CHAPTER 5

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CHAPTER 5 DESIGN, IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING The proper choice of antenna and diode type has been greatly
considered in this setup. Two types of antenna were considered as experimental comparison to the chosen Whip antenna
used in the proposed design of RF energy harvesting. Also, germanium diodes were chosen over silicon diodes due to the
threshold voltage consideration. The following section will discuss the details of the components employed in this setup. 5.1
SYSTEM DESIGN 1. RF ANTENNA Fig. 5.1 : Whip Antenna The proposed RF to DC energy harvester circuit used a whip antenna
tuned at 93 MHz Radio station. Whip antennas can be commonly seen above the vehicles that they use for receiving the radio
frequency signals. Because of the simplicity in analysis and construction, this is the most popular and has received the widest
attention and which was also employed in this project. The geometrical construction of the whip antenna to tune at the
required 93 MHz frequency of the transmitter has been designed with the graph of the axial directivity, ka=c / L and the
radiated electric fields formula: Er =Eo =0 Where, E is magnitude os Electric field n is efficiency of antenna r is radius of
antenna Io is maximum current value Ѳ is Angle of antenna with fixed axis. 36 2. TANK OR TUNER CIRCUIT L C Fig. 5.2 : Tank or
Turner Circuit Diagram A tuner is a subsystem that receives RF transmissions from radio broadcasts and converts the
selected range of carrier frequency components into a fixed frequency component, and that is, 93 MHz in this setup. The
proposed circuit used a simple tank circuit which consists of a capacitor and inductor connected in parallel. This creates a
resonant circuit which corresponds to an alternating current at the selected frequency. Hence, it increases the overall
efficiency of the circuit of a particular frequency value. The calculated values of the capacitor and inductor in resonant to the
frequency drawn by the known transmitter Radio station was based on the equivalent frequency and the cylindrical air-core
type inductor formula, shown in equation and, respectively. Where, fo is Equivalent frequency L is equivalent of Inductor used
in Tank circuit C is value of capacitance used in a tank circuit N is number of coils A is area of coils l is length of coils. Hence,
values derived using above formulas are : Frequency selected (f) = 93 MHz Capacitance used in tank circuit (C) = 100 pF
Inductor used in tank circuit (L) = 29.3 nH 3. VOLTAGE DOUBLER CIRCUIT A voltage doubler is a circuit type which is used to
charge capacitors from the input voltage and switches them in such a way that, in the ideal case, exactly twice the voltage is
produced at the output as that of its input. A simple form of a rectifier takes an AC voltage as input and outputs a doubled DC
voltage. The switching elements are germanium diodes and they are driven to the switch state merely by the alternating
voltage of the input. DC to DC voltage doublers don’t switch in this way and requires driving circuit to control it’s switching.
They frequently require a switching element that must be 37 C1 C2 V D2 D1 Fig. 5.3 : Voltage Doubler Circuit Diagram
controlled directly like a transistor, rather than depending on voltage across the switch as in the simple AC to DC case. Voltage
doublers belongs to a family of voltage multiplier circuits like doublers, triplets, quadratures. All voltage doubler circuits can’t
be used as a single stage of a higher order multiple of cascading identical stages together, which will achieve a greater voltage
multiplication. D1 and D2 used here are germanium diodes IN34A, value of C1 and C2 is 100µF. 4. RECTIFIER OR RF TO DC
CONVERTER This circuit will concert received RF signals to DC voltage and even when the voltage of received signal is below
0.7V for Silicon or 0.3V for Germanium, diodes will be able to conduct minute currents. For Ge diodes, it is able to conduct at a
forward voltage of only about 0.15 Volts. However, a Si diode will not start to conduct until a forward voltage of 0.6 Volts is
reached . Thus, due to low threshold voltage of the Ge diodes and also known as signal diodes, this type of diode is the best
option for RF signal harvesting. Hence, we will use four Germanium diodes for making our rectifier circuit. The circuit diagram
of rectifier of RF to DC converter circuit is given below : C1 C3 D1 D2 C2 C4 D3 D4 Fig. 5.4 : RF to DC Converter Circuit D1, D2,
D3, D4 used here are Germanium Diodes IN34A. C1 & C2 are Coupling capacitors and C3 38 & C4 are Smoothing capacitors.

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Coupling Capacitors Coupling capacitors are very useful in a lot of circuits where AC signals are the transmitted signals that
are output when DC signals are just used for providing power to certain elements in the proposed system but should not
result in change of output. The value of coupling capacitor that will be used depends on the frequency of the AC signals being
passed through the system. Capacitors are reactive devices, meaning they offer different impedance (or resistance) to signals
of different frequencies. To low-frequency signals, such as DC with a frequency of 0Hz, capacitors offer very high resistance.
This is how capacitors are able to block DC signals from passing through it. However, as the frequency of the signal increases,
the capacitor offers progressively less resistance. The capacitor reactance changes according to the formula, Reactance=
1/(2*π*f*C) where, f is the frequency of signal and C is the value of capacitance. So you can see that the reactance the
capacitor offers is proportional to the frequency and capacitance. Since capacitors offer less reactance at higher frequencies,
a very low capacitance is value is needed to allow them to pass through. So very high-frequency signals need only very small
capacitors such as in the nanofarad (nF) range. Since audio frequency and radio frequency applications suit a wide range of
frequencies that entails frequencies from hertz all the way to megahertz, this covers all the frequencies that are necessary for
coupling applications. Below is a basic method for capacitor selection that can be used for selected frequency range. For
coupling a frequency of 100 Hz signal, a 10 μF capacitor can be used. For a frequency of 100 MHz signal, a 10 pF capacitor can
be used. This is a rough estimate that will be effective the majority of the time. The only variable that could affect the above
values is the resistance in parallel to the capacitor. If the resistance in parallel to the capacitor is about 10KΩ or less, all the
values will hold true. Usually the resistance is much less than this amount. Hence, here we will use two coupling capacitors C1
and C2 for frequency of 93 MHz. By above method we selected the values of capacitors give below : C1=100pF and C2=100pF.
Smoothing Capacitors A Smoothing capacitor is a capacitor that acts too smooth or even out fluctuations in a signal. The
most used application for smoothing capacitors is after a power supply voltage or a rectifier to smoothen our output voltage.
Power supply voltage can supply erratic and un-smooth voltages sometimes that fluctuate greatly. When a steady DC signal is
important, then a smoothing capacitor is the best component to smooth out the fluctuating signal to make it more steady.
You can see now how much smoother the waveform is. It will not go all the way down to a very low value and back up. The
capacitor charges up from 0 to the top of the waveform and then discharges from 0 to the bottom of the waveform. This
charging & discharging will be able to smooths out waveform so that it doesn’t gives extreme ups and downs. Hence, a
smoothing capacitor is very useful in cases of fluctuating signals that need to be more steady. Usually when selecting a
smoothing capacitor, an electrolytic capacitor is used 10µF to a few thousand µF. The greater the amplitude of the
fluctuations and the greater the waveform, the larger capacitor will be necessary. Thus, if we are smoothing a 40 mV
waveform, a 10 µF capacitor may suffice to smooth out the signal. However, if we are using with a much greater signal, we will
require a much larger capacitor, maybe around 3300µF in order to smooth it out to reach a near DC level. Experiment with the
capacitors with a setup. Check the signals on an digital oscilloscope to see which capacitor is best for our proposed setup.
Here, C3 and C4 are our smoothing capacitors which are smoothening the dc output. From the above description we chosen
the values of capacitors as given below: C3=100µF and C4=100µF. 5.2 MATLAB SIMULATION Simulink is a MATLAB based
graphical programming environment for analysing, simulating and modelling multi-domain dynamical systems. Its primary
interface is a graphical block library tool & a customisable set of block libraries that can be used accordingly. It has tight
integration with the rest of the MATLAB environment and can drive MATLAB or can be scripted from it. Simulink is used in
automatic control and DSP for multi-domain model-based designs and simulation. The simulation diagram is given below : 5.3
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING Energy in the band of RF spectrum will vibrate our wire antenna on an atomic
level, sending a signal to its lead. This signal will then at the junction between two ceramic capacitors wired in series our
level, sending a signal to its lead. This signal will then at the junction between two ceramic capacitors wired in series our
circuit. This junction will force positive charge from the wave to travel in one direction and negative charge in the other
direction which, when collected again, makes the signal 41 uniform and polar. Connecting two ceramic capacitors in series
creates leads on each end. Now positively charged side of one and now negatively charged side of other creates like a two cell
battery. This stage of the circuit takes a signal with a net value of zero, adds the absolute values of the positive and negative
amplitudes with respect to the origin and produces a positive integer. To each of these wires from our two ceramic capacitors
in series, we will connect two germanium diodes. Then one will face each direction, to form a circuit called a bridge rectifier. A
bridge rectifier is a configuration which will convert an alternating current to a direct one by cleverly rerouting the signal. By
connecting the elements as shown our circuit diagram, this direct current from the diodes then charges the electrolytic
capacitors at output. This stage normalises the amplitude, making the current constant and sable. Testing

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