured in the longitudinal cross-section
must correspond to that measured in the
warp and weft waviness
transverse cross-section. The comparison
of the other output geometric parameters Weft waviness from
longitudinal and transverse
measured is not mentioned in the paper
fabric cross section
because these parameters are dependent
on the input parameters of individual
cross-sections.
Warp waviness from
longitudinal and transverse
The results displayed are based the box- fabric cross section
plot, being a standard diagnostic tool.
The large box contains 50% of the data;
its upper edge corresponds to the 75th
percentile, its lower edge to the 25th per-
Figure 19. Warp and weft waviness D2 = 9 in cm (evaluation of longitudinal and transverse
centile. The median is located in the mid- cross-section).
dle of the white rectangle inside the green
box. The width of the white rectangle in- by the mathematical models, whereas
side the green box corresponds to that of n Conclusion some are based on experimental methods.
the confidence interval for the median. The mechanical and end-use properties
Two black lines correspond to the inner of the woven fabric are dependent on the On the basis of the methodology men-
fence. The data points outside the inner fabric structure. The woven fabric struc- tioned above, it is possible to define in the
fence are marked red. They might be con- ture is influenced by geometric param- individual fabric cross-section the diam-
sidered as outliers. eters. Some parameters can be expressed eter of threads, their deformation, thread

FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2012, Vol. 20, No. 5 (94) 45
 the cross section it is characteristic that
warp and weft waviness (D2 = 10) its pattern of the binding is repeated regu-
larly (periodically) across the whole fab-
Weft waviness from longitudinal
and transverse fabric cross
ric width and is continuous. In the form-
section ing zone it is possible to evaluate changes
in the interlacing which are given by the
different warp as well as weft tension (in
Warp waviness from longitudinal this case we can obtain the variable cross
and transverse fabric cross
section
section as well as variable geometry of
the fabric). In a steady state it is neces-
sary to respect the regularity of thread
interlacing. This regularity defines the
final quality of the woven fabric; cross
Figure 20. Warp and weft waviness D2 = 10 in cm (evaluation of longitudinal and trans- sections in this case have to be identi-
verse cross-section).
cal. Each irregularity or difference in the
cross section determines the fabric fault.
warp and weft waviness (D2 = 11)
The purpose of this paper is to introduce
Weft waviness from longitudinal a possible method of real cross-section
and transverse fabric cross
section evaluation of woven fabrics which sat-
isfy the basic conditions of interlacing
for determining real values of the fabric
Warp waviness from longitudinal geometry.
and transverse fabric cross
section
The aim of this paper is not a comparison
of real values with the theoretical ones of
known theoretical models, where the dif-
ferences are given by the mathematical
Figure 21. Warp and weft waviness D2 = 11 in cm (evaluation of longitudinal and trans-
verse cross-section). apparatus that was used for definition of
interlacing in the cross section.

Fabric
Krabicový thickness
graf - Fabric thickness
Acknowledgement
Plain_D2=11_long
This work was supported by the project
Plain_D2=11_trans GACR 106/09/1916.
Plain_D2=10_long

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Received 18.01.2011 Reviewed 17.01.2012

FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2012, Vol. 20, No. 5 (94) 47