UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS 9

Introduction to GIS - Basic spatial concepts - Coordinate Systems - GIS and Information
Systems – Definitions – History of GIS - Components of a GIS – Hardware, Software, Data,
People, Methods – Proprietary and open source Software - Types of data – Spatial, Attribute
data- types of attributes – scales/ levels of measurements.

1.1 Introduction to GIS:

What is GIS?
GIS is usually taken to stand for either Geographic Information Systems or Geographic
Information Science. According to Wheatley and Gillings’ definition of GIS as “computer
systems whose main purpose is to store, manipulate, analyse and present information about
geographic space.” This is a definition that could also describe other technologies, such as CAD:
however, the key difference with GIS is in its abilities to both integrate multiple sources of data
and to analyse space.
What does GIS do?
 It allows users to map multiple different sources of geographic data within a single
computerised environment. Different data sources are usually treated as layers, which may be
reordered and switched on and off at will, set to varying transparencies, and manipulated
through tools such as zooming, panning, and sometimes rotating.
 It allows users to employ many different and powerful tools to analyse the spatial distribution
of their data. This spatial analysis can provide a route into discovering and unlocking
previously unseen patterns in our data, shedding new light on unknown aspects of the past.
 It also allows users to produce paper and electronic maps for inclusion in their work and for
the dissemination of their results to the wider archaeological, historical and public
communities. Depending on the GIS software used, this might include animations or
interactive maps delivered over the internet.
1.2 Basic spatial concepts:
 In order to understand Geographic information systems (GIS) basic concepts and its relation
with the environmental management we need to see what GIS actually means; and how it can
benefits the environmental management.
 This would be a series of articles explaining brief history, technological aspects, best
practices and the practical applications of GIS to understand environmental studies.
 Google maps and Google earth provided people with the solutions of maps but data
interpretation and data preparation was still not included in it, and for high level data analysis
and decision making GIS professionals were required.
 GIS is the science of location based services to know which thing is where and why? The
process is to collect data from different sources, displaying it over the maps, later performing
spatial analysis on that data which helps in making decisions and predictions.
 There are three major and basic components of Geographic information (GI)
technologies which have changed and revolutionized the concept of handling the locations
and spatial data. The basics concepts of GI technologies are
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Remote Sensing (RS)
 Geographic Information System (GIS)
 Global Positioning System (GPS) is a system which tells geographical location from the
earth’s surface through satellite. It saves time, money and has more accuracy than any other
methods. Previously companies used to hire expensive surveyors who had to physically visit
the locations to gather the desired information, it was a great hassle in the past and
sometimes it was impossible to gather the accurate and precise information. But with the
technological advancements, GPS is accessible to every part of the world.
 Remote Sensing (RS) is about collecting and measuring data without having a direct contact
with the objects; use of satellite, aircraft and now drones are used to capture this information
of earth’s surface. It saves time and money from the expensive physical field surveys. For
environmental studies (RS) is more commonly used technology.
 Geographic Information System (GIS) is a robust set of tools for collecting and retrieving
data, transforming it into information and displaying that information on maps taken from the
real world.
 The integration of GPS, RS and other data modelling technologies provides information
which helps in dealing with the changes that are integral for environmental protection,
surveillance and disaster management.
 Geographic information system (GIS) is software that converts data into productive
information by getting data from GPS and RS, and then analyzes the data and displays it as
productive information. It gives an inexpensive way of map production, displaying the
information on the map and makes the analysis easier.
 In conclusion, GIS is the integration of GPS and RS, and the core concept of GIS
applications development is to make decisions based on the data gained from different
sources, converts them into information so it can fulfils the business, environmental,
technological needs.
ELEMENTS OF GIS
Pedagogically, GIS consists of the following Six elements:
 Geospatial data,
 Data acquisition,
 Data management,
 Data display,
 Data exploration, and
 Data analysis.
1.Geospatial Data
By definition, geospatial data cover the location of spatial features. To locate spatial features on
the Earth’s surface, we can use either a geographic or a projected coordinate system. A
geographic coordinate system is expressed in longitude and latitude and a projected coordinate
system in x, y coordinates.
Many projected coordinated systems are available for use in GIS. An example is the Universal
Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid system, which divides the Earth’s surface between 84°N and
80°S into 60 zones. A basic principle in GIS is that map layers representing different geospatial
data must align spatially; in other words, they are based on the same spatial reference. A GIS
represents geospatial data as either vector data or raster data (Figure).

The vector data model uses points, lines, and polygons to represent spatial features with a clear
spatial location and boundary such as streams, land parcels, and vegetation stands (Figure). Each
feature is assigned an ID so that it can be associated with its attributes.

The raster data model uses a grid and grid cells to represent spatial features: point features are
represented by single cells, line features by sequences of neighboring cells, and polygon features
by collections of contiguous cells. The cell value corresponds to the attribute of the spatial
feature at the cell location. Raster data are ideal for continuous features such as elevation and
precipitation (Figure).

A vector data model can be georelational or object-based, with or without topology, and simple
or composite. The georelational model store geometries and attributes of spatial features in
separate systems, whereas the object-based model stores them in a single system. Topology
explicitly expresses the spatial relationships between features, such as two lines meeting
perfectly at a point. Vector data with topology are necessary for some analyses such as finding
shortest paths on a road network, whereas data without topology can display faster.

Composite features are built on simple features of points, lines, and polygons; they include the
triangulated irregular network (TIN) which approximates the terrain with a set of non
overlapping triangles, and dynamic segmentation (Figure 1.7), which combines one-dimensional
linear measures such as mileposts with two dimensional projected coordinates.

A large variety of data used in GIS are encoded in raster format such as digital elevation models
and satellite images. Although the raster representation of spatial features is not precise, it has
the distinctive advantage of having fixed cell locations, thus allowing for efficient manipulation
and analysis in computing algorithms. Raster data, especially those with high spatial resolutions,
require large amounts of computer memory. Therefore, issues of data storage and retrieval are
important to GIS users.
2. Data Acquisition
Data acquisition is usually the first step in conducting a GIS project. The need for geospatial data
by GIS users has been linked to the development of data clearing houses and geoportals. Since
the early 1990s, government agencies at different levels in the United States as well as many
other countries have set up websites for sharing public data and for directing users to various
data sources. To use public data, it is important to obtain metadata, which provide information
about the data. If public data are not available, new data can be digitized from paper maps or
orthophotos, created from satellite images, or converted from GPS data, survey data, street
addresses, and text files with x- and y- coordinates. Data acquisition therefore involves
compilation of existing and new data. To be used in a GIS, a newly digitized map or a map
created from satellite images requires geometric transformation (i.e., georeferencing).
Additionally, both existing and new spatial data must be edited if they contain digitizing and/or
topological errors.
3. Attribute Data Management
A GIS usually employs a database management system (DBMS) to handle attribute data, which
can be large in size in the case of vector data. Each polygon in a soil map, for example, can be
associated with dozens of attributes on the physical and chemical soil properties and soil
interpretations. Attribute data are stored in a relational database as a collection of tables. These
tables can be prepared, maintained, and edited separately, but they can also be linked for data
search and retrieval. A DBMS offers join and relate operations. A join operation brings together
two tables by using a common attribute field (e.g., feature ID), whereas a relate operation
connects two tables but keeps the tables physically separate. Spatial join is unique in GIS as it
uses spatial relationships to join two sets of spatial features and their attribute data, such as
joining a school to a county in which the school is located. A DBMS also offers tools for adding,
deleting, and manipulating attributes.
4. Data Display
A routine GIS operation is mapmaking because maps are an interface to GIS. Mapmaking can be
informal or formal in GIS. It is informal when we view geospatial data on maps, and formal
when we produce maps for professional presentations and reports. A professional map combines
the title, map body, legend, scale bar, and other elements together to convey geographic
information to the map reader. To make a “good” map, we must have a basic understanding of
map symbols, colors, and typology, and their relationship to the mapped data. Additionally, we
must be familiar with map design principles such as layout and visual hierarchy. After a map is
composed in a GIS, it can be printed or saved as a graphic file for presentation. It can also be
converted to a KML file, imported into Google Earth, and shared publicly on a web server. For
time-dependent data such as population changes over decades, a series of map frames can be
prepared and displayed in temporal animation.
5. Data Exploration
Data exploration refers to the activities of visualizing, manipulating, and querying data using
maps, tables, and graphs. These activities offer a close look at the data and function as a
precursor to formal data analysis. Data exploration in GIS can be map or feature-based. Map-
based exploration includes data classification, data aggregation, and map comparison. Feature-
based query can involve either attribute or spatial data. Attribute data query is basically the same
as database query using a DBMS. In contrast, spatial data query allows GIS users to select
features based on their spatial relationships such as containment, intersect, and proximity. A
combination of attribute and spatial data queries provides a powerful tool for data exploration.
6. Data Analysis
A GIS has a large number of tools for data analysis. Some are basic tools, meaning that they are
regularly used by GIS users. Other tools tend to be discipline or application specific. Two basic
tools for vector data are buffering and overlay: buffering creates buffer zones from select
features, and overlay combines the geometries and attributes of the input layers (Figure 1.8).
Four basic tools for raster data are local (Figure 1.9), neighborhood, zonal, and global operations,
depending on whether the operation is performed at the level of individual cells, or groups of
cells, or cells within an entire raster. The terrain is important for studies of timber management,
soil erosion, hydrologic modeling, and wildlife habitat suitability. A GIS has tools for mapping
the terrain in contours, profiles, hill shading, and 3-D views, and for analyzing the terrain with
slope, aspect, and surface curvature. Terrain analysis also includes viewshed and watershed: a
viewshed analysis determines areas visible from one or more observation points, and a watershed
analysis traces water flow to delineate stream networks and watersheds. Spatial interpolation
uses points with known values to estimate values at other points.

When applied in GIS, spatial interpolation is a means of creating surface data from sample
points. A variety of methods are available for spatial interpolation ranging from global to local
and from deterministic to stochastic. Among them, kriging is a method that can not only predict
unknown values but also estimate prediction errors. Geocoding converts postal addresses into
point features, and dynamic segmentation locates linearly referenced data on an x-, y-coordinate
system. They can be considered as tools for creating new GIS data by using linear features (e.g.,
streets, highways) as references. Geocoding is important for location-based services, crime
analysis, and other applications, and dynamic segmentation is primarily designed for the display,
query, and analysis of transportation- related data. Least-cost path analysis finds the least
accumulated cost path in a raster, and network analysis solves for the shortest path between stops
on a topological road network. The two analyses share common concepts in GIS but differ in
applications. Least-cost path analysis is raster-based and works with “virtual” paths, whereas
network analysis is vector-based and works with an existing road network. A GIS and its tools
can be used to build spatially explicit models that separate areas that satisfy a set of selection
 criteria from those that do not, or rank areas based on multicriteria evaluation. A GIS can also
help build regression models and process models and assist modelers in data visualization,
database management, and data exploration.
APPLICATIONS OF GIS:
Major areas of GIS application can be grouped into five categories as follows.
1. Facilities Management
Large scale and precise maps and network analysis are used mainly for utility management.
AM/FM is frequently used in this area.
2. Environment and Natural Resources Management
Medium or small scale maps and overlay techniques in combination with aerial photographs
and satellite images are used for management of natural resources and environmental impact
analysis.
3. Street Network
Large or medium scale maps and spatial analysis are used for vehicle routing, locating house
and streets etc.
4. Planning and Engineering
Large or medium scale maps and engineering models are used mainly in civil enginerring.
5. Land Information System
Large scale cadastre maps or land parcel maps and spatial analysis are used for cadastre
administration, taxation etc.
6. Disaster Management
Hurricane Katrina is seen by many as the first time that GIS was used a disaster management
tool.
7. Crime Statistics
GIS is now vital to law enforcement and planning in terms of crime statistics. Though most
police forces in the USA have used them for a long time, automated and digital mapping of
reported crime has made the process much easier, especially when looking at different types
of crime from different departments in larger cities.
8. Archaeology
GIS is now critical to many elements of archaeology as it takes on more elements and
characteristics of an environmental science. There are many applications in the field of
 historical research but none has been more beneficial than the prediction of historic site
location .
9. Civic Planning
GIS has been a superb tool for rural and urban planning for the last few decades, working out
local tax rates, planning desirability and mapping social deprivation, where new roads could
go or which should be prioritised for repair. It is now a vital part of our green future too.
10. Health / Medical Resource Management
GIS is vital to the proper planning and analysis of the provision of cancer services for the UK
socialised healthcare system, the NHS (National Health Service). The package is used to plan
and examine a number of issues including catchment areas for GP surgeries.
11. Transport
One of the biggest public works in the UK right now is the planned High Speed 2 (HS2) rail
connection between London and Manchester and then later beyond that. It plans to upgrade
and revolutionise the rail network in the UK, arguably starved of much-needed
modernisation since privatisation in the 1980s.
1.3 Coordinate Systems
Implicit with any GIS data is a spatial reference system. It can consist of a simple arbitrary
reference system such as a 10 m x 10 m sampling grid in a wood lot or, the boundaries of a
soccer field or, it can consist of a geographic reference system, i.e. one where the spatial features
are mapped to an earth based reference system. The focus of this topic is on earth reference
systems which can be based on a Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) or a Project Coordinate
System (PCS).
1.3.1 Geographic Coordinate Systems
A geographic coordinate system is a reference system for identifying locations on the curved
surface of the earth. Locations on the earth’s surface are measured in angular units from the
center of the earth relative to two planes: the plane defined by the equator and the plane defined
by the prime meridian (which crosses Greenwich England). A location is therefore defined by
two values: a latitudinal value and a longitudinal value.
Figure .1: Examples of latitudinal lines are shown on the left and examples of longitudinal lines
are shown on the right. The 0° degree reference lines for each are shown in red (equator for
latitudinal measurements and prime meridian for longitudinal measurements).
A latitude measures the angle from the equatorial plane to the location on the earth’s surface. A
longitude measures the angle between the prime meridian plane and the north-south plane that
intersects the location of interest. For example Colby College is located at around 45.56° North
and 69.66° West. In a GIS system, the North-South and East-West directions are encoded as
signs. North and East are assigned a positive (+) sign and South and West are assigned a negative
(-) sign. Colby College’s location is therefore encoded as +45.56° and -69.66°.

Figure : A slice of earth showing the latitude and longitude measurements.

The geographic coordinate system is the reference system for locating spatial features on the
Earth’s surface (Figure). The geographic coordinate system is defined by longitude and latitude.
Both longitude and latitude are angular measures: longitude measures the angle east or west from
the prime meridian, and latitude measures the angle north or south of the equatorial plane. In
Figure 2.3, for example, the longitude at point X is the angle a west of the prime meridian, and
the latitude at point Y is the angle b north of the equator.
Meridians are lines of equal longitude. The prime meridian passes through Greenwich, England,
and has the reading of 0°. Using the prime meridian as a reference, we can measure the longitude
value of a point on the Earth’s surface as 0° to 180° east or west of the prime meridian.
Meridians are therefore used for measuring location in the E–W direction. Parallels are lines of
equal latitude. Using the equator as 0° latitude, we can measure the latitude value of a point as 0°
to 90° north or south of the equator. Parallels are therefore used for measuring location in the N–
S direction. A point location denoted by (120° W, 60° N) means that it is 120° west of the prime
meridian and 60° north of the equator.
The prime meridian and the equator serve as the baselines of the geographic coordinate system.
The notation of geographic coordinates is therefore like plane coordinates: longitude values are
equivalent to x values and latitude values are equivalent to y values. And, as with x-, y-
coordinates, it is conventional in GIS to enter longitude and latitude values with positive or
negative signs. Longitude values are positive in the eastern hemisphere and negative in the
western hemisphere. Latitude values are positive if north of the equator, and negative if south of
the equator.
DMS to DD Conversion:
The angular measures of longitude and latitude may be expressed in degrees-minutes-seconds
(DMS), decimal degrees (DD), or radians (rad). Given that 1 degree equals 60 minutes and 1
minute equals 60 seconds, we can convert between DMS and DD. For example, a latitude value
of 45°52'30" would be equal to 45.875° (45 + 52/60 + 30/3600). Radians are typically used in
computer programs. One radian equals 57.2958°, and one degree equals 0.01745 rad.
Approximation of the Earth
Viewed from space, the Earth looks like a perfect sphere. But it is not because the Earth is wider
along the equator than between the poles. An approximation of the shape and size of the Earth is
an oblate spheroid, also called ellipsoid, an ellipse rotated about its minor axis (Kjenstad 2011).
An ellipsoid approximating the Earth has its major axis (a) along the equator and its minor axis
(b) connecting the poles (Figure 2.4). A parameter called the flattening (f), defined by (a − b)/a,
measures the difference between the two axes of an ellipsoid. Geographic coordinates based on
an ellipsoid are known as geodetic coordinates, which are the basis for all mapping systems.

A GCS is defined by an ellipsoid, geoid and datum. These elements are presented next.
1.3.1.1 Sphere and Ellipsoid
Assuming that the earth is a perfect sphere greatly simplifies mathematical calculations and
works well for small-scale maps (maps that show a large area of the earth). However, when
working at larger scales, an ellipsoid representation of earth may be desired if accurate
measurements are needed. An ellipsoid is defined by two radii: the semi-major axis (the
equatorial radius) and the semi-minor axis (the polar radius).

The reason the earth has a slightly ellipsoidal shape has to do with its rotation which induces a
centripetal force along the equator. This results in an equatorial axis that is roughly 21 km longer
than the polar axis.
Figure: The earth can be mathematically modeled as a simple sphere (left) or an ellipsoid (right).
Our estimate of these radii is quite precise thanks to satellite and computational capabilities. The
semi-major axis is 6,378,137 meters and the semi-minor axis is 6,356,752 meters.
Differences in distance measurements along the surfaces of an ellipsoid vs. a sphere are small but
measurable (the difference can be as high as 20 km) as illustrated in the following lattice plots.

Figure: Differences in distance measurements between the surface of a sphere and an ellipsoid.
Each graphic plots the differences in distance measurements made from a single point location
along the 0° meridian identified by the green colored box (latitude value) to various latitudinal
locations along a longitude (whose value is listed in the bisque colored box). For example, the
second plot from the top-left corner plot shows the differences in distance measurements made
from a location at 90° north (along the prime meridian) to a range of latitudinal locations along
the 45° meridian.
1.3.1.2 Geoid
Representing the earth’s true shape, the geoid, as a mathematical model is crucial for a GIS
environment. However, the earth’s shape is not a perfectly smooth surface. It has undulations
resulting from changes in gravitational pull across its surface. These undulations may not be
visible with the naked eye, but they are measurable and can influence locational measurements.
Note that we are not including mountains and ocean bottoms in our discussion, instead we are
focusing solely on the earth’s gravitational potential which can be best visualized by imagining
the earth’s surface completely immersed in water and measuring the distance from the earth’s
center to the water surface over the entire earth surface.

Figure 9.5: Earth’s geoid with gravitational field shown in rainbow colors. The ondulations
depicted in the graphics are exaggerated for visual effects. (source: NASA)
The earth’s gravitational field is dynamic and is tied to the flow of the earth’s hot and fluid core.
Hence its geoid is constantly changing, albeit at a large temporal scale.The measurement and
representation of the earth’s shape is at the heart of geodesy–a branch of applied mathematics.
1.3.1.3 Datum
So how are we to reconcile our need to work with a (simple) mathematical model of the earth’s
shape with the ondulating nature of the earth’s surface (i.e. its geoid)? The solution is to align the
geoid with the ellipsoid (or sphere) representation of the earth and to map the earth’s surface
features onto this ellipsoid/sphere. The alignment can be local where the ellipsoid surface is
closely fit to the geoid at a particular location on the earth’s surface (such as the state of Kansas)
or geocentric where the ellipsoid is aligned with the center of the earth. How one chooses to
align the ellipsoid to the geoid defines a datum.
Local Datum

Figure 9.6: A local datum couples a geoid with the ellipsoid at a location on each element’s
surface.
There are many local datums to choose from, some are old while others are more recently
defined. The choice of datum is largely driven by the location of interest. For example, when
working in the US, a popular local datum to choose from is the North American Datum of 1927
(or NAD27 for short). NAD27 works well for the US but it’s not well suited for other parts of the
world. For example, a far better local datum for Europe is the European Datum of 1950 (ED50
for short). Examples of common local datums are shown in the following table:
Local datum Acronym Best for Comment
North American Continental This is an old datum but still prevalent because
NAD27
Datum of 1927 US of the wide use of older maps.
European Datum of Western Developed after World War II and still quite
ED50
1950 Europe popular today. Not used in the UK.
World Geodetic
WGS72 Global Developed by the Department of Defense.
System 1972
9.1.3.2 Geocentric Datum

Figure: A geocentric datum couples a geoid with the ellipsoid at each element’s center of mass.
Many of the modern datums use a geocentric alignment. These include the popular World
Geodetic Survey for 1984 (WGS84) and the North American Datums of 1983 (NAD83). Most of
the popular geocentric datums use the WGS84 ellipsoid or the GRS80 ellipsoid. These two
ellipsoids share nearly identical semi-major and semi-minor axes: 6,378,137 meters and
6,356,752 meters respectively. Examples of popular geocentric datums are shown in the
following table:
Geocentric datum Acronym Best for Comment
North American Datum of Continental This is one of the most popular modern
NAD83
1983 US datums for the contiguous US.
European Terrestrial Western This is the most popular modern datum
ETRS89
Reference System 1989 Europe for much of Europe.
World Geodetic System
WGS84 Global Developed by the Department of Defense.
1984

1.3.1.4 Building the Geographic Coordinate System

A Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) is defined by the ellipsoid model and by the way this
ellipsoid is aligned with the geoid (defining the datum). It is important to know which GCS is
associated with a GIS file or a map document reference system. This is particularly true when the
overlapping layers are tied to different datums (and therefore GCS’). This is because a location
on the earth’s surface can take on different coordinate values. For example, a location recorded
in an NAD 1927 GCS having a coordinate pair of 44.56698° north and 69.65939° west will
register a coordinate value of 44.56704° north and 69.65888° west in a NAD83 GCS and a
coordinate value of 44.37465° north and -69.65888° west in a sphere based WGS84 GCS. If the
coordinate systems for these point coordinate values were not properly defined, then they could
be misplaced on a map. This is analogous to recording temperature using different units of
measure (degrees Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin)–each unit of measure will produce a different
numeric value.
Figure: Map of the Colby flagpole in two different geographic coordinate systems (GCS NAD
1983 on the left and GCS NAD 1927 on the right). Note the offset in the 44.5639° line of latitude
relative to the flagpole. Also note the 0.0005° longitudinal offset between both reference
systems.
1.3.2 Projected Coordinate Systems
The surface of the earth is curved but maps are flat. A projected coordinate system (PCS) is a
reference system for identifying locations and measuring features on a flat (map) surface. It
consists of lines that intersect at right angles, forming a grid. Projected coordinate systems
(which are based on Cartesian coordinates) have an origin, an x axis, a y axis, and a linear unit of
measure. Going from a GCS to a PCS requires mathematical transformations.
Types of Map Projections
Map projections can be grouped by either the preserved property or the projection surface.
Cartographers group map projections by the preserved property into the following four classes:
 Conformal,
 Equal Area or Equivalent,
 Equidistant, and
 Azimuthal or True Direction.
A conformal projection preserves local angles and shapes. An equivalent projection represents
areas in correct relative size. An equidistant projection maintains consistency of
scale along certain lines. And an azimuthal projection retains certain accurate directions. The
preserved property of a map projection is often included in its name, such as the Lambert
conformal conic projection or the Albers equal-area conic projection. The conformal and
equivalent properties are mutually exclusive. Otherwise a map projection can have more than
one preserved property, such as conformal and azimuthal. The conformal and equivalent
properties are global properties, meaning that they apply to the entire map projection.
The equidistant and azimuthal properties are local properties and may be true only from or to
the center of the map projection. The preserved property is important for selecting an appropriate
map projection for thematic mapping (Battersby 2009). For example, a population map of the
world should be based on an equivalent projection. By representing areas in correct size, the
population map can create a correct impression of population densities. In contrast, an
equidistant projection would be better for mapping the distance ranges from a telecommunication
tower.

Cartographers often use a geometric object and a globe to illustrate how to construct a map
projection. For example, by placing a cylinder tangent to a lighted globe, one can draw a
projection by tracing the lines of longitude and latitude onto the cylinder. The cylinder is the
projection surface or the developable surface, and the globe is the reference globe. Other
common projection surfaces include a cone and a plane. Therefore, map projections can be
grouped by their projection surfaces into cylindrical, conic, and azimuthal. A map projection is
called a cylindrical projection if it can be constructed using a cylinder, a conic projection if using
a cone, and an azimuthal projection if using a plane.

The use of a geometric object helps explain two other projection concepts: case and aspect. For a
conic projection, the cone can be placed so that it is tangent to the globe or intersects the globe
( Figure 2.6). The first is the simple case, which results in one line of tangency, and the second is
the secant case, which results in two lines of tangency. A cylindrical projection behaves the same
way as a conic projection in terms of case. An azimuthal projection, on the other hand, has a
point of tangency in the simple case and a line of tangency in the secant case. Aspect describes
the placement of a geometric object relative to a globe. A plane, for example, may be tangent at
any point on a globe. A polar aspect refers to tangency at the pole, an equatorial aspect at the
equator, and an oblique
The myriad of projection types can be aggregated into three groups: planar (Azimuthal),
cylindrical and conical. Let us discuss the above with example.
1.3.2.1 Planar Projections
A planar projection (aka Azimuthal projection) maps the earth surface features to a flat surface
that touches the earth’s surface at a point (tangent case),

or along a line of tangency (a secant case).

This projection is often used in mapping polar regions but can be used for any location on the
earth’s surface (in which case they are called oblique planar projections).
Figure: Examples of three planar projections: orthographic (left), gnomonic (center) and
equidistant (right). Each covers a different spatial range (with the latter covering both northern
and southern hemispheres) and each preserves a unique set of spatial properties.
1.3.2.2 Cylindrical Projection
A cylindrical map projection maps the earth surface onto a map rolled into a cylinder (which can
then be flattened into a plane). The cylinder can touch the surface of the earth along a single line
of tangency (a tangent case),

or along two lines of tangency (a secant case).

The cylinder can be tangent to the equator or it can be oblique. A special case is the Transverse
aspect which is tangent to lines of longitude. This is a popular projection used in defining the
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) and State Plane coordinate systems. The UTM PCS
covers the entire globe and is a popular coordinate system in the US. It’s important to note that
the UTM PCS is broken down into zones and therefore limits its extent to these zones that are 6°
wide. For example, the State of Maine (USA) uses the UTM coordinate system (Zone 19 North)
for most of its statewide GIS maps. Most USGS quad maps are also presented in a UTM
coordinate system. Popular datums tied to the UTM coordinate system in the US include NAD27
and NAD83. There is also a WGS84 based UTM coordinate system.
Distortion is minimized along the tangent or secant lines and increases as the distance from these
lines increases.

Figure: Examples of two cylindrical projections: Mercator (preserves shape but distortes area
and distance) and equa-area (preserves area but distorts shape).
1.3.2.3 Conical Projection
A conical map projection maps the earth surface onto a map rolled into a cone. Like the
cylindrical projection, the cone can touch the surface of the earth along a single line of tangency
(a tangent case), or along two lines of tangency (a secant case).
Distortion is minimized along the tangent or secant lines and increases as the distance from these
lines increases. When distance or area measurements are needed for the contiguous 48 states, use
one of the conical projections such as Equidistant Conic (distance preserving) or Albers Equal
Area Conic (area preserving).
Conical projections are also popular PCS’ in European maps such as Europe Albers Equal Area
Conic and Europe Lambert Conformal Conic.

Figure: Examples of three conical projections: Albers equal area (preserves area), equidistant
(preserves distance) and conformal (preserves shape).
1.4 GIS and Information Systems
A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing, checking,
and displaying data related to positions on Earth’s surface. By relating seemingly unrelated data,
GIS can help individuals and organizations better understand spatial patterns and relationships.
GIS technology is a crucial part of spatial data infrastructure, which the White House defines as
“the technology, policies, standards, human resources, and related activities necessary to acquire,
process, distribute, use, maintain, and preserve spatial data.”
GIS can use any information that includes location. The location can be expressed in many
different ways, such as latitude and longitude, address, or ZIP code.
Many different types of information can be compared and contrasted using GIS. The system can
include data about people, such as population, income, or education level. It can include
information about the landscape, such as the location of streams, different kinds of vegetation,
and different kinds of soil. It can include information about the sites of factories, farms, and
schools; or storm drains, roads, and electric power lines.
With GIS technology, people can compare the locations of different things in order to discover
how they relate to each other. For example, using GIS, a single map could include sites that
produce pollution, such as factories, and sites that are sensitive to pollution, such as wetlands and
rivers. Such a map would help people determine where water supplies are most at risk.
Data Capture
Data Formats
GIS applications include both hardware and software systems. These applications may include
cartographic data, photographic data, digital data, or data in spreadsheets.
Cartographic data are already in map form, and may include such information as the location of
rivers, roads, hills, and valleys. Cartographic data may also include survey data, mapping
information which can be directly entered into a GIS.
Photographic interpretation is a major part of GIS. Photo interpretation involves analyzing aerial
photographs and assessing the features that appear.
Digital data can also be entered into GIS. An example of this kind of information is computer
data collected by satellites that show land use—the location of farms, towns, and forests.
Remote sensing provides another tool that can be integrated into a GIS. Remote sensing includes
imagery and other data collected from satellites, balloons, and drones.

Finally, GIS can also include data in table or spreadsheet form, such as population
demographics. Demographics can range from age, income, and ethnicity to recent purchases and
Internet browsing preferences.
GIS technology allows all these different types of information, no matter their source or original
format, to be overlaid on top of one another on a single map. GIS uses location as the key index
variable to relate these seemingly unrelated data.
Putting information into GIS is called data capture. Data that are already in digital form, such as
most tables and images taken by satellites, can simply be uploaded into GIS. Maps, however,
must first be scanned, or converted to digital format.
The two major types of GIS file formats are raster and vector. Raster formats are grids of cells
or pixels. Raster formats are useful for storing GIS data that vary, such as elevation or satellite
imagery. Vector formats are polygons that use points (called nodes) and lines. Vector formats are
useful for storing GIS data with firm borders, such as school districts or streets.

Spatial Relationships
GIS technology can be used to display spatial relationships and linear networks. Spatial
relationships may display topography, such as agricultural fields and streams. They may also
display land-use patterns, such as the location of parks and housing complexes.
Linear networks, sometimes called geometric networks, are often represented by roads, rivers,
and public utility grids in a GIS. A line on a map may indicate a road or highway. With GIS
layers, however, that road may indicate the boundary of a school district, public park, or other
demographic or land-use area. Using diverse data capture, the linear network of a river may be
mapped on a GIS to indicate the stream flow of different tributaries.
GIS must make the information from all the various maps and sources align, so they fit together
on the same scale. A scale is the relationship between the distance on a map and the actual
distance on Earth.
Often, GIS must manipulate data because different maps have different projections. A projection
is the method of transferring information from Earth’s curved surface to a flat piece of paper or
computer screen. Different types of projections accomplish this task in different ways, but all
result in some distortion. To transfer a curved, three-dimensional shape onto a flat surface
inevitably requires stretching some parts and squeezing others.
A world map can show either the correct sizes of countries or their correct shapes, but it can’t do
both. GIS takes data from maps that were made using different projections and combines them so
all the information can be displayed using one common projection.
GIS Maps
Once all of the desired data have been entered into a GIS system, they can be combined to
produce a wide variety of individual maps, depending on which data layers are included. One of
the most common uses of GIS technology involves comparing natural features with human
activity. For instance, GIS maps can display what manmade features are near certain natural
features, such as which homes and businesses are in areas prone to flooding.
GIS technology also allows to “dig deep” in a specific area with many kinds of information.
Maps of a single city or neighborhood can relate such information as average income, book
sales, or voting patterns. Any GIS data layer can be added or subtracted to the same map.
GIS maps can be used to show information about numbers and density. For example, GIS can
show how many doctors there are in a neighborhood compared with the area’s population.
With GIS technology, researchers can also look at change over time. They can use satellite data
to study topics such as the advance and retreat of ice cover in polar regions, and how that
coverage has changed through time. A police precinct might study changes in crime data to help
determine where to assign officers.
One important use of time-based GIS technology involves creating time-lapse photography that
shows processes occurring over large areas and long periods of time. For example, data showing
the movement of fluid in ocean or air currents help scientists better understand how moisture and
heat energy move around the globe.
GIS technology sometimes allows users to access further information about specific areas
on a map. A person can point to a spot on a digital map to find other information stored in the
GIS about that location. For example, a user might click on a school to find how many students
are enrolled, how many students there are per teacher, or what sports facilities the school has.
GIS systems are often used to produce three-dimensional images. This is useful, for
example, to geologists studying earthquake faults.
GIS technology makes updating maps much easier than updating maps created manually.
Updated data can simply be added to the existing GIS program. A new map can then be printed
or displayed on screen. This skips the traditional process of drawing a map, which can be time-
consuming and expensive.
GIS Jobs
People working in many different fields use GIS technology. GIS technology can be used for
scientific investigations, resource management, and development planning. Many retail
businesses use GIS to help them determine where to locate a new store. Marketing companies
use GIS to decide to whom to market those stores and restaurants, and where that marketing
should be. Scientists use GIS to compare population statistics to resources such as drinking
water. Biologists use GIS to track animal migration patterns.
City, state, or federal officials use GIS to help plan their response in the case of a natural
disaster such as an earthquake or hurricane. GIS maps can show these officials what
neighborhoods are most in danger, where to locate emergency shelters, and what routes people
should take to reach safety. Engineers use GIS technology to support the design,
implementation, and management of communication networks for the phones we use, as well as
the infrastructure necessary for Internet connectivity. Other engineers may use GIS to develop
road networks and transportation infrastructure.

There is no limit to the kind of information that can be analyzed using GIS technology. GIS
(geographic information system)GIS allows multiple layers of information to be displayed on a
single map.

1.5 What is GIS – Definition?

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system build to capture, store,
manipulate, analyze, manage and display all kinds of spatial or geographical data. GIS
application are tools that allow end users to perform spatial query, analysis, edit spatial data and
create hard copy maps. In simple way GIS can be define as an image that is referenced to the
earth or has x and y coordinate and it’s attribute values are stored in the table. These x and y
coordinates are based on different projection system and there are various types of projection
system. Most of the time GIS is used to create maps and to print. To perform the basic task in
GIS, layers are combined, edited and designed.
GIS can be used to solve the location based question such as “What is located here” or Where to
find particular features? GIS User can retrieve the value from the map, such as how much is the
forest area on the land use map. This is done using the query builder tool.
Next important features of the GIS is the capability to combine different layers to show new
information. For example, you can combine elevation data, river data, land use data and many
more to show information about the landscape of the area. From map you can tell where is high
lands or where is the best place to build house, which has the river view . GIS helps to find new
information.

How GIS Works:

Visualizing Data: The geographic data that is stored in the databases are displayed in the GIS
software.Combining Data: Layers are combined to form a maps of desire.The Query: To search
the value in the layer or making a geographic queries.
Definition by others:
A geographic information system (GIS) lets us visualize, question, analyze, and interpret data to
understand relationships, patterns, and trends. (ESRI)
In the strictest sense, a GIS is a computer system capable of assembling, storing, manipulating,
and displaying geographically referenced information (that is data identified according to their
locations). (USGS)
Advantage of GIS:
 Better decision made by government people
 Improve decision making with the help of layered information
 Citizen engagement due to better system
 Help to identify communities that is under risk or lacking infrastructure
 Helps in identifying criminology matters
 Better management of natural resources
 Better communication during emergency situation
 Cost savings due to better decision
 Finding different kinds of trends within the community
 Planning the demographic changes
1.6 History of GIS:
As we study the history of GIS we came to know that in 1960’s the GIS term was came into
existence but there were fewer people and professionals involved in it. In 1990’s more
researchers were taking GIS as a researching tool but the real boost for GIS was in 2005 when
Google launched Google Maps and Google Earth web applications, this is where everyone came
to know the importance of GIS.
Modern GIS has seen series of development. GIS has evolved with the computer system. Here
are the brief events that has happened for the development of the GIS system.
The first application of the concept was in 1832 when Charles Picquet created a map
representing cholera outbreak across 48 districts of Paris. This map was an early version of a
heat map, which would later revolutionize several industries.
Year 1854 – The term GIS that used scientific method to create maps was used by John Snow in
1854. He used points on London residential map to plot outbreak of Cholera.
The origins of GIS in its present form lie in the applicationof rapidly developing computing
tools,especially computer graphics in a variety of fieldssuch as urban planning, land
management, andgeocoding in the 1960s and 1970s.

Year 1960 – Modern computerized GIS system began in year 1960.

Year 1962 – Dr. Roger Tomlinson created and developed Canadian Geographic Information
System (CGIS) to store, analyze and manipulate data that was collected for the Canada Land
Inventory (CLI). This software had the capacity to overlay, measurement and digitizing
(converting scan hardcopy map to digital data). It is never provided in commercial format but Dr.
Tomlinson is the father of GIS.
Dr. Roger Tomlinson (1933-2014)
In 1964, Howard Fisher founded the Harvard Laboratoryfor Computer Graphics, where several
wellknowncomputer programs of the past such asSYMAP, SYMVU, GRID, and ODESSEY
weredeveloped and distributed throughout the 1970s(Chrisman 1988).These earlier programs
were runon mainframes and minicomputers, and maps weremade on line printers and pen
plotters.
In the UnitedKingdom, computer mapping and spatial analysis werealso introduced at the
University of Edinburgh andthe Experimental Cartography Unit.
Year 1970-Two other events must also be notedabout the early development of GIS: publication
of IanMcHarg’s Design with Nature and its inclusion of themap overlay method for suitability
analysis, and introduction of an urban street networkwith topology in the U.S. Census Bureau’s
Dual IndependentMap Encoding (DIME) system in the 1970s.
Year 1980-The flourishing of GIS activities in the 1980s was in large part prompted by the
introduction of personal computers such as the IBM PC and thegraphical user interface
such as MicrosoftWindows.
Year 1980 – This period saw rise of commercial GIS software’s like M&S Computing,
Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) and Computer Aided Resource Information
System (CARIS). These all software were similar to CGIS with more functionality and user-
friendliness. Among all the above the most popular today is ESRI products like ArcGIS,
ArcView which combined spatial features ofpoints, lines, and polygons with a database
managementsystem for linking attributes to these features, which hold almost 80 % of global
market.
Partnered with Intergraph, Bentley Systems developedMicrostation, a CAD software product.
OtherGIS packages developed during the 1980s includedGRASS, MapInfo, TransCAD, and
Smallworld.
Year 1990-Unlike mainframes and minicomputers, PCsequipped with graphical user interface
were moreuser friendly, thus broadening the range of GIS applicationsand bringing GIS to
mainstream use inthe 1990s.
As GIS continually evolves, two trends haveemerged in recent years. One, as the core of
geospatialtechnology, GIS has increasingly been integratedwith other geospatial data such as
satelliteimages and GPS data. Two, GIS has been linkedwith Web services, mobile technology,
social media,and cloud computing.

Thephrase “geographic information system” rose rapidlyfrom 1980 to the early 1990s, leveled
off in the1990s, and started falling after 2000. In contrast, theother two phrases, especially
“geospatial data,” haverisen since the 1990s. Figure confirms strongintegration between GIS and
other geospatial dataand between GIS and other geospatial technologies.
Numerous GIS textbooks have been published.
Severaljournals (International Journal of Geographical Information Science, Transactions
in GIS, and Cartography and Geographic Information Science)and a variety of magazines
(e.g., Directions Magazine,GIS Geography, GISuser, GIS Lounge, MondoGeospatial, Geospatial
World, and GeoConnextion)are now devoted to GIS and GIS applications.
Additionally, the importance of geospatial data hasbeen “discovered” in fields such as public
health,with publication of journals such as GeospatialHealth, Spatial and Spatio-Temporal
Epidemiology,and International Journal of Health Geographics. AGIS certification program,
sponsored by several nonprofit associations, is also available to thosewho want to become
certified GIS professionals(http://www.gisci.org/). The certification uses apoint system that is
based on educational achievement,professional experience, and contributionto the profession.
1.7 Component of GIS:
1.7.1 Hardware:
Hardware is Computer on which GIS software runs. Nowadays there are a different range of
computer, it might be Desktop or server based. ArcGIS Server is server based computer where
GIS software runs on network computer or cloud based. For computer to perform well all
hardware component must have high capacity. Some of the hardware components are:
Motherboard, Hard driver, processor, graphics card, printer and so on. These all component
function together to run a GIS software smoothly.

1. Motherboard: It is board where major hardware parts are installed or It is a place where
all components gets hooked up.
2. Hard Drive: It is also called hard disk, place to store data.
3. Processor: Processor is the major component in computer, it performs calculation. It is
called as Central processing Unit (CPU).
4. RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM) where all running programs load temporarily.
5. Printer: It is output device and used to print image, map or document. There are various
type of printer available in market.
6. External Disk: These are portable storage space such as USB drive, DVD, CD or
external disk.
7. Monitor: It is a screen for displaying output information. Nowadays there are various
type of monitor: CRT (cathode ray tube), LCD (Liquid Crystal Display), LED (Light
Emitting Diodes) and more.
1.7.2 Software:
GIS Software provides tools and functions to input and store spatial data or geographic data. It
provides tool to perform geographic query, run analysis model and display geographic data in the
map form. GIS software uses Relation Database Management System (RDBMS) to store the
geographic data. Software talks with the database to perform geographic query.
Software: Next component is GIS software which provide tools to run and edit spatial
information. It helps to query, edit, run and display GIS data. It uses RDBMS (Relational
Database Management System) to store the data. Few GIS software list: ArcGis, ArcView 3.2,
QGIS, SAGA GIS.
Software Components:
1. GIS Tools: Key tools to support the browsing of the GIS data
2. RDBMS: Relational Database Management System to store GIS data. GIS Software
retrieve from RDBMS or insert data into RDBMS.
3. Query Tools: Tools that work with database management system for querying, insertion,
deletion and other SQL (Standard Query Language).
4. GUI: Graphical User Interface that helps user and Software to interact well.
5. Layout: Good layout window to design map.
1.7.3 Data:
The most important and expensive component of the Geographic Information System is Data
which is generally known as fuel for GIS. GIS data is combination of graphic and tabular data.
Graphic can be vector or raster. Both type of data can be created in house using GIS software or
can be purchased. The process of creating the GIS data from the analog data or paper format is
called digitization. Digitization process involves registering of raster image using few GCP
(ground control point) or known coordinates. This process is widely known as rubber sheeting
or georefrencing. Polygon, lines and points are created by digitizing raster image. Raster image
itself can be registered with coordinates which is widely known as rectifying the image.
Registered image are mostly exported in TIFF format. As mentioned above, GIS data can be
Raster or Vector.
GIS Data Types:
  Raster: Raster image store information in a cell based manner. It can be aerial photo,
satellite image, Digital Elevation Model (DEM). Raster images normally store continuous
data.
 Vector: Vector data are discrete. It store information in x, y coordinate format. There are
three types of Vector data: Lines, Points and Area.
1.7.4 People:
People are the user of the GIS system.People use all above three component to run a GIS
system. Today’s computer are fast and user friendly which makes it easy to perform geographic
queries, analysis and displaying maps. Today everybody uses GIS to perform their daily
job.People are user of Geographic Information System. They run the GIS software. Hardware
and software have seen tremendous development which made people easy to run the GIS
software. Also computer are affordable so people are using for GIS task. These task may be
creating simple map or performing advance GIS analysis. The people are main component for
the successful GIS.
1.7.5 Methods: For successful GIS operation a well-designed plan and business operation rules
are important. Methods can vary with different organizations. Any organization has documented
their process plan for GIS operation. These document address number question about the GIS
methods: number of GIS expert required, GIS software and hardware, Process to store the data,
what type of DBMS (database management system) and more. Well designed plan will address
all these question.

1.8 Proprietary and Open source Software

Proprietary software (closed source software)

It means the company that developed the software owns the software and no one may
duplicate it or distribute it without that company’s permission.Users have to pay to the software
company if they want to use the proprietary software.

 It is developed for a single purpose, applications are separately packaged;

 Licenses and maintenance are very expensive;
 Low level of customization and adaptability;
 You are dependent on the developer for all updates, support, and fixes;
  Security issues-loop holes are slower to be discovered and patched;
 Vendor support is conditional to maintenance subscription.
Open source Software

For open-source software, the copyright belongs to the author, or a third party (for instance,
software like OpenFOAM for CAE). Here, the vendor only plays the role of the distributor. A
variety of open-source CAE software licenses is available for users, providing considerably more
freedom and flexibility, and these are offered by the author within the license agreement.
The Open Source Initiative [2] better explains these freedoms and the criteria open-source
software must comply with:
 The license shall not restrict any party from selling or giving away the software
 The program must include source code and must allow distribution of source code, as
well as a compiled form
 The license must explicitly permit the distribution of software built from modified
source code (it may require derived works to carry a different name or version
number)
 The license must be technology-neutral
 The license must not restrict other software
 The license must not be specific to a product
 No discrimination against fields of endeavor
 No discrimination against persons or groups
 The license must allow modifications and derived works
 The rights apply to all to whom the program is redistributed without an additional
license by those parties
Most widely used open source applications:
 GRASS – Originally developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, open source:
a complete GIS
 MapServer – Web-based mapping server, developed by the University of Minnesota.
 Chameleon – Environments for building applications with MapServer.
  GeoNetwork opensource – A catalog application to manage spatially referenced
resources
 GeoTools – Open source GIS toolkit written in Java, using Open Geospatial Consortium
specifications.
 gvSIG – Open source GIS written in Java.
 ILWIS – ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) integrates image,
vector and thematic data.
 JUMP GIS – Java Unified Mapping Platform.
 MapWindow GIS – Free, open source GIS desktop application and programming
component.
 OpenLayers – open source AJAX library for accessing geographic data layers of all
kinds, originally developed and sponsored by MetaCarta
 PostGIS – Spatial extensions for the open source PostgreSQL database, allowing
geospatial queries.
 Quantum GIS – QGIS is a user friendly Open Source GIS that runs on Linux, Unix, Mac
OSX, and Windows.
 TerraView – GIS desktop that handles vector and raster data stored in a relational or geo-
relational database.
Examples of proprietary software include iTunes, Windows, macOS, Google Earth, Unix, Adobe
Flash Player, Microsoft Word, etc.
Difference between Open-Source and Proprietary Software
1.Control of Open-Source and Proprietary Software
The idea alone that developers and programmers are allowed to examine and modify the source
code as deemed necessary shouts aloud control. More control means more flexibility, which
means non-programmers can also benefit from the open collaboration. Proprietary software, on
the contrary, restricts control only to the owner of the software.
2.Security of Open-Source and Proprietary Software
Because anyone with the required knowledge can add or modify additional features to the
program’s source code to make it work better, it allows better sustainability of the software as
indiscrepancies in the software can be rectified and corrected repeatedly. As developers can work
without any restrictions, it allows them to rectify errors that might have missed by the original
developers or publishers.
3.Driver Support of Open-Source and Proprietary Software
Open-source software packages often have missing drivers which is natural when you have an
open community of users with access to every single line of code. The software may include
code modified by one or more individuals, each subject to different terms and conditions. The
lack of formal support or sometimes use of generic drivers can put the project at risk. Proprietary
software means closed group support which means better performance.
4.Usability of Open-Source and Proprietary Software
Unlike open-source projects, proprietary ones are typically designed keeping in mind a limited
group of end users with limited skills. They target a small knit circle of end users unlike projects
accomplished within open source communities. Users outside the programming community
won’t even look at the source code let alone modify it.
5.Opacity of Open-Source and Proprietary Software
The viewing restrictions barred the end users from modifying the code let alone debugging it
effectively with no control over possible workarounds. The internal structure of proprietary
software is strictly closed-access meaning they lack transparency which makes it virtually
impossible for users to even suggest modifications or optimizations to the software. Open source,
on the other hand, promotes open collaboration which means lesser bugs and faster bug fixes
with fewer complexities.
Sl.No Open-Source Software Proprietary Software
1 Purchased with its source code Purchased without its source code
2 User can get open software for free of User must pay to get the Proprietary
charge software
3 User can modify the software User cannot modify the software
4 User can install software freely into any User must have a license from vendor
computer before install into computer
5 No one is responsible to the software Full support from vendor if anything
happened to the software
6 It refers to software that is developed and It refers to software that is solely owned by
opened through open collaboration the individual or the organization that
developed it.
7 Anyone with the academic knowledge Only the owner or publisher who holds the
 can access, inspect, modify and legal property rights of the source code can
redistribute the source code access it.
8 The project is managed by an open The project is managed by an closed group
source community of developers and of individuals of teams that developed it.
programmers.
9 They are not aimed at unskilled users They are focused on a limited market of
outside of the programming community. both skilled and unskilled end users.
10 It provide better flexibility which means There is a very limited scope of innovation
more freedom which encourages with the restriction and all.
innovation.
11. Example: Linux Ubuntu,Openoffice.org Example: Windows Vista, Microsoft Word
Write, GIMP, Android, 2007, Adobe Photoshop CS3, Windows,
Firefox,FreeBSD, GNOME MacOS, Google Earth

Spatial vs. Non-spatial Data

1.Spatial Data
 Data that define a location. These are in the form of graphic primitives that are usually
either points, lines, polygons or pixels.
 Spatial data includes location, shape, size, and orientation.
o For example, consider a particular square:
 its center (the intersection of its diagonals) specifies its location
 its shape is a square
 the length of one of its sides specifies its size
 the angle its diagonals make with, say, the x-axis specifies its orientation.
 Spatial data includes spatial relationships. For example, the arrangement of ten bowling
pins is spatial data.
 Spatial data are generally multi-dimensional and auto correlated.
2.Non-spatial Data
 Data that relate to a specific, precisely defined location. The data are often statistical but
may be text, images or multi-media. These are linked in the GIS to spatial data that define
the location.
  Non-spatial data (also called attribute or characteristic data) is that information which is
independent of all geometric considerations.
 Non-spatial data are generally one-dimensional and independent.
For example,
A person’s height, mass, and age are non-spatial data because they are independent of the
person’s location. While mass is non-spatial data, weight is spatial data in the sense that
something’s weight is very much dependent on its location.

1.9Types of GIS Data:

A geodatabase is a database that is in some way referenced to locations on the earth. Coupled
with this data is usually data known as attribute data. Attribute data generally defined as
additional information, which can then be tied to spatial data.

What types of GIS Data are there?

GIS data can be separated into two categories: spatially referenced data which is represented by
vector and raster forms (including imagery) and attribute tables which is represented in tabular
format. Within the spatial referenced data group, the GIS data can be further classified into two
different types: vector and raster. Most GIS software applications mainly focus on the usage and
manipulation of vector geo databases with added components to work with raster-based geo
databases.

Vector data
Vector data is split into three types: polygon, line (or arc) and point data. Polygons are used to
represent areas such as the boundary of a city (on a large scale map), lake, or forest. Polygon
features are two dimensional and therefore can be used to measure the area and perimeter of a
geographic feature. Polygon features are most commonly distinguished using either a thematic
mapping symbology (color schemes), patterns, or in the case of numeric gradation, a color
gradation scheme could be used.
In this view of a polygon based dataset, frequency of fire in an area is depicted showing a
graduate color symbology.
IN THIS VIEW OF A POLYGON BASED DATASET, FREQUENCY OF FIRE IN AN AREA
IS DEPICTED SHOWING A GRADUATE COLOR SYMBOLOGY.
Line (or arc) data is used to represent linear features. Common examples would be rivers, trails,
and streets. Line features only have one dimension and therefore can only be used to measure
length. Line features have a starting and ending point. Common examples would be road
centerlines and hydrology. Symbology most commonly used to distinguish arc features from one
another are line types (solid lines versus dashed lines) and combinations using colors and line
thicknesses. In the example below roads are distinguished from the stream network by
designating the roads as a solid black line and the hydrology a dashed blue line.

Point data is most commonly used to represent nonadjacent features and to represent discrete
data points. Points have zero dimensions, therefore you can measure neither length or area with
this dataset. Examples would be schools, points of interest, and in the example below, bridge and
culvert locations. Point features are also used to represent abstract points. For instance, point
locations could represent city locations or place names.
GIS point data showing the location of bridges and culverts.

Both line and point feature data represent polygon data at a much smaller scale. They help
reduce clutter by simplifying data locations. As the features are zoomed in, the point location of
a school is more realistically represented by a series of building footprints showing the physical
location of the campus. Line features of a street centerline file only represent the physical
location of the street. If a higher degree of spatial resolution is needed, a street curbwidth file
would be used to show the width of the road as well as any features such as medians and right-
of-ways (or sidewalks).

Raster Data
Raster data (also known as grid data) represents the fourth type of feature: surfaces. Raster data
is cell-based and this data category also includes aerial and satellite imagery. There are two types
of raster data: continuous and discrete.
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) showing elevation.
An example of discrete raster data is population density. Continuous data examples are
temperature and elevation measurements. There are also three types of raster datasets: thematic
data, spectral data, and pictures (imagery).This example of a thematic raster dataset is called a
Digital Elevation Model (DEM). Each cell presents a 30m pixel size with an elevation value
assigned to that cell. The area shown is the Topanga Watershed in California and gives the
viewer and understand of the topography of the region.

Each cell contains one value representing the dominate value of that cell. Raster datasets are
intrinsic to most spatial analysis. Data analysis such as extracting slope and aspect from Digital
Elevation Models occurs with raster datasets. Spatial hydrology modeling such as extracting
watersheds and flow lines also uses a raster-based system. Spectral data presents aerial or
satellite imagery which is then often used to derive vegetation geologic information by
classifying the spectral signatures of each type of feature. Raster data showing vegetation
classification. The vegetation data was derived from NDVI classification of a satellite image.

.
What results from the effect of converting spatial data location information into a cell based
raster format is called stairstepping. The name derives from the image of exactly that, the square
cells along the borders of different value types look like a staircase viewed from the side.
Unlike vector data, raster data is formed by each cell receiving the value of the feature that
dominates the cell. The stairstepping look comes from the transition of the cells from one value
to another. In the image above the dark green cell represents chamise vegetation. This means that
the dominate feature in that cell area was chamise vegetation. Other features such as developed
land, water or other vegetation types may be present on the ground in that area. As the feature in
the cell becomes more dominantly urban, the cell is attributed the value for developed land,
hence the pink shading.

Spatial and Geographical data

Spatial data support in database is important for efficiently storing, indexing and querying of
data on the basis of spatial location. For example, suppose that we want to store a set of polygons
in a database and to query the database to find all polygons that intersect a given polygon. We
cannot use standard index structures, such as B-trees or hash indices, to answer such a query
efficiently. Efficient processing of the above query would require special-purpose index
structures, such as R-trees for the task.

Two types of Spatial data are particularly important:

Computer-aided-design (CAD)data, which include spatial information about how objects-such as
building, cars, or aircraft-are constructed. Other important example of computer-aided-design
databases are integrated-circuit and electronic-device layouts.
CAD systems traditionally stored data in memory during editing or other processing, and wrote
the data back to a file at the end of a session of editing. The drawbacks of such a schema include
cost(programming complexity, as well as time cost) of transforming data from one form to
anther, and the need to read in an entire file even if only parts of it are required. For large design
of an entire airplane, it may be impossible to hold the complete design in memory. Designers of
object oriented database were motivated in large part by the database requirements of CAD
systems. Object-oriented database represent components of design as objects, and the
connections between the objects indicate how the design is structure.
Geographic data such as road maps, land-usage maps, topographic elevation maps, political
maps showing boundaries, land-ownership maps, and so on. Geographical information system
are special purpose databases for storing geographical data. Geographical data are differ from
design data in certain ways. Maps and satellite images are typical examples of geographic data.
Maps may provide not only location information associated with locations such as elevations.
Soil type, land type and annual rainfall.
1.10 Spatial vs Attributes data
GIS Data is the key component of a GIS and has two general types: Spatial and Attribute data.
Spatial data are used to provide the visual representation of a geographic space and is stored as
raster and vector types. Hence, this data is a combination of location data and a value data to
render a map, for example.
Attribute data are descriptions, measurements, and/or classifications of geographic features in a
map. Attribute data can be classified into 4 levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and
ratio. The nominal level is the lowest level of measurement for distinguishing features
quantitatively using type or class (e.g. tree species). Ordinal data are ranked into hierarchies but
does not show any magnitude of difference (e.g. city hierarchy). The interval measurement
indicates the distance between the ranks of measured elements, but a starting point is arbitrarily
assigned (e.g. Celsius Temperature). Ratio measurements, the highest level of measurements,
includes an absolute starting point. Data of this category include property value and distance.
Attribute data is the detailed data used in combination with spatial data to create a GIS. The more
available and appropriate attribute data used with spatial data, the more complete a GIS is as a
management reporting and analysis tool.
Sources of Spatial & Attribute Data
 Spatial data can be obtained from satellite images or scanned maps and similar resources.
This data can then be digitised into vector data or maintained as raster graphic data.
Essentially, any format of a geographical image with location or co-ordinate points can
be used as spatial data.
 Attribute data can be obtained from a number of sources or data can be captured
specifically for you application. Some popular sources of attribute data are from town
planning and management departments, policing and fire departments, environmental
groups, online media.
What is Attribute Data?
Attribute data are descriptions or measurements of geographic features in a map. It refers to
detailed data that combines with spatial data. Attribute data helps to obtain the meaningful
information of a map. Every feature has characteristics that we can describe. For example,
assume a building. It has a built year, the number of floors, etc. Those are attributes. Attributes
are the facts we know, but not visible such as the built year. It can also represent the absence of
a feature.
Difference between Attribute Data and Spatial Data

Figure: GIS
Usually, a table helps to display attribute data. Each row represents a single feature. In a GIS,
clicking on the row will highlight the corresponding feature on the map.
What is Spatial Data?
Spatial data consists of points, lines, polygons or other geographic and geometric data
primitives that we can map by location. It is possible to maintain spatial data as vector data or
raster data. Each provides information connected to geographical locations. Vector data consist
of sequential points or vertices to define a linear segment. It has an x coordinate and a y
coordinate. Furthermore, raster data consists of a matrix of cells or pixels arranged into rows
and columns. Each cell contains a value representing information.
Difference Between Attribute Data and Spatial Data.
 Definition:Attribute data refers to the characteristics of geographical features that are
quantitative and/or qualitative in nature while spatial data refers to all types of data
objects or elements that are present in a geographical space or horizon. Thus, this is the
main difference between attribute data and spatial data.
 Methods of achieving:Town planning and management departments, fire departments,
environmental groups and online media help to obtain attribute data while satellite
images and scanned maps help to obtain spatial data.
 Usage:Attribute data describes the characteristics of a geographical feature while spatial
data describes the absolute and relative location of a geographic feature. Hence, this is
another difference between attribute data and spatial data.
 Conclusion:GIS helps to analyze resources such as water, urban areas, roads, coasts,
vegetation, etc. It also allows solving problems related to pollution, forestry, health,
agriculture, health and many other areas. The main difference between Attribute Data
and Spatial Data is that the attribute data describes the characteristics of a geographical
feature while spatial data describes the absolute and relative location of geographic
features.
1.11 Types of attributes:
There are two components to GIS data: spatial information (coordinate and projection
information for spatial features) and attribute data. Attribute data is information appended in
tabular format to spatial features. The spatial data is the where and attribute data can contain
information about the what, where, and why. Attribute data provides characteristics about spatial
data.
Types of Attribute Data
Attribute data can be store as one of five different field types in a table or database: character,
integer, floating, date, and BLOB.
1. Character Data
The character property (or string) is for text based values such as the name of a street or
descriptive values such as the condition of a street. Character attribute data is stored as a series
of alphanumeric symbols.
Aside from descriptors, character fields can contain other attribute values such as categories and
ranks. For example, a character field may contain the categories for a street: avenue, boulevard,
lane, or highway. A character field could also contain the rank, which is a relative ordering of
features. For example, a ranking of the traffic load of the street with “1” being the street with the
highest traffic.
Character data can be sorted in ascending (A to Z) and descending (Z to A) order. Since
numbers are considered text in this field, those numbers will be sorted alphabetically which
means that a number sequence of 1, 2, 9, 11, 13, 22 would be sorted in ascending order as 1, 11,
13, 2, 22, 9.
Because character data is not numeric, calculations (sum, average, median, etc.) can’t be
performed on this type of field, even if the value stored in the field are numbers (to do that, the
field type would need to be converted to a numeric field). Character fields can be summarized to
produced counts (e.g. the number of features that have been categorized as “avenue”).
2. Numeric Data
Integer and floating are numerical values (see: the difference between floating and integer
values). Within the integer type, the is a further division between short and long integer values.
As would be expected, short integers store numeric values without fractional values for a shorter
range than long integers. Floating point attribute values store numeric values with fractional
values. Therefore, floating point values are for numeric values with decimal points (i.e numbers
to the right of the decimal point as opposed to whole values).
Numeric values will be sorted in sequentially either in ascending (1 to 10) or descending (10 to
1) order.
Numerical value fields can have operations performed such as calculating the sum or average
value. Numerical field values can be a count (e.g. the total number of students at a school) or be
a ratio (e.g. the percentage of students that are girls at a school).
3. Date/Time Data
Date fields contains date and time values.
4. BLOB Data
BLOB stands for binary large object and this attribute type is used for storing information such
images, multimedia, or bits of code in a field. This field stores object linking and embedding
(OLE) which are objects created in other applications such as images and multimedia and
linked from the BLOB field

1.12 Scales of Measurement / Level of Measurement

The Four Scales of Measurement
Data can be classified as being on one of four scales: nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio. Each
level of measurement has some important properties that are useful to know. For example, only
the ratio scale has meaningful zeros.
1.Nominal Scale. Nominal variables (also called categorical variables) can be placed into
categories. They don’t have a numeric value and so cannot be added, subtracted, divided or
multiplied. They also have no order; if they appear to have an order then you probably have
ordinal variables instead.A pie chart displays groups of nominal variables (i.e. categories).
Survey on Why People Travels.

2. Ordinal Scale. The ordinal scale contains things that you can place in order. For example,
hottest to coldest, lightest to heaviest, richest to poorest. Basically, if you can rank data by 1st,
2nd, 3rd place (and so on), then you have data that’s on an ordinal scale.
Ordinal scale: The ordinal scale classifies according to rank.

3.Interval Scale. An interval scale has ordered numbers with meaningful divisions. Temperature
is on the interval scale: a difference of 10 degrees between 90 and 100 means the same as 10
degrees between 150 and 160. Compare that to high school ranking (which is ordinal), where the
difference between 1st and 2nd might be .01 and between 10th and 11th .5. If you have
meaningful divisions, you have something on the interval scale.
Measurement scales
4. Ratio Scale. The ratio scale is exactly the same as the interval scale with one major
difference: zero is meaningful. For example, a height of zero is meaningful (it means you don’t
exist). Compare that to a temperature of zero, which while it exists, it doesn’t mean anything in
particular (although admittedly, in the Celsius scale it’s the freezing point for water).
Weight is measured on the ratio scale.

Levels of measurements
The four different levels of measurement are:
 Nominal–Latin for name only (Republican, Democrat, Green, Libertarian)
 Ordinal–Think ordered levels or ranks (small–8oz, medium–12oz, large–32oz)
 Interval–Equal intervals among levels (1 dollar to 2 dollars is the same interval as 88
dollars to 89 dollars)
 Ratio–Let the “o” in ratio remind you of a zero in the scale (Day 0, day 1, day 2, day
3…)
 The first level of measurement is nominal level of measurement.  In this level of measurement,
the numbers in the variable are used only to classify the data.  In this level of measurement,
words, letters, and alpha-numeric symbols can be used.  Suppose there are data about people
belonging to three different gender categories. In this case, the person belonging to the female
gender could be classified as F, the person belonging to the male gender could be classified as
M, and transgendered classified as T.  This type of assigning classification is nominal level of
measurement.

The second level of measurement is the ordinal level of measurement.  This level of

measurement depicts some ordered relationship among the variable’s observations.  Suppose a
student scores the highest grade of 100 in the class.  In this case, he would be assigned the first
rank.  Then, another classmate scores the second highest grade of an 92; she would be assigned
the second rank.  A third student scores a 81 and he would be assigned the third rank, and so on.  
The ordinal level of measurement indicates an ordering of the measurements.

The third level of measurement is the interval level of measurement.  The interval level of

measurement not only classifies and orders the measurements, but it also specifies that the
distances between each interval on the scale are equivalent along the scale from low interval to
high interval.  For example, an interval level of measurement could be the measurement of
anxiety in a student between the score of 10 and 11, this interval is the same as that of a student
who scores between 40 and 41.   A popular example of this level of measurement is temperature
in centigrade, where, for example, the distance between 940C and 960C is the same as the
distance between 1000C and 1020C.

The fourth level of measurement is the ratio level of measurement.  In this level of
measurement, the observations, in addition to having equal intervals, can have a value of zero as
well.  The zero in the scale makes this type of measurement unlike the other types of
measurement, although the properties are similar to that of the interval level of measurement.  In
the ratio level of measurement, the divisions between the points on the scale have an equivalent
distance between them.

The type of measurement system used may have a dramatic effect on the interpretation of the
resulting values. A distance of 20 kilometers is twice as far as 10 kilometers, and something that
weighs 100 pounds is one-third as much as something that weighs 300 pounds. But someone
who came in first place in a race may not have done three times as well as someone in third
place, and soil with a pH of 3 is not half as acidic as soil with a pH of 6. To carry this even
further, someone that is 60 years old is twice as old as someone that is 30 years old. But the older
of the two individuals can only be twice as old as the younger individual just once in a lifetime.

The significance of this discussion on numbers is that all numbers cannot be treated the same. It
is important for you to know the type of measurement system being used in the raster dataset so
that the appropriate operations and functions can be implemented and the results will be
predictable. Measurement values can be broken into four types: ratio, interval, ordinal, and
nominal.

Spatial Analyst does not distinguish between the four different types of measurements when
asked to process or manipulate the values. Most mathematical operations work well on ratio
values, but when interval, ordinal, or nominal values are multiplied, divided, or evaluated for the
square root, the results are typically meaningless. On the other hand, subtraction, addition, and
Boolean determinations can be meaningful when used on interval and ordinal values. Attribute
handling within and between raster datasets is most effective and efficient when using nominal
measurements.