Borobudur Temple of Indonesia

Archaeoastronomy and the Borobudur temples

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN
CONSULTANT Human Resource and Administration, FDCM ESSELWORLD GOREWADA ZOO Pvt. Ltd

ABSTRACT

Borobudur in Central Java is the world’s largest Buddhist temple. And the structure is here to stay.
Borobudur has survived volcanic eruptions of Gunung Merapi, terrorist bombings and the earthquake of
2006. Rising high above the breathtakingly green rice fields and their accompanying kampung, or rice

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villages, this monumental structure can make Indonesia’s other temples look pedestrian. It looks like an
ornately carved pyramid with fortified walls surrounding the bottom and five stories worth of statues
ascending to the top. In fact, the central dome is crowned by an impressive 72 Buddha statues. Perhaps
the most impressive thing about the monument is that it was built by hand in the 9th century. And visitors
agree — it looks like it will stand forever.
There are 3 papers devoted to this temple
1. General Introduction: Which is a scopic review of general descriptions abpot the Temple complex
with the intent of introducing it to the reader.
2. Reliefs in Borobodur Temples
3. Stupa designs
4. Design elements
5. Archaeoastronomy and the Borobodur Temples

Introduction: Borobudur was probably built between the 8th and 9th centuries, and after awhile
disappeared from the existence, deep beneath the layers of ash because of volcanic eruption and then
abandoned by the people around a middle age. There is a study that suggests Borobudur was abandoned
following the fourteenth century decline of Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in Java.
The Borobudur should wait until the 19th centuries when Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, which during that
period of time appointed as the British ruler in Java, and on 1814 informed by the native about an
abandoned temple somewhere in the jungle, so for the first time, the world acknowledge about its
existence. And since that time, there were numerous restoration project to preserve the Borobudur, up
until this time.

Mysteries of the Temple Complex: There is still mystery surrounding the Borobudur, what is the exact
purpose of Borobudur? If that is for religious purpose, yes, it is, indeed. One theory is the Borobudur is
related to Buddhism cosmology, a Mandala, and the building represents the “three worlds’ of Buddhism
cosmology, started as the ‘world of desire’ (Kāmadhātu) on the base level, then the ‘world of form’
(Rupadhatu), the the ‘world without form’ (Arupadhatu) on top. But, is there something else?
As with other ancient civilizations, the forms often have metaphorical symbols, like the square shape and
all the attributes in the Rupadhatu, changed into the plain circular platforms in Arupadhatu, speak about
the phylosophycal of changing the world in Buddhism, as a pilgrim journeys from below, through a
system of stairways and corridors with about 1500s narrative relief panels on the wall and the balustrades,
finally reach the top level, in the world without, and we found no figurative panels at all, instead we will
find Stupas there. But, do the forms & alignment of the Stupas tell something that related to the sky? That
is the very question that we want to answer from our expeditions.

Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary study of

how people in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky, how they used these phenomena and
what role the sky played in their cultures". It considers symbolically rich cultural interpretations of

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phenomena in the sky by other cultures. It is often coupled with ethnoastronomy,
the anthropological study of skywatching in contemporary societies. Archaeoastronomy is also closely
associated with historical astronomy, the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer
astronomical problems and the history of astronomy, which uses written records to evaluate past
astronomical practice.

Since the 19th century, numerous scholars have sought to use archaeoastronomical calculations to
demonstrate the antiquity of Ancient Indian Vedic culture, computing the dates of astronomical
observations ambiguously described in ancient poetry to as early as 4000 BC. Archaeoastronomy is
sometimes related to the fringe discipline of Archaeocryptography, when its followers attempt to find
underlying mathematical orders beneath the proportions, size, and placement of archaeoastronomical sites
such as Stonehenge and the Pyramid of Kukulcán at Chichen Itza.

Archaeoastronomy uses a variety of methods to uncover evidence of past practices including archaeology,
anthropology, astronomy, statistics and probability, and history. Because these methods are diverse and
use data from such different sources, integrating them into a coherent argument has been a long-term
difficulty for archaeoastronomers. Archaeoastronomy fills complementary niches in landscape
archaeology and cognitive archaeology. Material evidence and its connection to the sky can reveal how a
wider landscape can be integrated into beliefs about the cycles of nature, such as Mayan astronomy and
its relationship with agriculture Other examples which have brought together ideas of cognition and
landscape include studies of the cosmic order embedded in the roads of settlements. It can be applied to
all cultures and all time periods. The meanings of the sky vary from culture to culture; nevertheless there
are scientific methods which can be applied across cultures when examining ancient beliefs.

Alignments
A common source of data for archaeoastronomy is the study of alignments. This is based on the
assumption that the axis of alignment of an archaeological site is meaningfully oriented towards an
astronomical target. Brown archaeoastronomers may justify this assumption through reading historical or
ethnographic sources, while green archaeoastronomers tend to prove that alignments are unlikely to be
selected by chance, usually by demonstrating common patterns of alignment at multiple sites.
An alignment is calculated by measuring the azimuth, the angle from north, of the structure and the
altitude of the horizon it faces. The azimuth is usually measured using a theodolite or a compass. A
compass is easier to use, though the deviation of the Earth's magnetic field from true north, known as
its magnetic declination must be taken into account. Compasses are also unreliable in areas prone to
magnetic interference, such as sites being supported by scaffolding. Additionally a compass can only
measure the azimuth to a precision of a half a degree.

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A theodolite can be considerably more accurate if used correctly, but it is also considerably more difficult
to use correctly. There is no inherent way to align a theodolite with North and so the scale has to
be calibrated using astronomical observation, usually the position of the Sun. Because the position of
celestial bodies changes with the time of day due to the Earth's rotation, the time of these calibration
observations must be accurately known, or else there will be a systematic error in the measurements.
Horizon altitudes can be measured with a theodolite or a clinometer.

Solar positioning
While the stars are fixed to their declinations the Sun is not. The rising point of the Sun varies throughout
the year. It swings between two limits marked by the solstices a bit like a pendulum, slowing as it reaches
the extremes, but passing rapidly through the midpoint. If an archaeoastronomer can calculate from the
azimuth and horizon height that a site was built to view a declination of +23.5° then he or she need not
wait until 21 June to confirm the site does indeed face the summer solstice.
Central Java in particular it is well endowed with Hindu and Buddhist candi, and we can assume that
most (if not all) of these had astronomical associations. have already written about the orientation of the
eastern gateway at Borobudur

Temple alignments using Astronomy: The ancestors of the Indonesian people since ancient times used
the constellation in the sky as a time marker for example, the people of Central Java observed the
constellation of Orion until it rose to a certain height to determine the beginning of the farming
period. Astronomy is not an invisible knowledge for our ancestors, they observe the motion of the stars,
the sun and the moon as markers of time.Borobudur could have been an astronomical monument that
recorded all the movements of the sky in that era. To prove it, the hypothesis starts from the shape of the
temple which is quite unique. When observed from the sky, the shape is symmetrical. Floors 1 to 7 are
equilateral while floors 8 to 10 are circular with the center of a main stupa with a total height of 20 meters
and a diameter of 17 meters. This main stupa has a unique position, at the center of the circle of small
stupas. From this symmetrical shape of the temple (like a clock) finally it is hypothesized that the main
stupa of the temple has a function as a time marker.
The first time marker used by humans is gomon or the sundial. The system is very simple, only a stick
that is placed vertically on the ground. By observing the length of the wand's shadow each time it can be
drawn a wand shadow pattern. Well, this stick shadow pattern is used by ancient humans to mark the
time.

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 Main Stupa of BOrobudur Temple. Credit: Irma Hariawang

To test the truth of the hypothesis, the research team made observations at Borobudur Temple. Observed
the main stupa shadow pattern when the sun is at the Vernal Equinox point (the point of intersection of
the celestial equatorial plane and the ecliptic plane) which is 19 to 20 March. This time is considered
special because on that day the sun will rise and set in the east and west true (east true & west
true). Armed with these observational data, a shadow model of the main stupa is made every day of the
year and corrected for measurement and observation errors. The result is the shadow of the main stupa
making a distinctive pattern that falls on certain small stupa around it. Examples of practical applications
such as this, if we see the shadow of the main stupa falling on Stupa 1 on level 8 then it is time to plant
(for example).

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 The shadow of the main stupa in one year. giant clock mechanism.

This discovery certainly must be adjusted to many factors, for example the tectonic shock factor which
makes the position of the temple stupa shifted so that the fall of the shadow is no longer accurate. In
addition, the mechanism of time marker that is used by the community in the Borobudur development era
is not yet known, so we do not yet know for certain the stupas which are considered important and which
are used as signs. 1

Relief of the Moon, 7 small circles as stars and sun on the walls of the temple. Like the
picture of a constellation. Credit: irma Hariawang

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Temple Alignments and Calendrical Links to Sun path: Amelia Carolina Sparavigna also considered
the nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central dome. The temple is
decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha
statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa” One can see the 72 stupas on the top platform of the
temple. The number 72 is equal to the even number of the days passing from the zenithal passage in
October to the December solstice, and from the December solstice to the zenithal passage on the end of
February or first of March.

In fact, she stressed the possibility that the number of the ancillary temples or stupas in the temples of
Sewu, Prambana and Borobudur, had a calendrical link to the path of the sun. There is another link
concerning the mudras of the statues of Buddha. At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but
there is a subtle difference between them in the mudras, or the position of the hands. There are five
groups of mudra: North, East, South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points
according to Mahayana.

The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which the Buddha
statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at the fifth
balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra
represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism".

During the restoration in the early 20th century, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the
region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are positioned along a straight line pointing to another link to the
zenith passage of the sun - an alignment of three temples, Borobodur and the satellites Mendut and Pawon
temples, along the sunset azimuth on the days of zenithal sun.The three temples at Borobodur belong to
the Mahayana Buddhism. 2The details of the cults practised are unsure, but a relationship certainly existed
between the temples and the proclaimed divine nature of the kings who ordered their construction. In this
connection, a possible, symbolic relationship between the three monuments was investigated in details by
Moens (1951). In this controversial but anyhow scholarly work, the idea is that the temples were
connected by a “magical birth” ritual, in which the monarch’s consecration occurred both as the Buddha
and as King. Moens proposed a ritual based on an analogy with the sun path in the sky in one day, and
thus endowed with three main “stations”: east, zenith, and west. To these steps corresponded for the west,
the beginning of the western staircase at Borobudur; for the east, Mendut; and for the zenith, Pawon.
Although this interpretation is well known, it has never been referred explicitly to the specific days of the
zenith passages, a connection which instead looks natural: if the “solar path” ritual had to be referenced

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into in the architecture of the temples, and if the zenith culmination of the sun was, as it seems, a
fundamental ingredient of the ritual, then we would expect the procession to go in the direction from
sunrise to sunset, and the processional path to be oriented in such a way as to indicate the zenith sunset, as
it actually occurs.

Finding comparison belonging to the same cultural context would also be of help, but one the problems is
that Borobodur architectural conception is almost unique. Besides the already mentioned Bayon, as far as
the present author is aware the unique, vaguely reasonable comparison is the so-called 108 stupas
monument, located on a hillside directly on the western bank of the Yellow River at Qingtongxia,
Ningxia, China. The monument is slightly later than Borobodur, as it was constructed during the Western
Xia dynasty (1038–1227 AD), as part of a greater Buddhist temple complex. It is composed by 108 stupas
of sun-dried mud bricks, arranged in rows disposed in a triangular formation which narrows with height,
from 19 stupas on the first row to the uppermost single one. A front view of this monument is actually
quite reminiscent of one side of Borobodur. As far as the present author is aware, the orientation of the
108 stupas monument has never been studied. The azimuth is 120° which, with an horizon height close to
zero, gives a impressive declination -24° that is, very close to the winter solstice sunrise. The monument
is therefore, with hardly any doubt, astronomically oriented although not to the same solar phenomenon
of the Borobodur axis; of course however, at the latitude of Ningxia about 37° north, zenith passages do
not occur. Archaeoastronomy of the “Sun path” at Borobudur

G. Magli has proposed that the line indicated the azimuth of the sunset on the days of zenithal sun (let us
note that, for the line of the three temples, an alignment along sunrise was proposed too in [15]). It is easy
to test the alignment proposed by Magli using software such as SunCalc.org for instance. Using date 12
October, we can see the alignment. Actually, SunCalc.org and the Photographer's Ephemeris give this day
for the zenith passage. Figure 2: The alignment of the three temples along the sunset on a day of zenith
passage of the sun, obtained by means of SunCalc.org. For what concerns the architecture of Borobudur,
let me add to the references also the very interesting article [1 on the algorithm used for building the
temple.3

Borobudur has geographics coordinate 110 12 10.34 E 7 36 30.49 S. The main structure of Borobudur can
be devided into three components: foot, body, and head. Borobudurs head part consist of a main stupa at
the center and three terraces which is (more or less) circular in shape. Top terrace contain 16 little stupas,
with radius = 24 m. Middle terrace contain 24 little stupas, with radius = 37 m. This terrace is 1.5 m lower
than top terrace. Bottom terrace contain 32 little stupas, with radius = 53 m. This terrace is (also) 1.5 m

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lower than middle terrace. The stupas of each terrace distributed evenly at the edge of each terrace. The
main stupa with three terraces called Arupadhatu. We suspect this Arupadhatu configuration is serve a
purpose as a chronometer, with the main stupa as the gnomon. In this work we reconstruct Borobudur as
if how it was suppose to looks like at the time it as built. We include cakra, part of main stupa that is now
detached from main stupa for some technical reasons. Cakra adds 7.5 m to the height of main stupa,
making it 20.44 m in total, relative to top terrace. Javanese culture recognize a system to track time for
everyday use, known as pranotomongso. Pranotomongso use bencet (a kind of sundial) to measure time.
With this in mind, we try to incorporate pranotomongso as a time tracking system to Borobudur as a
chronometer. The Main Stupa of Borobudur and Pranotomongso Calendar System 505 2.

the Shalivahana Shaka calendar. used in Java and Bali among Indonesian Hindus. Nyepi, the "Day of
Silence", is a celebration of the Saka new year in Bali. Nepal's Nepal Sambat evolved from the Saka
calendar. Prior to colonization, the Philippines used to apply the Saka calendar as well as suggested by
the Laguna Copperplate Inscription.

The term may also ambiguously refer to the Hindu calendar; the Shalivahana era is also commonly used
by other calendars.The historic Shalivahana era calendar is still widely used. It has years that are solar.

Structure: The calendar months follow the signs of the tropical zodiac rather than the sidereal zodiac
normally used with the Hindu calendar.

# Name (Sanskrit) Length Start date (Gregorian) Tropical zodiac Tropical zodiac (Sanskrit)
1 Chaitra 30/31 March 22/21 Aries Meṣa
2 Vaishākha 31 April 21 Taurus Vṛṣabha
3 Jyēshtha 31 May 22 Gemini Mithuna
4 Āshādha 31 June 22 Cancer Karkata
5 Shrāvana 31 July 23 Leo simha
6 Bhaadra 31 August 23 Virgo Kanyā
7 Āshwin 30 September 23 Libra Tulā
8 Kārtika 30 October 23 Scorpio Vṛścika
9 Agrahayana 30 November 22 Sagitarius Dhanur
10 Pausha 30 December 22 Capricorn Makara

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11 Māgha 30 January 21 Aquarius Kumbha
12 Phalguna 30 February 20 Pisces Mīna

Chaitra has 30 days and starts on March 22, except in leap years, when it has 31 days and starts on March
21. The months in the first half of the year all have 31 days, to take into account the slower movement of
the sun across the ecliptic at this time.The names of the months are derived from older, Hindu lunisolar
calendars, so variations in spelling exist, and there is a possible source of confusion as to what calendar a
date belongs to.

Years are counted in the Saka era, which starts its year 0 in the year 78 of the Common Era. To determine
leap years, add 78 to the Saka year – if the result is a leap year in the Gregorian calendar, then the Saka
year is a leap year as well. Its structure is just like the Persian calendar.

A model was made of the ideal Borobudur, based on the position, size and orientation of actual
Borobudur. In the model, correction for precession was incorporated. This puts Borobudur at circa 800
CE, around the time it was built. A pattern of shadow of main stupa (+cakra) relative to little stupas
position in each terrace (series of pictures to the right) was studied in the search for interesting pattern of
the falling shadow, that could be used as a marker of time for them who use Borobudur as a chronometer .

Series of shadow of main stupa for 12 mongsos. Edge of the shadows with dark color is signified the
shadow of beginning of that mongso. 3. Discussion In Figure 1, we present regular pattern of the shadow
cast by main stupa during each mongso. During the beginning of each mongso, the shadow falls (more or
less) exactly on specific stupa(s), marked by filled red circle. From the repeating pattern we suspect that
those stupas may play important role as time marker for the ancient people. To verify this, we have to
figure out a mathematical pattern behind it. For this work, we just identified a specific stupas suspected as
marker on specific time (mongso). There is an indication that ancient mathematical of sanskrit might hold
the clue on astronomical calculation by ancient people. We will elaborate the mathematical sanskrit as the
means to define the pattern and the specific astronomical purpose (if any) of Borobudur.

Algorithmic way that was incorporated in constructing Borobudur’s architecture is a strong possibility
for some issues related to the lack of standard metric system attached to ancient Javanese society and the
closeness of Javanese culture with the fractal geometry that also found in traditional fabric, batik. Thus,
we can say that while the inspiration of the building of Borobudur temple is religious issue, i.e.:
Buddhism, the architecture is more likely strongly connected to the ancient Javanese culture. Borobudur
temple was built as building a single and small stupa, but the way to making it was incorporated the
technique of self-similarity. However, the emerged construction is eventually a kind of algorithmic fractal

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mega-architecture. The complexity of Borobudur is emerged from simple rules of building stupa as the
fractal geometry applies.

The calculated fractal dimension of Borobudur is 2.325, a number that shows the realm of the structure
that is in between the two dimensional form and the three dimensional conic (or bell) shaped construction.
This shows how self-similarity does exist and it is a theoretical challenge for interdisciplinary works
among geometry, statistical analysis, computer sciences, anthropology, archaeology as well as mechanics
to reveal deeper insights related to the dimension calculated. While in the previous works (Situngkir,
2008) the discussions have brought us to the interesting facts related to tradition fabric that also emanated
applied fractal geometry, more observation and analysis related to the fractal aspects in cultural heritage
might be appealing.

The self-similarity of Indonesian Borobudur Temple is observed through the dimensionality of stupa that
is hypothetically closely related to whole architectural body. Fractal dimension is calculated by using the
cube counting method and found that the dimension is 2.325, which is laid between the two-dimensional
plane and three dimensional space. The applied fractal geometry and self-similarity of the building is
emerged as the building process implement the metric rules, since there is no universal metric standard
known in ancient traditional Javanese culture thus the architecture is not based on final master plan. The
paper also proposes how the hypothetical algorithmic architecture might be applied computationally in
order to see some experimental generations of similar building. The paper ends with some conjectures for
further challenge and insights related to fractal geometry in Javanese traditional cultural heritages.

Fractal structure of Borobudur was built by Modern Mathematical Sciences

New mathematical calculations were used to built Borobudur Temples as far back as in the years 750 and
842. Fractals are geometric shapes that have elements similar to the overall shape. Often a fractal has a
certain pattern that repeats with a recursive and iterative.Confirming the hypothesis is the work of Hokky
Situngkir, researcher and president of Bandung Fe Institute. According to him, Borobudur was built space
that has a similarity with the elements themselves. In the Borobudur, for example, there are many forms
of geometry stupa. “Candi Borobudur stupa itself is a giant in which consists of stupas of other smaller
ones. Keep up to infinity,” he explains.
In addition, Hokky explains, it is also verified by measurements Parmono Atmadi from UGM, which sees
order Borobudur buildings that meet the elements of 9:6:4 ratio.
Ratios, for example, is present at high proportions of three parts of the temple, which is part Arupadhatu
(formless world) – the main stupa and stupas that form a circle, the Rupadhatu (the form) – the part that

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covers stupas are located on the runway square shaped, and the Kamadhatu (lust of the world) – the legs.
The actual stupa itself is a form of three-dimensional ellipsoid that satisfy the ratio 9:6:4. “This order we
meet in all parts of Borobudur, either horizontally or vertically,” Borobudur meet the dimensional fractal
dimensionality between 2 and 3.4

REFERENCES

1, Hariawang, I.I., Simatupang, F.M., Radiman, I., and Mumpuni, E.S.,2011. Orientation of Borobudur’s
east gate measuredagainst the sunrise positon during the vernal equinox. In Nakamuraet al., 37–42.
Hidayat, B., 2000.

2. Amelia Carolina Sparavigna. The Zenith Passage of the Sun at Candi Borobudur. Philica, Philica,
2017. ffhal-01677101f. See also

The Main Stupa of Borobudur as Gnomon and Its Relation With Pranotomongso Calendar System Ferry
M. Simatupang , Irma I. Hariawang , Emanuel Sungging Mumpuni1, 1Department of Astronomy, Faculty
of Mathematics and Natural Science, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Jl. Ganesha 10, Bandung 40135,
Indonesia and National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN), Center of Space Science, Jl. Dr.
Djundjunan 133, Bandung 40173, Indonesia.
Proceedings of The 11th Asian-Pacific Regional IAU Meeting 2011 NARIT Conference Series, Vol. 1, c
2013 S. Komonjinda, Y. Y. Kovalev, and D. Ruffolo, eds.

3. Giulio Magli School of Architecture, Urban Planning and Construction Engineering, Politecnico di
Milano, Italy,Giulio Magli, Researchgate December 2017.

4. Borobudur was Built Algorithmically ,Hokky Situngkir

Dept. Computational Sociology, Bandung Fe Institute ,Center for Complexity, Surya University
5.Borobudur Was Built Algorithmically,Article in SSRN Electronic Journal · September 2010

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