Construction and Building Materials 162 (2018) 272–279

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Sustainable bean pod/calcined kaolin reinforced epoxy hybrid

composites with enhanced mechanical, water sorption and corrosion
resistance properties
Gulcihan Guzel Kaya, Elif Yilmaz, Huseyin Deveci ⇑
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Selcuk University, Konya 42075, Turkey

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

 Novel bean pod/calcined kaolin

reinforced epoxy hybrid composites
with enhanced properties were
successfully prepared.
 Maximum tensile strength (39.8 MPa)
was observed after hybridization of 3
wt% bean pod and 2 wt% calcined
kaolin.
 Water sorption percentage was
effectively decreased to 0.87% with
the addition of 5 wt% calcined kaolin.
 The epoxy hybrid composites showed
great corrosion resistance to alkali
and salty solutions compared to
acidic solutions.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The industrial and academic world is becoming more interested in advanced composite materials owing
Received 9 August 2017 to the increasing global awareness on environmental and social issues. From this point of view, novel
Received in revised form 2 November 2017 epoxy hybrid composites were prepared by utilizing bean pod as an agricultural waste and calcined kao-
Accepted 6 December 2017
lin with the addition of varying ratios (0.5–5.0 wt%) to fixed weight of 3 wt% bean pod. The resulting
hybrid composites were characterized by different analyses and tests to evaluate physico-mechanical
and thermal properties. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses
Keywords:
showed uniform dispersion of hybrid filler in the neat epoxy resin which revealed better compatibility
Hybrid composites
Polymer-matrix composites
between hybrid filler and epoxy resin. Tensile strength of hybrid composite including 2 wt% calcined kao-
Mechanical properties lin (39.8 MPa) was higher than those of the other hybrid composites. The water sorption percentage of
Water sorption the hybrid composites was effectively decreased until 0.87% with increasing amount of calcined kaolin.
Corrosion resistance The hybrid composite including 5 wt% calcined kaolin exhibited highly corrosion resistance to alkali
Thermal properties and salty solutions compared to acidic reagents. Thermogravimetric analyses (TGA) and vicat softening
temperature (VST) tests revealed that an important improvement was not observed in degradation tem-
peratures of the hybrid composites; however, residue at 650 °C increased up to 21.0% in the presence of
calcined kaolin. It can be said that the hybrid composites mentioned above came into prominence with
high tensile strength, quite low water uptake and excellent corrosion resistance in alkali and salty
environments.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Deveci).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.12.046
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 G.G. Kaya et al. / Construction and Building Materials 162 (2018) 272–279 273

1. Introduction erties of hybrid composites. Alamri and Low [26] investigated the
effect of water absorption on the mechanical properties of nan-
In the recent years, an increase in environmental awareness has oclay/recycled cellulose fiber reinforced epoxy hybrid nanocom-
brought evaluation of agricultural organic wastes as a filler into the posites. It was observed that water absorption decreased with
forefront in polymer composite materials [1]. Many biodegradable the clay addition, and so impact strength and toughness increased
agricultural wastes such as wood chip, rice husk, groundnut shell, in contrast to flexural strength, modulus and fracture toughness.
oil palm empty fruit bunch and wheat straw that are low-cost, Essabir et al. [27] prepared oil-palm fiber/clay reinforced high den-
abundant, lightweight and eco-friendly materials have been uti- sity polyethylene with higher thermal, mechanical and rheological
lized to produce various polymer composite materials [2–7]. In properties.
spite of their advantages, they have some limitations including To the best of our knowledge, no work has been reported on
high moisture sorption, poor wettability, low mechanical and ther- hybrid composites based on epoxy resin reinforced with bean
mal properties [8]. Therefore, inorganic materials like clay, carbon pod/kaolin. In this study, it was firstly aimed to reuse of bean
black, graphene and calcium carbonate have commonly used to pod which is a low-cost, abundant and low health risk agricultural
increase moisture and thermal resistance, improve interfacial waste in epoxy matrix with leading to decrease waste accumula-
adhesion between matrix and filler, and enhance mechanical per- tion. The second aim was the preparation of novel hybrid compos-
formance [9]. The combination of organic-inorganic particles in ites with better physico-mechanical and thermal properties by the
polymer matrix which is well known polymer hybrid composites calcined kaolin addition which is one of the most commercially
has received great attention in different applications such as auto- and inexpensive naturally occurring silicate material. This study
motive, aerospace, construction, furniture manufacturing, sports provides a new insight to the industry and scientific community.
and packaging [10–13]. Especially in civil engineering fields, sus- The most significant thing was that these sustainable bean pod/cal-
tainable epoxy hybrid composites have become effective alterna- cined kaolin hybrid epoxy composites are expected to take impor-
tive materials instead of expensive traditional components [14]. tant place in many fields of agricultural waste recycling with
Epoxy resin is one of the most commonly preferred thermoset unique properties compared to traditional composite materials.
matrix with the benefits of good mechanical strength, high erosion
and corrosion resistance, low shrinkage, high thermal stability, 2. Experimental procedure
excellent adhesion to many surfaces, easy workability and so on
[15–17]. Many types of epoxy resin are generally used as modifier, 2.1. Materials
adhesive, binder, coating, thermal and electrical insulator for
various structural products including mortars, cements, Epoxy resin (ER) based on bisphenol A (equivalent weight of
concretes, asphalts, laminates, furniture, roofing and indoor mate- 184–190 g/eq) was used as a thermoset matrix. Epamine PC 17
rials [18–22]. (aliphatic amine structure) and 2,4,6-tris(dimethylaminomethyl)p
Several researchers have focused on sustainable polymer hybrid henol were used as hardener and accelerator, respectively. Hybrid
composites comprising of organic-inorganic filler lately. Alamri filler was combination of bean pod (230 mesh) and calcined kaolin
and Low [23] developed epoxy hybrid composites filled with recy- (average particle diameter 10 mm). The bean pod comprises of cel-
cled cellulose fibers and nanosilicon carbide particles. An improve- lulose, hemicellulose, lignin and ash, and elemental composition of
ment in mechanical strength and thermal stability of neat epoxy this waste is C 40%, O 31%, H 11%, Si 6%, N 1%, and small amount of
with the compatibility of fillers was reported. Raghavendra et al. S, K, Ca, Na and Fe. The chemical composition of calcined kaolin
[24] studied the mechanical and tribological properties of woven was SiO2 56%, Al2O3 39%, Fe2O3 0.7%, TiO2 0.4% and trace amount
jute/glass hybrid epoxy composites with reinforcing of fly ash par- of impurities. Digital images of bean pod and calcined kaolin are
ticles. It was determined that incorporation of fly ash provided syn- shown in Fig. 1, respectively.
ergistic effects on the properties. AlMaadeed et al. [25] successfully
prepared date palm wood flour/glass fiber reinforced hybrid com-
2.2. Preparation of epoxy hybrid composites
posites of recycled polypropylene. Morphological results showed
good adhesion between hybrid filler and recycled polypropylene
First of all, the composite materials were prepared with using
that supported the improvement of mechanical and thermal prop-
only bean pod at varying ratios (1.0–7.0 wt%). The maximum ten-

Fig. 1. Digital images of (a) bean pod and (b) calcined kaolin.
274 G.G. Kaya et al. / Construction and Building Materials 162 (2018) 272–279

sile strength was determined for epoxy composite including only 3 posites was calculated by weight difference between weight at
wt% bean pod among them at the preliminary stage. In the light of any time and initial. Corrosion tests were performed by immersing
the result, epoxy hybrid composites were prepared with the addi- in chemical reagents which were 10% NaCl, 10% NaOH and 10% HCl
tion of different compositions of calcined kaolin (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 solutions for 4 weeks at room temperature according to ASTM
and 5.0 wt%) to fixed weight of 3 wt% bean pod. ER and hybrid filler D543 Standard. Thermogravimetric analyses (TGA) were con-
were mixed by mechanical stirring for 30 min followed by ultra- ducted to determine thermal stability of hybrid composites in
sonication for 30 min at room temperature. The hardener was nitrogen atmosphere with a heating rate of 10 °C/min from 25 °C
added to each blend at 25 wt% by weight and mixed again for 5 to 650 °C. Vicat softening temperature (VST) of hybrid composites
min. The blends were immediately poured into the mold prepared was investigated by CEAST HDT Vicat analyzer with 50 N loading at
as per ASTM D638 Standard after dropping accelerator to all heating rate of 50 °C/min according to ASTM D1525 Standard.
blends. The blends were left to cure and post-cure process for 4 h
at 40 °C and for 4 h at 80 °C in an oven, respectively. Preparation 3. Results and discussion
of hybrid composites is clearly shown in Fig. 2.
3.1. Morphological properties of epoxy hybrid composites
2.3. Characterization of epoxy hybrid composites
The XRD patters of bean pod, calcined kaolin and epoxy hybrid
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed on Bruker D8 composites are shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3a. clearly showed that bean
X-ray diffractometer equipped with Cu Ka anode (k = 1.541 Å). The pod particles had major diffraction peaks that are mainly belonged
data was collected from 20° to 80° with a step size 0.017° at 40 kV to quartz SiO2 phase at 2h from 20° to 60° [28]. The quartz and
and 40 mA. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was car- mullite phases in diffraction pattern of calcined kaolin were
ried out to examine morphological properties of the hybrid com- observed in Fig. 3b [29]. No obvious diffraction peaks were deter-
posites. SEM images were recorded using SM Zeiss LS-10 mined with the addition of hybrid filler to neat ER that was indica-
scanning electron microscope after the samples were gold-coated tion of highly dispersion of hybrid fillers in neat ER in Fig. 3c. Epoxy
by an electro deposition technique to provide electrical conductiv- hybrid composites had an amorphous structure and it revealed
ity. Tensile tests were conducted (sample size: 57 mm long  19 that epoxy molecules can easily penetrate into the hybrid filler
mm wide  13 mm thick) with Stretch and Pressing Equipment [30]. Similar results were reported by different studies in the liter-
TST-Mares/TS-mxe at a rate of 5 mm/min according to ASTM ature [31,32]. These XRD results were also supported by the SEM
D638 Standard. Hardness tests were performed on Shore Durome- analyses.
ter TH 210 according to ASTM D2240 Standard. The hardness value SEM images of the neat ER, bean pod, calcined kaolin and epoxy
(sample size: 6 mm radius  6 mm thick) was determined by tak- hybrid composites are shown in Fig. 4. Typical smooth surface of
ing average of six readings on each side of the sample. Three sam- neat ER which was evident of brittle behavior was represented in
ples of each hybrid material were tested to obtain reliable values Fig. 4a [33]. Bean pod with some angular in shape and calcined
for tensile and hardness tests. Water sorption tests were carried kaolin composed of particles with no aggregation were observed
out by immersing the samples in water at room temperature in Fig. 4b and Fig. 4c, respectively. As shown in Fig. 4d–h, rougher
according to ASTM D5229 Standard. The samples were regularly surfaces without agglomerations occurred as a result of the addi-
taken out from water and immediately weighed after drying with tion of hybrid fillers to the neat ER. The uniform dispersion of
clean cloth. The percentage of water sorption of the hybrid com- hybrid fillers in neat ER that made synergistic effects on the prop-

Fig. 2. Schematic of epoxy hybrid composites preparation.

 G.G. Kaya et al. / Construction and Building Materials 162 (2018) 272–279 275

Fig. 3. XRD patterns of (a) bean pod, (b) calcined kaolin, and (c) epoxy hybrid composites.

erties of the hybrid composites was seen. It can be said that homo- decrease mobility of matrix chains, and so improve stiffness of
geneous dispersion resulted from good interface adhesion between the composites [27].
hybrid filler and neat ER [34].

3.2. Tensile properties of epoxy hybrid composites 3.3. Water sorption properties of epoxy hybrid composites

The stress-strain curves of the epoxy hybrid composites are The water sorption of epoxy hybrid composites as a function of
shown in Fig. 5. Additionally, tensile properties including tensile time is shown in Fig. 6. It can be seen that water sorption contin-
strength (r), elongation at break (e) and tensile modulus (E) and, uously increased until saturation point which is well-known as
hardness values are indicated in Table 1. E values were obtained typical Fickian diffusion law [39]. The maximum water sorption
using slope of the stress-strain curves in the linear regime. It was of the hybrid composites (0.97%) gradually decreased with increas-
determined that r reached maximum value of 39.8 MPa with ing amount of calcined kaolin. Hydrophilic structure of hybrid
increasing amount of calcined kaolin. Good compatibility between composites because of bean pod particles became to be hydropho-
hybrid filler and neat ER provided effective load transfer from bic with incorporation of calcined kaolin. There are several studies
matrix to hybrid filler. As can be clearly seen, the addition of more about epoxy hybrid composites including inorganic filler which act
than 2 wt% calcined kaolin caused a decrease in r values because as a barrier medium for water diffusion into the composite. Alamri
of poorer interfacial adhesion of filler to matrix. This type of behav- et al. [26] represented that water uptake of recycled cellulose/
ior in r values was observed in many studies related with hybrid epoxy composites decreased from 23.3% to 15.4% with 5 wt% nan-
composites [35,36]. The incorporation of 2 wt% calcined kaolin oclay addition. Vieira et al. [40] showed that 2 wt% silica nanopar-
led to increase in e value by 57.2% with respect to that of hybrid ticle significantly decreased water sorption of sisal fiber/epoxy
composite including 0.5 wt% calcined kaolin. The result was in composites to 19.1% depending on orientation of sisal fibers.
agreement with the results of tensile strength. It was observed that Mohan and Kanny [41] indicated that equilibrium water content
the E value was slightly changed between 1.36 and 2.11 GPa. Dif- of sisal fiber/epoxy composites continuously decreased as the
ferent results related with behavior of E values were reported in amount of nanoclay was increased and maximum decrease was
literature. Leong et al. [37] showed an enhancement in E values observed from 60% to 12% for 5 wt% nanoclay filled composites.
of polypropylene composites with the kaolin addition. Krishnan Alamri and Low [42] explained that maximum water uptake of
et al. [38] determined that E values decreased in the presence of recycled cellulose fiber/epoxy composites showed a decrease to
more than 2.5 wt% kaolin in the polypropylene/polystyrene com- 12.23% by 47.5% with the addition of 5 wt% nASiC compared to
posites. Hardness values had similar trend as r values which can unfilled recycled cellulose fiber/epoxy composites. Fortunately,
be explained with rigidity of calcined kaolin. Many rigid fillers the lowest water sorption of hybrid composite (0.87%) in our study
276 G.G. Kaya et al. / Construction and Building Materials 162 (2018) 272–279

Fig. 4. SEM images of (a) neat ER, (b) bean pod, (c) calcined kaolin, and epoxy hybrid composites including (d) 0.5 wt% calcined kaolin, (e) 1.0 wt% calcined kaolin, (f) 2.0 wt%
calcined kaolin, (g) 3.0 wt% calcined kaolin, (h) 5.0 wt% calcined kaolin.

was quite low compared to many studies mentioned above from

the literature.

3.4. Corrosion resistance properties of epoxy hybrid composites

Corrosion resistance of the epoxy hybrid composites to alkali,

salty and acidic solutions is shown in Fig. 7. When the hybrid com-
posites were exposed to chemical reagents, the weight gain was
clearly observed in all cases. The hybrid composites exhibited
highly chemical resistance to NaOH and NaCl solutions in contrast
to HCl solution. The addition of 5 wt% calcined kaolin significantly
increased corrosion resistance of the hybrid composites against all
chemical reagents. Especially, weight gain of the hybrid composite
including 5 wt% calcined kaolin in HCl was decreased by 22.7%. It
can be said that the composite including only bean pod particles
tended to gain weight in almost all chemical reagents because of
hydrophilicity of organic structure [43]. So, the incorporation of
calcined kaolin provided to decrease chemical sorption of the
Fig. 5. Stress-strain curves of epoxy hybrid composites. hybrid composites by increasing hydrophobicity of the system.
 G.G. Kaya et al. / Construction and Building Materials 162 (2018) 272–279 277

Table 1
Tensile properties and hardness values of epoxy hybrid composites.

Sample r (MPa) e (%) E (GPa) Hardness (Shore D)

0.5 wt% kaolin 28.26 2.55 1.54 82.5
1.0 wt% kaolin 31.12 2.73 1.75 85.0
2.0 wt% kaolin 39.81 4.01 1.64 85.2
3.0 wt% kaolin 28.88 2.59 1.36 84.0
5.0 wt% kaolin 28.71 2.08 2.11 83.8

3.5. Thermal properties of epoxy hybrid composites

TGA curves of the epoxy hybrid composites are shown in Fig. 8.

And also, thermal properties including IDT at which degradation
becomes, T5, T10 and T50 at which 5%, 10% and 50% degradation
occur, and residue at 650 °C are indicated in details in Table 2.
The initial weight loss occurred at around 150 °C to 200 °C because
of water evaporation upon heating. The main weight loss of the
hybrid composites was observed between 200 °C and 400 °C. The
weight loss between 200 °C and 270 °C resulted from thermal
degradation of hemicellulosic constituent in the bean pod. While
celluloses showed a degradation between 250 °C and 350 °C, the
weight loss from 280 °C to 500 °C was related to lignin degradation
[3]. Although hardly important change in the degradation temper-
atures of the hybrid composites was determined in the presence of
calcined kaolin, residue at 650 °C slightly increased from 18.77% to
21.00% which can be explained with higher thermal stability of cal-
cined kaolin. It is known that the residue ensures both limitation of
Fig. 6. Water sorption of epoxy hybrid composites.
heat penetration to the material and retardation of volatile prod-

Fig. 7. Corrosion resistance of epoxy hybrid composites to (a) NaOH, (b) NaCl, and (c) HCl.
278 G.G. Kaya et al. / Construction and Building Materials 162 (2018) 272–279

Fig. 8. TGA curves of epoxy hybrid composites between (a) 25–650 °C and (b) 150–450 °C.

Table 2
Thermal properties of epoxy hybrid composites.

Sample IDT (°C) T5 (°C) T10 (°C) T50 (°C) Residue (%)
0.5 wt% kaolin 190.8 319.5 347.5 384.0 18.77
1.0 wt% kaolin 166.8 278.5 344.0 383.1 18.35
2.0 wt% kaolin 175.6 309.6 345.5 384.5 19.60
3.0 wt% kaolin 173.3 304.3 344.5 386.1 20.76
5.0 wt% kaolin 174.6 304.6 345.5 385.5 21.00

ucts through composite materials [38]. There are several studies ites. An increase in amount of calcined kaolin decreased water
supported TGA results of our study in the literature. Alamri and sorption until 0.87% which made the hybrid composites to be
Low [23] indicated that the addition of 1.0 wt% nASiC to recycled remarkable among other composite materials. The hybrid compos-
cellulose fiber/epoxy composites increased thermal stability by ites especially including 5 wt% calcined kaolin exhibited highly
increasing char residue up to 21.66%. Essabir et al. [27] demon- corrosion resistance to NaOH and NaCl solutions compared to
strated that the use of clay enhanced thermal stability of the oil HCl reagents. TGA and VST results indicated that there was no
palm fiber composites. Kumar and Singh [44] showed that the noticeable change in the degradation temperatures of the hybrid
incorporation of 5 wt% clay increased initial degradation tempera- composites. However, a slight increase in residue at 650 °C was
tures of micro-crystalline cellulose reinforced ethylene-propylene. determined from 18.77% to 21.00% with increasing amount of cal-
Moreover, VST at which flat-ended needle under specified load cined kaolin.
penetrates the sample to a depth of 1 mm [45] results were In the light of the results mentioned above, it is thought that the
obtained to supply general information about transformation point epoxy hybrid composites will not only play an important role
of the hybrid composites from ordinary phase to softening state preparation of low-cost and eco-friendly materials with enhanced
under heat effect [46]. A slightly increase in VST values was spec- properties in many industrial applications such as roofing, coating
ified with increasing amount of calcined kaolin between 80 °C and to many surfaces, laminates and interior decoration designs, but
90 °C. It can be said that inorganic rigid structure of calcined kaolin will lead to decrease environmental pollution by hindering accu-
was effective to increase thermal properties of the hybrid compos- mulation of agricultural waste. And also, this work is expected to
ites even if just a bit. be helpful for researchers in industrial and academic field.

4. Conclusion
Acknowledgement

The aim of the study was achieved by preparing low-cost and

The authors would like to thank to the Academic Staff Training
eco-friendly epoxy hybrid composites with utilizing bean pod as
Program (Project Number: 2016-ÖYP-071), TUBITAK for 2211-E
an agricultural waste and calcined kaolin. The physico-
Direct PhD Scholarship Programme, and Selcuk University Scien-
mechanical and thermal properties of epoxy hybrid composites
tific Research Foundation.
were investigated with different analyses and tests. XRD and
SEM results showed that hybrid composites including homoge-
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